{"post_id":"emg093","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why haven\u2019t black boxes in airplanes been engineered to have real-time streaming to a remote location yet? Why are black boxes still confined to one location (the airplane)? Surely there had to have been hundreds of researchers thrown at this since 9\/11, right?","c_root_id_A":"fdov6nr","c_root_id_B":"fdovtns","created_at_utc_A":1578613608,"created_at_utc_B":1578614028,"score_A":162,"score_B":1037,"human_ref_A":"It costs money.   Airline profit margins are typically lower than many other industries (where 9% to 12% can be considered amazing years). When the industry is dividing cabins in creative ways to eek out more profit, they\u2019re not interested in voluntarily (not being mandated by the FAA) spending money or adding weight. Especially for something that is a statistically rare occurrence.","human_ref_B":"There are now satellites which receive ADS-B data over oceanic and other sparsely populated areas. Each aircraft transmits location and various flight parameters every few seconds. In the United States, the FAA made ADS-B transmitters a requirement for all aircraft in most U.S. airspace on January 1st, 2020. FlightAware has ADS-B satellite data, but currently charges a fee for access to it.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":420.0,"score_ratio":6.4012345679}
{"post_id":"emg093","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why haven\u2019t black boxes in airplanes been engineered to have real-time streaming to a remote location yet? Why are black boxes still confined to one location (the airplane)? Surely there had to have been hundreds of researchers thrown at this since 9\/11, right?","c_root_id_A":"fdov6nr","c_root_id_B":"fdoxxr4","created_at_utc_A":1578613608,"created_at_utc_B":1578615414,"score_A":162,"score_B":534,"human_ref_A":"It costs money.   Airline profit margins are typically lower than many other industries (where 9% to 12% can be considered amazing years). When the industry is dividing cabins in creative ways to eek out more profit, they\u2019re not interested in voluntarily (not being mandated by the FAA) spending money or adding weight. Especially for something that is a statistically rare occurrence.","human_ref_B":"In some cases, data is already streamed live. For example, some aircraft engines stream data to the engine manufacturer during flight, so the manufacturer sometimes knows about potential problems before the flight crew do.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1806.0,"score_ratio":3.2962962963}
{"post_id":"emg093","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why haven\u2019t black boxes in airplanes been engineered to have real-time streaming to a remote location yet? Why are black boxes still confined to one location (the airplane)? Surely there had to have been hundreds of researchers thrown at this since 9\/11, right?","c_root_id_A":"fdp83jz","c_root_id_B":"fdov6nr","created_at_utc_A":1578622207,"created_at_utc_B":1578613608,"score_A":424,"score_B":162,"human_ref_A":"A black box is two data recorders, one that's recording real-time information about plane and one that's recording voice.   The information is useful after a crash, or after a near miss\/emergency, but it's not particularly useful any other time.   It's hard to estimate how many planes fly a day, but based on FAA information on faa.gov, just the US FAA handles: 16,100,000 flights a year (including international flights that enter FAA areas). That's 44,000+ daily flights. There are 5000 planes in the sky at any time at peak travel just in the US alone.   In 2019 there were 14 fatal crashes *globally.*   The amount of real-time data streaming you'd need to track even just the domestic commercial flights, plus cargo flights would be staggering. Streaming telemetry and voice from the entirety of a flight's transit would require massive amounts of data, storage and processing. And it's only needed those 14 times a year.   There are limited ways to transmit data from a plane, you've got terrestrial and satellite. Terrestrial wouldn't work, there are too many hops between towers. Satellite would be available, but someone would have to put the satellites up just to record flight data. If you've ever seen how crappy in-flight WiFi is, imagine how bad having to move the data from 16 million flights would be.   You couldn't rely on that transmission either, because it's another system to go down, satellites lose communication etc.   The flight data recorders and cockpit voice recoders are designed to survive 3400Gs and temperatures exceeding 1000\u00ba C (1830\u00ba F).   The NTSB has proposed cockpit image recorders as well, because control panels are now electronic\u2014when a plane crashed with an analog gauge it usually stayed on the last position at impact. LCD screens just break.      (A good overview is here https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flight\\_recorder)  In 2014 after the Malaysia flight vanished, there were pushes to make planes transmit their data or to eject from planes before crashes.   House Rep David Price called for black boxes that would eject after Malaysia Flight 370 vanished.   \"But he said the 9\/11 Commission recommended after the terrorist hijackings in 2001 that planes carry ejectable \"black boxes\" to make them easier to find. Navy planes have carried them for years, and Transportation Security Administration was given $3.5 million in 2008 to study and test the proposal.\"  Which is good except, it's not moving along very well. The same article from that quote points out that F\/A 18 Navy jets have black boxes that eject on impact detection, or when the ejection seat is triggered, and they float at well.   In many cases, you don't need a FDR and CVR to figure out what happened, though of course they're always helpful as they show you exactly how the crew and the plane reacted. In the 14 2019 incidents, one was an attempted hijacking . There was no crash, the hijacker was killed, so that's considered a flight-based fatality for some reason. Three were planes that overshot the runways. The reason for those crashes is almost always pilot error.   There was one bird strike (cause of crash, birds), one was a collision between two planes (cause of crash, collision), one plane hit the runway twice, banked, and hit a building. Passengers who evacuated via the wing-exits slipped on ice on the wing. (cause of crash, ice). One had a plane flying through thunderstorms.  In a few of them the cause of the crash was determined via FDR or CVR, and several were crew error.   So to answer your question, there haven't been a lot of researchers thrown at this because it's a problem that would cost an astronomical amount to implement and would only matter in those cases where the black boxes were not retrievable anyhow.","human_ref_B":"It costs money.   Airline profit margins are typically lower than many other industries (where 9% to 12% can be considered amazing years). When the industry is dividing cabins in creative ways to eek out more profit, they\u2019re not interested in voluntarily (not being mandated by the FAA) spending money or adding weight. Especially for something that is a statistically rare occurrence.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8599.0,"score_ratio":2.6172839506}
{"post_id":"emg093","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why haven\u2019t black boxes in airplanes been engineered to have real-time streaming to a remote location yet? Why are black boxes still confined to one location (the airplane)? Surely there had to have been hundreds of researchers thrown at this since 9\/11, right?","c_root_id_A":"fdp83jz","c_root_id_B":"fdp1wbz","created_at_utc_A":1578622207,"created_at_utc_B":1578618032,"score_A":424,"score_B":85,"human_ref_A":"A black box is two data recorders, one that's recording real-time information about plane and one that's recording voice.   The information is useful after a crash, or after a near miss\/emergency, but it's not particularly useful any other time.   It's hard to estimate how many planes fly a day, but based on FAA information on faa.gov, just the US FAA handles: 16,100,000 flights a year (including international flights that enter FAA areas). That's 44,000+ daily flights. There are 5000 planes in the sky at any time at peak travel just in the US alone.   In 2019 there were 14 fatal crashes *globally.*   The amount of real-time data streaming you'd need to track even just the domestic commercial flights, plus cargo flights would be staggering. Streaming telemetry and voice from the entirety of a flight's transit would require massive amounts of data, storage and processing. And it's only needed those 14 times a year.   There are limited ways to transmit data from a plane, you've got terrestrial and satellite. Terrestrial wouldn't work, there are too many hops between towers. Satellite would be available, but someone would have to put the satellites up just to record flight data. If you've ever seen how crappy in-flight WiFi is, imagine how bad having to move the data from 16 million flights would be.   You couldn't rely on that transmission either, because it's another system to go down, satellites lose communication etc.   The flight data recorders and cockpit voice recoders are designed to survive 3400Gs and temperatures exceeding 1000\u00ba C (1830\u00ba F).   The NTSB has proposed cockpit image recorders as well, because control panels are now electronic\u2014when a plane crashed with an analog gauge it usually stayed on the last position at impact. LCD screens just break.      (A good overview is here https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flight\\_recorder)  In 2014 after the Malaysia flight vanished, there were pushes to make planes transmit their data or to eject from planes before crashes.   House Rep David Price called for black boxes that would eject after Malaysia Flight 370 vanished.   \"But he said the 9\/11 Commission recommended after the terrorist hijackings in 2001 that planes carry ejectable \"black boxes\" to make them easier to find. Navy planes have carried them for years, and Transportation Security Administration was given $3.5 million in 2008 to study and test the proposal.\"  Which is good except, it's not moving along very well. The same article from that quote points out that F\/A 18 Navy jets have black boxes that eject on impact detection, or when the ejection seat is triggered, and they float at well.   In many cases, you don't need a FDR and CVR to figure out what happened, though of course they're always helpful as they show you exactly how the crew and the plane reacted. In the 14 2019 incidents, one was an attempted hijacking . There was no crash, the hijacker was killed, so that's considered a flight-based fatality for some reason. Three were planes that overshot the runways. The reason for those crashes is almost always pilot error.   There was one bird strike (cause of crash, birds), one was a collision between two planes (cause of crash, collision), one plane hit the runway twice, banked, and hit a building. Passengers who evacuated via the wing-exits slipped on ice on the wing. (cause of crash, ice). One had a plane flying through thunderstorms.  In a few of them the cause of the crash was determined via FDR or CVR, and several were crew error.   So to answer your question, there haven't been a lot of researchers thrown at this because it's a problem that would cost an astronomical amount to implement and would only matter in those cases where the black boxes were not retrievable anyhow.","human_ref_B":"Well... the short answer is: that's not really their job.  Essentially, planes are always kind of doing that anyway.  They are, in various ways, in regular communication with the rest of the system.  They've already got ways of communicating everything that they should need to communicate with everyone that they should need to communicate it with as they need to do so.  But unexpected things happen. And when they do happen, after the fact, once the emergency bit has been taken care of, the question becomes 'what exactly happened'  so that we can figure out if something that should have stopped this from happening failed to do its job, or if there was something we didn't even know to worry about that we should pay more attention to in the future.  That's the job of the black box, to let us figure out what happened after the fact.  If we did hook up the black box so that it was constantly communicating everything it knew in real time, that wouldn't actually be terribly useful.  Most flights go as expected.  Massive amounts of information would have to be communicated over great distances and 999 times out of 1000, actually even more often than that, that information wouldn't ever need to be glanced at, because the parts of it that needed to be know are already known by the people who need to know, the pilots.  So, what about that one in a thousand, or more accurately, one in a million situation, could that information be used to save lives?  Probably not.  Because it isn't enough to have the information, we have to know what it means.  The people who analyze the black box information are trained to do that.  They're also doing it with access to other information, like what exactly happened, so they're comparing what they know from the wreckage and eye witness accounts, etc, to what the black box is telling them.  In order for there to be any point to having a black box in constant communication, we'd need someone to be able to analyze the information as it's coming in.  The day may come when we have AIs who can take in all of that information, analyze it in real time, and spot problems before they become disasters, and when that day comes, hopefully we'll be in a position to set up black boxes in the way you described, but for right now, the amount of data the black box records is mostly useful in looking back to figure out what happened.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4175.0,"score_ratio":4.9882352941}
{"post_id":"emg093","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why haven\u2019t black boxes in airplanes been engineered to have real-time streaming to a remote location yet? Why are black boxes still confined to one location (the airplane)? Surely there had to have been hundreds of researchers thrown at this since 9\/11, right?","c_root_id_A":"fdozkq7","c_root_id_B":"fdp83jz","created_at_utc_A":1578616483,"created_at_utc_B":1578622207,"score_A":81,"score_B":424,"human_ref_A":"1. Airplanes crash extremely rarely and more so crash so badly that the aircraft is completely destroyed even more rare.  2. The amount of data stored in flight data recorders is very high. There's hundreds of sensors all saving data at a pretty high rate. The fastest way to transport a hard drive full of data is still mailing the hard drive, rather than passing that over even high speed internet.  3. Aircraft still have huge lengths of time where they're completely out of voice communications when over the ocean, let alone streaming high bandwidth data.  4. There's thousands and thousands of aircraft in the air at any point in time. That's a lot of data to store if it's streamed.","human_ref_B":"A black box is two data recorders, one that's recording real-time information about plane and one that's recording voice.   The information is useful after a crash, or after a near miss\/emergency, but it's not particularly useful any other time.   It's hard to estimate how many planes fly a day, but based on FAA information on faa.gov, just the US FAA handles: 16,100,000 flights a year (including international flights that enter FAA areas). That's 44,000+ daily flights. There are 5000 planes in the sky at any time at peak travel just in the US alone.   In 2019 there were 14 fatal crashes *globally.*   The amount of real-time data streaming you'd need to track even just the domestic commercial flights, plus cargo flights would be staggering. Streaming telemetry and voice from the entirety of a flight's transit would require massive amounts of data, storage and processing. And it's only needed those 14 times a year.   There are limited ways to transmit data from a plane, you've got terrestrial and satellite. Terrestrial wouldn't work, there are too many hops between towers. Satellite would be available, but someone would have to put the satellites up just to record flight data. If you've ever seen how crappy in-flight WiFi is, imagine how bad having to move the data from 16 million flights would be.   You couldn't rely on that transmission either, because it's another system to go down, satellites lose communication etc.   The flight data recorders and cockpit voice recoders are designed to survive 3400Gs and temperatures exceeding 1000\u00ba C (1830\u00ba F).   The NTSB has proposed cockpit image recorders as well, because control panels are now electronic\u2014when a plane crashed with an analog gauge it usually stayed on the last position at impact. LCD screens just break.      (A good overview is here https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flight\\_recorder)  In 2014 after the Malaysia flight vanished, there were pushes to make planes transmit their data or to eject from planes before crashes.   House Rep David Price called for black boxes that would eject after Malaysia Flight 370 vanished.   \"But he said the 9\/11 Commission recommended after the terrorist hijackings in 2001 that planes carry ejectable \"black boxes\" to make them easier to find. Navy planes have carried them for years, and Transportation Security Administration was given $3.5 million in 2008 to study and test the proposal.\"  Which is good except, it's not moving along very well. The same article from that quote points out that F\/A 18 Navy jets have black boxes that eject on impact detection, or when the ejection seat is triggered, and they float at well.   In many cases, you don't need a FDR and CVR to figure out what happened, though of course they're always helpful as they show you exactly how the crew and the plane reacted. In the 14 2019 incidents, one was an attempted hijacking . There was no crash, the hijacker was killed, so that's considered a flight-based fatality for some reason. Three were planes that overshot the runways. The reason for those crashes is almost always pilot error.   There was one bird strike (cause of crash, birds), one was a collision between two planes (cause of crash, collision), one plane hit the runway twice, banked, and hit a building. Passengers who evacuated via the wing-exits slipped on ice on the wing. (cause of crash, ice). One had a plane flying through thunderstorms.  In a few of them the cause of the crash was determined via FDR or CVR, and several were crew error.   So to answer your question, there haven't been a lot of researchers thrown at this because it's a problem that would cost an astronomical amount to implement and would only matter in those cases where the black boxes were not retrievable anyhow.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5724.0,"score_ratio":5.2345679012}
{"post_id":"emg093","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why haven\u2019t black boxes in airplanes been engineered to have real-time streaming to a remote location yet? Why are black boxes still confined to one location (the airplane)? Surely there had to have been hundreds of researchers thrown at this since 9\/11, right?","c_root_id_A":"fdozkq7","c_root_id_B":"fdp1wbz","created_at_utc_A":1578616483,"created_at_utc_B":1578618032,"score_A":81,"score_B":85,"human_ref_A":"1. Airplanes crash extremely rarely and more so crash so badly that the aircraft is completely destroyed even more rare.  2. The amount of data stored in flight data recorders is very high. There's hundreds of sensors all saving data at a pretty high rate. The fastest way to transport a hard drive full of data is still mailing the hard drive, rather than passing that over even high speed internet.  3. Aircraft still have huge lengths of time where they're completely out of voice communications when over the ocean, let alone streaming high bandwidth data.  4. There's thousands and thousands of aircraft in the air at any point in time. That's a lot of data to store if it's streamed.","human_ref_B":"Well... the short answer is: that's not really their job.  Essentially, planes are always kind of doing that anyway.  They are, in various ways, in regular communication with the rest of the system.  They've already got ways of communicating everything that they should need to communicate with everyone that they should need to communicate it with as they need to do so.  But unexpected things happen. And when they do happen, after the fact, once the emergency bit has been taken care of, the question becomes 'what exactly happened'  so that we can figure out if something that should have stopped this from happening failed to do its job, or if there was something we didn't even know to worry about that we should pay more attention to in the future.  That's the job of the black box, to let us figure out what happened after the fact.  If we did hook up the black box so that it was constantly communicating everything it knew in real time, that wouldn't actually be terribly useful.  Most flights go as expected.  Massive amounts of information would have to be communicated over great distances and 999 times out of 1000, actually even more often than that, that information wouldn't ever need to be glanced at, because the parts of it that needed to be know are already known by the people who need to know, the pilots.  So, what about that one in a thousand, or more accurately, one in a million situation, could that information be used to save lives?  Probably not.  Because it isn't enough to have the information, we have to know what it means.  The people who analyze the black box information are trained to do that.  They're also doing it with access to other information, like what exactly happened, so they're comparing what they know from the wreckage and eye witness accounts, etc, to what the black box is telling them.  In order for there to be any point to having a black box in constant communication, we'd need someone to be able to analyze the information as it's coming in.  The day may come when we have AIs who can take in all of that information, analyze it in real time, and spot problems before they become disasters, and when that day comes, hopefully we'll be in a position to set up black boxes in the way you described, but for right now, the amount of data the black box records is mostly useful in looking back to figure out what happened.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1549.0,"score_ratio":1.049382716}
{"post_id":"74rboo","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"If my 60 GB phone is full or empty, is there any difference in weight at the nano level?","c_root_id_A":"do104tx","c_root_id_B":"do105zr","created_at_utc_A":1507360289,"created_at_utc_B":1507360371,"score_A":31,"score_B":37,"human_ref_A":"From a comp science perspective, IF there is a difference in weight between a bit having a value of 1 and a value of 0, the answer is it depends.  The thing about digital storage is the data is not erased when you delete a file, it's only removed form the \"index\" so to speak. If you have a 60GB file which is just straight 1s for all of its bits, and you delete it, they don't become 0, they stay at 1 but your file system will set the memory addresses as available for new files to be written to. In the same vein you could have a 60GB file filled with straight 0s. That's why when you delete a file there are file recovery tools that can scan your drive and recover them, as long as you haven't overwritten the data with a new file, it's 1s and 0s all are there and can be read.  It doesn't end there, some chips use inverse logic, where a high (voltage) state means a logic 0 and low state is a logic 1. This is the case for NAND flash memories which most if not all modern smartphones use for their internal storage.","human_ref_B":"There is no clear meaning for a \"full\" or \"empty\" phone from an Information Science point of view. The least weighing combination of 1s and 0s could stand for a fully filled storage, simply because that might be the exact information that you want to save. Similarly, the highest weighing combination can be interpreted as empty, as the software dealing with storage information doesn't really bother what state the physical storage is in, it just calls it unused and therefore empty. So this is somewhat about perspectives and what you call full and empty.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":82.0,"score_ratio":1.1935483871}
{"post_id":"f2wzdd","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a fever helps the body fight off infection, would artificially raising your body temperature (within reason), say with a hot bath or shower, help this process and speed your recovery? I understand that this might border on violating Rule #1, but I am not seeking medical advice. I  am merely curious about the effects on the body.   There are lots of ways you could raise your temperature a little (or a lot if you\u2019re not careful), such as showers, baths, hot tubs, steam rooms, saunas, etc...   My understanding is that a fever helps fight infection by acting in two ways. The higher temperature inhibits the bug\u2019s ability to reproduce in the body, and it also makes some cells in our immune system more effective at fighting the infection.   So, would basically giving yourself a fever, or increasing it if it were a very low grade fever, help?","c_root_id_A":"fhfc26f","c_root_id_B":"fhfkwjz","created_at_utc_A":1581540392,"created_at_utc_B":1581545475,"score_A":294,"score_B":4984,"human_ref_A":"I'll piggy back on this question and ask, does fever actually help the body fight off infection?  I know that we take Advil\/Tylenol\/etc. which brings down the fever, and the body still is fighting off the infection, so I would think that it isn't the fever per se that is fighting off the infection, rather a by product of this fight...  But I really have no idea, so will be curious to hear what others say.","human_ref_B":"There's a lot of speculation in the comments, and a lot of the information in the comments is outright wrong\/dangerous. Please don't take medical advice from any of these comments...  In short, pathogens cause the release of cytokines, which are inflammatory modulators that in a broad sense do various things to help fight infection. Some of these cytokines are pyrogenic (IL-1, IL-6, TNF, IFN). These act in many ways, but one of them is acting at the level of the hypothalamus to raise the body's 'set point' temperature via PGE2, similar to how a normal thermostat works. This causes a number of physiologic changes eg. you vasoconstrict in the periphery (so your limbs feel cold), and we're behaviourally programmed to decrease exposed surfaces - wearing more clothes, getting inside, reducing activity. You might also shiver.  Fever generally makes us feel terrible because of the above. It also increases baseline O2 consumption, can induce mental changes, and it can also exacerbate cardiac or pulmonary disease.   There is evidence that an elevated (febrile) temperature in animal cells IN TEST TUBES is beneficial, via a heightened immune response and increased bacteriacidal killing (PMID 12015457). HOWEVER there are no studies showing that fever itself facilitates any faster recovery from illness or adjuvants the immune system. There is isolated evidence in the context of influenza vaccination that treatment with antipyretics can actually boost anti-influenza antibody levels (PMID 7746030). We're pretty sure that treating fever symptoms with antipyretics does no harm and also doesn't slow recovery.   Exogenous heat exposure\/production in an uncontrolled fashion can override the body's ability to lose heat and cause dangerously high (read: you could die) internal temperatures (ie. heat stroke). The thing we worry most about in the context of the acute illnesses that we're talking about from a temperature perspective is high fever, because we know that this results in bad things happening (some mentioned above) - and potentially seizure, coma, death.   Our bodies are well-oiled machines, and for the most part, your body knows what it's doing. Don't go messing around with trying to increase your body temperature on your own, because that is perhaps the most dangerous thing you can do.   tl;dr - We don't really have evidence that tells us whether temperature alone changes how the body manages infections. We know for a fact that artificially altering your body's temperature, particularly attempts to raise temperature, is dangerous.  This is not medical advice, and if you want medical advice then you should go see a doctor.  Edit: spelling and more pointed summary Edit 2: Thanks for the gilds!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5083.0,"score_ratio":16.9523809524}
{"post_id":"fksaye","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Will social distancing make viruses other than covid-19 go extinct? Trying to think of the positives... if we are all in relative social isolation for the next few months, will this lead to other more common viruses also decreasing in abundance and ultimately lead to their extinction?","c_root_id_A":"fkuiwfe","c_root_id_B":"fkv0dq1","created_at_utc_A":1584550252,"created_at_utc_B":1584559546,"score_A":2962,"score_B":3407,"human_ref_A":"it\u2019s not even going to make covid 19 go extinct. The point is to slow down the spread temporarily so that healthcare isn\u2019t overwhelmed. No healthcare expert is saying that covid 19 is going to go extinct. The spread is just being slowed","human_ref_B":"I hope this doesn't break the rules, I'm just clarifying part of OP's question that doesn't seem to be getting answered: \"decreasing in abundance\".   Even if it doesn't lead to extinction, would one assume that colds, the flu, or other communicable diseases could dramatically decrease in measurable ways because of the social distancing, emphasis on hand washing, etc...?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9294.0,"score_ratio":1.1502363268}
{"post_id":"fksaye","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Will social distancing make viruses other than covid-19 go extinct? Trying to think of the positives... if we are all in relative social isolation for the next few months, will this lead to other more common viruses also decreasing in abundance and ultimately lead to their extinction?","c_root_id_A":"fkv0dq1","c_root_id_B":"fkuvjqz","created_at_utc_A":1584559546,"created_at_utc_B":1584556937,"score_A":3407,"score_B":1021,"human_ref_A":"I hope this doesn't break the rules, I'm just clarifying part of OP's question that doesn't seem to be getting answered: \"decreasing in abundance\".   Even if it doesn't lead to extinction, would one assume that colds, the flu, or other communicable diseases could dramatically decrease in measurable ways because of the social distancing, emphasis on hand washing, etc...?","human_ref_B":"It won't stop the rise of new viruses, but social distancing has to have a strong effect on non-target diseases on the short term, as (for instance) flu and the common cold are transmitted in similar ways to COVID-19.  I would expect that in addition to stopping the target virus in V\u00f2, Italy, other socially transmitted diseases have been stopped as well. Looking forward to the follow up studies.  https:\/\/www.elitetrader.com\/et\/threads\/aggressive-testing-helps-italian-town-cut-new-coronavirus-cases-to-zero.341786\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2609.0,"score_ratio":3.3369245837}
{"post_id":"fksaye","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Will social distancing make viruses other than covid-19 go extinct? Trying to think of the positives... if we are all in relative social isolation for the next few months, will this lead to other more common viruses also decreasing in abundance and ultimately lead to their extinction?","c_root_id_A":"fkv0dq1","c_root_id_B":"fkuu6nm","created_at_utc_A":1584559546,"created_at_utc_B":1584556206,"score_A":3407,"score_B":154,"human_ref_A":"I hope this doesn't break the rules, I'm just clarifying part of OP's question that doesn't seem to be getting answered: \"decreasing in abundance\".   Even if it doesn't lead to extinction, would one assume that colds, the flu, or other communicable diseases could dramatically decrease in measurable ways because of the social distancing, emphasis on hand washing, etc...?","human_ref_B":"It won't... but now is a perfect time for vaccination campaigns against fast-burning diseases. Whole strains can be exterminated, thus making the other strains spend time on adaptation and making it easier to track their spread on this blank slate. Complete extermination seems improbable, but now's a good time to try.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3340.0,"score_ratio":22.1233766234}
{"post_id":"fksaye","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Will social distancing make viruses other than covid-19 go extinct? Trying to think of the positives... if we are all in relative social isolation for the next few months, will this lead to other more common viruses also decreasing in abundance and ultimately lead to their extinction?","c_root_id_A":"fkuvjqz","c_root_id_B":"fkuu6nm","created_at_utc_A":1584556937,"created_at_utc_B":1584556206,"score_A":1021,"score_B":154,"human_ref_A":"It won't stop the rise of new viruses, but social distancing has to have a strong effect on non-target diseases on the short term, as (for instance) flu and the common cold are transmitted in similar ways to COVID-19.  I would expect that in addition to stopping the target virus in V\u00f2, Italy, other socially transmitted diseases have been stopped as well. Looking forward to the follow up studies.  https:\/\/www.elitetrader.com\/et\/threads\/aggressive-testing-helps-italian-town-cut-new-coronavirus-cases-to-zero.341786\/","human_ref_B":"It won't... but now is a perfect time for vaccination campaigns against fast-burning diseases. Whole strains can be exterminated, thus making the other strains spend time on adaptation and making it easier to track their spread on this blank slate. Complete extermination seems improbable, but now's a good time to try.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":731.0,"score_ratio":6.6298701299}
{"post_id":"fksaye","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Will social distancing make viruses other than covid-19 go extinct? Trying to think of the positives... if we are all in relative social isolation for the next few months, will this lead to other more common viruses also decreasing in abundance and ultimately lead to their extinction?","c_root_id_A":"fkvdvyi","c_root_id_B":"fkv4r0b","created_at_utc_A":1584567237,"created_at_utc_B":1584562047,"score_A":163,"score_B":154,"human_ref_A":"Social distancing is a temporary measure for containing the pandemic.    To make any virus go EXTINCT we'd have to keep it up until the number of new cases of infection for that virus fall to zero and all the people (and other susceptible organisms) with pre-existing infections, whether latent or active, die without passing them on to anyone.    That level of social distancing would be terrible for our health in other ways.  Edited: to include \"and other susceptible organisms\".","human_ref_B":"Social distancing will not make covid 19 go extinct. It will help to flatten the curve, aka, slow down transmission enough so that there is no sudden surge in a bunch of people who need to be hospitalized, overwhelming our health care systems. Most of us will get this coronavirus sooner or later, but hopefully not all at once.  It will also reduce other contagious illnesses like the flu and the common cold. But just like coronavirus, they will keep circulating, slowly but surely, and they will not go extinct.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5190.0,"score_ratio":1.0584415584}
{"post_id":"fksaye","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Will social distancing make viruses other than covid-19 go extinct? Trying to think of the positives... if we are all in relative social isolation for the next few months, will this lead to other more common viruses also decreasing in abundance and ultimately lead to their extinction?","c_root_id_A":"fkvdvyi","c_root_id_B":"fkuu6nm","created_at_utc_A":1584567237,"created_at_utc_B":1584556206,"score_A":163,"score_B":154,"human_ref_A":"Social distancing is a temporary measure for containing the pandemic.    To make any virus go EXTINCT we'd have to keep it up until the number of new cases of infection for that virus fall to zero and all the people (and other susceptible organisms) with pre-existing infections, whether latent or active, die without passing them on to anyone.    That level of social distancing would be terrible for our health in other ways.  Edited: to include \"and other susceptible organisms\".","human_ref_B":"It won't... but now is a perfect time for vaccination campaigns against fast-burning diseases. Whole strains can be exterminated, thus making the other strains spend time on adaptation and making it easier to track their spread on this blank slate. Complete extermination seems improbable, but now's a good time to try.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11031.0,"score_ratio":1.0584415584}
{"post_id":"8vlta3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Do any non-human animals deliberately combine foods for eating simultaneously? Do any prepare meals with more than one ingredient?","c_root_id_A":"e1oukbs","c_root_id_B":"e1oh6wb","created_at_utc_A":1530577586,"created_at_utc_B":1530565825,"score_A":8695,"score_B":2193,"human_ref_A":"When researchers give chimps eggs, they often search the area for a particular plant that they like to eat with eggs. They gather some leaves, put the whole raw egg in one cheek, and a few leaves from the plant in the other cheek. Then they crack the egg inside their cheek and mix the egg and leaf together in their mouths, I would consider that a sort of spicing.  >Often leaves are added to soft fruits that have been crushed against the ridged palate of the chimpanzee, and sometimes to eggs and meat. This mixture of leaves and other foods forms a \"wadge\" that is sucked for 10 minutes or more to extract its juices. A wadge may be held in the mouth as the chimpanzee moves to another feeding site (Goodall, 1986).","human_ref_B":"I'm not sure if this is what you're looking for, but I recall this story about the Japanese macaque (these are the little dudes chilling in the natural hot tubs at the opening of Baraka)).   > To facilitate observation they lured the creatures out of the forest with rations of sweet potatoes and wheat.  With these daily handouts, and more free time, the macaques began to invent new behaviors.  > The great innovator within the Koshima troop was a one-and-a-half year old infant female named Imo. In 1953, Imo was the first to begin washing the sweet potatoes. She passed the behavior to her mother and it slowly began to spread. A decade later, potato washing had become a fixed behavior in the troop. Most newborns picked up the skill quickly. By 1962, about three quarters of Koshima monkeys over two years old washed their food. -source  Now, these sweet potatoes were given to them by humans, and I'm not sure if you'd consider this \"intentionally combining foods\", but it's the closest natural behavior to what you're asking.   I think there's also a chimp that started cooking their food, but I think that one is more closely tied to structured efforts by a research team and probably toes the line on interference a lot more .  EDIT: added link to movie scene, and referenced article.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11761.0,"score_ratio":3.9648882809}
{"post_id":"8vlta3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Do any non-human animals deliberately combine foods for eating simultaneously? Do any prepare meals with more than one ingredient?","c_root_id_A":"e1okr3l","c_root_id_B":"e1oukbs","created_at_utc_A":1530568741,"created_at_utc_B":1530577586,"score_A":935,"score_B":8695,"human_ref_A":"Honey bees produce several \"foods\" that are not strictly collected, stored and eaten substances.  Honey is nectar collected in a bees honey crop (an upper stomach)  where it is mixed with enzymes. That nectar is passed to other bees in the hive who blow bubbles with it reducing the water content from around 80%. They then store it and reduce the water content further (ideally below 18.4%) before capping. They enzymes are an important component changing the nectar into honey. And the processing has to occur to make the nectar honey.  They also produce bee bread. They collect pollen, place it in cells along with gut bacteria and a little honey and allow it to ferment. This seems to be a preservative step as they can use unfermented pollen. But they are changing the pollen and mixing components to do so. There are 3 articles in that link all under Reevaluating Beebread which focuses on the bacterial component.","human_ref_B":"When researchers give chimps eggs, they often search the area for a particular plant that they like to eat with eggs. They gather some leaves, put the whole raw egg in one cheek, and a few leaves from the plant in the other cheek. Then they crack the egg inside their cheek and mix the egg and leaf together in their mouths, I would consider that a sort of spicing.  >Often leaves are added to soft fruits that have been crushed against the ridged palate of the chimpanzee, and sometimes to eggs and meat. This mixture of leaves and other foods forms a \"wadge\" that is sucked for 10 minutes or more to extract its juices. A wadge may be held in the mouth as the chimpanzee moves to another feeding site (Goodall, 1986).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8845.0,"score_ratio":9.2994652406}
{"post_id":"8vlta3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Do any non-human animals deliberately combine foods for eating simultaneously? Do any prepare meals with more than one ingredient?","c_root_id_A":"e1p6w1i","c_root_id_B":"e1ow10f","created_at_utc_A":1530589664,"created_at_utc_B":1530578891,"score_A":185,"score_B":173,"human_ref_A":"I am almost certain this will not help, but carnivores eat herbivore intestines to get their necessary nutrients they miss out by not eating their vegetables.           I probably should just say \"vegetables\" instead of \"their vegetables,\" but I love the image of a tiger hiding broccoli in a napkin and sneaking it to some handy nearby bunnies.","human_ref_B":"Reportedly Andeans learned to eat wild potatoes along with clay (which binds to the oxalis acid in them) from Vicunas (relatives of the Llama):  https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thesalt\/2017\/11\/28\/564866619\/the-ancient-andean-tradition-of-eating-clay-may-have-helped-to-protect-health","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10773.0,"score_ratio":1.0693641618}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"duppuf3","c_root_id_B":"dupo0d6","created_at_utc_A":1519405016,"created_at_utc_B":1519403340,"score_A":3491,"score_B":603,"human_ref_A":"Geologist here! There are a nearly inexhaustible amount of sources of lower grade ore for all elements across the entire planet. The only problem with there extraction is the increase in cost. 99% of potential mines never get mined because the market doesn\u2019t allow them at the time. If there is a higher need to mine them then they open up and make me a happy Geologist!","human_ref_B":"Surprised i didn't see anyone say platinum. Platinum is an excellent catalyst, but it is quite hard to get. If production of fuel cells goes up, there is no way there is enough platinum for large scale production. Yes i know platinum is used in catalytic converters, but only 2-3 grams. Fuel cells use a lot more than that.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1676.0,"score_ratio":5.7893864013}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"duplfqs","c_root_id_B":"duppuf3","created_at_utc_A":1519400919,"created_at_utc_B":1519405016,"score_A":217,"score_B":3491,"human_ref_A":"Lithium. As electric cars begin to replace internal combustion, and people carry more and more gadgets (nearly all of which depend on lithium ion batteries), our global supply of lithium has begun to dwindle. We'll likely need to find a replacement for the lithium ion battery if we mean to ditch internal combustion.","human_ref_B":"Geologist here! There are a nearly inexhaustible amount of sources of lower grade ore for all elements across the entire planet. The only problem with there extraction is the increase in cost. 99% of potential mines never get mined because the market doesn\u2019t allow them at the time. If there is a higher need to mine them then they open up and make me a happy Geologist!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4097.0,"score_ratio":16.0875576037}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"dupqmzj","c_root_id_B":"duppx4e","created_at_utc_A":1519405744,"created_at_utc_B":1519405083,"score_A":1414,"score_B":974,"human_ref_A":"Cobalt. Contrary to what is said here in this tread, it is not Lithium that we will run out of, but cobalt, one of the main elements in high energy density cathodes. Many researchers are trying to find new electrode chemistries made from abundant materials to avoid this problem.","human_ref_B":"Helium. I do not think it is at a risk of running on in the near term, but it is one of the only elements that once we use it is gone, as it can escape the earths atmosphere.   Plus helium has lots of practical uses besides party balloons, one of them being liquid Helium being the coolant for superconductors being used in NMR machines.   Edit: As cbasni pointed about below liquid helium is also used as the coolant for the superconductor in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) machines in hospitals.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":661.0,"score_ratio":1.4517453799}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"dupqmzj","c_root_id_B":"dupo0d6","created_at_utc_A":1519405744,"created_at_utc_B":1519403340,"score_A":1414,"score_B":603,"human_ref_A":"Cobalt. Contrary to what is said here in this tread, it is not Lithium that we will run out of, but cobalt, one of the main elements in high energy density cathodes. Many researchers are trying to find new electrode chemistries made from abundant materials to avoid this problem.","human_ref_B":"Surprised i didn't see anyone say platinum. Platinum is an excellent catalyst, but it is quite hard to get. If production of fuel cells goes up, there is no way there is enough platinum for large scale production. Yes i know platinum is used in catalytic converters, but only 2-3 grams. Fuel cells use a lot more than that.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2404.0,"score_ratio":2.3449419569}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"dupqmzj","c_root_id_B":"duplfqs","created_at_utc_A":1519405744,"created_at_utc_B":1519400919,"score_A":1414,"score_B":217,"human_ref_A":"Cobalt. Contrary to what is said here in this tread, it is not Lithium that we will run out of, but cobalt, one of the main elements in high energy density cathodes. Many researchers are trying to find new electrode chemistries made from abundant materials to avoid this problem.","human_ref_B":"Lithium. As electric cars begin to replace internal combustion, and people carry more and more gadgets (nearly all of which depend on lithium ion batteries), our global supply of lithium has begun to dwindle. We'll likely need to find a replacement for the lithium ion battery if we mean to ditch internal combustion.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4825.0,"score_ratio":6.5161290323}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"dupo0d6","c_root_id_B":"duppx4e","created_at_utc_A":1519403340,"created_at_utc_B":1519405083,"score_A":603,"score_B":974,"human_ref_A":"Surprised i didn't see anyone say platinum. Platinum is an excellent catalyst, but it is quite hard to get. If production of fuel cells goes up, there is no way there is enough platinum for large scale production. Yes i know platinum is used in catalytic converters, but only 2-3 grams. Fuel cells use a lot more than that.","human_ref_B":"Helium. I do not think it is at a risk of running on in the near term, but it is one of the only elements that once we use it is gone, as it can escape the earths atmosphere.   Plus helium has lots of practical uses besides party balloons, one of them being liquid Helium being the coolant for superconductors being used in NMR machines.   Edit: As cbasni pointed about below liquid helium is also used as the coolant for the superconductor in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) machines in hospitals.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1743.0,"score_ratio":1.6152570481}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"duppx4e","c_root_id_B":"duplfqs","created_at_utc_A":1519405083,"created_at_utc_B":1519400919,"score_A":974,"score_B":217,"human_ref_A":"Helium. I do not think it is at a risk of running on in the near term, but it is one of the only elements that once we use it is gone, as it can escape the earths atmosphere.   Plus helium has lots of practical uses besides party balloons, one of them being liquid Helium being the coolant for superconductors being used in NMR machines.   Edit: As cbasni pointed about below liquid helium is also used as the coolant for the superconductor in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) machines in hospitals.","human_ref_B":"Lithium. As electric cars begin to replace internal combustion, and people carry more and more gadgets (nearly all of which depend on lithium ion batteries), our global supply of lithium has begun to dwindle. We'll likely need to find a replacement for the lithium ion battery if we mean to ditch internal combustion.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4164.0,"score_ratio":4.4884792627}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"duplfqs","c_root_id_B":"dupo0d6","created_at_utc_A":1519400919,"created_at_utc_B":1519403340,"score_A":217,"score_B":603,"human_ref_A":"Lithium. As electric cars begin to replace internal combustion, and people carry more and more gadgets (nearly all of which depend on lithium ion batteries), our global supply of lithium has begun to dwindle. We'll likely need to find a replacement for the lithium ion battery if we mean to ditch internal combustion.","human_ref_B":"Surprised i didn't see anyone say platinum. Platinum is an excellent catalyst, but it is quite hard to get. If production of fuel cells goes up, there is no way there is enough platinum for large scale production. Yes i know platinum is used in catalytic converters, but only 2-3 grams. Fuel cells use a lot more than that.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2421.0,"score_ratio":2.7788018433}
{"post_id":"7znpil","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What elements are at genuine risk of running out and what are the implications of them running out?","c_root_id_A":"duplfqs","c_root_id_B":"dupwapf","created_at_utc_A":1519400919,"created_at_utc_B":1519410813,"score_A":217,"score_B":589,"human_ref_A":"Lithium. As electric cars begin to replace internal combustion, and people carry more and more gadgets (nearly all of which depend on lithium ion batteries), our global supply of lithium has begun to dwindle. We'll likely need to find a replacement for the lithium ion battery if we mean to ditch internal combustion.","human_ref_B":"So far, what I see here is:  * Responses naming one or a few elements that the commenter has heard concerns about.  * The general argument that it's just a matter of economics and there's no real scarcity.  What's missing is a perspective on which belong at the top of the list, for reasons other than popularity on Reddit.  So I found an artlcle that lists reserves\/consumption ratios for dozens of minerals.  Most are at least 225 years, and the majority over 50 years.  The few in the 10-25 year range are, in order of highest reserves to lowest:  Thallium, sulfur, mercury, gold, arsenic, lead, zinc, diamond, silver, and indium.  The article is specifically about minerals, so, for example, helium doesn't show up at all.  And it lists diamond, even though carbon is plentiful.  It would be interesting to specifically discuss those 10.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9894.0,"score_ratio":2.7142857143}
{"post_id":"ipb97x","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"What are we smelling when we open a fresh can of tennis balls?","c_root_id_A":"g4jlowx","c_root_id_B":"g4jkvht","created_at_utc_A":1599658153,"created_at_utc_B":1599657643,"score_A":10318,"score_B":42,"human_ref_A":"Plasticizer! Some plastics and rubbers have chemicals called plasticizers that enhance the material's flexibility. One of the characteristics of plasticizers is that they're volatile, meaning they naturally want to evaporate. The smell you get from a fresh can of tennis balls is the evaporated plasticizer that has built up in the canister.  Plasticizer evaporation is also the reason that extremely old tennis balls become brittle.","human_ref_B":"It\u2019s not easy to find a specific list of chemicals used in tennis ball manufacturing, but might help to start here","labels":1,"seconds_difference":510.0,"score_ratio":245.6666666667}
{"post_id":"8pb285","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Chemically, why was the Fat Man more powerful than the Little Boy? (The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki)","c_root_id_A":"e09vp31","c_root_id_B":"e09vuns","created_at_utc_A":1528387425,"created_at_utc_B":1528387557,"score_A":99,"score_B":6280,"human_ref_A":"Little Boy used over 10 times as much fuel by mass (uranium) than Fat Man (plutonium) but the design of Fat Man was over 10 times as efficient. Their estimated explosive forces are of the same order of magnitude.  Little Boy used a gun-type design that pushed a chunk of uranium into a casing of uranium to get supercritical mass. Fat Man used an implosion-type design that pushed ~~two hemispheres~~ of plutonium together. Little Boy was significantly simpler than Fat Man, but weapons-grade uranium is harder to produce than weapons-grade plutonium, but the plutonium gun-type design would have been 17 feet (5 meters) long and had trouble staying in the necessary position to detonate.  Chemistry-wise, plutonium has a lower critical mass, the mass required to achieve detonation. Pu-239 has higher fissile probability and produces more neutrons than U-235 per fission event. Pu-239 can be formed into very large subcritical masses due to its stability.  Edit: typos","human_ref_B":"There are mechanical differences as well as chemical differences that account for the difference in explosive power of the Fat Man and Little Boy:  **Fat Man**:  Used about 13.6 lbs. of plutonium in an implosion, caused by surrounding the plutonium in nearly 3 tons of conventional explosives. Plutonium releases about 210 MeV of energy per fission. Total explosive power of the Fat Man was about 21,000 tons of TNT, which is 5.48404 x 10^32 eV.  **Little Boy**:  Using a gun mechanism, a 85 lb. hollow \"bullet\" made of uranium is shot into a 55 lbs. mass of uranium, causing it to go critical. Uranium releases about 200 MeV of energy. Little Boy's explosive power was about 15,000 tons of TNT, which is 3.91717 x 10^32 eV.  Most likely, the initiation mechanism for the Fat Man was just more efficient, causing more atoms to undergo fission. This would make sense if you think about an implosion vs a gun barrel mechanism. Doing the math, you'd find that 2.61144762 x 10^24 atoms of plutonium underwent fission. For the uranium, it was 1.958585 x 10^24 atoms. To calculate the efficiency of the bombs, you'd have to know their relative atomic densities, but I can't find that information.  Edit: fixed notation and which mass of uranium was shot into which.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":132.0,"score_ratio":63.4343434343}
{"post_id":"8pb285","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Chemically, why was the Fat Man more powerful than the Little Boy? (The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki)","c_root_id_A":"e09vp31","c_root_id_B":"e09wo8f","created_at_utc_A":1528387425,"created_at_utc_B":1528388249,"score_A":99,"score_B":800,"human_ref_A":"Little Boy used over 10 times as much fuel by mass (uranium) than Fat Man (plutonium) but the design of Fat Man was over 10 times as efficient. Their estimated explosive forces are of the same order of magnitude.  Little Boy used a gun-type design that pushed a chunk of uranium into a casing of uranium to get supercritical mass. Fat Man used an implosion-type design that pushed ~~two hemispheres~~ of plutonium together. Little Boy was significantly simpler than Fat Man, but weapons-grade uranium is harder to produce than weapons-grade plutonium, but the plutonium gun-type design would have been 17 feet (5 meters) long and had trouble staying in the necessary position to detonate.  Chemistry-wise, plutonium has a lower critical mass, the mass required to achieve detonation. Pu-239 has higher fissile probability and produces more neutrons than U-235 per fission event. Pu-239 can be formed into very large subcritical masses due to its stability.  Edit: typos","human_ref_B":"For the implied backup question: why did they go with one design over the other?  The explosives needed to make Fat Man work had to be incredibly precise. If they all didn't go off in the exact correct shape at the exact right time, it would have shot the Plutonium out of the shell like a cannon instead of compressing it. Frankly, the explosives were possibly a greater engineering challenge than the nuclear part.   Little Boy was much simpler, engineering-wise. They both took an astronomical amount of resources to build, but Little Boy they were almost positive would work. Fat Man was much more efficient, but required testing and had a higher potential failure rate. We went with Fat Man style bombs going forward, hence all the nuclear testing, but we had Little Boy as backup to make sure *something* went off.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":824.0,"score_ratio":8.0808080808}
{"post_id":"8pb285","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Chemically, why was the Fat Man more powerful than the Little Boy? (The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki)","c_root_id_A":"e09vp31","c_root_id_B":"e09xjlt","created_at_utc_A":1528387425,"created_at_utc_B":1528388969,"score_A":99,"score_B":291,"human_ref_A":"Little Boy used over 10 times as much fuel by mass (uranium) than Fat Man (plutonium) but the design of Fat Man was over 10 times as efficient. Their estimated explosive forces are of the same order of magnitude.  Little Boy used a gun-type design that pushed a chunk of uranium into a casing of uranium to get supercritical mass. Fat Man used an implosion-type design that pushed ~~two hemispheres~~ of plutonium together. Little Boy was significantly simpler than Fat Man, but weapons-grade uranium is harder to produce than weapons-grade plutonium, but the plutonium gun-type design would have been 17 feet (5 meters) long and had trouble staying in the necessary position to detonate.  Chemistry-wise, plutonium has a lower critical mass, the mass required to achieve detonation. Pu-239 has higher fissile probability and produces more neutrons than U-235 per fission event. Pu-239 can be formed into very large subcritical masses due to its stability.  Edit: typos","human_ref_B":"Hi. Former DOE nuclear weapons guy here. First of all, the weapon effects are nuclear (not chemical) in nature. The simple answer to your question is that the weapons were different in design (gun vs. implosion type) as well as how much special nuclear material (SNM) and the types of SNM used. Little Boy was designed as a low-efficiency but high probability of success device. Gun type weapons are a pain in the ass as U-235 is hard to refine and the design tends to go supercritical too quickly. Perhaps the ultimate gun-type design was the W33 artillery fired atomic projectile (AFAP). Fat Man was a single stage implosion device. More complex due to designing explosive lenses\/timers\/detonators to get a good burn. In the end, most countries ended up using imposion-type primaries with plutonium or hybrid plutonium\/uranium pits and secondaries\/tertiaries using both SNM and lithium deuteride.   (TL\/DR) Kinda like comparing the performance of cars. Lots of different variables and design constraints come into play.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1544.0,"score_ratio":2.9393939394}
{"post_id":"8pb285","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Chemically, why was the Fat Man more powerful than the Little Boy? (The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki)","c_root_id_A":"e09xktt","c_root_id_B":"e09vp31","created_at_utc_A":1528388997,"created_at_utc_B":1528387425,"score_A":103,"score_B":99,"human_ref_A":"Fission-based nuclear weapons work through a chain reaction of neutrons hitting atoms, releasing neutrons, which hit other atoms, and release more neutrons. It\u2019s all about neutrons. More neutrons hitting the fissile material means more energy. Put enough neutron producing radioactive atoms together, and you have a runaway chain reaction.   However, when you set off the weapon, it explodes (because of the runaway reaction). The energy tears apart the weapon, which ends the reaction. This is potentially quite inefficient, as not all of the material actually gets to undergo fission.    Little Boy used a \u201cgun type\u201d mechanism, essentially a cylinder where a \u201cbullet\u201d of uranium hits another piece of uranium. One was hollow, but this is a simple mechanism and the combination process is sort of two dimensional - one thing is pushed into another thing. Quickly, the reaction blows up the entire fissile material involved, and the reaction ends. It is an extremely inefficient design in terms of the fissile material involved.   Fat Man used a more advanced technique where the fissile material is imploded all at once from all sides. This is a three dimensional method of pushing everything together using conventional explosives, and achieves a higher density of fissile material. More material together all at once in a tighter, more compressed space, means more neutrons. More neutrons means a bigger explosion. Even though it is just a brief instant while the fissile material is compressed together, many more atoms are able to experience the reaction. This is more efficient and creates a larger explosion. (They used Uranium versus Plutonium, but the fundamental difference was in how the reaction was set off and the larger power of fat man was primarily due to the more advanced design.)  However, both are fairly inefficient. Little Boy only used around 1-2% of its fissile material, and Fat Man only used about 17%.   Thermonuclear weapons can be much more efficient, since the fusion reaction produces a lot of neutrons all at once. Surround the reaction with fissile material and almost all the fissile material will be hit with neutrons before it is torn apart. This works even for fissile material that can\u2019t support a chain reaction on its own, because you are supplying the neutrons from the fusion reaction. This method can efficiently use all the fissile material because you have a large amount of neutrons hitting it, and provides a huge amount of energy (much of the energy in thermonuclear weapons is actually through this process, not the primary fusion reaction).","human_ref_B":"Little Boy used over 10 times as much fuel by mass (uranium) than Fat Man (plutonium) but the design of Fat Man was over 10 times as efficient. Their estimated explosive forces are of the same order of magnitude.  Little Boy used a gun-type design that pushed a chunk of uranium into a casing of uranium to get supercritical mass. Fat Man used an implosion-type design that pushed ~~two hemispheres~~ of plutonium together. Little Boy was significantly simpler than Fat Man, but weapons-grade uranium is harder to produce than weapons-grade plutonium, but the plutonium gun-type design would have been 17 feet (5 meters) long and had trouble staying in the necessary position to detonate.  Chemistry-wise, plutonium has a lower critical mass, the mass required to achieve detonation. Pu-239 has higher fissile probability and produces more neutrons than U-235 per fission event. Pu-239 can be formed into very large subcritical masses due to its stability.  Edit: typos","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1572.0,"score_ratio":1.0404040404}
{"post_id":"baf355","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"What do swordfish use their sword for?","c_root_id_A":"ekbrkpe","c_root_id_B":"ekbauz3","created_at_utc_A":1554658535,"created_at_utc_B":1554646102,"score_A":3161,"score_B":584,"human_ref_A":"There is some debate over how the sword is used to hunt. In a study on swordfish in 1981:  > ... swordfish rise beneath a school of fish, striking to the right and left with their swords until they have killed a number of fish, which they then proceed to devour  Swordfish are also different from other fish with spears on their heads, such as marlins and sailfish, since their \"swords\" are dorsoventrally compressed (i.e. horizontally flattened). This suggests that they use their swords not for stabbing but for slashing laterally.  Source: Palko, Barbara Jayne, Grant L. Beardsley, and William Joseph Richards. \"Synopsis of the biology of the swordfish, Xiphias gladius Linnaeus.\" (1981).","human_ref_B":"They will swing it through groups of smaller fish injuring or disabling some to create easier to catch prey. It's also speculated though never observed that they use their bill to disturb bottom sediments, releasing deepwater crustaceans & other bottom dwelling creatures for food.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12433.0,"score_ratio":5.4126712329}
{"post_id":"hekhgw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"A study today showed Covid antibodies drop off quickly (70% in 2-3 months). But don't all antibodies drop off quickly? Isn't this normal? I'm linking the article I read from Reuters. I hope this isn't unacceptable. I'm simply curious whether this is a normal effect over time, or is something unique to Covid (if it's known).  https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-health-coronavirus-antibody\/antibody-levels-in-recovered-covid-19-patients-decline-quickly-research-","c_root_id_A":"fvs6p2z","c_root_id_B":"fvs7dgh","created_at_utc_A":1592945628,"created_at_utc_B":1592945956,"score_A":164,"score_B":7843,"human_ref_A":"In my experience, this isn't atypical. There are several key concepts here. Each individual antibody has a half-life on the order of weeks. So individual antibodies will be degraded by your body but the plasma cells that were activated will produce more so your titers will remain overall stable. However, even the plasma cells can become dormant\/die so that immunity can wane over time - fewer antibodies will be produced. This is likely what's happening here, although the study sample was small so it needs to be taken with a grain of salt.   The other key concept is that in the adaptive immune response, you also form memory B cells that, upon re-challenge with the antigen, can differentiate into plasma cells and start mass-producing antibodies again. This is the key part that the study does not look at and will be key for sustained immunity if the study findings are to be believed.  Now, it's not uncommon for antibody titers to go down over time. If I checked your titers for measles, mumps, rubella, Hep B, etc. it is likely that one or more of those may have decreased below accepted thresholds. However, this does not mean that you're not immune. It just means that your body has decided it no longer needs to produce antibodies to these pathogens but memory cells may still persist. So then when we give a booster, we do see a massive response, indicating that your immune system remembers and if you were challenged with the actual pathogen, you'd see a similarly large immune response from the memory cells despite not having high titers.","human_ref_B":"That\u2019s not quite what the article (Clinical and immunological assessment of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections) said. It found that people who had been *asymptomatically infected* lost antibodies more quickly than those who showed symptoms. Importantly (and this will certainly be lost in the media reports) the majority of both groups (60% and ~90%) still had detectable antibodies at the 8 week mark.   First, there are several odd things about this article that make me a little skeptical. For one thing, this study also saw a drop in antibodies 8 weeks after symptomatic infection, whereas several larger studies have tracked symptomatic patients for at least this long and seen no such drop. For example, in Dynamics of IgG seroconversion and pathophysiology of COVID-19 infections: \u201c*Antibody responses do not decline during follow up almost to 2 months*\u201d.  And \u201c*In our survey, we did not find evidence for a decrease in IgG antibody titer levels on repeat sampling.*\u201d (Humoral immune response and prolonged PCR positivity in a cohort of 1343 SARS-CoV 2 patients in the New York City region).   So those two studies, looking at nearly 500 patients, find no evidence for antibody decline, while this study, with just 37 patients, does find evidence. We can\u2019t ignore it, but we can discount it and wait for more evidence.   Still, it\u2019s entirely plausible that asymptomatic patients would have a weaker and less durable response than symptomatic. Inflammation drives immunity, so a less inflammatory disease would be expected to drive a less durable response. Again, we need to wait for larger, longer-lasting studies.   Is this typical of antibodies? Yes and no. Antibodies do fade away rapidly in the blood.  But with many, if not most, infections, new antibodies continue to be produced for months or years after the initial infection. That is, the B cells that produce the antibodies don\u2019t immediately shut down or die, but keep on making more antibody, so that in many infections you can see antibodies present for a long time afterward.   With SARS and MERs, the closest cousins to SARS-CoV-2, the antibody response lasts for a reasonable but not extraordinary time. SARS antibodies have been shown to last for several years, with between 2 and 3 years being the most common claim (Disappearance of Antibodies to SARS-Associated Coronavirus after Recovery) although one recent preprint claims \u201c*IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV can persist for at least 12 years*\u201d (Long-Term Persistence of IgG Antibodies in SARS-CoV Infected Healthcare Workers).   MERS antibodies might last a little shorter, but that\u2019s mainly because MERS patients haven\u2019t been followed for as long, so a study that follows patients for a year can only claim \u201c*Robust antibody responses were detected in all survivors who had severe disease; responses remained detectable, albeit with some waning, for <1 year.*\u201d (MERS-CoV Antibody Responses 1 Year after Symptom Onset, South Korea, 2015).   So (1) several studies find that SARS-CoV-2 antibodies stick around for a couple of months without fading, (2) SARS and MERS antibodies stick around for a year or three, but (3) one small study claims that asymptomatic patients have short-lived antibodies. This seems like a good time to say that more research is needed.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":328.0,"score_ratio":47.8231707317}
{"post_id":"hekhgw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"A study today showed Covid antibodies drop off quickly (70% in 2-3 months). But don't all antibodies drop off quickly? Isn't this normal? I'm linking the article I read from Reuters. I hope this isn't unacceptable. I'm simply curious whether this is a normal effect over time, or is something unique to Covid (if it's known).  https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-health-coronavirus-antibody\/antibody-levels-in-recovered-covid-19-patients-decline-quickly-research-","c_root_id_A":"fvs7dgh","c_root_id_B":"fvs762h","created_at_utc_A":1592945956,"created_at_utc_B":1592945858,"score_A":7843,"score_B":53,"human_ref_A":"That\u2019s not quite what the article (Clinical and immunological assessment of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections) said. It found that people who had been *asymptomatically infected* lost antibodies more quickly than those who showed symptoms. Importantly (and this will certainly be lost in the media reports) the majority of both groups (60% and ~90%) still had detectable antibodies at the 8 week mark.   First, there are several odd things about this article that make me a little skeptical. For one thing, this study also saw a drop in antibodies 8 weeks after symptomatic infection, whereas several larger studies have tracked symptomatic patients for at least this long and seen no such drop. For example, in Dynamics of IgG seroconversion and pathophysiology of COVID-19 infections: \u201c*Antibody responses do not decline during follow up almost to 2 months*\u201d.  And \u201c*In our survey, we did not find evidence for a decrease in IgG antibody titer levels on repeat sampling.*\u201d (Humoral immune response and prolonged PCR positivity in a cohort of 1343 SARS-CoV 2 patients in the New York City region).   So those two studies, looking at nearly 500 patients, find no evidence for antibody decline, while this study, with just 37 patients, does find evidence. We can\u2019t ignore it, but we can discount it and wait for more evidence.   Still, it\u2019s entirely plausible that asymptomatic patients would have a weaker and less durable response than symptomatic. Inflammation drives immunity, so a less inflammatory disease would be expected to drive a less durable response. Again, we need to wait for larger, longer-lasting studies.   Is this typical of antibodies? Yes and no. Antibodies do fade away rapidly in the blood.  But with many, if not most, infections, new antibodies continue to be produced for months or years after the initial infection. That is, the B cells that produce the antibodies don\u2019t immediately shut down or die, but keep on making more antibody, so that in many infections you can see antibodies present for a long time afterward.   With SARS and MERs, the closest cousins to SARS-CoV-2, the antibody response lasts for a reasonable but not extraordinary time. SARS antibodies have been shown to last for several years, with between 2 and 3 years being the most common claim (Disappearance of Antibodies to SARS-Associated Coronavirus after Recovery) although one recent preprint claims \u201c*IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV can persist for at least 12 years*\u201d (Long-Term Persistence of IgG Antibodies in SARS-CoV Infected Healthcare Workers).   MERS antibodies might last a little shorter, but that\u2019s mainly because MERS patients haven\u2019t been followed for as long, so a study that follows patients for a year can only claim \u201c*Robust antibody responses were detected in all survivors who had severe disease; responses remained detectable, albeit with some waning, for <1 year.*\u201d (MERS-CoV Antibody Responses 1 Year after Symptom Onset, South Korea, 2015).   So (1) several studies find that SARS-CoV-2 antibodies stick around for a couple of months without fading, (2) SARS and MERS antibodies stick around for a year or three, but (3) one small study claims that asymptomatic patients have short-lived antibodies. This seems like a good time to say that more research is needed.","human_ref_B":"How many times did you catch chicken pox?  Generally your bone marrow holds copies of old antibodies, just in case it needs them, but it wouldn't keep them all, it just needs a reference.  So it's hard to tell what the \"antibody level\" of something that you're not suffering from, but caught historically would be with any accuracy.  They may not be millions in the blood, but if just a handful exist, they can be remade by the body very quickly.  That's the whole basis of things like immunisation jabs - make the body form the antibodies and you're good for YEARS, maybe even decades.  Every cold you've had, you're probably immune to.  There are just thousands of different ones, so you don't really catch the same one twice (not technically impossible, but like the \"no two snowflakes\" things - the chances are slim).  Even if your antibodies for it aren't dropping off, there are already dozens of identified strains of it, it's mutating through millions of people across the world.  So your antibodies may not do anything, because they've never seen that new strain that's come back around.  Antibodies for everything you've ever suffered aren't running through your blood constantly 24 hours a day, growing ever more with every disease you catch.  You'd have no room for the rest of the blood.  But they'll be in your bone marrow, the odd few floating through your blood, etc. and will be copied when the body's defences spots the attacker again.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":98.0,"score_ratio":147.9811320755}
{"post_id":"hekhgw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"A study today showed Covid antibodies drop off quickly (70% in 2-3 months). But don't all antibodies drop off quickly? Isn't this normal? I'm linking the article I read from Reuters. I hope this isn't unacceptable. I'm simply curious whether this is a normal effect over time, or is something unique to Covid (if it's known).  https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-health-coronavirus-antibody\/antibody-levels-in-recovered-covid-19-patients-decline-quickly-research-","c_root_id_A":"fvsb5x6","c_root_id_B":"fvtvchs","created_at_utc_A":1592947832,"created_at_utc_B":1592982557,"score_A":9,"score_B":44,"human_ref_A":"This is usually a normal effect of antibodies over time. They flare up in response to the infection and once it dies down, they are degraded and used to build other things the cells need more. I think the fear with Covid-19 is that there have been waves coming a few months after the initial infections; thus if the antibody has broken down, people will be vulnerable again.","human_ref_B":"Oh cool, a subject I know something about!  The answer is no, not all antibodies drop off quickly, and if we knew why it could be super helpful for designing vaccines against some diseases like malaria, which requires persistent high levels of antibodies to remain immune.   If you get infected with some live viruses like mumps or rubella, your antibody levels hardly drop at all. Mathematical modelling shows them to have a half life of 100s of years. In comparison, tetanus vaccine, which is just a protein made by the virus rather than a whole virus, gives you antibody levels that halve every 10 years or so. Some are even shorter.   It seems to be a complex interplay between a few different factors. Some pathogens may have bits that hang around in your body for well after the infection has finished, constantly stimulating you to produce new antibodies and so keeping levels high (so called antigen persistence). Other pathogens perhaps stimulate the production of long lived plasma cells (LLPCs). LLPCs are antibody producing cells which hang around in your bone marrow, pumping out specific antibodies for decades.   In contrast, some pathogens only result in short lived plasma cells. SLPCs only make antibodies for a short period of time, before disappearing, along with your antibody concentrations. But the response might also leave behind so called memory B cells, so even though your antibody levels are low, if you meet the same pathogen again, these memory B cells quickly cause more of the antibody to be made to fight it off, before levels drop again.   The thing is, for some diseases, you probably don't need high levels of antibodies all the time. You can beat the infection by ramping up production when it first takes hold before it becomes established. However, diseases like malaria seen to require you to have high levels on standby, because the parasite quickly multiplies if not controlled, and making more takes too long. This is seen with the efficacy of the RTS,S malaria vaccine - it initially gives high levels of antibodies and good protection, but the antibodies quickly drop off and the protection with it. If we could figure out how to make them last, that would be great.   A nice paper that describes some of these differences is in the NEJM here","labels":0,"seconds_difference":34725.0,"score_ratio":4.8888888889}
{"post_id":"5rlx9p","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"If an astronaut travel in a spaceship near the speed of light for one year. Because of the speed, the time inside the ship has only been one hour. How much cosmic radiation has the astronaut and the ship been bombarded? Is it one year or one hour?","c_root_id_A":"dd8rcpf","c_root_id_B":"dd8qiwf","created_at_utc_A":1486056770,"created_at_utc_B":1486055882,"score_A":67,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"You get the radiation (particles) from the distance traveled. Think of it as a scoop. Whether the stuff is moving or standing still does not matter, the scoop comes through that almost 1 light year and gets it all.","human_ref_B":"The time passed inside the ship is one hour to the passenger and one year to an observer on Earth (meaning our traveler is moving at well over 99.99% lightspeed). From the traveler's perspective he gets blasted by high-energy cosmic rays for one hour. To the observer, the traveler still get blasted by the same total amount of radiation - but at a lower energy for a full year.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":888.0,"score_ratio":3.7222222222}
{"post_id":"cbsfw2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"How is it known that everyone with blue eyes has one single ancestor, rather than this mutation occurring in multiple individuals at many different times?","c_root_id_A":"etikfxs","c_root_id_B":"etir0bd","created_at_utc_A":1562852799,"created_at_utc_B":1562857861,"score_A":100,"score_B":210,"human_ref_A":"While this doesn't answer the question directly (\/u\/-Metacelsus- did that nicely) I'd like to adress the aspect of \"how can a single common ancestor be responsible for *all* the blue eyes in the world?\"  That's because we are all related to each other. This video explains the math but essentially, if you go back far enough in history then everyone alive then is either related to everyone alive today or their family line died out completely. And the amazing thing is that you don't have to go that far back in history at all. If you're of European descent then with enough work you're pretty much guaranteed to be able to trace your family lineage back to Charlemange. And that's not because he was some kind of prolific breeder. You are probably related to pretty much everyone from that time (who's family line didn't die out). It's just a whole lot easier to find documents about Charlemagne than some no name farmer out in bumfuck nowhere.  And this is a mere 1300 years ago. According to simulations based on migration patterns and population growths the corresponding generation that is related to everybody alive *in the world* today would be somewhere between 4000-7000 years ago. That is more than enough time for a gene that's considered to be 10k years old to account for every pair of blue eyes in the world today.","human_ref_B":"Actually, the mutation did happen multiple times. For example, there is a population on the Solomon Islands who have dark skin but sometimes have blue eyes and blond hair. It is genetically distinct from the European kind, also looks pretty cool.    https:\/\/www.livescience.com\/20078-gene-mutation-blond-hair.html","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5062.0,"score_ratio":2.1}
{"post_id":"7rbyim","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How do surgeons avoid air bubbles in the bloodstreams after an organ transplant?","c_root_id_A":"dswdx2i","c_root_id_B":"dswgiaj","created_at_utc_A":1516326787,"created_at_utc_B":1516329799,"score_A":59,"score_B":190,"human_ref_A":"During organ procurement, the main vessels are clamped and a flush solution is run throughout the system. This flushes out the all the blood leaving it filled with flush solutions.  After the organs are removed from the body, they are again flushed with preservative solution for transport. So basically organs are filled with this and not air bubbles. When they are hooked up in the recipient, the artery is attached allowing blood to pump through the new organ while the rest of the organ isn\u2019t hooked into the recipients circulatory system yet. Basically pumps the blood throughout the organ while flushing things out, then the other side is hooked up. So any air bubbles or preservative solution are just pumped into the surgical field not the patient. I hope that makes sense?","human_ref_B":"First of all, we flush the donor organs with a preservative solution which removes almost all of the blood from the organ and  stabilize cell membranes to prevent cell death.   When sewing organs like liver transplants  in we have to sew the inflow (hepatic artery and portal vein) and the outflow (hepatic veins or vena cava). This is done while the recipient vessels are clamped off. If we open up the outflow clamps first, blood will flow backwards through the organs, essentially pushing out an significant amount of air.  We then open up the inflow vessels after we confirm their is no major bleeding from the outflow.   Some surgeons might leave a small hole in the outflow and vent blood through it with a clamp above it to flush air out and \u201cpurge\u201d the system, then close the hole after reperfusion.   Some surgeons will also distend  some of the clamped vessels with saline in order to remove air from the connections.   Edit:  I would remiss if I didn\u2019t take this opportunity to encourage anyone who is reading this to be sure to consider signing up as an organ donor. And tell your family your wishes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3012.0,"score_ratio":3.2203389831}
{"post_id":"7rbyim","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How do surgeons avoid air bubbles in the bloodstreams after an organ transplant?","c_root_id_A":"dsx10es","c_root_id_B":"dswdx2i","created_at_utc_A":1516366946,"created_at_utc_B":1516326787,"score_A":171,"score_B":59,"human_ref_A":"Awww nobody will see this since I'm late to the party... but I work in heart surgery and can tell you how we get air out of the heart after we open it. It's also important to know that air in the arterial system and left side of the heart is waaaaay more dangerous than heart in the venous system and right heart. This is because the air goes to the lungs before it goes to the left heart. Once in the aorta, air can enter the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart and the brain. In the heart, air can cause ventricular fibrillation and in the brain it can cause a stroke.  So to keep this from happening we utilize the clamp that is placed across the aorta (cross clamp) and vents that are inserted in the left ventricle (the chamber that pumps blood to the body) and the aortic root (where the aorta exits the heart). These vents are connected to pumps on the cardiopulmonary bypass pump (heart\/lung machine). Before the cross clamp comes off the aorta, the perfusionist (person running the heart\/lung machine) will fill the heart with blood. This causes the heart to contract and pushes blood out through the vents. If there is air, it hopefully exits the heart through the vents with the blood. At the same time, an anesthesiologist or cardiologist is looking at an echocardiogram, which allows them to see the air in the heart and aorta. The patient will be placed in a head up position so that the air will rise, and if there is a large amount of air, the surgeon may shake the patient. When this is done, the cross clamp can be taken off and the heart hopefully begins to resume normal function.  Edit: a word  Edit 2: obligatory thanks anonymous user for my first Reddit gold!","human_ref_B":"During organ procurement, the main vessels are clamped and a flush solution is run throughout the system. This flushes out the all the blood leaving it filled with flush solutions.  After the organs are removed from the body, they are again flushed with preservative solution for transport. So basically organs are filled with this and not air bubbles. When they are hooked up in the recipient, the artery is attached allowing blood to pump through the new organ while the rest of the organ isn\u2019t hooked into the recipients circulatory system yet. Basically pumps the blood throughout the organ while flushing things out, then the other side is hooked up. So any air bubbles or preservative solution are just pumped into the surgical field not the patient. I hope that makes sense?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":40159.0,"score_ratio":2.8983050847}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evxv4l1","c_root_id_B":"evxq3nx","created_at_utc_A":1564909323,"created_at_utc_B":1564902304,"score_A":7054,"score_B":2705,"human_ref_A":"What first comes to mind are the millenium problems: 7 problems formalized in 2000, each of which has very large consiquences and a 1 million dollar bounty for being solved. Only 1 has been solved.     Only one I'm remotely qualified to talk about is the Navier-Stokes equation. Basically it's a set of equations which describe how fluids (air, water, etc) move, that's it. The set of equations is incomplete. We currently have approximations for the equations and can brute force some good-enough solutions with computers, but fundamentally we don't have a complete model for how fluids move. It's part of why weather predictions can suck, and the field of aerodynamics is so complicated.","human_ref_B":"In Computer Science, we like to quantify algorithms based on how their running time is affected as the input size grows.  Some algorithms run at the exact same speed regardless of input size, while others become significantly more complicated much quicker as the input size increases.  By way of an example of an easy case is pulling a value out of an array -- it doesn't matter if we ask for array item 2 or array item 29 756, the speed of doing so is constant.  A more complicated case would be something like chess -- we can calculate all possible moves on a smaller chess board, but as the board gets bigger we get into a situation where calculating all possible games would require every computer mankind ever manufactured to date to run until the heat death of the universe...and it still wouldn't complete.  So we have a notation for describing an algorithms runtime complexity (Big O notation), and we can put problems with similar runtime constraints into a _complexity class_.  And there are two very important complexity classes called 'P'  and 'NP' that many algorithms fit into^0.    Algorithms that are part of 'P' have two important characteristics: the time they take to run can be described as a polynomial (that is, by an equation of the form \"an^k + bn^k-1 + cn^k-2 ... +xn^2 + yn +z\"^1 ), and the time required to verify the solution can also be described as a polynomial.  Algorithms that are part of 'NP' also have a similar pair of characteristics.  Like problems in 'P', the solutions can be verified in polynomial time.  However, their runtime to calculate the solution in the first place only runs in polynomial time on a _non-deterministic_ Turing machine, which may be worse than polynomial time when run on a _deterministic_ Turing machine^2.  You don't have to worry about the details of what that means -- but generally it means that these are problems where we can verify the result in polynomial time (or \"poly time\" for short), but where the computation itself may not be computable in poly time.  Using the above definitions, it's not hard to see that every problem in P is also in NP.  If you were to draw a Venn diagram, P would be a circle entirely inside NP.  All P problems can be verified in polynomial time, and all of their runtimes can be run in poly time on a non-deterministic Turing machine (as well as running in poly time in a completely deterministic Turing machine).  So here is where the unsolved equation comes in:  we know that P is inside NP.  However, is P = NP?  That is, can _every_ problem in NP be reformulated such that it would also be in P?  Or are there problems in NP that can't be reformulated to also be in P?  This has been an open question in computer science for much of the past century, and currently there is no proof either way.  Many computer scientists _believe_ that P \u2260 NP, but there is no actual proof one way or another (on a side note, some feel that P = NP, however some in that camp feel that any conversion of a NP problem into P would be non-constructive^5).  Okay -- so what is the point of all this \u00fcber-nerd gobbledygook?  It reads like a whole bunch of mental masturbation for eggheads -- is this important in the real world?  The answer to that decision problems is a big YES.  Some extremely important algorithms that people rely upon in their daily lives currently rely on the assumption that P \u2260 NP.  One of the most important of these is _encryption_.  Decryption can be thought of as a decision problem -- given an input (the encrypted data), we can quickly verify if our \"solution\" is correct (that is, did the decryption work?  Did we get the right decrypted data back?).  But how useful would decryption be if we could also decrypt _any_ data (without the decryption key) in polynomial time on any computer?  What would happen if it was also very easy to decrypt any encrypted information without a password or encryption key?  Right now the whole contract of encryption is that it is very easy to decrypt data if you have the proper encryption key, but that without the encryption key decrypting the data is more difficult, and gets more and more difficult as the key size increases.  Decrypting data with a 2048 bit key would require more time in the average case than the expected lifetime of our solar system.  Proving that P = NP, and then finding a constructive solution to convert an NP decryption algorithm such that it is also in P would likely break the way we encrypt data.  This could have serious repercussions to how virtually all commerce and personal privacy on Earth works.^6  At the same time, it could make a lot of problems that are very difficult to solve computationally more efficient.  This could have all sorts of positive benefits (that outweigh the negatives of breaking encryption).  The Knapsack problem^7, for example, is in NP and is thus more and more difficult to solve as the number of items you could potentially put into the knapsack increases.  But if we had an efficient way to convert this problem such that it was also in P it would potentially have all sorts of positive benefits in the real world^9.  All of the world shipping logistics for example could be significantly improved -- the Knapsack Problem isn't any different than figuring out what sets of items to pack into a shipping container to maximize the weight and number of items being shipped -- companies that were able to efficiently compute this for each cargo container, and for each ship (as you can think of assigning containers to ships as an instance of the Knapsack Problem as well!).  This problem is so important that is it one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems.  I'd also argue that it's the most important problem, as if you could solve it and prove that P = NP, it may mean that a computer could generate proofs for all of the other Millennium Prize Problems^10.  So if you can solve this one, you _might_ also be able to efficiently solve all of the _other_ major mathematical problems of our time.  How cool would _that_ be?  HTH!^11  ----- ^0 -- 'P' and 'NP' problems are formulated as _decision problems_, that is problems where the result is YES or NO.  Conceivably, we can generally take problems and convert it into a decision problem -- a sort algorithm, for example, may be reformulated as a sorting algorithm where at the end we ask \"Is this list sorted?\", and we get back a YES or NO response.  I'm trying to keep things somewhat simple to understand for laypeople, so I'm not going to deal with these specifics in this post.   ^1 -- I would have preferred to use the same letter for the term multipliers with subscripts, but AFAIK Reddit doesn't permit subscripts, only superscripts.  So please don't take my use of a, b, c, x, y, and z to imply that there are only 26 terms in the polynomial form.  There could be just one, or there could be thousands.   ^2 -- Ugh, I've been trying to reformulate a way to discuss this without getting into the differences between deterministic and non-deterministic machines, or what a Turing machine is^3.  The simplest explanation is that the computers we run are all like deterministic Turing machines^4; a non-deterministic Turing machine is one that you can think of is allowed to \"guess\" at answers.   ^3 -- at its simplest, it's a simple mathematical model of a computer used to prove what computers can do, and what they can't do.   ^4 -- You can think of \"deterministic\" to mean that given a series of instructions, the machine will run the instructions one at a time, and won't just decide to go and do its own thing once in a while.   ^5 -- a _non-constructive proof_ is one that doesn't create or provide an actual object to demonstrate the proof.  So in this case, it would be a proof that doesn't actually show _how_ to convert a problem from NP into P, and which doesn't provide an example of converting a problem in NP to also be in P.   ^6 -- There are some conditions here.  I've been somewhat hand-wavy concerning some of the specifics of the runtime constraints for a poly time algorithm.  Most people wind up thinking that \"poly time\" means _fast_, and everything else means _slow_.  That isn't necessarily the case -- n^10 is polynomial, and ~~has~~ can have worse runtime characteristics than an algorithm that runs in exponential time of 2^n (for _some_ values of n).  However, algorithms that have such massive poly time exponentials are pretty rare, so we don't run into cases like this very often.  So while not a universal truth, in most _known_ cases problems in P run faster than problems in NP that are not also in P.   ^7 -- the Knapsack Problem is pretty easy to visualize.  Say you have a knapsack, and a bunch of items of different weights^8.  The Knapsack Problem asks:  which items should you pack such that you get closest to some fixed maximum weight value?   ^8 -- you can also think of items with different volumes if you prefer.  In fact, a multi-dimensional Knapsack problem could look at both the volume and mass of the items, as well as potentially other factors (such as their monetary value).   ^9 -- other than being very useful for your next camping trip.   ^10 -- On the positive aspects of proving that P = NP: \"For example, it would transform mathematics by allowing a computer to find a formal proof of any theorem that has a proof of reasonable length, since formal proofs can easily be recognized in polynomial time. Such theorems may well include all of the CMI prize problems.\" (S. Cook, _The P vs. NP Problem_, Clay Mathematics PDF.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7019.0,"score_ratio":2.6077634011}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evy0hsw","c_root_id_B":"evyoly9","created_at_utc_A":1564917270,"created_at_utc_B":1564937571,"score_A":317,"score_B":907,"human_ref_A":"Most people here point at the Millenium Problems, a set of seven problems proposed by the Clay Institute in 2000. So far, only the Poincar\u00e9 Conjecture has been solved by mathematician Grigori Perelman. He refused the million dollar prize and the Fields Medal, arguably the greatest prize in Mathematics.  The Millennium Problems were inspired by 1900 David Hilbert's Problems of the Century, a list of 23 problems he deemed important for the progress of Mathematics. Among Hilbert's Problems, one is considered particularly hard: the Riemann hypothesis. Proposed by Bernhard Riemann in 1859, it also appears as one of the Millennium Problems. I will now try to describe it, if you don't want to read any Mathematics, just skip the next paragraph. I still encourage you to try.  The Riemann hypothesis deals with a particular function. Namely, for any number \"s\" consider the sum of all natural numbers to the power of \"s\". E.g. for s=1 we obtain 1+2+3+4+5+... (which sums up to infinity), while for s=-2 we have 1+1\/4+1\/9+1\/16+1\/25+... which is known to add up to the square of \u03c0 divided by 6. In general, we know that for all s smaller than -1 this sum is finite. Riemann used a technique called \"analytic continuation\" to   assign a finite number to sums which add up to infinity. For instance, there is a sense in saying that 1+2+3+4+5+...=-1\/12. Furthermore, it now made sense to also use \"complex numbers\" in place of \"s\". Complex numbers are numbers which can be written as \"a+ib\", where \"a\" and \"b\" are real numbers (just regular numbers). They follow their own set of rules, use Wikipedia if you want to read more. Now the big question is: when is this sum equal to zero? It is quite easy (for a specialized mathematician) to show that the sum is zero for all positive even numbers. Riemann hypothesis states that all other zeros must satisfy a=-1\/2.  Why should we care about Riemann hypothesis? Surprisingly enough, the distribution of zeros is linked to the distribution of prime numbers. Prime numbers are the fundamental blocks of multiplication and division, studied for millennia, there is still a huge number of questions about them. The solution to the Riemann hypothesis would provide great insight to this problems. An interesting real-world application concerns the encryption of transmitted data, such as credit card numbers and personal info. The security of the RSA, the most widely used encryption tool in online transactions, highly depends on our incomplete knowledge about prime numbers.  During the last 150 years, many people claimed to have solved the Riemann hypothesis, but all their proofs failed under a diligent scrutiny. Some people even start to believe that the problem is undecidable i.e. it is not possible to prove whether the Riemann hypothesis is true or not within the realm of \"standard\" Mathematics.  Edit: the critical line is Re(s)=-1\/2 in my notation.","human_ref_B":"We still don't know how big of a couch we can get around a corner.   https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moving\\_sofa\\_problem   Think of the possibilities if we found the sofa constant. We could have bigger sofas. And they'll probably be weird shapes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":20301.0,"score_ratio":2.8611987382}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evy6y81","c_root_id_B":"evyoly9","created_at_utc_A":1564924541,"created_at_utc_B":1564937571,"score_A":308,"score_B":907,"human_ref_A":"Not really just an equation but never the less really important in physics, the merger of general relativity and quantum field theory into one theory, a \"theory of everything\" https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory\\_of\\_everything#Modern\\_physics  I'm sure there's someone who can actually explain it in detail, but I wanted to make sure it's mentioned","human_ref_B":"We still don't know how big of a couch we can get around a corner.   https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moving\\_sofa\\_problem   Think of the possibilities if we found the sofa constant. We could have bigger sofas. And they'll probably be weird shapes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13030.0,"score_ratio":2.9448051948}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evyoly9","c_root_id_B":"evxwaa4","created_at_utc_A":1564937571,"created_at_utc_B":1564911070,"score_A":907,"score_B":135,"human_ref_A":"We still don't know how big of a couch we can get around a corner.   https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moving\\_sofa\\_problem   Think of the possibilities if we found the sofa constant. We could have bigger sofas. And they'll probably be weird shapes.","human_ref_B":"Learning the solution to the Drake equation would certainly be very impactful, but perhaps that's cheating because the issue with the Drake equation isn't that the math is particularly hard, but that most of the factors are poorly bounded by current observations.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":26501.0,"score_ratio":6.7185185185}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evyafaz","c_root_id_B":"evyoly9","created_at_utc_A":1564927518,"created_at_utc_B":1564937571,"score_A":122,"score_B":907,"human_ref_A":"I'm currently doing some research to improve the Noyes-Whitney equation which describes the dissolution rate of a solute in solution. The current model, which was developed in the 1800s, doesn't take into account a variety of factors like different crystal faces etc.  With a more detailed understanding of the mechanism of solute dissolution the pharmaceutical industry could save billions by implementing a more targeted mechanism of drug delivery.","human_ref_B":"We still don't know how big of a couch we can get around a corner.   https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moving\\_sofa\\_problem   Think of the possibilities if we found the sofa constant. We could have bigger sofas. And they'll probably be weird shapes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10053.0,"score_ratio":7.4344262295}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evyh4b1","c_root_id_B":"evyoly9","created_at_utc_A":1564932470,"created_at_utc_B":1564937571,"score_A":99,"score_B":907,"human_ref_A":"In general, any unsolved problem\u2019s solution is going to affect the world in a big way. A lot of the times the answer to the problem is 100x less important than the new techniques created in order to solve it.   For example, take the collatz conjecture. Take a function, where you input a natural number. If it\u2019s odd, multiply it by 3 and add 1. If it\u2019s even, divide it by 2. Take your input, and iterate it and it terminates if it reaches 1, eg. 20 > 10 > 5 > 16 > 8 > 4 > 2 > 1. The conjecture is, \u201cUsing this function, do all inputs eventually terminate?\u201d  The answer to this question doesn\u2019t mean anything. No one cares whether it\u2019s true or false. But it\u2019s conjectured that whatever new method is used to solve this, will be ground-breaking, and help solve complicated problems that \u201ccan\u201d be useful.","human_ref_B":"We still don't know how big of a couch we can get around a corner.   https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moving\\_sofa\\_problem   Think of the possibilities if we found the sofa constant. We could have bigger sofas. And they'll probably be weird shapes.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5101.0,"score_ratio":9.1616161616}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evyoly9","c_root_id_B":"evy9wyk","created_at_utc_A":1564937571,"created_at_utc_B":1564927109,"score_A":907,"score_B":51,"human_ref_A":"We still don't know how big of a couch we can get around a corner.   https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moving\\_sofa\\_problem   Think of the possibilities if we found the sofa constant. We could have bigger sofas. And they'll probably be weird shapes.","human_ref_B":"Where can I even get started! There's whole lists of these things. My favorites are everything wrong with prime numbers!Googles top prime number searches.    https:\/\/www.eff.org\/awards\/coop    https:\/\/www.mersenne.org\/     Oh and there's that two pager that was solved recently    https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/a-decades-old-computer-science-puzzle-was-solved-in-two-pages\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10462.0,"score_ratio":17.7843137255}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evy0hsw","c_root_id_B":"evxwaa4","created_at_utc_A":1564917270,"created_at_utc_B":1564911070,"score_A":317,"score_B":135,"human_ref_A":"Most people here point at the Millenium Problems, a set of seven problems proposed by the Clay Institute in 2000. So far, only the Poincar\u00e9 Conjecture has been solved by mathematician Grigori Perelman. He refused the million dollar prize and the Fields Medal, arguably the greatest prize in Mathematics.  The Millennium Problems were inspired by 1900 David Hilbert's Problems of the Century, a list of 23 problems he deemed important for the progress of Mathematics. Among Hilbert's Problems, one is considered particularly hard: the Riemann hypothesis. Proposed by Bernhard Riemann in 1859, it also appears as one of the Millennium Problems. I will now try to describe it, if you don't want to read any Mathematics, just skip the next paragraph. I still encourage you to try.  The Riemann hypothesis deals with a particular function. Namely, for any number \"s\" consider the sum of all natural numbers to the power of \"s\". E.g. for s=1 we obtain 1+2+3+4+5+... (which sums up to infinity), while for s=-2 we have 1+1\/4+1\/9+1\/16+1\/25+... which is known to add up to the square of \u03c0 divided by 6. In general, we know that for all s smaller than -1 this sum is finite. Riemann used a technique called \"analytic continuation\" to   assign a finite number to sums which add up to infinity. For instance, there is a sense in saying that 1+2+3+4+5+...=-1\/12. Furthermore, it now made sense to also use \"complex numbers\" in place of \"s\". Complex numbers are numbers which can be written as \"a+ib\", where \"a\" and \"b\" are real numbers (just regular numbers). They follow their own set of rules, use Wikipedia if you want to read more. Now the big question is: when is this sum equal to zero? It is quite easy (for a specialized mathematician) to show that the sum is zero for all positive even numbers. Riemann hypothesis states that all other zeros must satisfy a=-1\/2.  Why should we care about Riemann hypothesis? Surprisingly enough, the distribution of zeros is linked to the distribution of prime numbers. Prime numbers are the fundamental blocks of multiplication and division, studied for millennia, there is still a huge number of questions about them. The solution to the Riemann hypothesis would provide great insight to this problems. An interesting real-world application concerns the encryption of transmitted data, such as credit card numbers and personal info. The security of the RSA, the most widely used encryption tool in online transactions, highly depends on our incomplete knowledge about prime numbers.  During the last 150 years, many people claimed to have solved the Riemann hypothesis, but all their proofs failed under a diligent scrutiny. Some people even start to believe that the problem is undecidable i.e. it is not possible to prove whether the Riemann hypothesis is true or not within the realm of \"standard\" Mathematics.  Edit: the critical line is Re(s)=-1\/2 in my notation.","human_ref_B":"Learning the solution to the Drake equation would certainly be very impactful, but perhaps that's cheating because the issue with the Drake equation isn't that the math is particularly hard, but that most of the factors are poorly bounded by current observations.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6200.0,"score_ratio":2.3481481481}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evxwaa4","c_root_id_B":"evy6y81","created_at_utc_A":1564911070,"created_at_utc_B":1564924541,"score_A":135,"score_B":308,"human_ref_A":"Learning the solution to the Drake equation would certainly be very impactful, but perhaps that's cheating because the issue with the Drake equation isn't that the math is particularly hard, but that most of the factors are poorly bounded by current observations.","human_ref_B":"Not really just an equation but never the less really important in physics, the merger of general relativity and quantum field theory into one theory, a \"theory of everything\" https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory\\_of\\_everything#Modern\\_physics  I'm sure there's someone who can actually explain it in detail, but I wanted to make sure it's mentioned","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13471.0,"score_ratio":2.2814814815}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evy9wyk","c_root_id_B":"evyafaz","created_at_utc_A":1564927109,"created_at_utc_B":1564927518,"score_A":51,"score_B":122,"human_ref_A":"Where can I even get started! There's whole lists of these things. My favorites are everything wrong with prime numbers!Googles top prime number searches.    https:\/\/www.eff.org\/awards\/coop    https:\/\/www.mersenne.org\/     Oh and there's that two pager that was solved recently    https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/a-decades-old-computer-science-puzzle-was-solved-in-two-pages\/","human_ref_B":"I'm currently doing some research to improve the Noyes-Whitney equation which describes the dissolution rate of a solute in solution. The current model, which was developed in the 1800s, doesn't take into account a variety of factors like different crystal faces etc.  With a more detailed understanding of the mechanism of solute dissolution the pharmaceutical industry could save billions by implementing a more targeted mechanism of drug delivery.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":409.0,"score_ratio":2.3921568627}
{"post_id":"clsjm0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are there any (currently) unsolved equations that can change the world or how we look at the universe? (I just put flair as physics although this question is general)","c_root_id_A":"evyh4b1","c_root_id_B":"evy9wyk","created_at_utc_A":1564932470,"created_at_utc_B":1564927109,"score_A":99,"score_B":51,"human_ref_A":"In general, any unsolved problem\u2019s solution is going to affect the world in a big way. A lot of the times the answer to the problem is 100x less important than the new techniques created in order to solve it.   For example, take the collatz conjecture. Take a function, where you input a natural number. If it\u2019s odd, multiply it by 3 and add 1. If it\u2019s even, divide it by 2. Take your input, and iterate it and it terminates if it reaches 1, eg. 20 > 10 > 5 > 16 > 8 > 4 > 2 > 1. The conjecture is, \u201cUsing this function, do all inputs eventually terminate?\u201d  The answer to this question doesn\u2019t mean anything. No one cares whether it\u2019s true or false. But it\u2019s conjectured that whatever new method is used to solve this, will be ground-breaking, and help solve complicated problems that \u201ccan\u201d be useful.","human_ref_B":"Where can I even get started! There's whole lists of these things. My favorites are everything wrong with prime numbers!Googles top prime number searches.    https:\/\/www.eff.org\/awards\/coop    https:\/\/www.mersenne.org\/     Oh and there's that two pager that was solved recently    https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/a-decades-old-computer-science-puzzle-was-solved-in-two-pages\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5361.0,"score_ratio":1.9411764706}
{"post_id":"3sm2jj","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"My textbook says electricity is faster than light? Herman, Stephen L. Delmar's Standard Textbook of Electricity, Sixth Edition. 2014  here's the part  At first glance this seems logical, but I'm pretty sure this is not how it works. Can someone explain?","c_root_id_A":"cwynhty","c_root_id_B":"cwynjrc","created_at_utc_A":1447395722,"created_at_utc_B":1447395871,"score_A":102,"score_B":203,"human_ref_A":"Grace Hopper famously gave a lecture in which she presented a foot-long length of wire, and explained that it represented a nanosecond -- the approximate distance that electricity, travelling near the speed of light, travels in one billionth of a second.","human_ref_B":"I'm literally shocked that something this wrong could make it into a textbook.  What it shows is that the author has never taken even a first course in special relativity, because I'm pretty sure the rigid body paradox (or the fact that there are no perfectly rigid bodies since such a thing is prohibited by special relativity) is discussed early on in such a course.  Please don't trust this textbook any more.    Depending on your level (high school? college?), I'd recommend the following: - to learn the fundamentals of electromagnetism, the book by E. M. Purcell is the standard one used in most introductory university courses.  You should have a fairly strong background in calculus to understand this, but if you do, the book is great.  If I remember right there's only one chapter on circuits though. - for circuits, I'd look at the video lectures for MIT's 6.001 course, which you can find here: http:\/\/ocw.mit.edu\/courses\/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science\/6-002-circuits-and-electronics-spring-2007\/  Hope this helps!    This textbook sucks though.  I really want to punch something now.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":149.0,"score_ratio":1.9901960784}
{"post_id":"nnnvv1","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"If hand sanitizer kills 99.99% of germs, then won't the surviving 0.01% make hand sanitizer resistant strains?","c_root_id_A":"gzwdz2a","c_root_id_B":"gzw4uqy","created_at_utc_A":1622315535,"created_at_utc_B":1622310900,"score_A":123,"score_B":52,"human_ref_A":"The 99.99 thing is more of a mathematical remainder than a statement about bacterial resistance. I used to work for a laboratory doing disinfectant efficacy testing (not for commercial release, but still) and the way the calculations are performed are based on Logarithmic reductions in colony counts.   (In case you've forgotten your logs) Essentially a 2 Log reduction is a 100-fold reduction. 3 Log a 1000-fold reduction, etc....  So when you perform a test you use a known concentration\/ amount of microorganism, say .1 ml of 10,000 cfu\/ml. (Colony forming units) so a total of 1000 organisms is what you would expect on your control and then the disinfected test would have less. If it is 0 (>1 technically) Then that would be a 3Log reduction. So for every 9 that gets added there would have to be a 10x increase in testing concentration. Which at some point becomes inpractical or infeasible for other reasons.   Using 99.99% instead of Log4 Reduction is I'm sure because it sounds more market-friendly, but it essentially means \"complete killing\" from the lab.","human_ref_B":"Antibiotics are basically clever ways of sabotaging a bacterial cell. Alcohol etc. is more like using a sledgehammer. The ability to withstand that sort of thing is not the same as antibiotic resistance, because the attack vectors antibiotics rely on are much more specific, and can be \"patched\" with relatively small genetic differences.   For example, penicillin is a beta-lactam antibiotic that tampers with part of the final step of building cell walls, and tons of bacteria have developed the enzyme beta-lactam*ase* which inactivates it before it can harm them.   Other ways to gain resistance could be to change the vulnerable parts of the bacterium or carry the antibiotic  away from them. Staph aureus just plain old made its cell wall *thicker*, and gained resistance to vancomycin, a fairly strong drug.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4635.0,"score_ratio":2.3653846154}
{"post_id":"nnnvv1","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"If hand sanitizer kills 99.99% of germs, then won't the surviving 0.01% make hand sanitizer resistant strains?","c_root_id_A":"gzw6rj1","c_root_id_B":"gzwdz2a","created_at_utc_A":1622311876,"created_at_utc_B":1622315535,"score_A":36,"score_B":123,"human_ref_A":"The easiest way to explain it I know of:  If lava kills 99.99% of humans, won't the surviving 0.01% eventually make lava resistant offspring?   It's just too extreme of damage. The ones that survived weren't more protected against lava that they can then pass on, they probably just got lucky. You *could* end up with a strain that works against it, but the chances of it would require so many complex changes that it's just not happening unless you're specifically trying to make this happen over generations and generations in a lab with tons of work. You'd end up with a very different organism before it was 'ready'.","human_ref_B":"The 99.99 thing is more of a mathematical remainder than a statement about bacterial resistance. I used to work for a laboratory doing disinfectant efficacy testing (not for commercial release, but still) and the way the calculations are performed are based on Logarithmic reductions in colony counts.   (In case you've forgotten your logs) Essentially a 2 Log reduction is a 100-fold reduction. 3 Log a 1000-fold reduction, etc....  So when you perform a test you use a known concentration\/ amount of microorganism, say .1 ml of 10,000 cfu\/ml. (Colony forming units) so a total of 1000 organisms is what you would expect on your control and then the disinfected test would have less. If it is 0 (>1 technically) Then that would be a 3Log reduction. So for every 9 that gets added there would have to be a 10x increase in testing concentration. Which at some point becomes inpractical or infeasible for other reasons.   Using 99.99% instead of Log4 Reduction is I'm sure because it sounds more market-friendly, but it essentially means \"complete killing\" from the lab.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3659.0,"score_ratio":3.4166666667}
{"post_id":"nnnvv1","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"If hand sanitizer kills 99.99% of germs, then won't the surviving 0.01% make hand sanitizer resistant strains?","c_root_id_A":"gzwdz2a","c_root_id_B":"gzvz9on","created_at_utc_A":1622315535,"created_at_utc_B":1622308046,"score_A":123,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"The 99.99 thing is more of a mathematical remainder than a statement about bacterial resistance. I used to work for a laboratory doing disinfectant efficacy testing (not for commercial release, but still) and the way the calculations are performed are based on Logarithmic reductions in colony counts.   (In case you've forgotten your logs) Essentially a 2 Log reduction is a 100-fold reduction. 3 Log a 1000-fold reduction, etc....  So when you perform a test you use a known concentration\/ amount of microorganism, say .1 ml of 10,000 cfu\/ml. (Colony forming units) so a total of 1000 organisms is what you would expect on your control and then the disinfected test would have less. If it is 0 (>1 technically) Then that would be a 3Log reduction. So for every 9 that gets added there would have to be a 10x increase in testing concentration. Which at some point becomes inpractical or infeasible for other reasons.   Using 99.99% instead of Log4 Reduction is I'm sure because it sounds more market-friendly, but it essentially means \"complete killing\" from the lab.","human_ref_B":"The short answer is yes. There has been a well documented increase in the observation of alcohol tolerant bacteria in healthcare settings where frequent sanitization is the norm.  That said, it's not problematic in the same way as antibiotic resistance. At the point where you've picked up a hospital acquired infection, alcohol tolerance becomes irrelevant as there's no alcohol in your system.  In the end, it's a net benefit because any form of washing reduces transmission rates in hospitals, and a squirt of purely is more convenient than washing hands 100 times a day, which means better compliance with the sanitization policy.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7489.0,"score_ratio":5.8571428571}
{"post_id":"nnnvv1","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"If hand sanitizer kills 99.99% of germs, then won't the surviving 0.01% make hand sanitizer resistant strains?","c_root_id_A":"gzvz9on","c_root_id_B":"gzw4uqy","created_at_utc_A":1622308046,"created_at_utc_B":1622310900,"score_A":21,"score_B":52,"human_ref_A":"The short answer is yes. There has been a well documented increase in the observation of alcohol tolerant bacteria in healthcare settings where frequent sanitization is the norm.  That said, it's not problematic in the same way as antibiotic resistance. At the point where you've picked up a hospital acquired infection, alcohol tolerance becomes irrelevant as there's no alcohol in your system.  In the end, it's a net benefit because any form of washing reduces transmission rates in hospitals, and a squirt of purely is more convenient than washing hands 100 times a day, which means better compliance with the sanitization policy.","human_ref_B":"Antibiotics are basically clever ways of sabotaging a bacterial cell. Alcohol etc. is more like using a sledgehammer. The ability to withstand that sort of thing is not the same as antibiotic resistance, because the attack vectors antibiotics rely on are much more specific, and can be \"patched\" with relatively small genetic differences.   For example, penicillin is a beta-lactam antibiotic that tampers with part of the final step of building cell walls, and tons of bacteria have developed the enzyme beta-lactam*ase* which inactivates it before it can harm them.   Other ways to gain resistance could be to change the vulnerable parts of the bacterium or carry the antibiotic  away from them. Staph aureus just plain old made its cell wall *thicker*, and gained resistance to vancomycin, a fairly strong drug.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2854.0,"score_ratio":2.4761904762}
{"post_id":"nnnvv1","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"If hand sanitizer kills 99.99% of germs, then won't the surviving 0.01% make hand sanitizer resistant strains?","c_root_id_A":"gzvz9on","c_root_id_B":"gzw6rj1","created_at_utc_A":1622308046,"created_at_utc_B":1622311876,"score_A":21,"score_B":36,"human_ref_A":"The short answer is yes. There has been a well documented increase in the observation of alcohol tolerant bacteria in healthcare settings where frequent sanitization is the norm.  That said, it's not problematic in the same way as antibiotic resistance. At the point where you've picked up a hospital acquired infection, alcohol tolerance becomes irrelevant as there's no alcohol in your system.  In the end, it's a net benefit because any form of washing reduces transmission rates in hospitals, and a squirt of purely is more convenient than washing hands 100 times a day, which means better compliance with the sanitization policy.","human_ref_B":"The easiest way to explain it I know of:  If lava kills 99.99% of humans, won't the surviving 0.01% eventually make lava resistant offspring?   It's just too extreme of damage. The ones that survived weren't more protected against lava that they can then pass on, they probably just got lucky. You *could* end up with a strain that works against it, but the chances of it would require so many complex changes that it's just not happening unless you're specifically trying to make this happen over generations and generations in a lab with tons of work. You'd end up with a very different organism before it was 'ready'.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3830.0,"score_ratio":1.7142857143}
{"post_id":"9qpalc","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Men and Women have different warning signs for a heart attack, why is that? This image provided by u\/vivaenmiriana in a thread about life saving facts points out different warning signs. What things might cause this difference in warning signs?","c_root_id_A":"e8c3730","c_root_id_B":"e8bf62f","created_at_utc_A":1540346267,"created_at_utc_B":1540324666,"score_A":61,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"I am an internal medicine doctor. Fact is your body has no idea where the heart is physically in your body. The only reason you know your finger hurts is because since you were a baby you\u2019ve been touching it and doing things with it that caused neural impulses to go to the brain which has mapped exactly where your finger is in your mind. Your heart has never caused you pain or caused any sensory input to go to your brain at all (until a heart attack happens). For this reason different people experience cardiac pain very differently. In fact only 40% of heart attacks get classic symptoms of crushing mid-sterna chest pain. The other 60% - most people - get symptoms ranging all the possibilities of pain, discomfort in arms necks, jaws, I even read one case where a patient\u2019s symptoms were hallucinations. About 12% of people get no symptoms at all (\u201csilent heart attack\u201d). Now back to the question why do men and women get different symptoms? They don\u2019t! Everyone gets different symptoms from everyone else. Women are more likely to get \u201catypical\u201d symptoms.  I submit women have a large chest growth men do not that may skew the randomness in a certain pattern. It\u2019s very difficult to explain to patients what to look for when having a heart attack so we make all encompassing charts and posters as the one here.","human_ref_B":"Curious that no one has mentioned abdominal pain yet, which is one classic red flag indicator of MI in women over 50. Perhaps I missed it in a comment somewhere. I've been told that any woman coming into ER over 50 yrs old complaining of abdominal pain will be getting an ECG in her work up to rule out MI. Maybe other areas have other protocols though.  Edit: I do see the infographic mentioned stomach pain though not very prominently.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21601.0,"score_ratio":1.90625}
{"post_id":"9qpalc","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Men and Women have different warning signs for a heart attack, why is that? This image provided by u\/vivaenmiriana in a thread about life saving facts points out different warning signs. What things might cause this difference in warning signs?","c_root_id_A":"e8bwj2w","c_root_id_B":"e8c3730","created_at_utc_A":1540340150,"created_at_utc_B":1540346267,"score_A":26,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"Im going to piggyback here and just say that there needs to be a cheap way of ruling out heart attacks for scared people at the er. Its really awful to be scared to death of chest pain and then be for ed to think \"well i might be ok and im not really ready to be 4k in debt for the doctor to run an ekg, take an xray, then run some blood tests.\"","human_ref_B":"I am an internal medicine doctor. Fact is your body has no idea where the heart is physically in your body. The only reason you know your finger hurts is because since you were a baby you\u2019ve been touching it and doing things with it that caused neural impulses to go to the brain which has mapped exactly where your finger is in your mind. Your heart has never caused you pain or caused any sensory input to go to your brain at all (until a heart attack happens). For this reason different people experience cardiac pain very differently. In fact only 40% of heart attacks get classic symptoms of crushing mid-sterna chest pain. The other 60% - most people - get symptoms ranging all the possibilities of pain, discomfort in arms necks, jaws, I even read one case where a patient\u2019s symptoms were hallucinations. About 12% of people get no symptoms at all (\u201csilent heart attack\u201d). Now back to the question why do men and women get different symptoms? They don\u2019t! Everyone gets different symptoms from everyone else. Women are more likely to get \u201catypical\u201d symptoms.  I submit women have a large chest growth men do not that may skew the randomness in a certain pattern. It\u2019s very difficult to explain to patients what to look for when having a heart attack so we make all encompassing charts and posters as the one here.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6117.0,"score_ratio":2.3461538462}
{"post_id":"9j1us0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Have humans always had an all year round \"mating season\", or is there any research that suggests we could have been seasonal breeders? If so, what caused the change, or if not, why have we never been seasonal breeders?","c_root_id_A":"e6oq383","c_root_id_B":"e6p4c2e","created_at_utc_A":1537987198,"created_at_utc_B":1537998589,"score_A":39,"score_B":52,"human_ref_A":"What are the seasons even like in the original hominid environments?  I would posit that maybe in a more stable, more equatorial climate, there is less reason to have seasonal controls on mating, and instead there is reason to allow for opportunistic mating at all times of the year. Fitness should improve with allowing more chances for mating instead of limiting.  I really dislike all of this stuff about fire and shelter. Those are new innovations. It is unlikely to evolve really strong underlying REPRODUCTIVE characteristics in 300k years or whatever. The hominid line has been diverged from chimps and other apes for millions of years. And they are also apparently year-round breeders.","human_ref_B":"True seasonal breeding is actually pretty rare among the haplorhine primates (of which we are members)  While certain species will show peaks in breeding seasonally, haplorhines typically follow a cyclical period of menses and are capable of reproduction during key points of that cycle.  Such cycles are typically not seasonally linked and can occur multiple times through a year.  It is also important to note that it\u2019s not just about cycling as most females are typically not cycling at a given point.  This is due to the fact that among wild primates females are typically at a nonfertile point during their overall reproductive (not menstrual) cycle \u2014 either they are pregnant or are currently lactating.  Actually actual fertile parts of the cycle come fairly infrequently, especially among taxa which demonstrate prolonged offspring dependence (e.g., orangs, chimps, etc) which may last a period of years.  This is not to say all primates are not seasonal breeders.  Strepsirrhines (lemurs, lorises and galagos) demonstrate strict reproductive estrus in the primitive mammalian form (think along the lines of a cat or a dog \u2014 they essentially go into heat).  This is often linked to breeding seasonality so that lactation occurs during high resource availability and\/or it is linked to patterns of infant development and the ability of the kids to be weaned on seasonally available food resources.  So long story short...not all primates are seasonal breeders, including our closest ansestors.  However, some species with faster interbirth intervals and infant development are...Although these tend to be strepsirrhines to which we are only distantly related.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11391.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"8ha7d0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When dolphins open their eyes above water, are things blurry like when humans open their eyes below water? What adaptations do dolphins and other marine mammals have to see clearly under water and how does that affect their vision above water?","c_root_id_A":"dyim619","c_root_id_B":"dyit959","created_at_utc_A":1525570540,"created_at_utc_B":1525579233,"score_A":1736,"score_B":6684,"human_ref_A":"The refractive index of the lens in your eye as well as the fluid inside and on the surface of your eye all interact to give you a focused image. Air has a refractive index of 1, and water is higher at 1.333. This means that light passes through air differently than water. Human eyes are best adapted to see in air, while fish eyes (and dolphins etc.) are adapted to water, so while we can\u2019t say for sure what that looks like to them since we don\u2019t know what their normal vision looks like, it\u2019s possible that they have some accommodation in their neural processing or eye anatomy that helps with the difference but most likely yes, it would be blurrier, or at least look differently, than underwater.   Edit: turns out dolphins can\u2019t see that well underwater or in air as they primarily use echolocation. So most likely it\u2019s blurry everywhere. Thanks \/u\/MyDogHatesYou !","human_ref_B":"I know I'm late, but I'm in the unique position where I actually study corneas for a living and I've been consulted before regarding dolphin eyes. The real answer to this question is that dolphins rely on their echolocation almost exclusively. They have eyes, and they can see, but they are practically vestigial at this point. Many dolphins actually lose their eyes due to infection and trauma and it really doesn't affect their behavior much. So whether their vision is slightly blurry through air is kinda a moot point.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8693.0,"score_ratio":3.8502304147}
{"post_id":"8ha7d0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When dolphins open their eyes above water, are things blurry like when humans open their eyes below water? What adaptations do dolphins and other marine mammals have to see clearly under water and how does that affect their vision above water?","c_root_id_A":"dyilaq8","c_root_id_B":"dyit959","created_at_utc_A":1525569482,"created_at_utc_B":1525579233,"score_A":146,"score_B":6684,"human_ref_A":"Based on the above-water signals that dolphins are able to receive from trainers, they must have some clarity when looking through air. Someone who knows a lot more than I will come along with a more accurate answer, but I would be shocked if they have a hard time seeing through air.","human_ref_B":"I know I'm late, but I'm in the unique position where I actually study corneas for a living and I've been consulted before regarding dolphin eyes. The real answer to this question is that dolphins rely on their echolocation almost exclusively. They have eyes, and they can see, but they are practically vestigial at this point. Many dolphins actually lose their eyes due to infection and trauma and it really doesn't affect their behavior much. So whether their vision is slightly blurry through air is kinda a moot point.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9751.0,"score_ratio":45.7808219178}
{"post_id":"8ha7d0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When dolphins open their eyes above water, are things blurry like when humans open their eyes below water? What adaptations do dolphins and other marine mammals have to see clearly under water and how does that affect their vision above water?","c_root_id_A":"dyio0vg","c_root_id_B":"dyit959","created_at_utc_A":1525572796,"created_at_utc_B":1525579233,"score_A":42,"score_B":6684,"human_ref_A":"Disclaimer: I've worked with a neurobiologist that studies teleost vision, not cetaceans.  So, the diffraction of light is very different in water than in air, hence the infamous broken straw illusion.  That contributes to the blurriness you notice underwater.  The structure of eyes is therefore variable due to these different constraints.  Our cornea does most of the work of diffraction, with the lens making adjustments to assist.  In humans, the cornea is rounder and the lens is flatter and farther from the retina than you would typically see in fish.  While I've never had the chance to examine any cetacean specimen, the cursory online search I did for their eye structure suggests a reversion to similar aquatic adaptations.  However, there's more to consider than the gross structure.  Photoreceptor density changes how clear an image will appear (think low-res v. HD).  Crosstalk and integration of these cells can also affect image clarity.  There is also a concept called \"circles of confusion\" that examines the smallest region that can effectively be resolved.  In effect, a wider field of view has to fit more into smaller areas, so the points of reflected and diffracted light get smaller as well, removing some of the fuzziness, but consequently making long-distance vision basically meaningless.  (This is not to say that real fish eyes cannot see distance, the term \"fish eye lens\" arose because of the shape of the lens compared to a fish eye, and not so much how we presumed fish actually see.)  What all of this means is that dolphins can absolutely see above water, and with what is likely an acceptable amount of clarity.  However, the resolution is likely hampered compared to in their natural environment, but clearly not enough to stop them performing tricks or spying on people swimming in the ocean.  I'd assume the difference in their vision in air is comparable to our vision in water.","human_ref_B":"I know I'm late, but I'm in the unique position where I actually study corneas for a living and I've been consulted before regarding dolphin eyes. The real answer to this question is that dolphins rely on their echolocation almost exclusively. They have eyes, and they can see, but they are practically vestigial at this point. Many dolphins actually lose their eyes due to infection and trauma and it really doesn't affect their behavior much. So whether their vision is slightly blurry through air is kinda a moot point.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6437.0,"score_ratio":159.1428571429}
{"post_id":"8ha7d0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When dolphins open their eyes above water, are things blurry like when humans open their eyes below water? What adaptations do dolphins and other marine mammals have to see clearly under water and how does that affect their vision above water?","c_root_id_A":"dyim619","c_root_id_B":"dyilaq8","created_at_utc_A":1525570540,"created_at_utc_B":1525569482,"score_A":1736,"score_B":146,"human_ref_A":"The refractive index of the lens in your eye as well as the fluid inside and on the surface of your eye all interact to give you a focused image. Air has a refractive index of 1, and water is higher at 1.333. This means that light passes through air differently than water. Human eyes are best adapted to see in air, while fish eyes (and dolphins etc.) are adapted to water, so while we can\u2019t say for sure what that looks like to them since we don\u2019t know what their normal vision looks like, it\u2019s possible that they have some accommodation in their neural processing or eye anatomy that helps with the difference but most likely yes, it would be blurrier, or at least look differently, than underwater.   Edit: turns out dolphins can\u2019t see that well underwater or in air as they primarily use echolocation. So most likely it\u2019s blurry everywhere. Thanks \/u\/MyDogHatesYou !","human_ref_B":"Based on the above-water signals that dolphins are able to receive from trainers, they must have some clarity when looking through air. Someone who knows a lot more than I will come along with a more accurate answer, but I would be shocked if they have a hard time seeing through air.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1058.0,"score_ratio":11.8904109589}
{"post_id":"8ha7d0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When dolphins open their eyes above water, are things blurry like when humans open their eyes below water? What adaptations do dolphins and other marine mammals have to see clearly under water and how does that affect their vision above water?","c_root_id_A":"dyilaq8","c_root_id_B":"dyiz7ae","created_at_utc_A":1525569482,"created_at_utc_B":1525589362,"score_A":146,"score_B":350,"human_ref_A":"Based on the above-water signals that dolphins are able to receive from trainers, they must have some clarity when looking through air. Someone who knows a lot more than I will come along with a more accurate answer, but I would be shocked if they have a hard time seeing through air.","human_ref_B":"Dolphins have good vision above AND below the water.  Stop thinking that basic optics and refraction is going to answer it for you, let's turn to some dolphin science, instead.  There is a LOT of misinformation floating around in these answers, here are some corrections and things to keep in mind about dolphin vision and sonar.  (background: I lived with several research dolphins, grad school with the scientists who published this research, but I'm in a rush at work so message back if y'all can't find the papers or want more info?)  As discovered at the Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory, back in the 80's, dolphin eyes can physically change the shape of the pupil.  It goes from a circle, like we have, to two slits, formed by the center portion squeezing together, so you end up with a sort of horseshoe or U shape, where the two ends of the U are now the only slits where light enter above water.  So, below water, circle shape and everything is in focus.  Above water, pinhole camera from the sides of the U, and so the light is bent and is now IN FOCUS again. Almost all eye doctors prior to the work in the 80's had done corneal examinations, looking at eyes from dead dolphins, and never had seen that horseshoe happen because they didn't know to look for it.    Sonar- it IS amazing, but unless you're talking about river dolphins, calling the eyes vestigial is a stretch.  Some folks mentioned that in theory, it should work above and below water because blah, blah blah.  Don't listen to that, it doesn't work above water.  Have you ever had someone shout at you while you were underwater in a pool?  Just barely hear it, yeah?  Something like 90% plus of the sound is bouncing right off the surface, because there's such a density difference between air and water it reflects, bounces right off.  Now, it's important to know that dolphin echolocation is sound, produced via air sacs and vibrations, that are designed to propagate in water.  The melon of cetaceans is amazing, consisting of dense bands of lipids and connective tissue, allowing them to squeeze it, focus sound, and more.  But that banding of lipids actually goes from density closer to air to density closer to water, so that the sounds is funneled forward in a cone and is able to flow into the water with a great amount of efficiency compared to if we were to just yell under water.  SO, reverse that, put the dolphin above water.  WHOOPS, now all the melon magic is working against you, that sound that has density shifted to flow into water just hit air.  Any reflections coming back, same thing, it's all backwards with the wrong density\/air interface touching the melon instead of water.  At every mismatch between water\/air, take another 90% or more of the sound away.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19880.0,"score_ratio":2.397260274}
{"post_id":"8ha7d0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When dolphins open their eyes above water, are things blurry like when humans open their eyes below water? What adaptations do dolphins and other marine mammals have to see clearly under water and how does that affect their vision above water?","c_root_id_A":"dyio0vg","c_root_id_B":"dyiz7ae","created_at_utc_A":1525572796,"created_at_utc_B":1525589362,"score_A":42,"score_B":350,"human_ref_A":"Disclaimer: I've worked with a neurobiologist that studies teleost vision, not cetaceans.  So, the diffraction of light is very different in water than in air, hence the infamous broken straw illusion.  That contributes to the blurriness you notice underwater.  The structure of eyes is therefore variable due to these different constraints.  Our cornea does most of the work of diffraction, with the lens making adjustments to assist.  In humans, the cornea is rounder and the lens is flatter and farther from the retina than you would typically see in fish.  While I've never had the chance to examine any cetacean specimen, the cursory online search I did for their eye structure suggests a reversion to similar aquatic adaptations.  However, there's more to consider than the gross structure.  Photoreceptor density changes how clear an image will appear (think low-res v. HD).  Crosstalk and integration of these cells can also affect image clarity.  There is also a concept called \"circles of confusion\" that examines the smallest region that can effectively be resolved.  In effect, a wider field of view has to fit more into smaller areas, so the points of reflected and diffracted light get smaller as well, removing some of the fuzziness, but consequently making long-distance vision basically meaningless.  (This is not to say that real fish eyes cannot see distance, the term \"fish eye lens\" arose because of the shape of the lens compared to a fish eye, and not so much how we presumed fish actually see.)  What all of this means is that dolphins can absolutely see above water, and with what is likely an acceptable amount of clarity.  However, the resolution is likely hampered compared to in their natural environment, but clearly not enough to stop them performing tricks or spying on people swimming in the ocean.  I'd assume the difference in their vision in air is comparable to our vision in water.","human_ref_B":"Dolphins have good vision above AND below the water.  Stop thinking that basic optics and refraction is going to answer it for you, let's turn to some dolphin science, instead.  There is a LOT of misinformation floating around in these answers, here are some corrections and things to keep in mind about dolphin vision and sonar.  (background: I lived with several research dolphins, grad school with the scientists who published this research, but I'm in a rush at work so message back if y'all can't find the papers or want more info?)  As discovered at the Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory, back in the 80's, dolphin eyes can physically change the shape of the pupil.  It goes from a circle, like we have, to two slits, formed by the center portion squeezing together, so you end up with a sort of horseshoe or U shape, where the two ends of the U are now the only slits where light enter above water.  So, below water, circle shape and everything is in focus.  Above water, pinhole camera from the sides of the U, and so the light is bent and is now IN FOCUS again. Almost all eye doctors prior to the work in the 80's had done corneal examinations, looking at eyes from dead dolphins, and never had seen that horseshoe happen because they didn't know to look for it.    Sonar- it IS amazing, but unless you're talking about river dolphins, calling the eyes vestigial is a stretch.  Some folks mentioned that in theory, it should work above and below water because blah, blah blah.  Don't listen to that, it doesn't work above water.  Have you ever had someone shout at you while you were underwater in a pool?  Just barely hear it, yeah?  Something like 90% plus of the sound is bouncing right off the surface, because there's such a density difference between air and water it reflects, bounces right off.  Now, it's important to know that dolphin echolocation is sound, produced via air sacs and vibrations, that are designed to propagate in water.  The melon of cetaceans is amazing, consisting of dense bands of lipids and connective tissue, allowing them to squeeze it, focus sound, and more.  But that banding of lipids actually goes from density closer to air to density closer to water, so that the sounds is funneled forward in a cone and is able to flow into the water with a great amount of efficiency compared to if we were to just yell under water.  SO, reverse that, put the dolphin above water.  WHOOPS, now all the melon magic is working against you, that sound that has density shifted to flow into water just hit air.  Any reflections coming back, same thing, it's all backwards with the wrong density\/air interface touching the melon instead of water.  At every mismatch between water\/air, take another 90% or more of the sound away.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16566.0,"score_ratio":8.3333333333}
{"post_id":"8ha7d0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When dolphins open their eyes above water, are things blurry like when humans open their eyes below water? What adaptations do dolphins and other marine mammals have to see clearly under water and how does that affect their vision above water?","c_root_id_A":"dyivhte","c_root_id_B":"dyiz7ae","created_at_utc_A":1525582478,"created_at_utc_B":1525589362,"score_A":22,"score_B":350,"human_ref_A":"I don't have a scientific answer, but I experienced this once, 35 years ago, and it was an unforgettable experience. Probably nearly everyone who has spent a lot of time in the surf in Southern California has experienced swimming with the dolphins, and sometimes they'll ride waves and swim among us primates. lf you   duck your head under the water, you can hear them squeaking and clicking  in dolphin speak.  l've experiencd this countless times, but one time in particular has stayed with me in my memory. I was down in Del Mar and a pod of dolphins was playing with us as they basically   did every afternoon. A dolphin popped out his head vertically just one meter away from me and very, very slowly rotated 360 degrees as if he was looking at the scenery and me.  I've never forgotten that moment, and I've always wondered if the dolphin was really looking at me or if that's my imagination, and how much he could see out of the water.","human_ref_B":"Dolphins have good vision above AND below the water.  Stop thinking that basic optics and refraction is going to answer it for you, let's turn to some dolphin science, instead.  There is a LOT of misinformation floating around in these answers, here are some corrections and things to keep in mind about dolphin vision and sonar.  (background: I lived with several research dolphins, grad school with the scientists who published this research, but I'm in a rush at work so message back if y'all can't find the papers or want more info?)  As discovered at the Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory, back in the 80's, dolphin eyes can physically change the shape of the pupil.  It goes from a circle, like we have, to two slits, formed by the center portion squeezing together, so you end up with a sort of horseshoe or U shape, where the two ends of the U are now the only slits where light enter above water.  So, below water, circle shape and everything is in focus.  Above water, pinhole camera from the sides of the U, and so the light is bent and is now IN FOCUS again. Almost all eye doctors prior to the work in the 80's had done corneal examinations, looking at eyes from dead dolphins, and never had seen that horseshoe happen because they didn't know to look for it.    Sonar- it IS amazing, but unless you're talking about river dolphins, calling the eyes vestigial is a stretch.  Some folks mentioned that in theory, it should work above and below water because blah, blah blah.  Don't listen to that, it doesn't work above water.  Have you ever had someone shout at you while you were underwater in a pool?  Just barely hear it, yeah?  Something like 90% plus of the sound is bouncing right off the surface, because there's such a density difference between air and water it reflects, bounces right off.  Now, it's important to know that dolphin echolocation is sound, produced via air sacs and vibrations, that are designed to propagate in water.  The melon of cetaceans is amazing, consisting of dense bands of lipids and connective tissue, allowing them to squeeze it, focus sound, and more.  But that banding of lipids actually goes from density closer to air to density closer to water, so that the sounds is funneled forward in a cone and is able to flow into the water with a great amount of efficiency compared to if we were to just yell under water.  SO, reverse that, put the dolphin above water.  WHOOPS, now all the melon magic is working against you, that sound that has density shifted to flow into water just hit air.  Any reflections coming back, same thing, it's all backwards with the wrong density\/air interface touching the melon instead of water.  At every mismatch between water\/air, take another 90% or more of the sound away.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6884.0,"score_ratio":15.9090909091}
{"post_id":"7284qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Nutrition Facts: Why is sodium listed instead of salt? On nutrition facts they always list off sodium but never just salt. How come chloride content isn't listed as well, or all of the elements for that matter?","c_root_id_A":"dngmf9y","c_root_id_B":"dngmlkc","created_at_utc_A":1506295425,"created_at_utc_B":1506295648,"score_A":26,"score_B":496,"human_ref_A":"There are other salts that food can contain. The one we are most commonly concerned with is sodium, though.  And they don't list \"chlorides\" because there are lots and lots of molecules that can be called that, and the name alone doesn't tell you too much.","human_ref_B":"Chemically, salt just means 'metal + non metal compound'. 'table salt' is *A* salt, specifically a sodium salt...but there are plenty of other salts around, so the term is far too generic to be used for nutritional information. Sodium Bicarbonate + Monosodium Glutamate are other sodium salts we use in cooking and such, just for example, which would show up as 'Sodium' content but you probably wouldn't refer to as 'Salt'","labels":0,"seconds_difference":223.0,"score_ratio":19.0769230769}
{"post_id":"7284qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Nutrition Facts: Why is sodium listed instead of salt? On nutrition facts they always list off sodium but never just salt. How come chloride content isn't listed as well, or all of the elements for that matter?","c_root_id_A":"dngncvh","c_root_id_B":"dngn8fl","created_at_utc_A":1506296579,"created_at_utc_B":1506296426,"score_A":443,"score_B":47,"human_ref_A":"Sodium chloride is the major ingredient in what we know as \"table salt\". There are other sodium salts, such as sodium iodide, which is added in small amounts to table salt, and sodium bicarbonate, known as baking soda. There are also non-sodium salts, such as potassium chloride, that contribute to the \"salty\" taste of foods. The word \"salt\" is simply too vague to list as a nutrient.  Here's an interesting salt product to consider: Half Salt contains 50% sodium chloride, 50% potassium chloride, and a trace of potassium iodide. It tastes similar to salt, but only contains half of the normal sodium compared to the same amount of table salt.  Edit: Half Salt is not for everyone. There are health warnings associated with it. Please consult your doctor before using this type of product. I brought it up as an example of a different salt product, but it is certainly not appropriate for everyone.  Edit2: Here is an image of the Nutrition Facts and Health Warning found on the bottle of Half Salt. \"For normal healthy people, not to be used by persons on sodium or potassium restricted diets unless approved by a physician.\"","human_ref_B":"\"Salt\" is ambiguous. Broadly, a salt is an ionic compound that can be formed by acid\/base neutralization.   Na+ has the biggest effect of health compared to Cl- anions. So other sodium compounds also have the same effect. You wouldn't be getting the full picture if it just said \"Salt\" or \"Table Salt\".","labels":1,"seconds_difference":153.0,"score_ratio":9.4255319149}
{"post_id":"7284qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Nutrition Facts: Why is sodium listed instead of salt? On nutrition facts they always list off sodium but never just salt. How come chloride content isn't listed as well, or all of the elements for that matter?","c_root_id_A":"dngncvh","c_root_id_B":"dngmf9y","created_at_utc_A":1506296579,"created_at_utc_B":1506295425,"score_A":443,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"Sodium chloride is the major ingredient in what we know as \"table salt\". There are other sodium salts, such as sodium iodide, which is added in small amounts to table salt, and sodium bicarbonate, known as baking soda. There are also non-sodium salts, such as potassium chloride, that contribute to the \"salty\" taste of foods. The word \"salt\" is simply too vague to list as a nutrient.  Here's an interesting salt product to consider: Half Salt contains 50% sodium chloride, 50% potassium chloride, and a trace of potassium iodide. It tastes similar to salt, but only contains half of the normal sodium compared to the same amount of table salt.  Edit: Half Salt is not for everyone. There are health warnings associated with it. Please consult your doctor before using this type of product. I brought it up as an example of a different salt product, but it is certainly not appropriate for everyone.  Edit2: Here is an image of the Nutrition Facts and Health Warning found on the bottle of Half Salt. \"For normal healthy people, not to be used by persons on sodium or potassium restricted diets unless approved by a physician.\"","human_ref_B":"There are other salts that food can contain. The one we are most commonly concerned with is sodium, though.  And they don't list \"chlorides\" because there are lots and lots of molecules that can be called that, and the name alone doesn't tell you too much.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1154.0,"score_ratio":17.0384615385}
{"post_id":"7284qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Nutrition Facts: Why is sodium listed instead of salt? On nutrition facts they always list off sodium but never just salt. How come chloride content isn't listed as well, or all of the elements for that matter?","c_root_id_A":"dngn8fl","c_root_id_B":"dngmf9y","created_at_utc_A":1506296426,"created_at_utc_B":1506295425,"score_A":47,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"\"Salt\" is ambiguous. Broadly, a salt is an ionic compound that can be formed by acid\/base neutralization.   Na+ has the biggest effect of health compared to Cl- anions. So other sodium compounds also have the same effect. You wouldn't be getting the full picture if it just said \"Salt\" or \"Table Salt\".","human_ref_B":"There are other salts that food can contain. The one we are most commonly concerned with is sodium, though.  And they don't list \"chlorides\" because there are lots and lots of molecules that can be called that, and the name alone doesn't tell you too much.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1001.0,"score_ratio":1.8076923077}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzpjcrg","c_root_id_B":"hzp2a9j","created_at_utc_A":1646664883,"created_at_utc_B":1646655956,"score_A":4743,"score_B":3416,"human_ref_A":"All respiratory tract diseases have fell off a cliff in terms of numbers in the last two years. Turkey had almost no influenza cases in the last two years for example. I have worked in the Pediatric Infectious Diseases department in Ankara Uni. and I can say the season passed relatively mildly in respect to past years.","human_ref_B":"There was no gastroenteritis seasonal surge in France during winter 2020\/2021.  See link : \"r\u00e9seau sentinelle\".  Who could have thought that mask + hand washing could prevent gastroenteritis ?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8927.0,"score_ratio":1.3884660422}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzoux51","c_root_id_B":"hzpjcrg","created_at_utc_A":1646650653,"created_at_utc_B":1646664883,"score_A":2939,"score_B":4743,"human_ref_A":"Yep infulenza basically disappeared for a year.  https:\/\/www.hsph.harvard.edu\/news\/hsph-in-the-news\/a-sharp-drop-in-flu-cases-during-covid-19-pandemic\/   \"The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recently reported that it had logged 1,316 positive flu cases in its surveillance network between September 2020 and the end of January 2021. During that same period last year, the CDC had recorded nearly 130,000 cases.\"","human_ref_B":"All respiratory tract diseases have fell off a cliff in terms of numbers in the last two years. Turkey had almost no influenza cases in the last two years for example. I have worked in the Pediatric Infectious Diseases department in Ankara Uni. and I can say the season passed relatively mildly in respect to past years.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14230.0,"score_ratio":1.6138142225}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzpe5hk","c_root_id_B":"hzpjcrg","created_at_utc_A":1646662485,"created_at_utc_B":1646664883,"score_A":452,"score_B":4743,"human_ref_A":"The cases of menigococcal meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis) and Heamophilus influenzae decreases drastically in the past two years. Given that these are quite serious infections with a potential deadly outcome that is really good news. Masks do help prevent the spread of diseases.","human_ref_B":"All respiratory tract diseases have fell off a cliff in terms of numbers in the last two years. Turkey had almost no influenza cases in the last two years for example. I have worked in the Pediatric Infectious Diseases department in Ankara Uni. and I can say the season passed relatively mildly in respect to past years.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2398.0,"score_ratio":10.4933628319}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzpjcrg","c_root_id_B":"hzpbn5d","created_at_utc_A":1646664883,"created_at_utc_B":1646661246,"score_A":4743,"score_B":150,"human_ref_A":"All respiratory tract diseases have fell off a cliff in terms of numbers in the last two years. Turkey had almost no influenza cases in the last two years for example. I have worked in the Pediatric Infectious Diseases department in Ankara Uni. and I can say the season passed relatively mildly in respect to past years.","human_ref_B":"in Norway there was a slight, but not insignificant lowered mortality rate when flu season did not occur in both 2020 and 2021. Actually the only period we had a slightly heigthened mortality rate was in november-december 2022  when we tried opening up during delta. Total accumulated deaths over the last two years is still slightly below prognosis.   https:\/\/www.euromomo.eu\/graphs-and-maps\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3637.0,"score_ratio":31.62}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzp2a9j","c_root_id_B":"hzoux51","created_at_utc_A":1646655956,"created_at_utc_B":1646650653,"score_A":3416,"score_B":2939,"human_ref_A":"There was no gastroenteritis seasonal surge in France during winter 2020\/2021.  See link : \"r\u00e9seau sentinelle\".  Who could have thought that mask + hand washing could prevent gastroenteritis ?","human_ref_B":"Yep infulenza basically disappeared for a year.  https:\/\/www.hsph.harvard.edu\/news\/hsph-in-the-news\/a-sharp-drop-in-flu-cases-during-covid-19-pandemic\/   \"The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recently reported that it had logged 1,316 positive flu cases in its surveillance network between September 2020 and the end of January 2021. During that same period last year, the CDC had recorded nearly 130,000 cases.\"","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5303.0,"score_ratio":1.1623001021}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzpnufu","c_root_id_B":"hzpe5hk","created_at_utc_A":1646666837,"created_at_utc_B":1646662485,"score_A":782,"score_B":452,"human_ref_A":"Flu season for winter 20-21 was incredibly minor. Our pharmacy didn't move a single Tamiflu RX. For about an 18 month window starting March 2020 we didn't fill a single RX for the stuff, compared to a hundred in the last pre-covid flu season.","human_ref_B":"The cases of menigococcal meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis) and Heamophilus influenzae decreases drastically in the past two years. Given that these are quite serious infections with a potential deadly outcome that is really good news. Masks do help prevent the spread of diseases.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4352.0,"score_ratio":1.7300884956}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzpnufu","c_root_id_B":"hzpbn5d","created_at_utc_A":1646666837,"created_at_utc_B":1646661246,"score_A":782,"score_B":150,"human_ref_A":"Flu season for winter 20-21 was incredibly minor. Our pharmacy didn't move a single Tamiflu RX. For about an 18 month window starting March 2020 we didn't fill a single RX for the stuff, compared to a hundred in the last pre-covid flu season.","human_ref_B":"in Norway there was a slight, but not insignificant lowered mortality rate when flu season did not occur in both 2020 and 2021. Actually the only period we had a slightly heigthened mortality rate was in november-december 2022  when we tried opening up during delta. Total accumulated deaths over the last two years is still slightly below prognosis.   https:\/\/www.euromomo.eu\/graphs-and-maps\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5591.0,"score_ratio":5.2133333333}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzpbn5d","c_root_id_B":"hzpe5hk","created_at_utc_A":1646661246,"created_at_utc_B":1646662485,"score_A":150,"score_B":452,"human_ref_A":"in Norway there was a slight, but not insignificant lowered mortality rate when flu season did not occur in both 2020 and 2021. Actually the only period we had a slightly heigthened mortality rate was in november-december 2022  when we tried opening up during delta. Total accumulated deaths over the last two years is still slightly below prognosis.   https:\/\/www.euromomo.eu\/graphs-and-maps\/","human_ref_B":"The cases of menigococcal meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis) and Heamophilus influenzae decreases drastically in the past two years. Given that these are quite serious infections with a potential deadly outcome that is really good news. Masks do help prevent the spread of diseases.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1239.0,"score_ratio":3.0133333333}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzprpsl","c_root_id_B":"hzpswrk","created_at_utc_A":1646668446,"created_at_utc_B":1646668932,"score_A":149,"score_B":266,"human_ref_A":"My hospital didn\u2019t get a typical wave of bronchiolitis in young children in winter 2020 like would normally be expected and instead ended up getting a wave in summer 2021 going into winter as restrictions eased off - that\u2019s the starkest difference I noticed, also haven\u2019t seen many flus around since covid started!   Some evidence for the bronchiolitis drop https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8242382\/","human_ref_B":"There were huge declines in all sorts of infectious diseases during the covid situation.  Remote work\/school made it much harder to spread illness.  Reduced seating capacities and keeping a general distance between other people also helped.  Illness generally spreads in one of two ways.  Touch or by airborne droplets containing the contagion (via cough\/sneeze\/talking).  Wearing a mask and limiting social contact (handshakes, etc) had a big effect.  We started disinfecting every surface regularly (door handles, counters, etc) so contagion spread via lingering on surfaces and being spread by touch was reduced also.  The flu virtually disappeared during covid.  The common cold was even pretty rare.  Strep throat runs pretty crazy through schools, then gets brought home.  That one also saw a pretty steep decline.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":486.0,"score_ratio":1.7852348993}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzpswrk","c_root_id_B":"hzpbn5d","created_at_utc_A":1646668932,"created_at_utc_B":1646661246,"score_A":266,"score_B":150,"human_ref_A":"There were huge declines in all sorts of infectious diseases during the covid situation.  Remote work\/school made it much harder to spread illness.  Reduced seating capacities and keeping a general distance between other people also helped.  Illness generally spreads in one of two ways.  Touch or by airborne droplets containing the contagion (via cough\/sneeze\/talking).  Wearing a mask and limiting social contact (handshakes, etc) had a big effect.  We started disinfecting every surface regularly (door handles, counters, etc) so contagion spread via lingering on surfaces and being spread by touch was reduced also.  The flu virtually disappeared during covid.  The common cold was even pretty rare.  Strep throat runs pretty crazy through schools, then gets brought home.  That one also saw a pretty steep decline.","human_ref_B":"in Norway there was a slight, but not insignificant lowered mortality rate when flu season did not occur in both 2020 and 2021. Actually the only period we had a slightly heigthened mortality rate was in november-december 2022  when we tried opening up during delta. Total accumulated deaths over the last two years is still slightly below prognosis.   https:\/\/www.euromomo.eu\/graphs-and-maps\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7686.0,"score_ratio":1.7733333333}
{"post_id":"t8ltsi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Was there a decrease in other infectious diseases other than Covid due to wearing masks during the past two years?","c_root_id_A":"hzpswrk","c_root_id_B":"hzps50w","created_at_utc_A":1646668932,"created_at_utc_B":1646668618,"score_A":266,"score_B":110,"human_ref_A":"There were huge declines in all sorts of infectious diseases during the covid situation.  Remote work\/school made it much harder to spread illness.  Reduced seating capacities and keeping a general distance between other people also helped.  Illness generally spreads in one of two ways.  Touch or by airborne droplets containing the contagion (via cough\/sneeze\/talking).  Wearing a mask and limiting social contact (handshakes, etc) had a big effect.  We started disinfecting every surface regularly (door handles, counters, etc) so contagion spread via lingering on surfaces and being spread by touch was reduced also.  The flu virtually disappeared during covid.  The common cold was even pretty rare.  Strep throat runs pretty crazy through schools, then gets brought home.  That one also saw a pretty steep decline.","human_ref_B":"To put it simply, we used proper sanitisation and wore masks AND isolated. We don't do that with other diseases, hence the lower cases of the other ones.  I say we continue to wear masks when we are sick as it prevents these other diseases spreading. COVID taught us that we weren't doing enough.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":314.0,"score_ratio":2.4181818182}
{"post_id":"a70lku","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How fast can a submarine surface? So I need some help to end an argument. A friend and I were arguing over something in Aquaman. In the movie, he pushes a submarine out of the water at superspeed. One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why? Thanks","c_root_id_A":"ebzmj3b","c_root_id_B":"ebzmxlr","created_at_utc_A":1545068114,"created_at_utc_B":1545068435,"score_A":252,"score_B":9219,"human_ref_A":"To a first approximation, the change in pressure doesn't matter. The pressure vessel doesn't care. In lab testing we frequently cycle things between 0 and 10,000 psi in a minute or two because we don't feel like waiting around forever. Some things *on or in* the submarine might care, like ballast tanks or oil compensated components that can't move fluid around quickly enough to deal with the volume change.  A much more serious problem will be the forces involved. Pushing something through the water 10 times faster than normal requires 100 times the force, which needs to be applied to some hard point on the back end that probably doesn't exist. The drag on the front presents a similar problem. At some point you'll crush the sub from front to back.  Source: Builder and pilot of assorted submarines, mostly unmanned.","human_ref_B":"Actual US NAVY submariner here. It would not cause the hull to collapse at all. Submarines can surface from test depth at insane speeds without issue and do it yearly for testing purposes. The inside of the boat is pressurized and the change in depth would not cause any real problems.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":321.0,"score_ratio":36.5833333333}
{"post_id":"a70lku","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How fast can a submarine surface? So I need some help to end an argument. A friend and I were arguing over something in Aquaman. In the movie, he pushes a submarine out of the water at superspeed. One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why? Thanks","c_root_id_A":"ebzipzs","c_root_id_B":"ebzmxlr","created_at_utc_A":1545065236,"created_at_utc_B":1545068435,"score_A":199,"score_B":9219,"human_ref_A":"The hull of the sub is rigid, resisting the increasing water pressure as it dives. The interior of the sub doesn't experience a pressure increase. In reverse, a rapid surfacing reduces hull pressure, but the air inside doesn't experience a pressure decrease.","human_ref_B":"Actual US NAVY submariner here. It would not cause the hull to collapse at all. Submarines can surface from test depth at insane speeds without issue and do it yearly for testing purposes. The inside of the boat is pressurized and the change in depth would not cause any real problems.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3199.0,"score_ratio":46.3266331658}
{"post_id":"a70lku","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How fast can a submarine surface? So I need some help to end an argument. A friend and I were arguing over something in Aquaman. In the movie, he pushes a submarine out of the water at superspeed. One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why? Thanks","c_root_id_A":"ebzjf0x","c_root_id_B":"ebzmxlr","created_at_utc_A":1545065749,"created_at_utc_B":1545068435,"score_A":130,"score_B":9219,"human_ref_A":"Fast enough to look like this.  That's about 8000 tons of sub halfway out of the water.  AFAIK, there's no standard rate of surfacing.  It would depend on the sub's weight (a missile boat will be slower than a fast attack boat), the amount of buoyancy it can achieve during an emergency blow, the angle on the dive planes, and if the propulsion system is operating or not (flank speed will give the sub a boost, while an idle system would cause drag).  Much of that information is classified, for obvious reasons.  The rapid pressure change *might* cause damage at points where stresses will be focused (hatches, shaft seals, etc.), but not enough to destroy the sub.  The designers **planned** for rapid ascents, so the sub (in real-world conditions, not a movie) would be well within its operational limits.","human_ref_B":"Actual US NAVY submariner here. It would not cause the hull to collapse at all. Submarines can surface from test depth at insane speeds without issue and do it yearly for testing purposes. The inside of the boat is pressurized and the change in depth would not cause any real problems.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2686.0,"score_ratio":70.9153846154}
{"post_id":"a70lku","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How fast can a submarine surface? So I need some help to end an argument. A friend and I were arguing over something in Aquaman. In the movie, he pushes a submarine out of the water at superspeed. One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why? Thanks","c_root_id_A":"ebzmxlr","c_root_id_B":"ebzk7co","created_at_utc_A":1545068435,"created_at_utc_B":1545066332,"score_A":9219,"score_B":58,"human_ref_A":"Actual US NAVY submariner here. It would not cause the hull to collapse at all. Submarines can surface from test depth at insane speeds without issue and do it yearly for testing purposes. The inside of the boat is pressurized and the change in depth would not cause any real problems.","human_ref_B":"> One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why?  Change in pressure does **very little** compared to absolute pressure. So pushing a submarine below crush depth = destruction. Rapid ascension= no big deal AT ALL. The hull is designed to eb and flow with change in pressures, even rapid ones.  Let's pretend the collapse depth is 60 atmospheres, 60*33ft = about 2000ft. Do you really think a rapid change from 5 atmospheres to 1 atmospheres of pressure is going to be meaningful at all, when the submarine is built to handle 12 times the amount of pressure of 5?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2103.0,"score_ratio":158.9482758621}
{"post_id":"a70lku","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How fast can a submarine surface? So I need some help to end an argument. A friend and I were arguing over something in Aquaman. In the movie, he pushes a submarine out of the water at superspeed. One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why? Thanks","c_root_id_A":"ebzipzs","c_root_id_B":"ebzmj3b","created_at_utc_A":1545065236,"created_at_utc_B":1545068114,"score_A":199,"score_B":252,"human_ref_A":"The hull of the sub is rigid, resisting the increasing water pressure as it dives. The interior of the sub doesn't experience a pressure increase. In reverse, a rapid surfacing reduces hull pressure, but the air inside doesn't experience a pressure decrease.","human_ref_B":"To a first approximation, the change in pressure doesn't matter. The pressure vessel doesn't care. In lab testing we frequently cycle things between 0 and 10,000 psi in a minute or two because we don't feel like waiting around forever. Some things *on or in* the submarine might care, like ballast tanks or oil compensated components that can't move fluid around quickly enough to deal with the volume change.  A much more serious problem will be the forces involved. Pushing something through the water 10 times faster than normal requires 100 times the force, which needs to be applied to some hard point on the back end that probably doesn't exist. The drag on the front presents a similar problem. At some point you'll crush the sub from front to back.  Source: Builder and pilot of assorted submarines, mostly unmanned.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2878.0,"score_ratio":1.2663316583}
{"post_id":"a70lku","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How fast can a submarine surface? So I need some help to end an argument. A friend and I were arguing over something in Aquaman. In the movie, he pushes a submarine out of the water at superspeed. One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why? Thanks","c_root_id_A":"ebzmj3b","c_root_id_B":"ebzjf0x","created_at_utc_A":1545068114,"created_at_utc_B":1545065749,"score_A":252,"score_B":130,"human_ref_A":"To a first approximation, the change in pressure doesn't matter. The pressure vessel doesn't care. In lab testing we frequently cycle things between 0 and 10,000 psi in a minute or two because we don't feel like waiting around forever. Some things *on or in* the submarine might care, like ballast tanks or oil compensated components that can't move fluid around quickly enough to deal with the volume change.  A much more serious problem will be the forces involved. Pushing something through the water 10 times faster than normal requires 100 times the force, which needs to be applied to some hard point on the back end that probably doesn't exist. The drag on the front presents a similar problem. At some point you'll crush the sub from front to back.  Source: Builder and pilot of assorted submarines, mostly unmanned.","human_ref_B":"Fast enough to look like this.  That's about 8000 tons of sub halfway out of the water.  AFAIK, there's no standard rate of surfacing.  It would depend on the sub's weight (a missile boat will be slower than a fast attack boat), the amount of buoyancy it can achieve during an emergency blow, the angle on the dive planes, and if the propulsion system is operating or not (flank speed will give the sub a boost, while an idle system would cause drag).  Much of that information is classified, for obvious reasons.  The rapid pressure change *might* cause damage at points where stresses will be focused (hatches, shaft seals, etc.), but not enough to destroy the sub.  The designers **planned** for rapid ascents, so the sub (in real-world conditions, not a movie) would be well within its operational limits.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2365.0,"score_ratio":1.9384615385}
{"post_id":"a70lku","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How fast can a submarine surface? So I need some help to end an argument. A friend and I were arguing over something in Aquaman. In the movie, he pushes a submarine out of the water at superspeed. One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why? Thanks","c_root_id_A":"ebzmj3b","c_root_id_B":"ebzk7co","created_at_utc_A":1545068114,"created_at_utc_B":1545066332,"score_A":252,"score_B":58,"human_ref_A":"To a first approximation, the change in pressure doesn't matter. The pressure vessel doesn't care. In lab testing we frequently cycle things between 0 and 10,000 psi in a minute or two because we don't feel like waiting around forever. Some things *on or in* the submarine might care, like ballast tanks or oil compensated components that can't move fluid around quickly enough to deal with the volume change.  A much more serious problem will be the forces involved. Pushing something through the water 10 times faster than normal requires 100 times the force, which needs to be applied to some hard point on the back end that probably doesn't exist. The drag on the front presents a similar problem. At some point you'll crush the sub from front to back.  Source: Builder and pilot of assorted submarines, mostly unmanned.","human_ref_B":"> One of us argues that the sudden change in pressure would destroy the submarine the other says different. Who is right and why?  Change in pressure does **very little** compared to absolute pressure. So pushing a submarine below crush depth = destruction. Rapid ascension= no big deal AT ALL. The hull is designed to eb and flow with change in pressures, even rapid ones.  Let's pretend the collapse depth is 60 atmospheres, 60*33ft = about 2000ft. Do you really think a rapid change from 5 atmospheres to 1 atmospheres of pressure is going to be meaningful at all, when the submarine is built to handle 12 times the amount of pressure of 5?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1782.0,"score_ratio":4.3448275862}
{"post_id":"kq83hk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"With two vaccines now approved and in use, does making a vaccine for new strains of coronavirus become easier to make? I have read reports that there is concern about the South African coronavirus strain. There seems to be more anxiety over it, due to certain mutations in the protein. If the vaccine is ineffective against this strain, or other strains in the future, what would the process be to tackle it?","c_root_id_A":"gi2ksif","c_root_id_B":"gi2k44s","created_at_utc_A":1609771716,"created_at_utc_B":1609771329,"score_A":467,"score_B":255,"human_ref_A":"Ugur Sahin, founder of BioNTech, which is putting out the mRNA vaccines with Pfizer, has spoken on this recently in the German media.  On the topic of the new UK variant: \"We looked at the mutation of the virus variant.  There are several mutations there at the docking site of the virus.  We do not know what functional effects these mutations will have.  We know that our vaccine attacks the virus in many different places.  We now have two mechanisms: on the one hand, there are so-called antibody responses, and on the other, so-called T cell responses.  And we also know - we have already checked this - that the antibodies that we induce and also the T cells that we induce can also dock on many other parts of the virus that are not now mutated.  Accordingly, we are initially confident that immune responses caused by our vaccine may be able to neutralize this virus as well.  We have shown this in the past for other virus variants as well.  But we will carry out appropriate experiments and also communicate the results.\"  Link  On the topic of any new future mutations: \u201cIf the vaccine doesn't work, however, it can be adapted relatively easily\u201c purely technologically \u201d, which would take maybe six weeks.  The question is whether the regulatory authorities would continue to accept the already proven effectiveness and safety in this case - otherwise a new study with tens of thousands of test persons would be necessary. This is from a Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung article referring to an interview he gave in Der Spiegel, which is behind a paywall.  Both translated with Google. Edited to fix link formatting","human_ref_B":"The advantage of the Pfizer\/Moderna approach is that it can be tailored pretty rapidly toward the new strains - in 6-8 weeks would be my guess - but that's just the design part. Once designed, it would still need to be tested again, but as this would have the benefit of having data from similar vaccines in larger groups, the trials needed will be designed in a more specific manner, with a smaller population. In short, it will need to be tested, but that shouldn't take more than a few months.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":387.0,"score_ratio":1.831372549}
{"post_id":"qy8vpl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Is it true that you get older quickly if you've been under intense stress for a period of time?","c_root_id_A":"hlgrlz9","c_root_id_B":"hlfq5gn","created_at_utc_A":1637464259,"created_at_utc_B":1637446296,"score_A":426,"score_B":321,"human_ref_A":"Stress can literally kill you. But it depends on how much stress and for how long. This is a National Geographic documentary on a study that's an incredible eye opener. It's fairly old, so the style is old fashioned, but in my opinion everyone should learn this.    https:\/\/youtu.be\/eYG0ZuTv5rs","human_ref_B":"The ACE (adverse childhood events) study showed a dose\/response relationship between early stressful events (eg parental divorce) and reduced life expectancy. Lots of info online about it. The hypothesis is that these events cause a higher persistent baseline stress level which inevitably takes its toll.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17963.0,"score_ratio":1.3271028037}
{"post_id":"qy8vpl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Is it true that you get older quickly if you've been under intense stress for a period of time?","c_root_id_A":"hlgz7hy","c_root_id_B":"hlhhuy8","created_at_utc_A":1637468400,"created_at_utc_B":1637480793,"score_A":43,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"This article, Physician-Training Stress and Accelerated Cellular Aging, concluded that new doctors had telomere shortening and aging at a faster rate, and it was related to stress, physical training, and workload.","human_ref_B":"I know a guy who owns a bakery where he is also head baker. He normally works 10 to 16 hours shifts with almost no breaks, drinking up to 12 cups of coffee a day. He only takes a day off when the bakery is closed and he spends the day off doing errands for the bakery (for example accounting). During the summer season the bakery doesn't close, so he normally works 90 days straight (mid June to mid September). He's been doing that for about 10 years, he is 45 years old and totally looks 75.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12393.0,"score_ratio":1.3255813953}
{"post_id":"qy8vpl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Is it true that you get older quickly if you've been under intense stress for a period of time?","c_root_id_A":"hlhhpeo","c_root_id_B":"hlhhuy8","created_at_utc_A":1637480678,"created_at_utc_B":1637480793,"score_A":45,"score_B":57,"human_ref_A":"It is true. For people who have lived exceptionally long lives, at least 100 years or more, one constant that they say is, that they don't allow themselves to be stressed out, to not let the little things bother them, to do all things in moderation, and to think good thoughts. It is also believed that people who live in remote places, where there's limited and predictable human interaction, live longer than people who live in crowded locales like New York or London.","human_ref_B":"I know a guy who owns a bakery where he is also head baker. He normally works 10 to 16 hours shifts with almost no breaks, drinking up to 12 cups of coffee a day. He only takes a day off when the bakery is closed and he spends the day off doing errands for the bakery (for example accounting). During the summer season the bakery doesn't close, so he normally works 90 days straight (mid June to mid September). He's been doing that for about 10 years, he is 45 years old and totally looks 75.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":115.0,"score_ratio":1.2666666667}
{"post_id":"qy8vpl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Is it true that you get older quickly if you've been under intense stress for a period of time?","c_root_id_A":"hlgz7hy","c_root_id_B":"hlhhpeo","created_at_utc_A":1637468400,"created_at_utc_B":1637480678,"score_A":43,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"This article, Physician-Training Stress and Accelerated Cellular Aging, concluded that new doctors had telomere shortening and aging at a faster rate, and it was related to stress, physical training, and workload.","human_ref_B":"It is true. For people who have lived exceptionally long lives, at least 100 years or more, one constant that they say is, that they don't allow themselves to be stressed out, to not let the little things bother them, to do all things in moderation, and to think good thoughts. It is also believed that people who live in remote places, where there's limited and predictable human interaction, live longer than people who live in crowded locales like New York or London.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12278.0,"score_ratio":1.0465116279}
{"post_id":"pe05cl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is there any kind of an upper limit for how many planets can be in a solar system? I assume that there are plenty of systems with zero, but are there others with hundreds or thousands, or is there some kind of clear maximum?","c_root_id_A":"haudiy5","c_root_id_B":"haueu31","created_at_utc_A":1630267551,"created_at_utc_B":1630268113,"score_A":168,"score_B":5528,"human_ref_A":"Planets by definition have stable orbits that don't cross other planets orbits.  There is a limit to how many of those you can have, because objects in nearby obits interact in destabilizing ways.  Even distant ones can do so if large, but there are mutually stable \"bands\" in systems that allow multiple large objects to accumulate.  Also, there's technically only one solar system, which puts the cap at 8 planets.   But what I said before would apply to other stellar systems.  ;)","human_ref_B":"https:\/\/planetplanet.net\/2017\/05\/03\/the-ultimate-engineered-solar-system\/  &#x200B;  In his post, Raymond discusses how the planets need to be positioned to ensure their gravity does not cause havoc \u2013 known as the Hill radius. This limits the number of concentric orbital planes you can have around a star before a system becomes unstable.  He found that, theoretically, a Sun-like star could support 42 planets in a single orbital plane. Around our own Sun, you could have six rings of 42 in the habitable zone, giving us 252 planets.  However, if you shrink the planets down to half of Earth\u2019s mass, you can have 52 in eight rings, giving a more impressive 416 planets. Raymond calls this the Ultimate Engineered Solar System.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":562.0,"score_ratio":32.9047619048}
{"post_id":"pe05cl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is there any kind of an upper limit for how many planets can be in a solar system? I assume that there are plenty of systems with zero, but are there others with hundreds or thousands, or is there some kind of clear maximum?","c_root_id_A":"haucru4","c_root_id_B":"haueu31","created_at_utc_A":1630267227,"created_at_utc_B":1630268113,"score_A":74,"score_B":5528,"human_ref_A":"Though I don\u2019t know enough physics to know the limit, I\u2019m certain there is one, and it\u2019s based on the mass of the star. Within the system, there\u2019s going to be a limit to the number of planets because big planets\u2019 gravity will capture smaller bodies and either integrate their matter or capture them as moons. In other words, there has to be a certain amount of space between planets or they\u2019ll collide or otherwise interact with each other.","human_ref_B":"https:\/\/planetplanet.net\/2017\/05\/03\/the-ultimate-engineered-solar-system\/  &#x200B;  In his post, Raymond discusses how the planets need to be positioned to ensure their gravity does not cause havoc \u2013 known as the Hill radius. This limits the number of concentric orbital planes you can have around a star before a system becomes unstable.  He found that, theoretically, a Sun-like star could support 42 planets in a single orbital plane. Around our own Sun, you could have six rings of 42 in the habitable zone, giving us 252 planets.  However, if you shrink the planets down to half of Earth\u2019s mass, you can have 52 in eight rings, giving a more impressive 416 planets. Raymond calls this the Ultimate Engineered Solar System.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":886.0,"score_ratio":74.7027027027}
{"post_id":"pe05cl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is there any kind of an upper limit for how many planets can be in a solar system? I assume that there are plenty of systems with zero, but are there others with hundreds or thousands, or is there some kind of clear maximum?","c_root_id_A":"haudiy5","c_root_id_B":"hauvn42","created_at_utc_A":1630267551,"created_at_utc_B":1630275537,"score_A":168,"score_B":173,"human_ref_A":"Planets by definition have stable orbits that don't cross other planets orbits.  There is a limit to how many of those you can have, because objects in nearby obits interact in destabilizing ways.  Even distant ones can do so if large, but there are mutually stable \"bands\" in systems that allow multiple large objects to accumulate.  Also, there's technically only one solar system, which puts the cap at 8 planets.   But what I said before would apply to other stellar systems.  ;)","human_ref_B":"Things get really complicated in non theoretical models. Clear planetary orbits depend on so many factors.   Plus, take into account multiple stars in the same system, periodic external influences destabilizing a particular system, etc., and getting anything close to 'universal' rules for how many planets you could find orbiting in any given star system is likely to be hard to pin down...  Give planet hunters a few millennia to find enough of them to have a robust statistical model","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7986.0,"score_ratio":1.0297619048}
{"post_id":"pe05cl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is there any kind of an upper limit for how many planets can be in a solar system? I assume that there are plenty of systems with zero, but are there others with hundreds or thousands, or is there some kind of clear maximum?","c_root_id_A":"hauvn42","c_root_id_B":"haucru4","created_at_utc_A":1630275537,"created_at_utc_B":1630267227,"score_A":173,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"Things get really complicated in non theoretical models. Clear planetary orbits depend on so many factors.   Plus, take into account multiple stars in the same system, periodic external influences destabilizing a particular system, etc., and getting anything close to 'universal' rules for how many planets you could find orbiting in any given star system is likely to be hard to pin down...  Give planet hunters a few millennia to find enough of them to have a robust statistical model","human_ref_B":"Though I don\u2019t know enough physics to know the limit, I\u2019m certain there is one, and it\u2019s based on the mass of the star. Within the system, there\u2019s going to be a limit to the number of planets because big planets\u2019 gravity will capture smaller bodies and either integrate their matter or capture them as moons. In other words, there has to be a certain amount of space between planets or they\u2019ll collide or otherwise interact with each other.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8310.0,"score_ratio":2.3378378378}
{"post_id":"pe05cl","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Is there any kind of an upper limit for how many planets can be in a solar system? I assume that there are plenty of systems with zero, but are there others with hundreds or thousands, or is there some kind of clear maximum?","c_root_id_A":"haucru4","c_root_id_B":"haudiy5","created_at_utc_A":1630267227,"created_at_utc_B":1630267551,"score_A":74,"score_B":168,"human_ref_A":"Though I don\u2019t know enough physics to know the limit, I\u2019m certain there is one, and it\u2019s based on the mass of the star. Within the system, there\u2019s going to be a limit to the number of planets because big planets\u2019 gravity will capture smaller bodies and either integrate their matter or capture them as moons. In other words, there has to be a certain amount of space between planets or they\u2019ll collide or otherwise interact with each other.","human_ref_B":"Planets by definition have stable orbits that don't cross other planets orbits.  There is a limit to how many of those you can have, because objects in nearby obits interact in destabilizing ways.  Even distant ones can do so if large, but there are mutually stable \"bands\" in systems that allow multiple large objects to accumulate.  Also, there's technically only one solar system, which puts the cap at 8 planets.   But what I said before would apply to other stellar systems.  ;)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":324.0,"score_ratio":2.2702702703}
{"post_id":"az1p03","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Does every man produce close to 50\/50 X\/Y sperm, or do some have a heavy bias?","c_root_id_A":"ei5m4i2","c_root_id_B":"ei53tey","created_at_utc_A":1552156896,"created_at_utc_B":1552143255,"score_A":890,"score_B":178,"human_ref_A":"There\u2019s a really interesting 2008 study from Newcastle University suggesting that men actually inherit a genetic tendency to father more sons or daughters from their parents. That would make the X-Y sperm ratio different for each man. The study looked at 927 family trees in North America and Europe going back to 1600 to draw those conclusions.  Link: https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2008\/12\/081211121835.htm","human_ref_B":"The sperm are 50\/50 but the outcome (if the child is male or female) varies on what the XX or XY combination causes. For example, if there\u2019s a serious issue with passing on a gene (both parents have the gene) in the X chromosome then a XX embryo would probably never make it, whereas if it\u2019s XY the Y does not have the bad gene and the embryo survives.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13641.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"az1p03","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Does every man produce close to 50\/50 X\/Y sperm, or do some have a heavy bias?","c_root_id_A":"ei5m4i2","c_root_id_B":"ei559vc","created_at_utc_A":1552156896,"created_at_utc_B":1552144512,"score_A":890,"score_B":161,"human_ref_A":"There\u2019s a really interesting 2008 study from Newcastle University suggesting that men actually inherit a genetic tendency to father more sons or daughters from their parents. That would make the X-Y sperm ratio different for each man. The study looked at 927 family trees in North America and Europe going back to 1600 to draw those conclusions.  Link: https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2008\/12\/081211121835.htm","human_ref_B":"You might be interested in this article from 2017 examining the Triviers-Willard Hypothesis (TWH) from 1973 for a specific population of chinese farmers. TWH states that socioeconomic status influences sex ratios. Its introduction section points out papers that have previously examined this in human as well as non-human populations.   Other factors have been claimed to affect this (testicular temperature etc), though I have yet to see peer reviewed results substantiating such claims.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12384.0,"score_ratio":5.5279503106}
{"post_id":"az1p03","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Does every man produce close to 50\/50 X\/Y sperm, or do some have a heavy bias?","c_root_id_A":"ei4xr5k","c_root_id_B":"ei5m4i2","created_at_utc_A":1552137133,"created_at_utc_B":1552156896,"score_A":92,"score_B":890,"human_ref_A":"As a follow-up question: it seems to be a rather widespread belief\/anecdote that servicemen working with radar installations only ever have daughters afterwards, never sons. Is there any scientific evidence towards that, has there been any research?","human_ref_B":"There\u2019s a really interesting 2008 study from Newcastle University suggesting that men actually inherit a genetic tendency to father more sons or daughters from their parents. That would make the X-Y sperm ratio different for each man. The study looked at 927 family trees in North America and Europe going back to 1600 to draw those conclusions.  Link: https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2008\/12\/081211121835.htm","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19763.0,"score_ratio":9.6739130435}
{"post_id":"az1p03","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Does every man produce close to 50\/50 X\/Y sperm, or do some have a heavy bias?","c_root_id_A":"ei5m4i2","c_root_id_B":"ei588s2","created_at_utc_A":1552156896,"created_at_utc_B":1552146846,"score_A":890,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"There\u2019s a really interesting 2008 study from Newcastle University suggesting that men actually inherit a genetic tendency to father more sons or daughters from their parents. That would make the X-Y sperm ratio different for each man. The study looked at 927 family trees in North America and Europe going back to 1600 to draw those conclusions.  Link: https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2008\/12\/081211121835.htm","human_ref_B":"There are some studies that suggest that high G- forces typically experienced by fighter jet pilots favor the X chromosome over the Y chromosome. This suggests that fighter jet pilots are more likely to have daughters than sons.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10050.0,"score_ratio":19.7777777778}
{"post_id":"az1p03","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Does every man produce close to 50\/50 X\/Y sperm, or do some have a heavy bias?","c_root_id_A":"ei4xr5k","c_root_id_B":"ei53tey","created_at_utc_A":1552137133,"created_at_utc_B":1552143255,"score_A":92,"score_B":178,"human_ref_A":"As a follow-up question: it seems to be a rather widespread belief\/anecdote that servicemen working with radar installations only ever have daughters afterwards, never sons. Is there any scientific evidence towards that, has there been any research?","human_ref_B":"The sperm are 50\/50 but the outcome (if the child is male or female) varies on what the XX or XY combination causes. For example, if there\u2019s a serious issue with passing on a gene (both parents have the gene) in the X chromosome then a XX embryo would probably never make it, whereas if it\u2019s XY the Y does not have the bad gene and the embryo survives.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6122.0,"score_ratio":1.9347826087}
{"post_id":"az1p03","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Does every man produce close to 50\/50 X\/Y sperm, or do some have a heavy bias?","c_root_id_A":"ei4xr5k","c_root_id_B":"ei559vc","created_at_utc_A":1552137133,"created_at_utc_B":1552144512,"score_A":92,"score_B":161,"human_ref_A":"As a follow-up question: it seems to be a rather widespread belief\/anecdote that servicemen working with radar installations only ever have daughters afterwards, never sons. Is there any scientific evidence towards that, has there been any research?","human_ref_B":"You might be interested in this article from 2017 examining the Triviers-Willard Hypothesis (TWH) from 1973 for a specific population of chinese farmers. TWH states that socioeconomic status influences sex ratios. Its introduction section points out papers that have previously examined this in human as well as non-human populations.   Other factors have been claimed to affect this (testicular temperature etc), though I have yet to see peer reviewed results substantiating such claims.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7379.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjg1yz","c_root_id_B":"ihjdh45","created_at_utc_A":1658724244,"created_at_utc_B":1658722715,"score_A":6268,"score_B":995,"human_ref_A":"Assuming you travel fast enough to make gravitational effects irrelevant: You have a ~0.0005% chance to hit the Sun. If you don't hit that your chance to hit a star at any point in the future is well below 0.000000001%, most of that coming from the first ~1000 light years. If you don't hit anything in that region the chance decreases even more. There are simply not enough stars to give you a significant collision risk even over billions of years, and over tens of billions of years you'll see the expansion of the universe making galaxies so sparse that you'll never cross one again.","human_ref_B":"Since no one has mentioned it, this is almost the same as Olber\u2019s Paradox:      in an infinite long-lived universe,     any direction you look you should eventually see a star,     and yet most of the night sky is dark.  There\u2019s a long history behind this question going at least a millennium, but Olber (18C) developed on the idea.  It\u2019s Olber\u2019s paradox and the darkness of the sky that narrows down the possible configurations of the universe.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1529.0,"score_ratio":6.2994974874}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjg1yz","c_root_id_B":"ihiy1e2","created_at_utc_A":1658724244,"created_at_utc_B":1658714727,"score_A":6268,"score_B":104,"human_ref_A":"Assuming you travel fast enough to make gravitational effects irrelevant: You have a ~0.0005% chance to hit the Sun. If you don't hit that your chance to hit a star at any point in the future is well below 0.000000001%, most of that coming from the first ~1000 light years. If you don't hit anything in that region the chance decreases even more. There are simply not enough stars to give you a significant collision risk even over billions of years, and over tens of billions of years you'll see the expansion of the universe making galaxies so sparse that you'll never cross one again.","human_ref_B":"Basically zero!   If it weren't, then your line of sight would end on the surface of a star no matter where you look! And if that were the case then that would mean that the entire sky would shine like the surface of the sun. But it doesn't! So most of the sky must be not-stars!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9517.0,"score_ratio":60.2692307692}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihj6fqp","c_root_id_B":"ihjg1yz","created_at_utc_A":1658718892,"created_at_utc_B":1658724244,"score_A":89,"score_B":6268,"human_ref_A":"If you were travelling at a speed allowed by physics (slower than the speed of light), you would likely not hit anything. The universe is expanding, and its rate of expansion is increasing. So, it would not be possible for \"your\" observable universe to move in a way that would bring anything new into view, let alone into your path.","human_ref_B":"Assuming you travel fast enough to make gravitational effects irrelevant: You have a ~0.0005% chance to hit the Sun. If you don't hit that your chance to hit a star at any point in the future is well below 0.000000001%, most of that coming from the first ~1000 light years. If you don't hit anything in that region the chance decreases even more. There are simply not enough stars to give you a significant collision risk even over billions of years, and over tens of billions of years you'll see the expansion of the universe making galaxies so sparse that you'll never cross one again.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5352.0,"score_ratio":70.4269662921}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjaniv","c_root_id_B":"ihjg1yz","created_at_utc_A":1658721119,"created_at_utc_B":1658724244,"score_A":66,"score_B":6268,"human_ref_A":"It would be 0% but not for the reason you think.  You can rephrase your question to what is the chance starlight would hit your eyes in the exact center of your field of vision, since starlight is the best definition of a \u201cstraight line\u201d in our curved space time due to light being the geodesic.  And also a \u201cline\u201d has no direction, so you can reverse the direction of your question about traveling outward from Earth to the stars into an equivalent question about starlight traveling outward from the stars to you on Earth, since both questions have the exact same \u201cline\u201d.  So is there starlight hitting the exact center of your field of vision?  Statistically, it is near 0%, especially when you eliminate glare which is light hitting your lens nearby but scattering to appear larger than it is.  Even with long exposures to get the faintest of light signal, you would end up with primarily black after correcting for and eliminating glare.  But that reasoning is only part of the answer.  The other part is that the observable universe is finite.  There is 0% chance of hitting a star outside our observable universe because causality is limited to the light cone of our Big Bang, and anything outside this light cone is outside the network of causality with us, and therefore we cannot \u201chit\u201d or interact or otherwise engage in any causal relationship with it.  Finally, the last component of the answer on why it\u2019s 0% is inflation.  As the observable universe inflates, the distance between galaxies is growing larger and larger at an exponentially increasing rate.  The entire night sky will be largely black in tens of billions of years due to inflation, and we will only be able to see stars in our own galaxy, the Milky Way .  Future scientists billions of years from now would regard the existence of foreign galaxies as mere myths and legends.  So your geodesic (aka \u201cline\u201d) has to only manage to escape our galaxy and avoid hitting obstacles for a few billion years, and then it\u2019s roaming free in the vast expansion of space unable to reach any galaxies anymore.","human_ref_B":"Assuming you travel fast enough to make gravitational effects irrelevant: You have a ~0.0005% chance to hit the Sun. If you don't hit that your chance to hit a star at any point in the future is well below 0.000000001%, most of that coming from the first ~1000 light years. If you don't hit anything in that region the chance decreases even more. There are simply not enough stars to give you a significant collision risk even over billions of years, and over tens of billions of years you'll see the expansion of the universe making galaxies so sparse that you'll never cross one again.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3125.0,"score_ratio":94.9696969697}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjg1yz","c_root_id_B":"ihjaey5","created_at_utc_A":1658724244,"created_at_utc_B":1658720989,"score_A":6268,"score_B":36,"human_ref_A":"Assuming you travel fast enough to make gravitational effects irrelevant: You have a ~0.0005% chance to hit the Sun. If you don't hit that your chance to hit a star at any point in the future is well below 0.000000001%, most of that coming from the first ~1000 light years. If you don't hit anything in that region the chance decreases even more. There are simply not enough stars to give you a significant collision risk even over billions of years, and over tens of billions of years you'll see the expansion of the universe making galaxies so sparse that you'll never cross one again.","human_ref_B":"Too many comments have gotten this basic fact wrong: the \u201dsky\u201d is NOT black!  The universe could be infinite in \u201csize\u201d but the fact that it is NOT infinite in time (in the past direction) means that there is a background radiation from when the universe became transparent for the first time. The fact that it is expanding the way it is makes that radiation peak in the microwave. So: not black.  Now, to clarify the question: what you would find if you could \u201ctravel\u201d in a straight line forever has no relationship to what you \u201cobserve\u201d when you look at the sky in any direction. When you see the sky you are traveling backwards in time, the light you see comes \u201cfrom the past\u201d and the farther you look, the younger the universe \u201clooks\u201d until all you could see is the (microwave) background radiation from when the universe became transparent.  Traveling on a straight line forever (as in moving through space) is going \u201cforward\u201d in time. You will never \u201chit\u201d the microwave background radiation for instance. It isn\u2019t \u201cin a place\u201d, but on a moment in time.   In a static Universe, if you travel forever, you will hit a star IF the universe is infinite both in space and time, which it seems to be (into the future; I.e. there is no Big Crunch) otherwise you won\u2019t. But our universe is not static, it expands. The rate at which expands and your speed of traveling determines if you hit something or not, but the rate of expansion probably means you will most likely not hit anything.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3255.0,"score_ratio":174.1111111111}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjdh45","c_root_id_B":"ihiy1e2","created_at_utc_A":1658722715,"created_at_utc_B":1658714727,"score_A":995,"score_B":104,"human_ref_A":"Since no one has mentioned it, this is almost the same as Olber\u2019s Paradox:      in an infinite long-lived universe,     any direction you look you should eventually see a star,     and yet most of the night sky is dark.  There\u2019s a long history behind this question going at least a millennium, but Olber (18C) developed on the idea.  It\u2019s Olber\u2019s paradox and the darkness of the sky that narrows down the possible configurations of the universe.","human_ref_B":"Basically zero!   If it weren't, then your line of sight would end on the surface of a star no matter where you look! And if that were the case then that would mean that the entire sky would shine like the surface of the sun. But it doesn't! So most of the sky must be not-stars!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7988.0,"score_ratio":9.5673076923}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjdh45","c_root_id_B":"ihj6fqp","created_at_utc_A":1658722715,"created_at_utc_B":1658718892,"score_A":995,"score_B":89,"human_ref_A":"Since no one has mentioned it, this is almost the same as Olber\u2019s Paradox:      in an infinite long-lived universe,     any direction you look you should eventually see a star,     and yet most of the night sky is dark.  There\u2019s a long history behind this question going at least a millennium, but Olber (18C) developed on the idea.  It\u2019s Olber\u2019s paradox and the darkness of the sky that narrows down the possible configurations of the universe.","human_ref_B":"If you were travelling at a speed allowed by physics (slower than the speed of light), you would likely not hit anything. The universe is expanding, and its rate of expansion is increasing. So, it would not be possible for \"your\" observable universe to move in a way that would bring anything new into view, let alone into your path.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3823.0,"score_ratio":11.1797752809}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjdh45","c_root_id_B":"ihjaniv","created_at_utc_A":1658722715,"created_at_utc_B":1658721119,"score_A":995,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"Since no one has mentioned it, this is almost the same as Olber\u2019s Paradox:      in an infinite long-lived universe,     any direction you look you should eventually see a star,     and yet most of the night sky is dark.  There\u2019s a long history behind this question going at least a millennium, but Olber (18C) developed on the idea.  It\u2019s Olber\u2019s paradox and the darkness of the sky that narrows down the possible configurations of the universe.","human_ref_B":"It would be 0% but not for the reason you think.  You can rephrase your question to what is the chance starlight would hit your eyes in the exact center of your field of vision, since starlight is the best definition of a \u201cstraight line\u201d in our curved space time due to light being the geodesic.  And also a \u201cline\u201d has no direction, so you can reverse the direction of your question about traveling outward from Earth to the stars into an equivalent question about starlight traveling outward from the stars to you on Earth, since both questions have the exact same \u201cline\u201d.  So is there starlight hitting the exact center of your field of vision?  Statistically, it is near 0%, especially when you eliminate glare which is light hitting your lens nearby but scattering to appear larger than it is.  Even with long exposures to get the faintest of light signal, you would end up with primarily black after correcting for and eliminating glare.  But that reasoning is only part of the answer.  The other part is that the observable universe is finite.  There is 0% chance of hitting a star outside our observable universe because causality is limited to the light cone of our Big Bang, and anything outside this light cone is outside the network of causality with us, and therefore we cannot \u201chit\u201d or interact or otherwise engage in any causal relationship with it.  Finally, the last component of the answer on why it\u2019s 0% is inflation.  As the observable universe inflates, the distance between galaxies is growing larger and larger at an exponentially increasing rate.  The entire night sky will be largely black in tens of billions of years due to inflation, and we will only be able to see stars in our own galaxy, the Milky Way .  Future scientists billions of years from now would regard the existence of foreign galaxies as mere myths and legends.  So your geodesic (aka \u201cline\u201d) has to only manage to escape our galaxy and avoid hitting obstacles for a few billion years, and then it\u2019s roaming free in the vast expansion of space unable to reach any galaxies anymore.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1596.0,"score_ratio":15.0757575758}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjaey5","c_root_id_B":"ihjdh45","created_at_utc_A":1658720989,"created_at_utc_B":1658722715,"score_A":36,"score_B":995,"human_ref_A":"Too many comments have gotten this basic fact wrong: the \u201dsky\u201d is NOT black!  The universe could be infinite in \u201csize\u201d but the fact that it is NOT infinite in time (in the past direction) means that there is a background radiation from when the universe became transparent for the first time. The fact that it is expanding the way it is makes that radiation peak in the microwave. So: not black.  Now, to clarify the question: what you would find if you could \u201ctravel\u201d in a straight line forever has no relationship to what you \u201cobserve\u201d when you look at the sky in any direction. When you see the sky you are traveling backwards in time, the light you see comes \u201cfrom the past\u201d and the farther you look, the younger the universe \u201clooks\u201d until all you could see is the (microwave) background radiation from when the universe became transparent.  Traveling on a straight line forever (as in moving through space) is going \u201cforward\u201d in time. You will never \u201chit\u201d the microwave background radiation for instance. It isn\u2019t \u201cin a place\u201d, but on a moment in time.   In a static Universe, if you travel forever, you will hit a star IF the universe is infinite both in space and time, which it seems to be (into the future; I.e. there is no Big Crunch) otherwise you won\u2019t. But our universe is not static, it expands. The rate at which expands and your speed of traveling determines if you hit something or not, but the rate of expansion probably means you will most likely not hit anything.","human_ref_B":"Since no one has mentioned it, this is almost the same as Olber\u2019s Paradox:      in an infinite long-lived universe,     any direction you look you should eventually see a star,     and yet most of the night sky is dark.  There\u2019s a long history behind this question going at least a millennium, but Olber (18C) developed on the idea.  It\u2019s Olber\u2019s paradox and the darkness of the sky that narrows down the possible configurations of the universe.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1726.0,"score_ratio":27.6388888889}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjgmr9","c_root_id_B":"ihiy1e2","created_at_utc_A":1658724597,"created_at_utc_B":1658714727,"score_A":171,"score_B":104,"human_ref_A":"If it's a star they would hit the chances are infantasmally small, so much closer to zero. Believe it or not, space is mostly empty space.  If you want them to hit SOMETHING it approaches higher numbers but never more than a few percent. It's very rare, statistically, for any two given objects in space to collide.","human_ref_B":"Basically zero!   If it weren't, then your line of sight would end on the surface of a star no matter where you look! And if that were the case then that would mean that the entire sky would shine like the surface of the sun. But it doesn't! So most of the sky must be not-stars!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9870.0,"score_ratio":1.6442307692}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihj6fqp","c_root_id_B":"ihjgmr9","created_at_utc_A":1658718892,"created_at_utc_B":1658724597,"score_A":89,"score_B":171,"human_ref_A":"If you were travelling at a speed allowed by physics (slower than the speed of light), you would likely not hit anything. The universe is expanding, and its rate of expansion is increasing. So, it would not be possible for \"your\" observable universe to move in a way that would bring anything new into view, let alone into your path.","human_ref_B":"If it's a star they would hit the chances are infantasmally small, so much closer to zero. Believe it or not, space is mostly empty space.  If you want them to hit SOMETHING it approaches higher numbers but never more than a few percent. It's very rare, statistically, for any two given objects in space to collide.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5705.0,"score_ratio":1.9213483146}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjaniv","c_root_id_B":"ihjgmr9","created_at_utc_A":1658721119,"created_at_utc_B":1658724597,"score_A":66,"score_B":171,"human_ref_A":"It would be 0% but not for the reason you think.  You can rephrase your question to what is the chance starlight would hit your eyes in the exact center of your field of vision, since starlight is the best definition of a \u201cstraight line\u201d in our curved space time due to light being the geodesic.  And also a \u201cline\u201d has no direction, so you can reverse the direction of your question about traveling outward from Earth to the stars into an equivalent question about starlight traveling outward from the stars to you on Earth, since both questions have the exact same \u201cline\u201d.  So is there starlight hitting the exact center of your field of vision?  Statistically, it is near 0%, especially when you eliminate glare which is light hitting your lens nearby but scattering to appear larger than it is.  Even with long exposures to get the faintest of light signal, you would end up with primarily black after correcting for and eliminating glare.  But that reasoning is only part of the answer.  The other part is that the observable universe is finite.  There is 0% chance of hitting a star outside our observable universe because causality is limited to the light cone of our Big Bang, and anything outside this light cone is outside the network of causality with us, and therefore we cannot \u201chit\u201d or interact or otherwise engage in any causal relationship with it.  Finally, the last component of the answer on why it\u2019s 0% is inflation.  As the observable universe inflates, the distance between galaxies is growing larger and larger at an exponentially increasing rate.  The entire night sky will be largely black in tens of billions of years due to inflation, and we will only be able to see stars in our own galaxy, the Milky Way .  Future scientists billions of years from now would regard the existence of foreign galaxies as mere myths and legends.  So your geodesic (aka \u201cline\u201d) has to only manage to escape our galaxy and avoid hitting obstacles for a few billion years, and then it\u2019s roaming free in the vast expansion of space unable to reach any galaxies anymore.","human_ref_B":"If it's a star they would hit the chances are infantasmally small, so much closer to zero. Believe it or not, space is mostly empty space.  If you want them to hit SOMETHING it approaches higher numbers but never more than a few percent. It's very rare, statistically, for any two given objects in space to collide.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3478.0,"score_ratio":2.5909090909}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjgmr9","c_root_id_B":"ihjaey5","created_at_utc_A":1658724597,"created_at_utc_B":1658720989,"score_A":171,"score_B":36,"human_ref_A":"If it's a star they would hit the chances are infantasmally small, so much closer to zero. Believe it or not, space is mostly empty space.  If you want them to hit SOMETHING it approaches higher numbers but never more than a few percent. It's very rare, statistically, for any two given objects in space to collide.","human_ref_B":"Too many comments have gotten this basic fact wrong: the \u201dsky\u201d is NOT black!  The universe could be infinite in \u201csize\u201d but the fact that it is NOT infinite in time (in the past direction) means that there is a background radiation from when the universe became transparent for the first time. The fact that it is expanding the way it is makes that radiation peak in the microwave. So: not black.  Now, to clarify the question: what you would find if you could \u201ctravel\u201d in a straight line forever has no relationship to what you \u201cobserve\u201d when you look at the sky in any direction. When you see the sky you are traveling backwards in time, the light you see comes \u201cfrom the past\u201d and the farther you look, the younger the universe \u201clooks\u201d until all you could see is the (microwave) background radiation from when the universe became transparent.  Traveling on a straight line forever (as in moving through space) is going \u201cforward\u201d in time. You will never \u201chit\u201d the microwave background radiation for instance. It isn\u2019t \u201cin a place\u201d, but on a moment in time.   In a static Universe, if you travel forever, you will hit a star IF the universe is infinite both in space and time, which it seems to be (into the future; I.e. there is no Big Crunch) otherwise you won\u2019t. But our universe is not static, it expands. The rate at which expands and your speed of traveling determines if you hit something or not, but the rate of expansion probably means you will most likely not hit anything.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3608.0,"score_ratio":4.75}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihjaey5","c_root_id_B":"ihjaniv","created_at_utc_A":1658720989,"created_at_utc_B":1658721119,"score_A":36,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"Too many comments have gotten this basic fact wrong: the \u201dsky\u201d is NOT black!  The universe could be infinite in \u201csize\u201d but the fact that it is NOT infinite in time (in the past direction) means that there is a background radiation from when the universe became transparent for the first time. The fact that it is expanding the way it is makes that radiation peak in the microwave. So: not black.  Now, to clarify the question: what you would find if you could \u201ctravel\u201d in a straight line forever has no relationship to what you \u201cobserve\u201d when you look at the sky in any direction. When you see the sky you are traveling backwards in time, the light you see comes \u201cfrom the past\u201d and the farther you look, the younger the universe \u201clooks\u201d until all you could see is the (microwave) background radiation from when the universe became transparent.  Traveling on a straight line forever (as in moving through space) is going \u201cforward\u201d in time. You will never \u201chit\u201d the microwave background radiation for instance. It isn\u2019t \u201cin a place\u201d, but on a moment in time.   In a static Universe, if you travel forever, you will hit a star IF the universe is infinite both in space and time, which it seems to be (into the future; I.e. there is no Big Crunch) otherwise you won\u2019t. But our universe is not static, it expands. The rate at which expands and your speed of traveling determines if you hit something or not, but the rate of expansion probably means you will most likely not hit anything.","human_ref_B":"It would be 0% but not for the reason you think.  You can rephrase your question to what is the chance starlight would hit your eyes in the exact center of your field of vision, since starlight is the best definition of a \u201cstraight line\u201d in our curved space time due to light being the geodesic.  And also a \u201cline\u201d has no direction, so you can reverse the direction of your question about traveling outward from Earth to the stars into an equivalent question about starlight traveling outward from the stars to you on Earth, since both questions have the exact same \u201cline\u201d.  So is there starlight hitting the exact center of your field of vision?  Statistically, it is near 0%, especially when you eliminate glare which is light hitting your lens nearby but scattering to appear larger than it is.  Even with long exposures to get the faintest of light signal, you would end up with primarily black after correcting for and eliminating glare.  But that reasoning is only part of the answer.  The other part is that the observable universe is finite.  There is 0% chance of hitting a star outside our observable universe because causality is limited to the light cone of our Big Bang, and anything outside this light cone is outside the network of causality with us, and therefore we cannot \u201chit\u201d or interact or otherwise engage in any causal relationship with it.  Finally, the last component of the answer on why it\u2019s 0% is inflation.  As the observable universe inflates, the distance between galaxies is growing larger and larger at an exponentially increasing rate.  The entire night sky will be largely black in tens of billions of years due to inflation, and we will only be able to see stars in our own galaxy, the Milky Way .  Future scientists billions of years from now would regard the existence of foreign galaxies as mere myths and legends.  So your geodesic (aka \u201cline\u201d) has to only manage to escape our galaxy and avoid hitting obstacles for a few billion years, and then it\u2019s roaming free in the vast expansion of space unable to reach any galaxies anymore.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":130.0,"score_ratio":1.8333333333}
{"post_id":"w7ar3k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"If a person left Earth and were to travel in a straight line, would the chance of them hitting a star closer to 0% or 100%? In other words, is the number of stars so large that it's almost a given that it's bound to happen or is the universe that imense that it's improbable?","c_root_id_A":"ihks01d","c_root_id_B":"ihm0u8c","created_at_utc_A":1658756653,"created_at_utc_B":1658774294,"score_A":24,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"It's nearly zero. So close to zero that it is. Most brains of people who haven't studied space much can't even comprehend how much nothing there is compared to stars and everything else. It's so full of billions of stars but there's infinitely more nothing. I can't even grasp it but it makes sense.","human_ref_B":"A great illustration of just how much space there is in space, is that when two galaxies collide and merge into one, despite each having billions of stars and everything swirling in a chaotic mess, and that gravity will make stars pull themselves into each other, the odds of any two stars colliding (beyond those that are eaten up in the black hole cores) is *still* near-zero. There's THAT much space out there.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":17641.0,"score_ratio":1.0416666667}
{"post_id":"e6r4t3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"When a woman is pregnant does the baby follow the same sleeping patterns as the mother? Or can they have 2 separate sleeping patterns?","c_root_id_A":"f9tcj4g","c_root_id_B":"f9teg5z","created_at_utc_A":1575617335,"created_at_utc_B":1575619961,"score_A":205,"score_B":516,"human_ref_A":"We talked about this in a developmental psychology lecture about half a year ago.  Afaik the fetus needs movement to develop its balance (which, in the beginning of developing a brain is one of the most important parts) therefore as long as the mother is moving and doing stuff the fetus doesnt move as much. But when the mother lies down to sleep the fetus starts moving.  In the last few months the activity levels drop significantly though (probably because there isnt enough space to move anymore and the brain has developed what it needs)  There was a graph somewhere, ill see if i can find it, wait.  Sorry not a native.. ^^","human_ref_B":"They usually go through 40 minute sleep and wake intervals. This can be seen on cardiotocographs where the variation of their heart rate reduces in these sleep periods.     This monitoring is used to check the health of the fetus and is done after 26 weeks. There will be occasions where the foetus is awake for longer towards the third trimester and a general pattern will form.    Source - Am an obstetrician","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2626.0,"score_ratio":2.5170731707}
{"post_id":"56m02a","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"As bananas emit small amounts of gamma radiation, would it be theoretically possible to get radiation sickness\/poisoning in a room completely full of them?","c_root_id_A":"d8kpll1","c_root_id_B":"d8kr2up","created_at_utc_A":1476037131,"created_at_utc_B":1476039037,"score_A":25,"score_B":71,"human_ref_A":"Radiation Sickness - No, you won't receive enough radiation, no matter how many bananas you pile up, because when the banana pile gets beyond a certain size, the radiation produced by the bananas at the back will be shielded and blocked by the bananas at the front, and Radiation Sickness is a \"deterministic effect\", which means that severity of radiation sickness increases proportional to the amount of radiation you've received.  Cancer - Yes, you could get cancer from the banana radiation. The odds are extremely low, but Cancer is a \"stochastic effect\", meaning that you either have it or you don't, but the odds of getting it increase proportional to the amount of radiation you've received. There is also a thing called the LNT hypothesis which complicates everything, because no one conclusively knows how very small doses of radiation affect people. The general consensus is that small doses (\u2264 what we get from nature) have very little measurable effect on our health, good or bad. So, depending on the specifics of your hypothetical situation, such as exactly how radioactive your bananas are, and how you stack them, and whether or not they're peeled, you might have an increased risk of cancer or you might have a normal risk of cancer. Or you might have a lower-than-average risk because your immense banana-dome is shielding you from solar radiation. Hard to say.","human_ref_B":"Without a lot of technology,  you would die from alcohol poisoning long before, just by breathing the fumes of fermenting banana.  The quantity is the problem...  Even if we assume the sketchy math on dose\/banana is correct, you need to be in a room with at least 40 million of them.  Average banana weighs 120 g, so you need 4.8 million Kg, or 4,800 metric tons.  According to http:\/\/www.naturskyddsforeningen.se\/sites\/default\/files\/dokument-media\/banana_report_final_version.pdf this is about 1\/4 [ of 1\/1000] the annual world exports of bananas.    Edit: oops, 40 million bananas Edit2 oops, x 1000","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1906.0,"score_ratio":2.84}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06ps1y","c_root_id_B":"j06co5f","created_at_utc_A":1671025920,"created_at_utc_B":1671018330,"score_A":11,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"1) It does harm them to keep those eyes as they cost resources to develop and maintain.   2) Even if a trait has no negatives and no benefits, that does not mean it will be maintained. It usually means it will be lost. This is cuz in every new generation, a small percentage will have random mutations that get rid of that trait. If the trait is useful, this percentage will die out and thus the trait is maintained in the general population. If it's not, the ones without the trait will have an equal chance of reproducing as the ones with the trait. Then the next generation will have a small percentage without the trait due to random mutations again added on to this. Repeat this over generations and eventually everyone has lost the trait.   So what you're missing is that eyes are costly and that a trait needs to be useful to keep it from dissapearing due to random mutations.","human_ref_B":"To add on to others saying eyes take energy to keep.   You might think, \u201cthey can\u2019t possibly be that costly.\u201d And you\u2019d be right, if we weren\u2019t talking about cave animals.   Caves are absolutely bankrupt in biomass, so the animals need to scrimp on every bit of energy they can find. So in that environment, eyes are costly to keep.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7590.0,"score_ratio":2.2}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06bsf6","c_root_id_B":"j06ps1y","created_at_utc_A":1671017704,"created_at_utc_B":1671025920,"score_A":2,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Evolution doesn\u2019t care is something isn\u2019t bad. It also doesn\u2019t care if something is good. The only thing that makes evolution go in a particular direction is selection pressure (for example, being able to get more vitamin D by being of a paler complexion is why white people are from {genetically} Europe). So if there is no selection pressure it\u2019s random.   In this case, the eyes just weren\u2019t doing anything and were costing energy, brainpower (and decreasing brain size probably). I imagine the last one of these was the biggest selection pressure, brain size (relative to body size) is a rather big advantage for wild animals, as humans should know.","human_ref_B":"1) It does harm them to keep those eyes as they cost resources to develop and maintain.   2) Even if a trait has no negatives and no benefits, that does not mean it will be maintained. It usually means it will be lost. This is cuz in every new generation, a small percentage will have random mutations that get rid of that trait. If the trait is useful, this percentage will die out and thus the trait is maintained in the general population. If it's not, the ones without the trait will have an equal chance of reproducing as the ones with the trait. Then the next generation will have a small percentage without the trait due to random mutations again added on to this. Repeat this over generations and eventually everyone has lost the trait.   So what you're missing is that eyes are costly and that a trait needs to be useful to keep it from dissapearing due to random mutations.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8216.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06z2s0","c_root_id_B":"j06co5f","created_at_utc_A":1671030044,"created_at_utc_B":1671018330,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"To add to what others have already mentioned: There is an additional cost in maintaining eyes because they are potential points of entry for bacteria and viruses. An infected optical nerve is a direct highway for germs to the brain, so the smaller the eye, the smaller the surface of attack.","human_ref_B":"To add on to others saying eyes take energy to keep.   You might think, \u201cthey can\u2019t possibly be that costly.\u201d And you\u2019d be right, if we weren\u2019t talking about cave animals.   Caves are absolutely bankrupt in biomass, so the animals need to scrimp on every bit of energy they can find. So in that environment, eyes are costly to keep.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11714.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06bsf6","c_root_id_B":"j06z2s0","created_at_utc_A":1671017704,"created_at_utc_B":1671030044,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Evolution doesn\u2019t care is something isn\u2019t bad. It also doesn\u2019t care if something is good. The only thing that makes evolution go in a particular direction is selection pressure (for example, being able to get more vitamin D by being of a paler complexion is why white people are from {genetically} Europe). So if there is no selection pressure it\u2019s random.   In this case, the eyes just weren\u2019t doing anything and were costing energy, brainpower (and decreasing brain size probably). I imagine the last one of these was the biggest selection pressure, brain size (relative to body size) is a rather big advantage for wild animals, as humans should know.","human_ref_B":"To add to what others have already mentioned: There is an additional cost in maintaining eyes because they are potential points of entry for bacteria and viruses. An infected optical nerve is a direct highway for germs to the brain, so the smaller the eye, the smaller the surface of attack.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12340.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06q1p1","c_root_id_B":"j06z2s0","created_at_utc_A":1671026049,"created_at_utc_B":1671030044,"score_A":2,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Everyone else already pretty much answered it but i want to add the fact that big eyes are also more dangerous actually because they would just be a bigger target for foes to attack. Smaller the better or nonexistent.","human_ref_B":"To add to what others have already mentioned: There is an additional cost in maintaining eyes because they are potential points of entry for bacteria and viruses. An infected optical nerve is a direct highway for germs to the brain, so the smaller the eye, the smaller the surface of attack.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3995.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06co5f","c_root_id_B":"j06zewa","created_at_utc_A":1671018330,"created_at_utc_B":1671030186,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"To add on to others saying eyes take energy to keep.   You might think, \u201cthey can\u2019t possibly be that costly.\u201d And you\u2019d be right, if we weren\u2019t talking about cave animals.   Caves are absolutely bankrupt in biomass, so the animals need to scrimp on every bit of energy they can find. So in that environment, eyes are costly to keep.","human_ref_B":"In addition to other points already made here, I would hypothesize that \"it's not harming them\" is wrong. The eye is less protected then skin\/scale-covered areas of the body. More vulnerable to both physical harm and microorganisms that want to get into the body. So when eyes are not used, not having them is a \"pro\", not just a \"not con\". I think.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11856.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06co5f","c_root_id_B":"j06bsf6","created_at_utc_A":1671018330,"created_at_utc_B":1671017704,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"To add on to others saying eyes take energy to keep.   You might think, \u201cthey can\u2019t possibly be that costly.\u201d And you\u2019d be right, if we weren\u2019t talking about cave animals.   Caves are absolutely bankrupt in biomass, so the animals need to scrimp on every bit of energy they can find. So in that environment, eyes are costly to keep.","human_ref_B":"Evolution doesn\u2019t care is something isn\u2019t bad. It also doesn\u2019t care if something is good. The only thing that makes evolution go in a particular direction is selection pressure (for example, being able to get more vitamin D by being of a paler complexion is why white people are from {genetically} Europe). So if there is no selection pressure it\u2019s random.   In this case, the eyes just weren\u2019t doing anything and were costing energy, brainpower (and decreasing brain size probably). I imagine the last one of these was the biggest selection pressure, brain size (relative to body size) is a rather big advantage for wild animals, as humans should know.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":626.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06bsf6","c_root_id_B":"j06zewa","created_at_utc_A":1671017704,"created_at_utc_B":1671030186,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Evolution doesn\u2019t care is something isn\u2019t bad. It also doesn\u2019t care if something is good. The only thing that makes evolution go in a particular direction is selection pressure (for example, being able to get more vitamin D by being of a paler complexion is why white people are from {genetically} Europe). So if there is no selection pressure it\u2019s random.   In this case, the eyes just weren\u2019t doing anything and were costing energy, brainpower (and decreasing brain size probably). I imagine the last one of these was the biggest selection pressure, brain size (relative to body size) is a rather big advantage for wild animals, as humans should know.","human_ref_B":"In addition to other points already made here, I would hypothesize that \"it's not harming them\" is wrong. The eye is less protected then skin\/scale-covered areas of the body. More vulnerable to both physical harm and microorganisms that want to get into the body. So when eyes are not used, not having them is a \"pro\", not just a \"not con\". I think.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12482.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06zewa","c_root_id_B":"j06q1p1","created_at_utc_A":1671030186,"created_at_utc_B":1671026049,"score_A":6,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"In addition to other points already made here, I would hypothesize that \"it's not harming them\" is wrong. The eye is less protected then skin\/scale-covered areas of the body. More vulnerable to both physical harm and microorganisms that want to get into the body. So when eyes are not used, not having them is a \"pro\", not just a \"not con\". I think.","human_ref_B":"Everyone else already pretty much answered it but i want to add the fact that big eyes are also more dangerous actually because they would just be a bigger target for foes to attack. Smaller the better or nonexistent.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4137.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06bsf6","c_root_id_B":"j07q3p3","created_at_utc_A":1671017704,"created_at_utc_B":1671040606,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Evolution doesn\u2019t care is something isn\u2019t bad. It also doesn\u2019t care if something is good. The only thing that makes evolution go in a particular direction is selection pressure (for example, being able to get more vitamin D by being of a paler complexion is why white people are from {genetically} Europe). So if there is no selection pressure it\u2019s random.   In this case, the eyes just weren\u2019t doing anything and were costing energy, brainpower (and decreasing brain size probably). I imagine the last one of these was the biggest selection pressure, brain size (relative to body size) is a rather big advantage for wild animals, as humans should know.","human_ref_B":"Big eyes are harming them, it takes a lot of energy and resources to grow and maintain eyes. Individuals with them have no advantage because they can't see with them, individuals without them have the advantage of using the energy to grow other things like bigger or more muscle or better digestive enzymes","labels":0,"seconds_difference":22902.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06q1p1","c_root_id_B":"j07q3p3","created_at_utc_A":1671026049,"created_at_utc_B":1671040606,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Everyone else already pretty much answered it but i want to add the fact that big eyes are also more dangerous actually because they would just be a bigger target for foes to attack. Smaller the better or nonexistent.","human_ref_B":"Big eyes are harming them, it takes a lot of energy and resources to grow and maintain eyes. Individuals with them have no advantage because they can't see with them, individuals without them have the advantage of using the energy to grow other things like bigger or more muscle or better digestive enzymes","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14557.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j07j9bf","c_root_id_B":"j07q3p3","created_at_utc_A":1671038011,"created_at_utc_B":1671040606,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Environmental selection. Eyes are no longer serving a purpose. Usually being born blind or just bad sight makes you more likely to die before reproducing. With no light for anybody that is longer the case. Blind individuals will have no trouble breeding compared to sighted ones. Collectively vision will start to get worse until it is no longer there at all. There is no selection for it.","human_ref_B":"Big eyes are harming them, it takes a lot of energy and resources to grow and maintain eyes. Individuals with them have no advantage because they can't see with them, individuals without them have the advantage of using the energy to grow other things like bigger or more muscle or better digestive enzymes","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2595.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j06bsf6","c_root_id_B":"j076w8a","created_at_utc_A":1671017704,"created_at_utc_B":1671033193,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Evolution doesn\u2019t care is something isn\u2019t bad. It also doesn\u2019t care if something is good. The only thing that makes evolution go in a particular direction is selection pressure (for example, being able to get more vitamin D by being of a paler complexion is why white people are from {genetically} Europe). So if there is no selection pressure it\u2019s random.   In this case, the eyes just weren\u2019t doing anything and were costing energy, brainpower (and decreasing brain size probably). I imagine the last one of these was the biggest selection pressure, brain size (relative to body size) is a rather big advantage for wild animals, as humans should know.","human_ref_B":"There are a couple factors at play here, both of them essentially relating to the fact that eyes (particularly when it comes to vertebrates) are anatomically complex. They often require multiple kinds of specialized tissue, visual pigments, etc., and this also means that they can be fairly biologically demanding when it comes to resources, so there actually is always some advantage conferred by simplification (atrophy) or even complete loss of a complex organ if having said organ isn\u2019t even beneficial anymore.   The other factor here is a much simpler one, which is that, generally-speaking, the vast majority of mutations essentially break biological systems (particularly intricate ones like vertebrate eyes) rather than make them better, this is because all genes do is code for a particular protein, and very rarely will a discrepancy in that code lead to a more functional (or differently functional) version of said protein, instead it will usually just cause the protein to be mis-folded and useless, and as you can imagine with something like eyes it doesn\u2019t take many defective proteins before they become essentially useless. Of course, if you live in an environment where vision confers no survival or reproductive advantage anyway (like a cave), this isn\u2019t an issue, so there\u2019s just no selective pressure against *not having* functional eyes, and a varying degree of pressure against *having* them (depending somewhat on evolutionary lineage and how biologically complicated their eyes are).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15489.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"zlje12","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do most cave animals lose their eyes? I get that it\u2019s pitch black and they don\u2019t need them, but why would it matter if they had big eyes, it\u2019s not harming them. It should be just as likely to keep eyes as it is to remove them","c_root_id_A":"j076w8a","c_root_id_B":"j06q1p1","created_at_utc_A":1671033193,"created_at_utc_B":1671026049,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"There are a couple factors at play here, both of them essentially relating to the fact that eyes (particularly when it comes to vertebrates) are anatomically complex. They often require multiple kinds of specialized tissue, visual pigments, etc., and this also means that they can be fairly biologically demanding when it comes to resources, so there actually is always some advantage conferred by simplification (atrophy) or even complete loss of a complex organ if having said organ isn\u2019t even beneficial anymore.   The other factor here is a much simpler one, which is that, generally-speaking, the vast majority of mutations essentially break biological systems (particularly intricate ones like vertebrate eyes) rather than make them better, this is because all genes do is code for a particular protein, and very rarely will a discrepancy in that code lead to a more functional (or differently functional) version of said protein, instead it will usually just cause the protein to be mis-folded and useless, and as you can imagine with something like eyes it doesn\u2019t take many defective proteins before they become essentially useless. Of course, if you live in an environment where vision confers no survival or reproductive advantage anyway (like a cave), this isn\u2019t an issue, so there\u2019s just no selective pressure against *not having* functional eyes, and a varying degree of pressure against *having* them (depending somewhat on evolutionary lineage and how biologically complicated their eyes are).","human_ref_B":"Everyone else already pretty much answered it but i want to add the fact that big eyes are also more dangerous actually because they would just be a bigger target for foes to attack. Smaller the better or nonexistent.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7144.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy4k57","c_root_id_B":"hpy5y92","created_at_utc_A":1640462658,"created_at_utc_B":1640463370,"score_A":9,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Thank you! This is an amazing team and I\u2019m lucky to be a part of it. It\u2019s truly a joy to have such a large community of people who are interested in science. I hope everyone has a safe and happy holiday season!","human_ref_B":"I'm excited for the day my expertise seems strange and esoteric again.  Have fun and safe holidays all!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":712.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy5y92","c_root_id_B":"hpy58ma","created_at_utc_A":1640463370,"created_at_utc_B":1640463003,"score_A":18,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"I'm excited for the day my expertise seems strange and esoteric again.  Have fun and safe holidays all!","human_ref_B":"<3","labels":1,"seconds_difference":367.0,"score_ratio":2.25}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy4qad","c_root_id_B":"hpy5y92","created_at_utc_A":1640462745,"created_at_utc_B":1640463370,"score_A":2,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Merry Chrystler","human_ref_B":"I'm excited for the day my expertise seems strange and esoteric again.  Have fun and safe holidays all!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":625.0,"score_ratio":9.0}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy4k57","c_root_id_B":"hpz016l","created_at_utc_A":1640462658,"created_at_utc_B":1640478625,"score_A":9,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Thank you! This is an amazing team and I\u2019m lucky to be a part of it. It\u2019s truly a joy to have such a large community of people who are interested in science. I hope everyone has a safe and happy holiday season!","human_ref_B":"A special big thank you to our green panelists (\/u\/PHealthy and \/u\/iayork come to mind) for taking so much time answering the never ending wave of COVID questions.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15967.0,"score_ratio":1.1111111111}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpyq92i","c_root_id_B":"hpz016l","created_at_utc_A":1640473667,"created_at_utc_B":1640478625,"score_A":7,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Merry Christmas. Thanks r\/askscience","human_ref_B":"A special big thank you to our green panelists (\/u\/PHealthy and \/u\/iayork come to mind) for taking so much time answering the never ending wave of COVID questions.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4958.0,"score_ratio":1.4285714286}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpz016l","c_root_id_B":"hpy58ma","created_at_utc_A":1640478625,"created_at_utc_B":1640463003,"score_A":10,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"A special big thank you to our green panelists (\/u\/PHealthy and \/u\/iayork come to mind) for taking so much time answering the never ending wave of COVID questions.","human_ref_B":"<3","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15622.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy4qad","c_root_id_B":"hpz016l","created_at_utc_A":1640462745,"created_at_utc_B":1640478625,"score_A":2,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Merry Chrystler","human_ref_B":"A special big thank you to our green panelists (\/u\/PHealthy and \/u\/iayork come to mind) for taking so much time answering the never ending wave of COVID questions.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15880.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpyq92i","c_root_id_B":"hpzhc5f","created_at_utc_A":1640473667,"created_at_utc_B":1640487993,"score_A":7,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Merry Christmas. Thanks r\/askscience","human_ref_B":"Thank you!  It's great to be a part of the askscience team!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14326.0,"score_ratio":1.1428571429}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpyq92i","c_root_id_B":"hpy4qad","created_at_utc_A":1640473667,"created_at_utc_B":1640462745,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Merry Christmas. Thanks r\/askscience","human_ref_B":"Merry Chrystler","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10922.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpzfiav","c_root_id_B":"hpzhc5f","created_at_utc_A":1640486977,"created_at_utc_B":1640487993,"score_A":6,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"I love this sub!  Thank you so much for providing excellent information and explaining it so well.  As a biology teacher I find these conversations fascinating and look forward to reading them all the way to the end. Thank you so much. Best wishes to you and yours.","human_ref_B":"Thank you!  It's great to be a part of the askscience team!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1016.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy4qad","c_root_id_B":"hpzhc5f","created_at_utc_A":1640462745,"created_at_utc_B":1640487993,"score_A":2,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Merry Chrystler","human_ref_B":"Thank you!  It's great to be a part of the askscience team!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":25248.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy58ma","c_root_id_B":"hpy4qad","created_at_utc_A":1640463003,"created_at_utc_B":1640462745,"score_A":8,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"<3","human_ref_B":"Merry Chrystler","labels":1,"seconds_difference":258.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy4qad","c_root_id_B":"hpzfiav","created_at_utc_A":1640462745,"created_at_utc_B":1640486977,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Merry Chrystler","human_ref_B":"I love this sub!  Thank you so much for providing excellent information and explaining it so well.  As a biology teacher I find these conversations fascinating and look forward to reading them all the way to the end. Thank you so much. Best wishes to you and yours.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":24232.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"rog62g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from \/r\/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.","c_root_id_A":"hpy4qad","c_root_id_B":"hq16dor","created_at_utc_A":1640462745,"created_at_utc_B":1640532355,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Merry Chrystler","human_ref_B":"Thank you for this sub and all you do to maintain it. I lurk here every single day and absolutely love you guys for the information you share and dedication you have to this sub. The scientists and scholars who post and the mods who keep it running...  With all my heart, Merry Christmas and many blessings to you and yours.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":69610.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"q1v345","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher\/lower are not?","c_root_id_A":"hfjgxl0","c_root_id_B":"hfiluxn","created_at_utc_A":1633476283,"created_at_utc_B":1633462493,"score_A":14,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Physicist here. We don't discriminate on the basis of color. All electromagnetic waves are comprised of *photons* in my book, and I do think of them that way. It's not as common to speak of radio waves in this way, but it's definitely how we count x-rays and gamma rays,","human_ref_B":"I've never heard anyone avoid talking about EM radiation of all kinds as photons.  In specific contexts it can be more useful to discuss wavelengths, like if you're trying to figure out how your microwave interferes with your 5GHz Wi-Fi, it's more useful to talk about frequency. But that isn't incompatible with photons either\u2026a photon has a frequency.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13790.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"q1v345","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher\/lower are not?","c_root_id_A":"hfi7avz","c_root_id_B":"hfjgxl0","created_at_utc_A":1633456409,"created_at_utc_B":1633476283,"score_A":6,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"The higher and lower frequencies are referred to as photons. They're just also referred to as radiation (as is visible light). The general public for whatever reason generally prefers photons for light and radiation for the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum. Scientists will go back and forth depending on context.","human_ref_B":"Physicist here. We don't discriminate on the basis of color. All electromagnetic waves are comprised of *photons* in my book, and I do think of them that way. It's not as common to speak of radio waves in this way, but it's definitely how we count x-rays and gamma rays,","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19874.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"q1v345","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher\/lower are not?","c_root_id_A":"hfihoea","c_root_id_B":"hfjgxl0","created_at_utc_A":1633460783,"created_at_utc_B":1633476283,"score_A":5,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"\"photon\" was the word that Gibbs, a physical chemist,  invented as he was sick of saying, \"A quantum of electromagnetic energy.\" This was round 1916.   So, you have electrons and photons. And, an electron absorbing a photon is what chemistry is all about. There really isn't anything else.  &#x200B;  An electron in a molecule absorbs a photon. The electron has gained some energy. It could lose that energy by emitting a photon, but there is no fun in that.   The energy gained by the electron in a molecule, let's say \"chlorophyll\",  could be lost in a lot of small steps. This energy could be used to synthesize a carbohydrate. A cow might eat this carbohydrate, in the form of grass, and and use some of the energy to make protein etc... we eat the cow........    &#x200B;  It all starts with an electron absorbing a photon.    I think a lot of this wave\/ray thing is historical. You have radio waves and X rays. You could just as easily call them radio rays and X waves.","human_ref_B":"Physicist here. We don't discriminate on the basis of color. All electromagnetic waves are comprised of *photons* in my book, and I do think of them that way. It's not as common to speak of radio waves in this way, but it's definitely how we count x-rays and gamma rays,","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15500.0,"score_ratio":2.8}
{"post_id":"q1v345","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher\/lower are not?","c_root_id_A":"hfiluxn","c_root_id_B":"hfi7avz","created_at_utc_A":1633462493,"created_at_utc_B":1633456409,"score_A":7,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I've never heard anyone avoid talking about EM radiation of all kinds as photons.  In specific contexts it can be more useful to discuss wavelengths, like if you're trying to figure out how your microwave interferes with your 5GHz Wi-Fi, it's more useful to talk about frequency. But that isn't incompatible with photons either\u2026a photon has a frequency.","human_ref_B":"The higher and lower frequencies are referred to as photons. They're just also referred to as radiation (as is visible light). The general public for whatever reason generally prefers photons for light and radiation for the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum. Scientists will go back and forth depending on context.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6084.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"q1v345","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher\/lower are not?","c_root_id_A":"hfihoea","c_root_id_B":"hfiluxn","created_at_utc_A":1633460783,"created_at_utc_B":1633462493,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"\"photon\" was the word that Gibbs, a physical chemist,  invented as he was sick of saying, \"A quantum of electromagnetic energy.\" This was round 1916.   So, you have electrons and photons. And, an electron absorbing a photon is what chemistry is all about. There really isn't anything else.  &#x200B;  An electron in a molecule absorbs a photon. The electron has gained some energy. It could lose that energy by emitting a photon, but there is no fun in that.   The energy gained by the electron in a molecule, let's say \"chlorophyll\",  could be lost in a lot of small steps. This energy could be used to synthesize a carbohydrate. A cow might eat this carbohydrate, in the form of grass, and and use some of the energy to make protein etc... we eat the cow........    &#x200B;  It all starts with an electron absorbing a photon.    I think a lot of this wave\/ray thing is historical. You have radio waves and X rays. You could just as easily call them radio rays and X waves.","human_ref_B":"I've never heard anyone avoid talking about EM radiation of all kinds as photons.  In specific contexts it can be more useful to discuss wavelengths, like if you're trying to figure out how your microwave interferes with your 5GHz Wi-Fi, it's more useful to talk about frequency. But that isn't incompatible with photons either\u2026a photon has a frequency.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1710.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilzam5t","c_root_id_B":"ilzxjmh","created_at_utc_A":1661589928,"created_at_utc_B":1661605514,"score_A":1356,"score_B":4506,"human_ref_A":"Yes, acid rain still happens, but mainly in those countries that have an extensive use of coal, whose combustion produces SO2, which is the main cause of acid rains. So in those countries (mainly western) where coal isn't used a lot anymore, acid rains are less a problem, even if they can still happen, mainly because of NOx, another cause of acid rains, and in this case no country is safe because NOx are one of the biggest pollutants worldwide","human_ref_B":"Acid rain was an environmental disaster in North America between 1970-1980 centered over Lake Huron because of the manufacturing processes in the rust belt. Luckily for us, acid rain was apparent in its destruction of infrastructure which caused bridges to prematurely fail and trillions of dollars in corrosion. These apparent failings caused politicians to act pretty quickly and acid rain is a fraction of what it used to be.  Unfortunately, some of these manufacturing sectors left the rust belt to continue the exact same practices in a country that cares less about air quality and acid rain. So its not a problem for North America infrastructure or North Americans health anymore.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15586.0,"score_ratio":3.3230088496}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilzxjmh","c_root_id_B":"ilz019f","created_at_utc_A":1661605514,"created_at_utc_B":1661581784,"score_A":4506,"score_B":322,"human_ref_A":"Acid rain was an environmental disaster in North America between 1970-1980 centered over Lake Huron because of the manufacturing processes in the rust belt. Luckily for us, acid rain was apparent in its destruction of infrastructure which caused bridges to prematurely fail and trillions of dollars in corrosion. These apparent failings caused politicians to act pretty quickly and acid rain is a fraction of what it used to be.  Unfortunately, some of these manufacturing sectors left the rust belt to continue the exact same practices in a country that cares less about air quality and acid rain. So its not a problem for North America infrastructure or North Americans health anymore.","human_ref_B":"It can absolutely still happen but people tend to underestimate what needs to be present for it to be a real threat. Water falling through smog isn\u2019t enough, certain chemicals have to be in the air that are actually dangerous to people, sulfur\/sulfates being one. This happens over incredibly industrialized and polluted cities, there was an event in China not too long ago. It\u2019s not talked about as often in Western countries due to laws restricting the chemicals responsible for acid rain.   Further reading here.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":23730.0,"score_ratio":13.9937888199}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilz95ar","c_root_id_B":"ilzxjmh","created_at_utc_A":1661588741,"created_at_utc_B":1661605514,"score_A":202,"score_B":4506,"human_ref_A":"It dosen't happen nearly to the same extent. Same with the ozone hole.     There was an ecological problem, so legislation was put inplace to implement catalysers in cars and scrubbers in power plants in the case of acid rain and to outlaw fckw's in the case of the ozone hole and it worked.    Problem is, we somehow forgot how to do that, so now we have a whole new host of ecological and climate problems which culminate in a crisis which has the potential to end our civilisation (not humans as a whole).","human_ref_B":"Acid rain was an environmental disaster in North America between 1970-1980 centered over Lake Huron because of the manufacturing processes in the rust belt. Luckily for us, acid rain was apparent in its destruction of infrastructure which caused bridges to prematurely fail and trillions of dollars in corrosion. These apparent failings caused politicians to act pretty quickly and acid rain is a fraction of what it used to be.  Unfortunately, some of these manufacturing sectors left the rust belt to continue the exact same practices in a country that cares less about air quality and acid rain. So its not a problem for North America infrastructure or North Americans health anymore.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16773.0,"score_ratio":22.3069306931}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilzl4n1","c_root_id_B":"ilzxjmh","created_at_utc_A":1661597856,"created_at_utc_B":1661605514,"score_A":101,"score_B":4506,"human_ref_A":"Lots of people mentioning coal combustion but the other main driver was increases in fuel efficiency standards away from high sulphur liquid fuels. It was quite common in many countries to burn heavy fuel oil as a heat and power source, but that's been significantly displaced by diesel and gas burning.","human_ref_B":"Acid rain was an environmental disaster in North America between 1970-1980 centered over Lake Huron because of the manufacturing processes in the rust belt. Luckily for us, acid rain was apparent in its destruction of infrastructure which caused bridges to prematurely fail and trillions of dollars in corrosion. These apparent failings caused politicians to act pretty quickly and acid rain is a fraction of what it used to be.  Unfortunately, some of these manufacturing sectors left the rust belt to continue the exact same practices in a country that cares less about air quality and acid rain. So its not a problem for North America infrastructure or North Americans health anymore.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7658.0,"score_ratio":44.6138613861}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilzxjmh","c_root_id_B":"ilzc963","created_at_utc_A":1661605514,"created_at_utc_B":1661591215,"score_A":4506,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Acid rain was an environmental disaster in North America between 1970-1980 centered over Lake Huron because of the manufacturing processes in the rust belt. Luckily for us, acid rain was apparent in its destruction of infrastructure which caused bridges to prematurely fail and trillions of dollars in corrosion. These apparent failings caused politicians to act pretty quickly and acid rain is a fraction of what it used to be.  Unfortunately, some of these manufacturing sectors left the rust belt to continue the exact same practices in a country that cares less about air quality and acid rain. So its not a problem for North America infrastructure or North Americans health anymore.","human_ref_B":"As well as the issues that others have mentioned regarding sulphur emissions from burning fossil fuels (notably coal and lignite), river acidity was also increased by the planting of commercial conifer plantations.  Many conifer plantations replaced deciduous woodlands. The problem wasn't the conifers themselves but the needles the trees shed. Conifer needles lead to quite acidic soils as they rot, and are certainly far more acidic than the soils resulting from the rotting of deciduous leaves.  The use of barrier strips of deciduous trees between rivers and conifer plantations has drastically reduced river acidity.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14299.0,"score_ratio":180.24}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilzam5t","c_root_id_B":"ilz019f","created_at_utc_A":1661589928,"created_at_utc_B":1661581784,"score_A":1356,"score_B":322,"human_ref_A":"Yes, acid rain still happens, but mainly in those countries that have an extensive use of coal, whose combustion produces SO2, which is the main cause of acid rains. So in those countries (mainly western) where coal isn't used a lot anymore, acid rains are less a problem, even if they can still happen, mainly because of NOx, another cause of acid rains, and in this case no country is safe because NOx are one of the biggest pollutants worldwide","human_ref_B":"It can absolutely still happen but people tend to underestimate what needs to be present for it to be a real threat. Water falling through smog isn\u2019t enough, certain chemicals have to be in the air that are actually dangerous to people, sulfur\/sulfates being one. This happens over incredibly industrialized and polluted cities, there was an event in China not too long ago. It\u2019s not talked about as often in Western countries due to laws restricting the chemicals responsible for acid rain.   Further reading here.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8144.0,"score_ratio":4.2111801242}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilzam5t","c_root_id_B":"ilz95ar","created_at_utc_A":1661589928,"created_at_utc_B":1661588741,"score_A":1356,"score_B":202,"human_ref_A":"Yes, acid rain still happens, but mainly in those countries that have an extensive use of coal, whose combustion produces SO2, which is the main cause of acid rains. So in those countries (mainly western) where coal isn't used a lot anymore, acid rains are less a problem, even if they can still happen, mainly because of NOx, another cause of acid rains, and in this case no country is safe because NOx are one of the biggest pollutants worldwide","human_ref_B":"It dosen't happen nearly to the same extent. Same with the ozone hole.     There was an ecological problem, so legislation was put inplace to implement catalysers in cars and scrubbers in power plants in the case of acid rain and to outlaw fckw's in the case of the ozone hole and it worked.    Problem is, we somehow forgot how to do that, so now we have a whole new host of ecological and climate problems which culminate in a crisis which has the potential to end our civilisation (not humans as a whole).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1187.0,"score_ratio":6.7128712871}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilzl4n1","c_root_id_B":"ilzc963","created_at_utc_A":1661597856,"created_at_utc_B":1661591215,"score_A":101,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Lots of people mentioning coal combustion but the other main driver was increases in fuel efficiency standards away from high sulphur liquid fuels. It was quite common in many countries to burn heavy fuel oil as a heat and power source, but that's been significantly displaced by diesel and gas burning.","human_ref_B":"As well as the issues that others have mentioned regarding sulphur emissions from burning fossil fuels (notably coal and lignite), river acidity was also increased by the planting of commercial conifer plantations.  Many conifer plantations replaced deciduous woodlands. The problem wasn't the conifers themselves but the needles the trees shed. Conifer needles lead to quite acidic soils as they rot, and are certainly far more acidic than the soils resulting from the rotting of deciduous leaves.  The use of barrier strips of deciduous trees between rivers and conifer plantations has drastically reduced river acidity.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6641.0,"score_ratio":4.04}
{"post_id":"wyrwot","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Acid rain, does it still happen? If so, why is it not taught in schools like it was 20 years ago?","c_root_id_A":"ilzc963","c_root_id_B":"ilzzqkx","created_at_utc_A":1661591215,"created_at_utc_B":1661606633,"score_A":25,"score_B":67,"human_ref_A":"As well as the issues that others have mentioned regarding sulphur emissions from burning fossil fuels (notably coal and lignite), river acidity was also increased by the planting of commercial conifer plantations.  Many conifer plantations replaced deciduous woodlands. The problem wasn't the conifers themselves but the needles the trees shed. Conifer needles lead to quite acidic soils as they rot, and are certainly far more acidic than the soils resulting from the rotting of deciduous leaves.  The use of barrier strips of deciduous trees between rivers and conifer plantations has drastically reduced river acidity.","human_ref_B":"It largely does not happen anymore. Big steps were taken to regulate sulfur dioxide emissions. Scientists told politicians there was a problem, politicians listened and asked experts what to do, experts came up with regulations, and the regulations were effective. It's actually one of the most impressive climate initiatives we've collectively done in the last 40 years.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15418.0,"score_ratio":2.68}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"idrhg2q","c_root_id_B":"idrh5xw","created_at_utc_A":1656212392,"created_at_utc_B":1656212234,"score_A":42,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"It's exactly 2 based on the following assumptions:  1. The power transferred to an object is the force times the velocity at which it is applied. 2. F = ma  So the incremental change in kinetic energy during a time dt is dT = mav dt. Since a=dv\/dt you get dT = m v dv. Integrating this from v=0 to the final velocity gives T = (mv\\^2)\/2.  The one-half out front is the reciprocal of that same 2 in the exponent.","human_ref_B":"The power here is exactly 2. Speed of light is exactly 299,792,458 meters per second, by definition.  Some other constants are approximate, e.g., the exact value of the gravitational constant is not known.  But keep in mind that Newton's laws of motion themselves are an approximation, they break at relativistic velocities.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":158.0,"score_ratio":8.4}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"idrwre3","c_root_id_B":"idrzj5t","created_at_utc_A":1656221692,"created_at_utc_B":1656223667,"score_A":15,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Because of units\/dimensional analysis, you may want to read \\1\\]. Just as a pure mathematical object, `v^1.9` may seem to make sense, but a physical object, not so much. `T = mv\u00b2\/2` has units (dimension) that must add up, `T` measures energy (=mass\\*length^2 \/time^2 ) to the right hand side, whatever the powers would be, say, `k m^p v^q` must result in that dimension.  \\[1\\] [https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensional\\_analysis","human_ref_B":"Yes, it is exactly two, because in this case, the 2 is not an independent numerical quantity, nor a measurement. It is a consequence of the symbolic system we have chosen to represent the algebra used in the system of equations that define the meanings of the terms T, m, and v. It is part of the definition of the symbols if you like.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1975.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"idrzj5t","c_root_id_B":"idrh5xw","created_at_utc_A":1656223667,"created_at_utc_B":1656212234,"score_A":25,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Yes, it is exactly two, because in this case, the 2 is not an independent numerical quantity, nor a measurement. It is a consequence of the symbolic system we have chosen to represent the algebra used in the system of equations that define the meanings of the terms T, m, and v. It is part of the definition of the symbols if you like.","human_ref_B":"The power here is exactly 2. Speed of light is exactly 299,792,458 meters per second, by definition.  Some other constants are approximate, e.g., the exact value of the gravitational constant is not known.  But keep in mind that Newton's laws of motion themselves are an approximation, they break at relativistic velocities.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11433.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"idri4xk","c_root_id_B":"idrzj5t","created_at_utc_A":1656212779,"created_at_utc_B":1656223667,"score_A":4,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Different from the constants, that are either defined to be their value (like the speed of light) or measured to the best approximation possible (like the plank constant), the exponents in physics formulas in general come from the mathematical generalization of the model not from measurements. That is not to say that there are not \"complicated\" exponents, you don't have to get to deep in physics to start to find \"pi\" and \"e\" all over the place even in exponents, and while they look neet in  the formula you have to remember they are just a shorthand for numbers we don't know the exact value.","human_ref_B":"Yes, it is exactly two, because in this case, the 2 is not an independent numerical quantity, nor a measurement. It is a consequence of the symbolic system we have chosen to represent the algebra used in the system of equations that define the meanings of the terms T, m, and v. It is part of the definition of the symbols if you like.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10888.0,"score_ratio":6.25}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"idrwre3","c_root_id_B":"idrh5xw","created_at_utc_A":1656221692,"created_at_utc_B":1656212234,"score_A":15,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Because of units\/dimensional analysis, you may want to read \\1\\]. Just as a pure mathematical object, `v^1.9` may seem to make sense, but a physical object, not so much. `T = mv\u00b2\/2` has units (dimension) that must add up, `T` measures energy (=mass\\*length^2 \/time^2 ) to the right hand side, whatever the powers would be, say, `k m^p v^q` must result in that dimension.  \\[1\\] [https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensional\\_analysis","human_ref_B":"The power here is exactly 2. Speed of light is exactly 299,792,458 meters per second, by definition.  Some other constants are approximate, e.g., the exact value of the gravitational constant is not known.  But keep in mind that Newton's laws of motion themselves are an approximation, they break at relativistic velocities.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9458.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"idrwre3","c_root_id_B":"idri4xk","created_at_utc_A":1656221692,"created_at_utc_B":1656212779,"score_A":15,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Because of units\/dimensional analysis, you may want to read \\1\\]. Just as a pure mathematical object, `v^1.9` may seem to make sense, but a physical object, not so much. `T = mv\u00b2\/2` has units (dimension) that must add up, `T` measures energy (=mass\\*length^2 \/time^2 ) to the right hand side, whatever the powers would be, say, `k m^p v^q` must result in that dimension.  \\[1\\] [https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensional\\_analysis","human_ref_B":"Different from the constants, that are either defined to be their value (like the speed of light) or measured to the best approximation possible (like the plank constant), the exponents in physics formulas in general come from the mathematical generalization of the model not from measurements. That is not to say that there are not \"complicated\" exponents, you don't have to get to deep in physics to start to find \"pi\" and \"e\" all over the place even in exponents, and while they look neet in  the formula you have to remember they are just a shorthand for numbers we don't know the exact value.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8913.0,"score_ratio":3.75}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"ids0y0s","c_root_id_B":"idrh5xw","created_at_utc_A":1656224709,"created_at_utc_B":1656212234,"score_A":11,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"In this particular formula it has to be exactly 2, for mathematical reasons, as explained by \/u\/DanJ96125.   But in general no. The coefficients could be anything and often they are, we just call them physical constants then.","human_ref_B":"The power here is exactly 2. Speed of light is exactly 299,792,458 meters per second, by definition.  Some other constants are approximate, e.g., the exact value of the gravitational constant is not known.  But keep in mind that Newton's laws of motion themselves are an approximation, they break at relativistic velocities.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12475.0,"score_ratio":2.2}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"ids0y0s","c_root_id_B":"idri4xk","created_at_utc_A":1656224709,"created_at_utc_B":1656212779,"score_A":11,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"In this particular formula it has to be exactly 2, for mathematical reasons, as explained by \/u\/DanJ96125.   But in general no. The coefficients could be anything and often they are, we just call them physical constants then.","human_ref_B":"Different from the constants, that are either defined to be their value (like the speed of light) or measured to the best approximation possible (like the plank constant), the exponents in physics formulas in general come from the mathematical generalization of the model not from measurements. That is not to say that there are not \"complicated\" exponents, you don't have to get to deep in physics to start to find \"pi\" and \"e\" all over the place even in exponents, and while they look neet in  the formula you have to remember they are just a shorthand for numbers we don't know the exact value.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11930.0,"score_ratio":2.75}
{"post_id":"vktlsa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Are physical formulas like T=0.5*mv^2 literally that precise in reality or is it simplification? Why is it ^2 and not ^1.99999 or ^2.00001? Important formulas in physics often have very \"easy\" coefficients and exponents. They seem so elegant, when otherwise the universe seems full of chaos and side-effects.","c_root_id_A":"idscyb9","c_root_id_B":"idri4xk","created_at_utc_A":1656234630,"created_at_utc_B":1656212779,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Let me show you how to get a 2 in a formula. Suppose we have a rope of length L. Now we have another rope of the same length. The total length (let's call it T) is L+L. We can write that as T=2L.  When we use this formula in reality, there will be an uncertainty in the answer T, but this uncertainty comes from the uncertainty in our measurements of L. The two ropes with identical length of exactly L might (will) not exist, but the \"2\" is fine for that perfect model case.     The coefficients and exponents you're referring to come from mathematical operations, not from measurement (sometimes we've assumed they did). Of course sometimes we get formula from math with coefficients or exponents that aren't integers. When these show up, we usually just give them a name (e and pi spring to mind) and shuffle things around a bit so the result looks a bit more simple.","human_ref_B":"Different from the constants, that are either defined to be their value (like the speed of light) or measured to the best approximation possible (like the plank constant), the exponents in physics formulas in general come from the mathematical generalization of the model not from measurements. That is not to say that there are not \"complicated\" exponents, you don't have to get to deep in physics to start to find \"pi\" and \"e\" all over the place even in exponents, and while they look neet in  the formula you have to remember they are just a shorthand for numbers we don't know the exact value.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21851.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"24yw8y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Since light that reflected off the earth from the time of the dinosaurs is still traveling in space, would it be possible to recover detailed imagery of our planet from that time, if we had to ability to travel at a speed sufficient to catch up with the light? The assumption that we as a civilization could travel several magnitudes faster than the speed of light in the future is a pretty big jump to make, but assuming we could I wonder if recovering detailed imagery of our earth from the light we catch up with would even be possible.   With current technology the detail of light we can see from distant galaxies and stars is pretty limited, but is this due to the nature of the light itself decaying from it's original path over the millions of years, or a limitation of our technology to interpret the light data itself with sufficient magnification?","c_root_id_A":"chcb665","c_root_id_B":"chc39f9","created_at_utc_A":1399508706,"created_at_utc_B":1399492081,"score_A":9,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"In order to resolve a 10 meter object at a distance of 65 million lightyears you would need a a mirror with a diameter of 3.25 light years. However, as mentioned somewhere else in this thread the light would get distorted as it traveled to the mirror, making it basically impossible to see any detail.","human_ref_B":"Detailed imagery, no.  Before that light had left the solar system, the amount of sensitivity needed to resolve features finer than that of continents would require detectors that could determine angles smaller than the width of an atom.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16625.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"innm6i6","c_root_id_B":"innlime","created_at_utc_A":1662679066,"created_at_utc_B":1662678770,"score_A":2225,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Wood screws have a gap in the threads near the head so that the screw only screws into the second piece but passes easily through the first piece (typically 3\/4\" stock).  This pulls the two pieces tightly together.    If screws went all the way up the two pieces would not pull together well since the threads would bite into both pieces.","human_ref_B":"Reasons for a Partially Threaded Shank  The partially threaded shank isn\u2019t a design flaw. Rather, it allows for a stronger hold than that of fully threaded screws. Partially threaded screws still work in the same way as their fully threaded counterparts. You press the tip against the object or surface, at which point you can use a tool \u2014 such as a screwdriver \u2014 to turn and drive the screw into the respective object or surface. With a partially threaded shank, however, the screw will come to a stop after the end of the threading. With a fully threaded shank, on the other hand, there\u2019s nothing to stop the screw. The bottom line is that partially threaded screws offer a stronger hold than fully threaded screws.  Partially threaded screws can also be used with nuts and washers for additional strength and stability. They feature the same basic design as fully threaded screws, with the only difference being that part of their shank is threaded. As a result, standard nuts and washers will fit around a partially threaded screw.  In Conclusion  Some screws have a partially threaded shank to protect them against loosening. When driven into an object or surface, they\u2019ll stop automatically after reaching the end of the threading. And like fully threaded screws, they can be used either with or without nuts and washers.   Source: https:\/\/monroeengineering.com\/blog\/why-some-screws-have-a-partially-threaded-shank\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":296.0,"score_ratio":278.125}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"ino8dp1","c_root_id_B":"innlime","created_at_utc_A":1662688832,"created_at_utc_B":1662678770,"score_A":45,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"So actually it's a two part feature. First it does help with holding the part down (see a lot of the comments below) but a significant part of it has to do with how screws are actually made.   When we cut a thread (either with a cold forming or turning process) there is actually a fair amount of precision needed in the process. While wood screws aren't super picky, malformed threads in machine screws and bolts can cause huge headaches if they don't meet the specific threads per unit needed. Because this process is \"relatively\" precise, long threaded bolts are expensive to make as the longer the bolt the harder it is to maintain tolerance along the entire length.   For both turning and forming, we'll actually hold the screw by that shank to decrease the stickout during the fabrication and keep ourselves inside tolerance. That's why you'll often see this in particular on long thin screws since that's when the deflection can cause the biggest issues in fabrication.   Source: I worked in a shop that made a lot of custom fasteners.  As a disclaimer we never did ultra high volume screw production, but I can't imagine these issues go away with volume.","human_ref_B":"Reasons for a Partially Threaded Shank  The partially threaded shank isn\u2019t a design flaw. Rather, it allows for a stronger hold than that of fully threaded screws. Partially threaded screws still work in the same way as their fully threaded counterparts. You press the tip against the object or surface, at which point you can use a tool \u2014 such as a screwdriver \u2014 to turn and drive the screw into the respective object or surface. With a partially threaded shank, however, the screw will come to a stop after the end of the threading. With a fully threaded shank, on the other hand, there\u2019s nothing to stop the screw. The bottom line is that partially threaded screws offer a stronger hold than fully threaded screws.  Partially threaded screws can also be used with nuts and washers for additional strength and stability. They feature the same basic design as fully threaded screws, with the only difference being that part of their shank is threaded. As a result, standard nuts and washers will fit around a partially threaded screw.  In Conclusion  Some screws have a partially threaded shank to protect them against loosening. When driven into an object or surface, they\u2019ll stop automatically after reaching the end of the threading. And like fully threaded screws, they can be used either with or without nuts and washers.   Source: https:\/\/monroeengineering.com\/blog\/why-some-screws-have-a-partially-threaded-shank\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10062.0,"score_ratio":5.625}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inocgfl","c_root_id_B":"inou7k4","created_at_utc_A":1662690622,"created_at_utc_B":1662699789,"score_A":11,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"There is another reason that longer wood screws have a non threaded section at the top. The longer the threaded section, the more friction you get when trying to screw it in all the way. Too much friction means you have to apply a lot of torque which may weaken or even break the screw.   You can add a small amount of oil to a screw to make it go in easier, but it is easier to just make sure the threaded part is no longer than needed.","human_ref_B":"From an Orthopedic surgical point of view (which is largely just human carpentry) this is massively helpful for the same reasons others in this thread has pointed out.   Half-threaded screws or lag screws as we tend to call them pull structures together by pulling on the screw head in the top part of a two-part fracture while remaining fixed in the deeper section of the fracture.   If the screw was fully threaded you could not achieve compression as both parts of the bone would be fixed to the screw. The smooth part allows movement while the screw head provides the compression. If the goal is to just lock the position of two pieces however, fully threaded screws are the way to go.    I once did some wood work with a carpenter who I was amazed to be actually able to teach quite a few things about how to use screws efficiently to join wood together.  Edit: the principles mentioned above only applies if you have not predrilled a hole which exceeds the diameter of the screw, as the threads would then not be able to interact with the medium in question. You can however use this knowledge to gain the the effect of a half threaded screw(lag effect) with a fully threaded screw, by drilling a hole which is slightly wider than you screw diameter in the first part of the wood (or bone).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9167.0,"score_ratio":2.3636363636}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inou7k4","c_root_id_B":"innlime","created_at_utc_A":1662699789,"created_at_utc_B":1662678770,"score_A":26,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"From an Orthopedic surgical point of view (which is largely just human carpentry) this is massively helpful for the same reasons others in this thread has pointed out.   Half-threaded screws or lag screws as we tend to call them pull structures together by pulling on the screw head in the top part of a two-part fracture while remaining fixed in the deeper section of the fracture.   If the screw was fully threaded you could not achieve compression as both parts of the bone would be fixed to the screw. The smooth part allows movement while the screw head provides the compression. If the goal is to just lock the position of two pieces however, fully threaded screws are the way to go.    I once did some wood work with a carpenter who I was amazed to be actually able to teach quite a few things about how to use screws efficiently to join wood together.  Edit: the principles mentioned above only applies if you have not predrilled a hole which exceeds the diameter of the screw, as the threads would then not be able to interact with the medium in question. You can however use this knowledge to gain the the effect of a half threaded screw(lag effect) with a fully threaded screw, by drilling a hole which is slightly wider than you screw diameter in the first part of the wood (or bone).","human_ref_B":"Reasons for a Partially Threaded Shank  The partially threaded shank isn\u2019t a design flaw. Rather, it allows for a stronger hold than that of fully threaded screws. Partially threaded screws still work in the same way as their fully threaded counterparts. You press the tip against the object or surface, at which point you can use a tool \u2014 such as a screwdriver \u2014 to turn and drive the screw into the respective object or surface. With a partially threaded shank, however, the screw will come to a stop after the end of the threading. With a fully threaded shank, on the other hand, there\u2019s nothing to stop the screw. The bottom line is that partially threaded screws offer a stronger hold than fully threaded screws.  Partially threaded screws can also be used with nuts and washers for additional strength and stability. They feature the same basic design as fully threaded screws, with the only difference being that part of their shank is threaded. As a result, standard nuts and washers will fit around a partially threaded screw.  In Conclusion  Some screws have a partially threaded shank to protect them against loosening. When driven into an object or surface, they\u2019ll stop automatically after reaching the end of the threading. And like fully threaded screws, they can be used either with or without nuts and washers.   Source: https:\/\/monroeengineering.com\/blog\/why-some-screws-have-a-partially-threaded-shank\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21019.0,"score_ratio":3.25}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inou7k4","c_root_id_B":"inohvxf","created_at_utc_A":1662699789,"created_at_utc_B":1662693026,"score_A":26,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"From an Orthopedic surgical point of view (which is largely just human carpentry) this is massively helpful for the same reasons others in this thread has pointed out.   Half-threaded screws or lag screws as we tend to call them pull structures together by pulling on the screw head in the top part of a two-part fracture while remaining fixed in the deeper section of the fracture.   If the screw was fully threaded you could not achieve compression as both parts of the bone would be fixed to the screw. The smooth part allows movement while the screw head provides the compression. If the goal is to just lock the position of two pieces however, fully threaded screws are the way to go.    I once did some wood work with a carpenter who I was amazed to be actually able to teach quite a few things about how to use screws efficiently to join wood together.  Edit: the principles mentioned above only applies if you have not predrilled a hole which exceeds the diameter of the screw, as the threads would then not be able to interact with the medium in question. You can however use this knowledge to gain the the effect of a half threaded screw(lag effect) with a fully threaded screw, by drilling a hole which is slightly wider than you screw diameter in the first part of the wood (or bone).","human_ref_B":"Also, the threads of a screw are stress concentration points so if the screw fails it will be at the thread. Especially likely under bending loads.   Since the threads reduce the cross sectional area of the screw, the screw is weaker against shear compared to a nail. I believe Strong Tie makes a rated screw.   This unthreaded part of the screw should be where shear loads are, like when 2 boards are screwed together but need to resist sliding past each other.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6763.0,"score_ratio":5.2}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inou7k4","c_root_id_B":"inog6n3","created_at_utc_A":1662699789,"created_at_utc_B":1662692242,"score_A":26,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"From an Orthopedic surgical point of view (which is largely just human carpentry) this is massively helpful for the same reasons others in this thread has pointed out.   Half-threaded screws or lag screws as we tend to call them pull structures together by pulling on the screw head in the top part of a two-part fracture while remaining fixed in the deeper section of the fracture.   If the screw was fully threaded you could not achieve compression as both parts of the bone would be fixed to the screw. The smooth part allows movement while the screw head provides the compression. If the goal is to just lock the position of two pieces however, fully threaded screws are the way to go.    I once did some wood work with a carpenter who I was amazed to be actually able to teach quite a few things about how to use screws efficiently to join wood together.  Edit: the principles mentioned above only applies if you have not predrilled a hole which exceeds the diameter of the screw, as the threads would then not be able to interact with the medium in question. You can however use this knowledge to gain the the effect of a half threaded screw(lag effect) with a fully threaded screw, by drilling a hole which is slightly wider than you screw diameter in the first part of the wood (or bone).","human_ref_B":"It\u2019s called a lag screw! Having a gap allows the distal part with threads to lock in to whatever you\u2019re screwing into (in bones, that\u2019s the far cortex), then pull the other piece (the near cortex) in the smooth\/head part towards the first piece, allowing it to slide and squeezing the two pieces together. Very common in orthopedics.  Edited to add that you can make any screw \u201clag by technique\u201d if you drill a wider hole in the \u201cnear\u201d piece. Screws engineered with that smooth area are called \u201clag by design\u201d.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7547.0,"score_ratio":5.2}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inocgfl","c_root_id_B":"innlime","created_at_utc_A":1662690622,"created_at_utc_B":1662678770,"score_A":11,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"There is another reason that longer wood screws have a non threaded section at the top. The longer the threaded section, the more friction you get when trying to screw it in all the way. Too much friction means you have to apply a lot of torque which may weaken or even break the screw.   You can add a small amount of oil to a screw to make it go in easier, but it is easier to just make sure the threaded part is no longer than needed.","human_ref_B":"Reasons for a Partially Threaded Shank  The partially threaded shank isn\u2019t a design flaw. Rather, it allows for a stronger hold than that of fully threaded screws. Partially threaded screws still work in the same way as their fully threaded counterparts. You press the tip against the object or surface, at which point you can use a tool \u2014 such as a screwdriver \u2014 to turn and drive the screw into the respective object or surface. With a partially threaded shank, however, the screw will come to a stop after the end of the threading. With a fully threaded shank, on the other hand, there\u2019s nothing to stop the screw. The bottom line is that partially threaded screws offer a stronger hold than fully threaded screws.  Partially threaded screws can also be used with nuts and washers for additional strength and stability. They feature the same basic design as fully threaded screws, with the only difference being that part of their shank is threaded. As a result, standard nuts and washers will fit around a partially threaded screw.  In Conclusion  Some screws have a partially threaded shank to protect them against loosening. When driven into an object or surface, they\u2019ll stop automatically after reaching the end of the threading. And like fully threaded screws, they can be used either with or without nuts and washers.   Source: https:\/\/monroeengineering.com\/blog\/why-some-screws-have-a-partially-threaded-shank\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11852.0,"score_ratio":1.375}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inp97jl","c_root_id_B":"inohvxf","created_at_utc_A":1662710810,"created_at_utc_B":1662693026,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Although not directly an answer to the posed question, this reminded me of my apprentice days (a very long time ago) and I vaguely recalled being told \u201ca screw is threaded for only part of its length, whereas a bolt is threaded for the full length\u201d  So I did some in depth research (aka a quick look on Google) and discovered several things:  1. Seems my memory was a bit \u2018screwed\u2019 up (can never resist the opportunity for a dad joke) and it\u2019s bolts that are partially threaded, screws that are fully threaded.  2. Holy thunder \u2018bolts\u2019 Batman\u2026 turns out there are loads of websites and whole discussion \u2018threads\u2019 trying to clarify this and explain the differences, took me down a long rabbit hole\u2026  3. Ignorance is sometimes bliss (unless you\u2019re an engineer with an OCD to need to know how everything works\u2026 so basically every engineer on the planet \ud83d\ude0f)\u2026   As much as I would love to take credit for the following (but conscience won out), I found a rather nice and relatively simple explanation here written by a piping engineer who goes by the name of Anup Kumar Dey. (Be aware, it\u2019s a commercial site, so you know\u2026 Ads \ud83e\udee4)  Summary\u2026 (there\u2019s more)  4. A bolt is a mechanical fastener with a cylindrical threaded shaft used to assemble unthreaded objects. Usually, the term bolt refers to a fastener having only part of its shaft threaded. In general, a bolt is inserted through parts having unthreaded holes and then a nut is screwed to provide a clamping force and prevent axial movement. The part of the shaft that is unthreaded is termed as \u2018the shank\u2019. The bolt head and nut prevent axial movement and the shaft of the bolt restricts radial movement of the parts. The unthreaded shank provides a more precise and less abrasive interface with the parts. At the same time, the shank does not contain stress concentrations due to being unthreaded.  5. A Screw is a mechanical fastener having a threaded cylindrical or tapered shaft used to engage parts with threads. Screws with tapered shafts are self-threading means thread cuts into the material while the screw is turned. Screws have their entire shaft threaded.  The friction at the threads is the force that keeps the parts securely fastened. This friction is generated by the applied torque in the case of machine screws whereas for self-tapping screws the radial expansion of the hole creates a major part of this friction.  6. Differences between Bolts and Screws:  As per the construction of Bolts and Screws, Bolts usually have partially threaded uniform cross-sections but Screws can have tapered shafts. So the cross-section may vary according to the length of the screws. Also, for screws, the entire length is threaded.  7. Bolts vs Screws-Application: To secure bolted joints, nuts are required whereas the screws work on their own without the requirement of nuts.  During the installation of a bolted joint, the torque is applied at the nut whereas for screws the torque is applied at the screw.  Bolts are always used with un-threaded parts whereas Screws are used with threaded parts. In case the thread is not available, the self-tapping screws create those while installation.  Screws vs Bolts-Clamping Force The nut and bolt assembly creates a very high clamping force keeping the member in between under compression. On the other hand, Screws are used where clamping force requirement is low.  Bolts vs Screws-Load Carrying Capability The reliability of bolted joints is very high. Bolts can carry high loads. For increasing load carrying capabilities, larger size bolts are used in construction industries. Screws have a lower load-carrying capability and they are not available in larger sizes. The reliability of Screws is moderate.","human_ref_B":"Also, the threads of a screw are stress concentration points so if the screw fails it will be at the thread. Especially likely under bending loads.   Since the threads reduce the cross sectional area of the screw, the screw is weaker against shear compared to a nail. I believe Strong Tie makes a rated screw.   This unthreaded part of the screw should be where shear loads are, like when 2 boards are screwed together but need to resist sliding past each other.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17784.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inohvxf","c_root_id_B":"inp03p6","created_at_utc_A":1662693026,"created_at_utc_B":1662703727,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Also, the threads of a screw are stress concentration points so if the screw fails it will be at the thread. Especially likely under bending loads.   Since the threads reduce the cross sectional area of the screw, the screw is weaker against shear compared to a nail. I believe Strong Tie makes a rated screw.   This unthreaded part of the screw should be where shear loads are, like when 2 boards are screwed together but need to resist sliding past each other.","human_ref_B":"I'm a mechanical engineer and work with lots of different kinds of screws. For machine screws anyway fully threaded screws are more expensive than partially threaded.  The unthreaded portion can serve a function too, depending on what you're doing. It can act as a pin, like to align two parts together, or it can be a shoulder screw that would hold a bearing maybe. There are other ways you could use it.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10701.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inp97jl","c_root_id_B":"inog6n3","created_at_utc_A":1662710810,"created_at_utc_B":1662692242,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Although not directly an answer to the posed question, this reminded me of my apprentice days (a very long time ago) and I vaguely recalled being told \u201ca screw is threaded for only part of its length, whereas a bolt is threaded for the full length\u201d  So I did some in depth research (aka a quick look on Google) and discovered several things:  1. Seems my memory was a bit \u2018screwed\u2019 up (can never resist the opportunity for a dad joke) and it\u2019s bolts that are partially threaded, screws that are fully threaded.  2. Holy thunder \u2018bolts\u2019 Batman\u2026 turns out there are loads of websites and whole discussion \u2018threads\u2019 trying to clarify this and explain the differences, took me down a long rabbit hole\u2026  3. Ignorance is sometimes bliss (unless you\u2019re an engineer with an OCD to need to know how everything works\u2026 so basically every engineer on the planet \ud83d\ude0f)\u2026   As much as I would love to take credit for the following (but conscience won out), I found a rather nice and relatively simple explanation here written by a piping engineer who goes by the name of Anup Kumar Dey. (Be aware, it\u2019s a commercial site, so you know\u2026 Ads \ud83e\udee4)  Summary\u2026 (there\u2019s more)  4. A bolt is a mechanical fastener with a cylindrical threaded shaft used to assemble unthreaded objects. Usually, the term bolt refers to a fastener having only part of its shaft threaded. In general, a bolt is inserted through parts having unthreaded holes and then a nut is screwed to provide a clamping force and prevent axial movement. The part of the shaft that is unthreaded is termed as \u2018the shank\u2019. The bolt head and nut prevent axial movement and the shaft of the bolt restricts radial movement of the parts. The unthreaded shank provides a more precise and less abrasive interface with the parts. At the same time, the shank does not contain stress concentrations due to being unthreaded.  5. A Screw is a mechanical fastener having a threaded cylindrical or tapered shaft used to engage parts with threads. Screws with tapered shafts are self-threading means thread cuts into the material while the screw is turned. Screws have their entire shaft threaded.  The friction at the threads is the force that keeps the parts securely fastened. This friction is generated by the applied torque in the case of machine screws whereas for self-tapping screws the radial expansion of the hole creates a major part of this friction.  6. Differences between Bolts and Screws:  As per the construction of Bolts and Screws, Bolts usually have partially threaded uniform cross-sections but Screws can have tapered shafts. So the cross-section may vary according to the length of the screws. Also, for screws, the entire length is threaded.  7. Bolts vs Screws-Application: To secure bolted joints, nuts are required whereas the screws work on their own without the requirement of nuts.  During the installation of a bolted joint, the torque is applied at the nut whereas for screws the torque is applied at the screw.  Bolts are always used with un-threaded parts whereas Screws are used with threaded parts. In case the thread is not available, the self-tapping screws create those while installation.  Screws vs Bolts-Clamping Force The nut and bolt assembly creates a very high clamping force keeping the member in between under compression. On the other hand, Screws are used where clamping force requirement is low.  Bolts vs Screws-Load Carrying Capability The reliability of bolted joints is very high. Bolts can carry high loads. For increasing load carrying capabilities, larger size bolts are used in construction industries. Screws have a lower load-carrying capability and they are not available in larger sizes. The reliability of Screws is moderate.","human_ref_B":"It\u2019s called a lag screw! Having a gap allows the distal part with threads to lock in to whatever you\u2019re screwing into (in bones, that\u2019s the far cortex), then pull the other piece (the near cortex) in the smooth\/head part towards the first piece, allowing it to slide and squeezing the two pieces together. Very common in orthopedics.  Edited to add that you can make any screw \u201clag by technique\u201d if you drill a wider hole in the \u201cnear\u201d piece. Screws engineered with that smooth area are called \u201clag by design\u201d.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18568.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"x9d3po","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do longer screws have a blank section near the head instead of threads going all the way up?","c_root_id_A":"inog6n3","c_root_id_B":"inp03p6","created_at_utc_A":1662692242,"created_at_utc_B":1662703727,"score_A":5,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"It\u2019s called a lag screw! Having a gap allows the distal part with threads to lock in to whatever you\u2019re screwing into (in bones, that\u2019s the far cortex), then pull the other piece (the near cortex) in the smooth\/head part towards the first piece, allowing it to slide and squeezing the two pieces together. Very common in orthopedics.  Edited to add that you can make any screw \u201clag by technique\u201d if you drill a wider hole in the \u201cnear\u201d piece. Screws engineered with that smooth area are called \u201clag by design\u201d.","human_ref_B":"I'm a mechanical engineer and work with lots of different kinds of screws. For machine screws anyway fully threaded screws are more expensive than partially threaded.  The unthreaded portion can serve a function too, depending on what you're doing. It can act as a pin, like to align two parts together, or it can be a shoulder screw that would hold a bearing maybe. There are other ways you could use it.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11485.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"br30c1","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Does brain size determine the intellect of a creature? Are there examples of an animal with a small brain being more intelligent than a big brained animal? If so, are they utilizing their brains better and how did that come about?","c_root_id_A":"eoabz8a","c_root_id_B":"eoasdl7","created_at_utc_A":1558412462,"created_at_utc_B":1558426537,"score_A":2,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"Killer whales and elephants have larger brains than humans. But who is training whom at animal shows.  You might watch this video from Dr. Sereno of UCSD.  He has the best explanation of why humans became the most cognitively intelligent species on earth.","human_ref_B":"Not really. While brain size correlates with intelligence when comparing species of the same order (Humans are more intelligent than chimps, whereas the latter have smaller brains), this correlation doesn't exist between orders (human brain is on average 1.5 kg, whereas a blue whale has a brain with a weight of 9 kg).  The difference and the indicator for intelligence is the absolute number of neurons. According to this paper, humans are as intelligent as we are due to our large number of neurons due to very efficient brain architecture.  The paper compared primate brains to those of rodents and found that rodent's brains have less neurons per volume.  The average human brain has about 86 billion neurons, with a weight of about 1.5 kg. A rodent brain scaled up to contain the same amount of neurons would weigh about 35 kg, a string indicator for the efficiency of primate brain architecture.  Interesting enough, our brains aren't actually that different from other primates, as the paper noted, in that it is scaled up linearly, which means that if a chimpanzee had a similar sized brain, the number of neurons would be equal to a human sized brain, presumably resulting in similar cognitive abilities. (However, the relative size of, and connections between certain areas might play a large role as well).  Tl;dr: Intelligence is defined by the absolute number of neurons, which depends on brain architecture rather than brain size.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14075.0,"score_ratio":13.0}
{"post_id":"kef0kf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Does a photon travel more than 1 billion light years in 1 billion years due to the expansion of space?   Assuming we shoot a photon out into space, it would go 1 light year after 1 year, and 1 million light years after 1 million years.  Because after that the expansion of space is noticeable, would photon be farther than 1 billion light years after 1 billion years?  Does the expansion of space (Hubble flow) carry the photon forward?","c_root_id_A":"gg4tfay","c_root_id_B":"gg50nr3","created_at_utc_A":1608205805,"created_at_utc_B":1608211759,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"I would like to ask a follow up question since I actually thought about this a few days ago:  If Space is expanding wouldn't measurement Unit also expand with it? Meaning even when space expands it doesn't actually have any effect? Then again, is Matter affected by the expansion the same way space is?","human_ref_B":"A photon would travel exactly one billion light years in one billion years.  At the same time after a billion years, the photon would not yet reach the point that was one billion light years away when departing.  Finally, the photon would also be more than a billion light years away from the origin after a billion years.  The thing with traveling through expanding universe is that only distances scale up over time, while everything else remains the same. A great analog of that would be a balloon if you are taking a picture of it, you can ma\u0142e it bigger by zooming in (this is what would happen if everything would scale up with space) or you can blow more air into it (this is expansion). If our 1 billion years of a photon flight would be represented by a \"1 billion light years\" long string, in the first case you could still stretch the string between the same two spots on the balloon, but if you blow more air and expand the balloon, the string wi\u0142 no longer be long enough.  Now to your original question: your photon \"string\" is not attached to any of the points on the balloon, but for a lack of better analog, it's more like tied to the middle point than any of the ends. The photon path after all that time is still 1 billion light years long, despite the origin being further away than originally and the destination being further away than it was at the moment of departure.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5954.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"vy0wpo","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"is there a limit on how far back in time we can see with a telescope? I've heard about how the JWST allows us to see things that happened close to the start of the universe.  I sort of understand how this works, but I was wondering if there is any sort of theoretical limit on how long ago something could have happened that we could see with the telescope?  Are there things that are just gone from our ability to observe, or will we be able to see further back by looking in the right places with more and more powerful telescopes?","c_root_id_A":"ig0ordv","c_root_id_B":"ifzz0ag","created_at_utc_A":1657734262,"created_at_utc_B":1657724310,"score_A":7,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I have read that with the James Webb Telescope it will be possible to get images of the very early stages of our universe. I find this extremely puzzling, and I will explain why. We are observing these ancient stars that are billions of years old and billions of light-years away from us. These stars are in point A and the observer is in point B (let\u2019s approximate it to the earth position). The photons emitted from point A have been traveling for billions of years before reaching us, and that is why we can \u201csee in the past\u201d. They are also traveling at the speed of light, which is the fastest speed possible in our universe. My question is, how could we (the earth) get to point B (billions of light years away from point A) before the photons emitted from point B? Doesn\u2019t it mean that somehow we could get further away than the photons could do? My assumption (which could be wrong) is that in these earlier phases of the universe \u201cwhat came to be the solar system\u201d was somehow close to point A, since everything was in a single spot at the time of the big bang.","human_ref_B":"Someone correct me, if I am wrong.   One limiting factor is the expansion itself. Anything moving beyond the observable universe horizon is lost forever. The other factor is the point in time where the universe became transparent and the CBR was born.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9952.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"rx1zvb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When sliding a pipe into another pipe that\u2019s a tight fit, why do we rotate the two? Like the title says, when sliding a tightly fit pipe into another one, why do we often rotate them to push in further? Why is it often easier to do so rather than to just push straight in?  I was speculating that this might have something to do with static\/kinetic friction, and that by rotating the pipes that overcomes the force of static friction and makes it slightly easier to push in further? Although I\u2019m asking to see if anyone knows the real reason. Thanks!","c_root_id_A":"hrgr4w0","c_root_id_B":"hrhcswf","created_at_utc_A":1641454994,"created_at_utc_B":1641471014,"score_A":13,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"This isn\u2019t a 900 word answer. Sliding a big pipe onto a small pipe with little tolerance is not necessarily friction. Tiny tiny tiny imperfections in inner and outer pipe diameter cause a fit where you may have to twist to find each incremental weakness,  Remember friction is normal force times frictional coefficient. Adding any more rotational force increases normal force even if it\u2019s marginal","human_ref_B":"I think you are 100% correct that this has a lot to do with static vs kinetic friction. When you push straight in, you are being opposed by static friction, which can be significantly higher than kinetic friction. You have a limit to how much force you can apply in this direction.   When you rotate, your arm becomes a pretty decent lever, and you can apply a lot more torque to overcome the static friction. Once things are moving, the same longitudinal pressure you apply is enough to overcome the (now) kinetic friction.   Another (smaller?) aspect might be that the two pipes (or really, any two concentric cylinder-shaped objects we do this with) could be slightly tapered. In this case, the longitudinal static friction might be higher than the rotational static friction because of the increasing pressure in that direction. This is why we can sometimes \"back off\" on longitudinal pressure, get the pieces moving, and then push in further.   A similar (but even smaller, depending on the overlap) effect could be present without a taper just based on the total surface area in contact the further they are inserted.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16020.0,"score_ratio":1.0769230769}
{"post_id":"yut1d1","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"We have seen successful transplants of various organs, hands, even faces -- so why not transplants of legs or feet to lower-limb amputees? Why are these not a thing?","c_root_id_A":"iwc0y8t","c_root_id_B":"iwc4qi0","created_at_utc_A":1668438390,"created_at_utc_B":1668439995,"score_A":20,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Risk of rejection would be the biggest one , not to mention having to suppress your immune system.   And it\u2019s all to get back something very simple and easy to replicate if not provide something that performs even better   Not to mention we already have a small supply of spare organs for transplants , it\u2019s way harder for someone to donate that large of a chunk of tissue and survive","human_ref_B":"People need to understand that transplants are never actually successful. When someone gets a new kidney\/lung\/heart the body wholeheartedly rejects it. The recipient has to take immunosuppressant drugs for the rest of their life which does nothing more than slow down the bodies ability to reject the organ. But reject it will. Consider that only half the people who get a lung transplant (for example) live 5 more years.  So you have that approach or you have a prosthetic. Prosthetic wins.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1605.0,"score_ratio":1.95}
{"post_id":"zljf66","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.76,"history":"What is the evolutionary advantage of primates losing endogenous Vitamin C production? And are there nowadays humans who are able to produce their own Vitamin C? I am wondering because it seems plausible to me that due to illnesses spreading more rapidly in human societies as opposed to hunter gatherers, it could be that the immune system advantage of producing Vitamin C could outperform whatever advantage the loss of Vitamin C production had.","c_root_id_A":"j0730dx","c_root_id_B":"j06vhgq","created_at_utc_A":1671031658,"created_at_utc_B":1671028506,"score_A":11,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Losing endogenous production of vitamin C was not a strictly negative mutation as you're making it out to be.  https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/emph\/article\/2019\/1\/221\/5556105  This paper, for example, outlines that the total amount of required vitamin C is much lower, because scavenging and recycling machinery related to electron transport became more efficient as a result of the mutation.  More simply, it's like the difference between cooking for yourself and ordering out.  Does cooking for yourself make you more independent?  In certain contexts, yes.  Is ordering out VASTLY easier and more expedient if you don't care about the money?  Sure.  And then you can use the saved time to do other things you'd like to do.  Is one better than the other?  Depends on context.  In our context, it's generally pretty easy to hit vitamin c requirements: you spend like a minute eating an orange and you're good.  If you're on a boat for months and months without access to vitamin C, then that context will suck to rely on exogenous vitamin C.","human_ref_B":"The best explanation I've heard is that all it takes is a population living with environmental access to vitamin C and enough time for mutations which interfere with synthesis of it to...not do anything, and get baked into the genome, to grossly oversimplify.  You don't need any advantage for a given mutation to continue, just survival. Advantageous ones lead to new body plans, behavior, and different ecologic niches, but 'neutral' or 'negative' ones that don't get the carrier killed before reproducing are stuck with your population. If the environment makes a negative mutation irrelevant, all the more reason it won't self-regulate out of the gene pool. If most of the species ends up with it, this way, then it becomes a problem to either adapt or become extinct over when external conditions change.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3152.0,"score_ratio":2.75}
{"post_id":"zljf66","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.76,"history":"What is the evolutionary advantage of primates losing endogenous Vitamin C production? And are there nowadays humans who are able to produce their own Vitamin C? I am wondering because it seems plausible to me that due to illnesses spreading more rapidly in human societies as opposed to hunter gatherers, it could be that the immune system advantage of producing Vitamin C could outperform whatever advantage the loss of Vitamin C production had.","c_root_id_A":"j06vhgq","c_root_id_B":"j07lj2h","created_at_utc_A":1671028506,"created_at_utc_B":1671038872,"score_A":4,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"The best explanation I've heard is that all it takes is a population living with environmental access to vitamin C and enough time for mutations which interfere with synthesis of it to...not do anything, and get baked into the genome, to grossly oversimplify.  You don't need any advantage for a given mutation to continue, just survival. Advantageous ones lead to new body plans, behavior, and different ecologic niches, but 'neutral' or 'negative' ones that don't get the carrier killed before reproducing are stuck with your population. If the environment makes a negative mutation irrelevant, all the more reason it won't self-regulate out of the gene pool. If most of the species ends up with it, this way, then it becomes a problem to either adapt or become extinct over when external conditions change.","human_ref_B":"To answer a part nobody else has answered yet, there aren't humans that can produce their own vitamin C.  The mutation that disabled C production is millions of years old and shared not only by all humans, but all monkeys and apes.  So there aren't any populations of humans hanging around that still have the ability.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10366.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"3mgkqi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why are birds more capable of mimicking human speech as compared to mammals?","c_root_id_A":"cvf5lpc","c_root_id_B":"cvf3llt","created_at_utc_A":1443301796,"created_at_utc_B":1443298143,"score_A":44,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Some species of birds including corvids, songbirds and parrots have a syrinx instead of a larynx. It allows them to produce any sounds frequency they want because it vibrates in all directions, not just from left to right like humans. Some also have 2 pairs of lips around their vocal cords, making it possible for birds to produce 2 completely different songs\/ sounds simultaneously. Many songs produced by songbird are much more complex and detailed than what we can hear. Birds process information in \"slow motion\" compared to humans.   It's also due to the extremely advanced and complex brains of some of these birds. Their speech production is phenomenal but their ability to use human speech correctly and effectively is truly remarkable.","human_ref_B":"I recently read a book called Gifts of the Crow. I recommend it if you want to know more from an authority on the subject.    But to paraphrase decently: crows are indeed incredibly lingo - centric as the other commenter said. They have thousands of calls\/songs (because they are song birds, it just doesn't sound pretty to us compared with a thrush.) And these calls mean very specific things. Therefore we can reasonably guess\/conclude for the sake of time that crows are very smart and have highly developed language centers that can distinguish sounds our human brains could not.     Song birds in general have this body part at the bottom of their trachea that i can't remember the name of. But it lets them pass air selectively through more than one chanel and gives rise to complex melodies\/sounds.     Based on some amusing and interesting anecdotes I read, crows can be tamed as pets and can understand human speech. 100 years back, they were popular pets for kids. There are stories of crows interacting intelligently with dogs and other pets, rallying them using human calls (come on, go, whatever it may have been).     The book is very very interesting and can give you much better understanding. The author kind of pins it all down on neuroscience, which I find to be less than interesting, so I couldn't tell you much about his reasoning. That whole chapter is able to be skipped imo. But again, read it for some wonderful stories on crows. It doesn't touch too much on the mimicking birds, only enough to distinguish them from crows.     I'm an amateur birder so I still have a lot to learn! Hope it helped.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3653.0,"score_ratio":1.76}
{"post_id":"s4ve57","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.74,"history":"In the vacuum of space is there a maximum velocity that an object (that isn't light) can travel, eg a shuttle? Or can it theoretically continue to accelerate if fuel continues to be consume, given that there's no resistance\/drag in the vacuum? Assuming fuel is infinite and absolutely nothing is ever be close enough to the moving object to interfere with its speed or direction","c_root_id_A":"hsu3psc","c_root_id_B":"hsu5bhw","created_at_utc_A":1642292473,"created_at_utc_B":1642293153,"score_A":5,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Assuming you have infinite fuel, you can accelerate forever. From the perspective of a non-accelerating observer, your acceleration will slow as you approach the speed light. From your perspective, however, you can maintain constant acceleration indefinitely.","human_ref_B":"Although you can accelerate indefinitely with vast amounts of fuel, if you got extremely close to the speed of light, you would be killed by the interstellar medium. The effective density of the interstellar medium (ordinarily a few atoms per cubic centimetre) would appear to increase dramatically due to relativistic length contraction as you ever-faster burn your way across the Galaxy. Eventually this would present itself as fatally hard radiation to your plucky spaceship.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":680.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"rn4xih","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.7,"history":"Do we know what percentage of Covid invections come from inhalation vs surface contact? The UK government's Covid slogan is Hands (sanitising) Face (masks) Space (social distancing). Do we actually know how many people are infected from surfaces versus the air?","c_root_id_A":"hprdxdn","c_root_id_B":"hpr2xpv","created_at_utc_A":1640312847,"created_at_utc_B":1640307508,"score_A":13,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"If you want to look up specifics, the term you\u2019re looking for is \u2018fomite\u2019 transmission (versus airborne). There\u2019s a recent UK document on Omicron that touches on this.   https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/1042191\/S1442_EMG_and_SPI-B_Non-Pharmaceutical_Interventions__NPIs__in_the_context_of_Omicron__15_December_2021.pdf  TL;DR - all forms are likely increased, but airborne is the more significant concern.","human_ref_B":"While it would be almost impossible to quantify exactly, given the actual method of infection (respiratory mucosa (tissue, thunk inside of nose lungs ect)) it is overwhelmingly airborne.  The only reasonable way you're getting g covid from a surface is if you stir it up into the air off a counter top (does this count as airborne anyways? IDK) or if you touch a surface someone freshly deposited covid onto then put your hands into your nose\/mouth.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5339.0,"score_ratio":2.1666666667}
{"post_id":"v07chx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"What do scientists mean when they say the universe is flat? I don't understand it at all. Isn't the observable universe a sphere around us? I read something about euclidean geometry works in space and that's how we know it's flat? But then, it might be because the universe is so big, only the part we can see is flat? BUT ISN'T THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE A SPHERE? I don't get it.","c_root_id_A":"iaexayf","c_root_id_B":"iafjpod","created_at_utc_A":1653821982,"created_at_utc_B":1653835319,"score_A":95,"score_B":107,"human_ref_A":"It's the same thing (or opposite, I guess) as when we say \"the world is curved\", but in 3 and 4 dimensions instead of 2 and 3.  At first glance the earth appears flat but it's actually curved. If you draw two parallel lines on the earth and follow them long enough they intersect. This proves it's curved and not flat. If the lines didn't intersect, you haven't actually proved it's not curved, just that it's flat up to a point. If the earth was a sphere 10,000,000 times larger than it is now, we probably wouldn't have been able to prove the earth's shape yet.  So you can never actually prove anything is truly flat, just that \"if it is curved it must be at least XXX times larger than what we can see in order for there to be curve\".  Same applies to the universe. By looking at the cosmic background radiation we can prove that parallel lines stay parallel on the scale of the observable universe. It could be that the universe is a sphere that wraps around itself if you travel 100 times as far as we can see.  The obvious next question is \"if it's curved does that mean there's a 4th spatial dimension? What does it curve into!?!\"  At this point you've reached the end of my tiny monkey brain.  Edit: also \"the observable universe is a sphere around us\" would be like looking around you now, seeing the horizon, and concluding \"the earth is just a circle around me\". The \"sphere\" we see of the observable universe is created from your perspective. If you moved \"1 observable universe distance\" in any direction you'd see a similar sphere, just like if you move \"one horizon distance\" in any direction on the earth you'd see a similar circle.  Your (our) personal horizon has nothing to do with the shape of the universe as long as it's smaller than the curvature size. (your horizon will be the same size on a jupiter as on earth and on a flat earth)","human_ref_B":"It's about the geometry of the universe not just its overall shape.  In geometry,  - On a flat plane: Three angles of triangles always total 180\u00b0. And parallel lines never meet.   - On a sphere: Three angles of triangles always total more than 180\u00b0. And parallel lines will eventually meet.   - On saddle shaped geometry: Three angles of triangles always total less than 180\u00b0. Parallel lines spread apart.  In the observable universe: Triangles in the observable universe appear very close to 180\u00b0. And parallel lines at the largest scales seem straight.  So the \"geometry\" of the universe appears flat, even though the universe stretches out in all directions.   Though as you say in your post, it could be possible the whole universe is indeed not flat, but we can't see it in the limited area of the observable universe.  Astronomers don't actually draw triangles or parallel lines in space. Astronomers look for the geometry of the universe in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).   Ethan Siegel may explain it better than I.   And not all astronomers agree the universe is flat.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13337.0,"score_ratio":1.1263157895}
{"post_id":"v07chx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"What do scientists mean when they say the universe is flat? I don't understand it at all. Isn't the observable universe a sphere around us? I read something about euclidean geometry works in space and that's how we know it's flat? But then, it might be because the universe is so big, only the part we can see is flat? BUT ISN'T THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE A SPHERE? I don't get it.","c_root_id_A":"iafjpod","c_root_id_B":"iaf6gnt","created_at_utc_A":1653835319,"created_at_utc_B":1653828478,"score_A":107,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"It's about the geometry of the universe not just its overall shape.  In geometry,  - On a flat plane: Three angles of triangles always total 180\u00b0. And parallel lines never meet.   - On a sphere: Three angles of triangles always total more than 180\u00b0. And parallel lines will eventually meet.   - On saddle shaped geometry: Three angles of triangles always total less than 180\u00b0. Parallel lines spread apart.  In the observable universe: Triangles in the observable universe appear very close to 180\u00b0. And parallel lines at the largest scales seem straight.  So the \"geometry\" of the universe appears flat, even though the universe stretches out in all directions.   Though as you say in your post, it could be possible the whole universe is indeed not flat, but we can't see it in the limited area of the observable universe.  Astronomers don't actually draw triangles or parallel lines in space. Astronomers look for the geometry of the universe in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).   Ethan Siegel may explain it better than I.   And not all astronomers agree the universe is flat.","human_ref_B":"Your point about the observable universe being a sphere is a non-sequitur. The observable universe is \u201ca sphere\u201d (more accurate mathematical language would actually be a ball) because the stuff we can observe is just the set of all objects within a distance of less than (age of the universe)x(speed of light). While it is true that the *boundary* of that ball is a sphere, this is not what\u2019s at issue. Whether the universe has curvature is an issue of whether the interior of that ball possesses any intrinsic curvature. Just like space inside a beach ball is not curved because of the shape of the ball, the curvature of the universe itself is not determined by that of the observable universe\u2019s boundary","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6841.0,"score_ratio":7.6428571429}
{"post_id":"v07chx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"What do scientists mean when they say the universe is flat? I don't understand it at all. Isn't the observable universe a sphere around us? I read something about euclidean geometry works in space and that's how we know it's flat? But then, it might be because the universe is so big, only the part we can see is flat? BUT ISN'T THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE A SPHERE? I don't get it.","c_root_id_A":"iaexphr","c_root_id_B":"iafjpod","created_at_utc_A":1653822312,"created_at_utc_B":1653835319,"score_A":6,"score_B":107,"human_ref_A":"Of course the observable universe is a sphere. That's simply as far as we can see in any direction. If you can't see more than 3 miles away, then your observable universe is a sphere, centered on you, with a diameter of 6 miles.   Of course the physical universe is a bit bigger.  Also, when we talk about flatness, you have to make sure you're in the right context. Local spacetime is in fact curved. Relativity tells us so. But if we zoom out, it's flat. But also likely infinite. Huh? Exactly.  You're right that basically, flatness refers to the fact that if you shined lasers from 3 points in space, we should get 180 degrees total in the angles. And we do.  What this really means is that the universe is likely not finite. It doesn't curve in on itself. Start on a point on Earth, walk in a straight line and theoretically you can end up at your starting point. Not so in 'the universe.' You just keep going, forever. Flat.  And of course, all of this is 'our current best understanding'. We may find evidence that the universe is somehow flat and finite. Or curved and infinite. Or curved and finite. Or that we've got it altogether wrong and space is Octarine.","human_ref_B":"It's about the geometry of the universe not just its overall shape.  In geometry,  - On a flat plane: Three angles of triangles always total 180\u00b0. And parallel lines never meet.   - On a sphere: Three angles of triangles always total more than 180\u00b0. And parallel lines will eventually meet.   - On saddle shaped geometry: Three angles of triangles always total less than 180\u00b0. Parallel lines spread apart.  In the observable universe: Triangles in the observable universe appear very close to 180\u00b0. And parallel lines at the largest scales seem straight.  So the \"geometry\" of the universe appears flat, even though the universe stretches out in all directions.   Though as you say in your post, it could be possible the whole universe is indeed not flat, but we can't see it in the limited area of the observable universe.  Astronomers don't actually draw triangles or parallel lines in space. Astronomers look for the geometry of the universe in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).   Ethan Siegel may explain it better than I.   And not all astronomers agree the universe is flat.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13007.0,"score_ratio":17.8333333333}
{"post_id":"v07chx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"What do scientists mean when they say the universe is flat? I don't understand it at all. Isn't the observable universe a sphere around us? I read something about euclidean geometry works in space and that's how we know it's flat? But then, it might be because the universe is so big, only the part we can see is flat? BUT ISN'T THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE A SPHERE? I don't get it.","c_root_id_A":"iaf4n6i","c_root_id_B":"iafjpod","created_at_utc_A":1653827359,"created_at_utc_B":1653835319,"score_A":7,"score_B":107,"human_ref_A":"In a flat universe, every triangle, every three-sides figure made of straight lines, no matter how big you draw it, has 180 degrees split between its angles. It behaves how you expect a triangle to behave.  If space were curved, a really big triangle would have more or fewer degrees. Much like when you draw a triangle on the surface of a globe.  In curved space, when you throw a ball straight out in front of you, it does not travel in a straight line away from you forever because the space itself that the ball travels through *is curved*.  In flat space, two parallel lines are parallel forever. In negatively curved spacetime, they will eventually cross. In positively curved spacetime, parallel lines will eventually diverge from each other.","human_ref_B":"It's about the geometry of the universe not just its overall shape.  In geometry,  - On a flat plane: Three angles of triangles always total 180\u00b0. And parallel lines never meet.   - On a sphere: Three angles of triangles always total more than 180\u00b0. And parallel lines will eventually meet.   - On saddle shaped geometry: Three angles of triangles always total less than 180\u00b0. Parallel lines spread apart.  In the observable universe: Triangles in the observable universe appear very close to 180\u00b0. And parallel lines at the largest scales seem straight.  So the \"geometry\" of the universe appears flat, even though the universe stretches out in all directions.   Though as you say in your post, it could be possible the whole universe is indeed not flat, but we can't see it in the limited area of the observable universe.  Astronomers don't actually draw triangles or parallel lines in space. Astronomers look for the geometry of the universe in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).   Ethan Siegel may explain it better than I.   And not all astronomers agree the universe is flat.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7960.0,"score_ratio":15.2857142857}
{"post_id":"v07chx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"What do scientists mean when they say the universe is flat? I don't understand it at all. Isn't the observable universe a sphere around us? I read something about euclidean geometry works in space and that's how we know it's flat? But then, it might be because the universe is so big, only the part we can see is flat? BUT ISN'T THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE A SPHERE? I don't get it.","c_root_id_A":"iaexphr","c_root_id_B":"iaf6gnt","created_at_utc_A":1653822312,"created_at_utc_B":1653828478,"score_A":6,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Of course the observable universe is a sphere. That's simply as far as we can see in any direction. If you can't see more than 3 miles away, then your observable universe is a sphere, centered on you, with a diameter of 6 miles.   Of course the physical universe is a bit bigger.  Also, when we talk about flatness, you have to make sure you're in the right context. Local spacetime is in fact curved. Relativity tells us so. But if we zoom out, it's flat. But also likely infinite. Huh? Exactly.  You're right that basically, flatness refers to the fact that if you shined lasers from 3 points in space, we should get 180 degrees total in the angles. And we do.  What this really means is that the universe is likely not finite. It doesn't curve in on itself. Start on a point on Earth, walk in a straight line and theoretically you can end up at your starting point. Not so in 'the universe.' You just keep going, forever. Flat.  And of course, all of this is 'our current best understanding'. We may find evidence that the universe is somehow flat and finite. Or curved and infinite. Or curved and finite. Or that we've got it altogether wrong and space is Octarine.","human_ref_B":"Your point about the observable universe being a sphere is a non-sequitur. The observable universe is \u201ca sphere\u201d (more accurate mathematical language would actually be a ball) because the stuff we can observe is just the set of all objects within a distance of less than (age of the universe)x(speed of light). While it is true that the *boundary* of that ball is a sphere, this is not what\u2019s at issue. Whether the universe has curvature is an issue of whether the interior of that ball possesses any intrinsic curvature. Just like space inside a beach ball is not curved because of the shape of the ball, the curvature of the universe itself is not determined by that of the observable universe\u2019s boundary","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6166.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"v07chx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"What do scientists mean when they say the universe is flat? I don't understand it at all. Isn't the observable universe a sphere around us? I read something about euclidean geometry works in space and that's how we know it's flat? But then, it might be because the universe is so big, only the part we can see is flat? BUT ISN'T THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE A SPHERE? I don't get it.","c_root_id_A":"iaf6gnt","c_root_id_B":"iaf4n6i","created_at_utc_A":1653828478,"created_at_utc_B":1653827359,"score_A":14,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Your point about the observable universe being a sphere is a non-sequitur. The observable universe is \u201ca sphere\u201d (more accurate mathematical language would actually be a ball) because the stuff we can observe is just the set of all objects within a distance of less than (age of the universe)x(speed of light). While it is true that the *boundary* of that ball is a sphere, this is not what\u2019s at issue. Whether the universe has curvature is an issue of whether the interior of that ball possesses any intrinsic curvature. Just like space inside a beach ball is not curved because of the shape of the ball, the curvature of the universe itself is not determined by that of the observable universe\u2019s boundary","human_ref_B":"In a flat universe, every triangle, every three-sides figure made of straight lines, no matter how big you draw it, has 180 degrees split between its angles. It behaves how you expect a triangle to behave.  If space were curved, a really big triangle would have more or fewer degrees. Much like when you draw a triangle on the surface of a globe.  In curved space, when you throw a ball straight out in front of you, it does not travel in a straight line away from you forever because the space itself that the ball travels through *is curved*.  In flat space, two parallel lines are parallel forever. In negatively curved spacetime, they will eventually cross. In positively curved spacetime, parallel lines will eventually diverge from each other.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1119.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"v07chx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"What do scientists mean when they say the universe is flat? I don't understand it at all. Isn't the observable universe a sphere around us? I read something about euclidean geometry works in space and that's how we know it's flat? But then, it might be because the universe is so big, only the part we can see is flat? BUT ISN'T THE OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE A SPHERE? I don't get it.","c_root_id_A":"iaexphr","c_root_id_B":"iaf4n6i","created_at_utc_A":1653822312,"created_at_utc_B":1653827359,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Of course the observable universe is a sphere. That's simply as far as we can see in any direction. If you can't see more than 3 miles away, then your observable universe is a sphere, centered on you, with a diameter of 6 miles.   Of course the physical universe is a bit bigger.  Also, when we talk about flatness, you have to make sure you're in the right context. Local spacetime is in fact curved. Relativity tells us so. But if we zoom out, it's flat. But also likely infinite. Huh? Exactly.  You're right that basically, flatness refers to the fact that if you shined lasers from 3 points in space, we should get 180 degrees total in the angles. And we do.  What this really means is that the universe is likely not finite. It doesn't curve in on itself. Start on a point on Earth, walk in a straight line and theoretically you can end up at your starting point. Not so in 'the universe.' You just keep going, forever. Flat.  And of course, all of this is 'our current best understanding'. We may find evidence that the universe is somehow flat and finite. Or curved and infinite. Or curved and finite. Or that we've got it altogether wrong and space is Octarine.","human_ref_B":"In a flat universe, every triangle, every three-sides figure made of straight lines, no matter how big you draw it, has 180 degrees split between its angles. It behaves how you expect a triangle to behave.  If space were curved, a really big triangle would have more or fewer degrees. Much like when you draw a triangle on the surface of a globe.  In curved space, when you throw a ball straight out in front of you, it does not travel in a straight line away from you forever because the space itself that the ball travels through *is curved*.  In flat space, two parallel lines are parallel forever. In negatively curved spacetime, they will eventually cross. In positively curved spacetime, parallel lines will eventually diverge from each other.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5047.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"w18dxa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Could we handle nuclear waste by drilling into a subduction zone and let the earth carry the waste into the mantle?","c_root_id_A":"igj13y7","c_root_id_B":"igj6cz2","created_at_utc_A":1658072438,"created_at_utc_B":1658074789,"score_A":36,"score_B":926,"human_ref_A":"At the risk of some oversimplification: the types of man-made nuclear waste that concern us the most have half-lives in the medium term. Short-lived isotopes decay quickly, while very long-lived isotopes tend to less radioactive & therefore low risk. The wastes that concern us most are very radioactive and take years or decades to decay, rather than seconds or millennia e.g. Strontium-90,  Cesium-137, Samarium-151.    So most of the waste problem will go away after a few millennia, while the subduction zone idea works over much longer timescales than we need to worry about.","human_ref_B":"I work at a place that actively recycles nuclear fuel, and in fact ran a reactor for over a decade on recycled fuel. We (nuclear scientists generally) have developed and proven over a dozen different methods to recycle and store radioactive materials long term, so nuclear \"waste\" has been solved for decades. We've just been prevented from actually implementing a lot of those solutions on a broad scale.  The radioactivity is only dangerous for a couple hundred years in the worst case before activity drops to levels that won't cause harm. Of more lasting concern are the chemical risks - just like every other industry.  A nuclear reactor will transmute fuel and structural materials to every element on the periodic table. Some of those are chemically toxic. The easiest way to deal with it is called vitrification, where the dangerous chemicals are encased in glass that, even if shattered, will still bind the chemicals, preventing them from leaching or moving in soil, thereby preventing harm.  The nuclear industry has done a better job of controlling and planning for their waste than any other industry. They also produce orders of magnitude less waste, so really nuclear waste isn't the problem its opponents often portray it to be.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2351.0,"score_ratio":25.7222222222}
{"post_id":"w18dxa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Could we handle nuclear waste by drilling into a subduction zone and let the earth carry the waste into the mantle?","c_root_id_A":"igk6xn5","c_root_id_B":"igj13y7","created_at_utc_A":1658090545,"created_at_utc_B":1658072438,"score_A":175,"score_B":36,"human_ref_A":"Storing nuclear waste is a long-solved problem.  The real \"problem\" is political, not technological.  The amount of nuclear waste generated by a plant is very, very small and can easily be stored on site for decades. For long term storage there are underground facilities around the world already constructed that are in areas that will be geologically inactive for tens of thousands of years (which sounds like a long time but is nothing in geologic terms).  The real issue is political will and nimbyism.","human_ref_B":"At the risk of some oversimplification: the types of man-made nuclear waste that concern us the most have half-lives in the medium term. Short-lived isotopes decay quickly, while very long-lived isotopes tend to less radioactive & therefore low risk. The wastes that concern us most are very radioactive and take years or decades to decay, rather than seconds or millennia e.g. Strontium-90,  Cesium-137, Samarium-151.    So most of the waste problem will go away after a few millennia, while the subduction zone idea works over much longer timescales than we need to worry about.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18107.0,"score_ratio":4.8611111111}
{"post_id":"w18dxa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Could we handle nuclear waste by drilling into a subduction zone and let the earth carry the waste into the mantle?","c_root_id_A":"igj13y7","c_root_id_B":"iglexc4","created_at_utc_A":1658072438,"created_at_utc_B":1658111167,"score_A":36,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"At the risk of some oversimplification: the types of man-made nuclear waste that concern us the most have half-lives in the medium term. Short-lived isotopes decay quickly, while very long-lived isotopes tend to less radioactive & therefore low risk. The wastes that concern us most are very radioactive and take years or decades to decay, rather than seconds or millennia e.g. Strontium-90,  Cesium-137, Samarium-151.    So most of the waste problem will go away after a few millennia, while the subduction zone idea works over much longer timescales than we need to worry about.","human_ref_B":"Most \"radioactive waste\" isn't the glowing green fuel that we see on shows.   Most of it is either literal trash (mopheads, protective clothing, duct tape, etc) that's put into steel barrels and get buried.   The rest is mainly resin and filters that we use to filter out stupidly radioactive stuff from our systems. Those get put into metal containers too, and put into concrete vats and buried as well.   Fuel can be recycled, but currently we put them into these MASSIVE containers that are welded shut and pressurized with helium and then placed into even larger concrete containers that are designed to survive almost anything","labels":0,"seconds_difference":38729.0,"score_ratio":1.0833333333}
{"post_id":"w18dxa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Could we handle nuclear waste by drilling into a subduction zone and let the earth carry the waste into the mantle?","c_root_id_A":"iglexc4","c_root_id_B":"igkvayh","created_at_utc_A":1658111167,"created_at_utc_B":1658101491,"score_A":39,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"Most \"radioactive waste\" isn't the glowing green fuel that we see on shows.   Most of it is either literal trash (mopheads, protective clothing, duct tape, etc) that's put into steel barrels and get buried.   The rest is mainly resin and filters that we use to filter out stupidly radioactive stuff from our systems. Those get put into metal containers too, and put into concrete vats and buried as well.   Fuel can be recycled, but currently we put them into these MASSIVE containers that are welded shut and pressurized with helium and then placed into even larger concrete containers that are designed to survive almost anything","human_ref_B":"Nuclear waste disposal hasn't been a problem for decades. Modern reactors can store all their waste on site and the half life is short enough that by time the reactor is decommissioned all you have left is inert glass","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9676.0,"score_ratio":1.3928571429}
{"post_id":"w18dxa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Could we handle nuclear waste by drilling into a subduction zone and let the earth carry the waste into the mantle?","c_root_id_A":"iglexc4","c_root_id_B":"igkgrhg","created_at_utc_A":1658111167,"created_at_utc_B":1658094810,"score_A":39,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Most \"radioactive waste\" isn't the glowing green fuel that we see on shows.   Most of it is either literal trash (mopheads, protective clothing, duct tape, etc) that's put into steel barrels and get buried.   The rest is mainly resin and filters that we use to filter out stupidly radioactive stuff from our systems. Those get put into metal containers too, and put into concrete vats and buried as well.   Fuel can be recycled, but currently we put them into these MASSIVE containers that are welded shut and pressurized with helium and then placed into even larger concrete containers that are designed to survive almost anything","human_ref_B":"I always thought that these types of plans for very complex systems of \"disposing\" of \"nuclear waste\" seem overly complex, prone to horrible accidents during transport and generally seem to be trying to hide away the waste rather than say, putting it in a safe place (abandoned mine, purpose built enclosure) and simply waiting a few years.  My favourite is \"send it into the sun\"  - so expend a huge amount of rocket fuel (known hazard with what is actually a very difficult target) with a risk of essentially raining down nuclear fall-out on a huge area of the planet if something goes wrong all so that you don't have to wait a couple hundred years","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16357.0,"score_ratio":2.4375}
{"post_id":"w18dxa","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Could we handle nuclear waste by drilling into a subduction zone and let the earth carry the waste into the mantle?","c_root_id_A":"igkvayh","c_root_id_B":"igkgrhg","created_at_utc_A":1658101491,"created_at_utc_B":1658094810,"score_A":28,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Nuclear waste disposal hasn't been a problem for decades. Modern reactors can store all their waste on site and the half life is short enough that by time the reactor is decommissioned all you have left is inert glass","human_ref_B":"I always thought that these types of plans for very complex systems of \"disposing\" of \"nuclear waste\" seem overly complex, prone to horrible accidents during transport and generally seem to be trying to hide away the waste rather than say, putting it in a safe place (abandoned mine, purpose built enclosure) and simply waiting a few years.  My favourite is \"send it into the sun\"  - so expend a huge amount of rocket fuel (known hazard with what is actually a very difficult target) with a risk of essentially raining down nuclear fall-out on a huge area of the planet if something goes wrong all so that you don't have to wait a couple hundred years","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6681.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"sxv6c6","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are dreams powered by the same parts of the brain that are responsible for creativity and imagination? And are those parts of the brain essentially \u201cwriting\u201d your dreams?","c_root_id_A":"hxvqw6n","c_root_id_B":"hxvrco3","created_at_utc_A":1645478432,"created_at_utc_B":1645478613,"score_A":10,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"I read an article somewhat related to this that found scientific support for a technique employed by Salvador Dali and Thomas Edison where they would wake up at just the right part of a sleep cycle to bolster their creativity.   Here's the link: https:\/\/www.livescience.com\/little-known-sleep-stage-may-be-creative-sweet-spot","human_ref_B":"Lisa Barrett wrote a great book called 'How emotions are made' and dives a little into how the brain functions. Basically your brain is 90% internal simulation. So only 10% of external inputs actually gets to your neurons. And the brain uses these external inputs to test against it's own internal simulation. So my guess is yes, the same parts of the brain are responsible for creative, imagination and dreams. The best example for this would probably be when you don't know if a mental image is a dream or a memory.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":181.0,"score_ratio":2.7}
{"post_id":"sxv6c6","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are dreams powered by the same parts of the brain that are responsible for creativity and imagination? And are those parts of the brain essentially \u201cwriting\u201d your dreams?","c_root_id_A":"hxvqw6n","c_root_id_B":"hxvyo24","created_at_utc_A":1645478432,"created_at_utc_B":1645481560,"score_A":10,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"I read an article somewhat related to this that found scientific support for a technique employed by Salvador Dali and Thomas Edison where they would wake up at just the right part of a sleep cycle to bolster their creativity.   Here's the link: https:\/\/www.livescience.com\/little-known-sleep-stage-may-be-creative-sweet-spot","human_ref_B":"One cool thing I read about sleep is that dreams are preparing you for something you *might* experience.   Basically your mind is putting in nonsense mixed with facts\/experiences\/familiar people, etc so it can train itself and be prepared for the time we actually see something weird af for example.  Dreams are the \"unseen data\" you need to train the model (brain) to understand\/predict  things in the future.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3128.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"sxv6c6","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are dreams powered by the same parts of the brain that are responsible for creativity and imagination? And are those parts of the brain essentially \u201cwriting\u201d your dreams?","c_root_id_A":"hxwz84d","c_root_id_B":"hxvqw6n","created_at_utc_A":1645497769,"created_at_utc_B":1645478432,"score_A":13,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"I don't know about y'all but my dreams are powered by some crazed Japanese robot scientist who got trapped in a lab underground for like 10 years, discovered AI,  programmed a wife and family to keep him company only to be discovered and have the lab company keep his family as their own intellectual property, so his vengeful second act in life was writing semi-plausible dream scenes where things are just a touch off and I have an  erection the entire time, and everyone in that dream knows it.","human_ref_B":"I read an article somewhat related to this that found scientific support for a technique employed by Salvador Dali and Thomas Edison where they would wake up at just the right part of a sleep cycle to bolster their creativity.   Here's the link: https:\/\/www.livescience.com\/little-known-sleep-stage-may-be-creative-sweet-spot","labels":1,"seconds_difference":19337.0,"score_ratio":1.3}
{"post_id":"sxv6c6","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Are dreams powered by the same parts of the brain that are responsible for creativity and imagination? And are those parts of the brain essentially \u201cwriting\u201d your dreams?","c_root_id_A":"hxx9nak","c_root_id_B":"hyf3qh4","created_at_utc_A":1645502835,"created_at_utc_B":1645817332,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"So, especially recently, I've been having very vivid, very realistic seeming dreams, as if they're happening in the moment or I'm looking back on a memory. Some of them are understandable, reflections of self guilt and stuff, while others are just... nightmares. Torture and such, stuff that I don't really like (the torture scene in Deadpool irks me, and I've dreamed far worse things, not that that movie is related). What really makes me uncomfortable are the screams, and I just don't understand how my brain can conjure this imagery that makes me wake up in sweats.","human_ref_B":"This is a thread with more than 200 comments and almost no references to peer-reviewed research. That's no good!  # Layman terms and folk psychology  Creativity and imagination are *folk psychology* concepts and it is not a given that they are meaningful in terms of actual brain function. Neuroscientist Paul Cisek has argued that we should, instead, derive concepts from a careful study of evolutionary history in a process he refers to as 'phylogenetic refinement'\u00b9. One of his examples is *attention*\u00b2:  > In contrast to > mainstream research, our synthetic approach requires the theorist to reconstruct a phenomenon from well-understood basic > mechanisms, rather than analyzing the phenomenon into > pieces. Our expectation is that this synthetic\/constructivist approach will eventually reveal that our original ways to > delineate the phenomena we aim to explain were misleading, > and we feel that this is in particular true for the concept of > attention.  There is no 'imagination module' or 'creativity hub' in the brain. There is no neat compartment perfectly matching our cultural concepts and it would be odd if the messy process of evolution resulted in something like that in the first place.  With this caveat in mind, we can explore an interesting analogy: the *process* of imagination\/creativity\/dreaming is similar to the process of *evolution*.  # Search and the locus coeruleus  The locus coeruleus (Latin for 'blue spot') is a small nucleus in the brainstem that supplies noradrenaline to (almost) the entire brain. Noradrenaline is a neuromodulator and as the name implies, neuromodulators are chemicals that modulate the behavior of brain cells. You can think of the LC as a volume knob. It controls, then, the level of something. What?  Traditionally, noradrenaline levels have been equated with general arousal. High levels? You are sharp. Low levels? You are unfocused. In more recent times, novel formulations have been proposed. Bouret & Sara argued in 2005 that the LC is responsible for what they called **network reset**. When the behavioral demands of the environment changes, there is a need for a global interruption signal. The authors propose that this is what the LC accomplishes: it interrupts current processes and facilitates the reallocation of 'attention' according to environmental demands.  Now, what has this got to do with imagination, creativity, and dreaming? This requires that we take a look at the relationship between the LC and a structure known as the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC).  Also in 2005, Aston-Jones and Cohen that the LC and the ACC work together to solve the elusive exploration-exploitation dilemma. Should you keep doing what you're doing, or should you try something different? This is a very difficult problem; ask any machine learning engineer. According to their proposed model, the ACC can randomize behavior when your current strategy isn't working. When utility wanes, the ACC recruits the LC and its noradrenergic input adds stochasticity to the neural dynamics of the ACC.  We can, perhaps, think of mind-wandering as a stochastic cognitive search; exploration. You are bored, so your mind drifts. We might also think that creativity involves randomness. Without neural noise, it would be impossible to explore alternatives. You would, instead, always choose the behavioral strategy that has worked in the past. You would be awfully rigid in your ways. But with the benefit of noise\/randomness\/stochasticity, there's the potential for making discoveries.  And that is also why evolution \"makes use\" of genetic mutations: it's a stochastic search process.  There is evidence for this model in rats\u2075, and it seems rather obvious when you think about it. Of course it would be useful with a system that can help us get 'unstuck' when our current tactics aren't working. But it's not what's driving our dreams; the LC isn't active during sleep\u2076.  The LC-ACC system is most likely heavily involved in what we think of as creativity and imagination, but not so much in dreams. Writing about dreams as well would make this comment far too long, so I will conclude things on this note.  # Concluding remarks  Imagination and creativity are folk psychology concepts and there's no reason to think that there are specific brain centers devoted to them directly. The LC-ACC system is likely involved in what we think of as imagination and creativity via its role in behavioral variability, but it's still a highly general system. It is not, however, involved in the process of dreaming. So whatever is the case, it would be wrong to think that imagination and creativity are \"powered by the same parts of the brain\" as dreams, given that at least this important aspect of the former is not involved in the latter.  **References**:  1. Cisek, P. (2019). Resynthesizing behavior through phylogenetic refinement. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81(7), 2265\u20132287. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13414-019-01760-1  2. Hommel, B., Chapman, C. S., Cisek, P., Neyedli, H. F., Song, J.-H., & Welsh, T. N. (2019). No one knows what attention is. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81(7), 2288\u20132303. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13414-019-01846-w\u200c  3. Bouret, S., & Sara, S. J. (2005). Network reset: a simplified overarching theory of locus coeruleus noradrenaline function. Trends in Neurosciences, 28(11), 574\u2013582. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tins.2005.09.002  4. Aston-Jones, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2005). AN INTEGRATIVE THEORY OF LOCUS COERULEUS-NOREPINEPHRINE FUNCTION: Adaptive Gain and Optimal Performance. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28(1), 403\u2013450. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709  5. Tervo, Dougal G. R., Proskurin, M., Manakov, M., Kabra, M., Vollmer, A., Branson, K., & Karpova, Alla Y. (2014). Behavioral Variability through Stochastic Choice and Its Gating by Anterior Cingulate Cortex. Cell, 159(1), 21\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cell.2014.08.037  6. Mitchell, H. A., & Weinshenker, D. (2010). Good night and good luck: Norepinephrine in sleep pharmacology. Biochemical Pharmacology, 79(6), 801\u2013809. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bcp.2009.10.004","labels":0,"seconds_difference":314497.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz66vyy","c_root_id_B":"hz5orwg","created_at_utc_A":1646307836,"created_at_utc_B":1646293655,"score_A":312,"score_B":142,"human_ref_A":"The simple answer is that synaptic modification does not take as long as you think.  There are immediate processes which strengthen synapses via extremely fast chemical cascades AND there are longer processes in which the neurons remodel and increase the strength of the synapse.  Initial strengthening can take seconds and remodelling may take hours to days","human_ref_B":"In general, Neurons don\u2019t know what\u2019s going on, they receive an input and if a threshold (~55mv) is reached, they fire. If two Neurons fire together, they wire together. Thus they   optimise their signal transitioning. There are many variables which can influence this process, such as the (1) the rate of synaptical firing and (2) the number of neurotransmitters released by one neuron and (3) the number of receptors of the post-synaptical neuron. In addition, one neuron can either inhibit or exhibit another neuron. It becomes apparent that in the matter of ms, different configurations can lead to different outcomes.  Those variable configurations take place when you learn a new skill, for instance piano. Neurons that fire often together, strengthens their connections, while barley used  connections are retreated - use it or lose it. The structural change of the synapse that you are referring to is called long-term potentiation (LTP). This is the optimised process where the pre-synaptic neuron releases more neurotransmitters and the post-synaptic neuron develops more receptors.    Now you mentioned the case with learning the name. This is similar, however the brain already knows the name. What\u2019s happening here is that the existing facts are connected together, e.g the brain connects the name with the sensory input of this person. This connecting is in the end again nothing but optimised neurons that fire together.  Edit: added further information.  Edit:  New evidence suggest that not only synaptical transmition is optimised, but depending on the memory, sometimes whole synapses are retreated and new ones are created.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14181.0,"score_ratio":2.1971830986}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5vhhw","c_root_id_B":"hz66vyy","created_at_utc_A":1646298837,"created_at_utc_B":1646307836,"score_A":10,"score_B":312,"human_ref_A":"The short version, memory isn\u2019t memorization. Don\u2019t think of it as time dependent on physical changes. The reason you can \u201csometimes\u201d remember that name is due to how you encode that information.   Memory is much more in depth and fascinating for me to do it justice here. If you are interested there is a textbook by Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson called Memory that I\u2019d recommend.","human_ref_B":"The simple answer is that synaptic modification does not take as long as you think.  There are immediate processes which strengthen synapses via extremely fast chemical cascades AND there are longer processes in which the neurons remodel and increase the strength of the synapse.  Initial strengthening can take seconds and remodelling may take hours to days","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8999.0,"score_ratio":31.2}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5lenj","c_root_id_B":"hz66vyy","created_at_utc_A":1646291251,"created_at_utc_B":1646307836,"score_A":6,"score_B":312,"human_ref_A":"Billions of neurons firing simultaneously and rapidly every second and after retrieving insane amount of stimulus it decides what to keep in long term memory hence you remember the name of the person because that might be important and not what he wore when he told you the name. Hope that answers :)","human_ref_B":"The simple answer is that synaptic modification does not take as long as you think.  There are immediate processes which strengthen synapses via extremely fast chemical cascades AND there are longer processes in which the neurons remodel and increase the strength of the synapse.  Initial strengthening can take seconds and remodelling may take hours to days","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16585.0,"score_ratio":52.0}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz66vyy","c_root_id_B":"hz5n4m4","created_at_utc_A":1646307836,"created_at_utc_B":1646292463,"score_A":312,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"The simple answer is that synaptic modification does not take as long as you think.  There are immediate processes which strengthen synapses via extremely fast chemical cascades AND there are longer processes in which the neurons remodel and increase the strength of the synapse.  Initial strengthening can take seconds and remodelling may take hours to days","human_ref_B":"Separating memory and behaviours and perceptions has probably put back people\u2019s understanding of brain function.   If you think of reflexes as a whole where some input makes certain neutrons fire which go into the central nervous system to connect eventually with an out put - maybe like motor neuron firing.   Now consider that there are simple reflexes and we understand those 2 or 3 neuron ones pretty well. Some inputs go into the huge labyrinth of connections in the brain. It is here that complex interactions between millions of \u201creflexes\u201d can alter output. The static connection total or connectome alone can process, resonate, separate certain inputs into perceptions, and use these to build simulations of existence and choice options for actions which I would think is what we perceive as subjective experience.   This process is as quick as neuronal firing. But the whole complex structure of interlinking resonances and pathways which can already inhibit or promote certain resonances and pathways can adapt the connections themselves to provide for long term easy access to certain modes. This is what many people refer to as longer term learning.   Memorising simply means being able to repeat in my opinion. The resonances and changes that the complex brain connections can form is already enough to encode and hold things almost instantly but you may require longer term synaptic remodelling to be easily able to return to the resonance pattern in the neuron system years later without experiencing the same input patterns. Equally the remodelling over years may mean that in the future you might not experience the same activation of pathways even if you experience almost the same input patterns.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15373.0,"score_ratio":104.0}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5orwg","c_root_id_B":"hz5lenj","created_at_utc_A":1646293655,"created_at_utc_B":1646291251,"score_A":142,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"In general, Neurons don\u2019t know what\u2019s going on, they receive an input and if a threshold (~55mv) is reached, they fire. If two Neurons fire together, they wire together. Thus they   optimise their signal transitioning. There are many variables which can influence this process, such as the (1) the rate of synaptical firing and (2) the number of neurotransmitters released by one neuron and (3) the number of receptors of the post-synaptical neuron. In addition, one neuron can either inhibit or exhibit another neuron. It becomes apparent that in the matter of ms, different configurations can lead to different outcomes.  Those variable configurations take place when you learn a new skill, for instance piano. Neurons that fire often together, strengthens their connections, while barley used  connections are retreated - use it or lose it. The structural change of the synapse that you are referring to is called long-term potentiation (LTP). This is the optimised process where the pre-synaptic neuron releases more neurotransmitters and the post-synaptic neuron develops more receptors.    Now you mentioned the case with learning the name. This is similar, however the brain already knows the name. What\u2019s happening here is that the existing facts are connected together, e.g the brain connects the name with the sensory input of this person. This connecting is in the end again nothing but optimised neurons that fire together.  Edit: added further information.  Edit:  New evidence suggest that not only synaptical transmition is optimised, but depending on the memory, sometimes whole synapses are retreated and new ones are created.","human_ref_B":"Billions of neurons firing simultaneously and rapidly every second and after retrieving insane amount of stimulus it decides what to keep in long term memory hence you remember the name of the person because that might be important and not what he wore when he told you the name. Hope that answers :)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2404.0,"score_ratio":23.6666666667}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5n4m4","c_root_id_B":"hz5orwg","created_at_utc_A":1646292463,"created_at_utc_B":1646293655,"score_A":3,"score_B":142,"human_ref_A":"Separating memory and behaviours and perceptions has probably put back people\u2019s understanding of brain function.   If you think of reflexes as a whole where some input makes certain neutrons fire which go into the central nervous system to connect eventually with an out put - maybe like motor neuron firing.   Now consider that there are simple reflexes and we understand those 2 or 3 neuron ones pretty well. Some inputs go into the huge labyrinth of connections in the brain. It is here that complex interactions between millions of \u201creflexes\u201d can alter output. The static connection total or connectome alone can process, resonate, separate certain inputs into perceptions, and use these to build simulations of existence and choice options for actions which I would think is what we perceive as subjective experience.   This process is as quick as neuronal firing. But the whole complex structure of interlinking resonances and pathways which can already inhibit or promote certain resonances and pathways can adapt the connections themselves to provide for long term easy access to certain modes. This is what many people refer to as longer term learning.   Memorising simply means being able to repeat in my opinion. The resonances and changes that the complex brain connections can form is already enough to encode and hold things almost instantly but you may require longer term synaptic remodelling to be easily able to return to the resonance pattern in the neuron system years later without experiencing the same input patterns. Equally the remodelling over years may mean that in the future you might not experience the same activation of pathways even if you experience almost the same input patterns.","human_ref_B":"In general, Neurons don\u2019t know what\u2019s going on, they receive an input and if a threshold (~55mv) is reached, they fire. If two Neurons fire together, they wire together. Thus they   optimise their signal transitioning. There are many variables which can influence this process, such as the (1) the rate of synaptical firing and (2) the number of neurotransmitters released by one neuron and (3) the number of receptors of the post-synaptical neuron. In addition, one neuron can either inhibit or exhibit another neuron. It becomes apparent that in the matter of ms, different configurations can lead to different outcomes.  Those variable configurations take place when you learn a new skill, for instance piano. Neurons that fire often together, strengthens their connections, while barley used  connections are retreated - use it or lose it. The structural change of the synapse that you are referring to is called long-term potentiation (LTP). This is the optimised process where the pre-synaptic neuron releases more neurotransmitters and the post-synaptic neuron develops more receptors.    Now you mentioned the case with learning the name. This is similar, however the brain already knows the name. What\u2019s happening here is that the existing facts are connected together, e.g the brain connects the name with the sensory input of this person. This connecting is in the end again nothing but optimised neurons that fire together.  Edit: added further information.  Edit:  New evidence suggest that not only synaptical transmition is optimised, but depending on the memory, sometimes whole synapses are retreated and new ones are created.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1192.0,"score_ratio":47.3333333333}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5vhhw","c_root_id_B":"hz6zrxy","created_at_utc_A":1646298837,"created_at_utc_B":1646322042,"score_A":10,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"The short version, memory isn\u2019t memorization. Don\u2019t think of it as time dependent on physical changes. The reason you can \u201csometimes\u201d remember that name is due to how you encode that information.   Memory is much more in depth and fascinating for me to do it justice here. If you are interested there is a textbook by Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson called Memory that I\u2019d recommend.","human_ref_B":"One of component of this is that all new learning occurs by utilizing extant structures. That is: we relate new events to old, already experienced, events. You can also use this fact to improve your ability to learn\/remember things: try to relate it to things you already know. Also, the more broadly you explore, the easier it\u2019ll become to incorporate\/relate new experiences with old.   This also poses a problem: what happens when a new experience has very little relation to anything we\u2019ve experienced in the past? *Shock* is one example of the result. The implication being that it\u2019s quite challenging to learn things we have no preexisting framework for. When something so radically deviates from past events (or if we perceive it as such) it becomes difficult for our brain to do one of its most important tasks: make predictions about the future.   \u201cThe Enigma of Reason\u201d by Mercier and Sperber elucidates this idea well, showing that we are not nearly as \u201creasonable\u201d or \u201clogical\u201d as we like to believe. Rather, our intellect is, in many ways, a prediction \u2018machine.\u2019 Memories are a core part of this process.   New experiences are related to the past and are established as part of a predictive structure for the future. The more radically an experience deviates from the extant predictive framework, the more it challenges us, and the more inclined we are to remember it. The more \u2018common\u2019 experiences we go through are often forgotten. They don\u2019t need to be remembered as they don\u2019t affect the predictive framework.   This is what we call \u201cshort term\u201d and \u201clong term\u201d memory. Short term: did you brush your teeth this morning? Long term: you (hopefully) brush your teeth every morning, thus the memory is dumped (thanks amygdala). No new structures are needed to process this event, it\u2019s just like everything else you\u2019ve done, thus we might remember it for a time, but it\u2019s unlikely we\u2019ll remember it for longer than a few days.   Of course, if you consciously choose to \u2018weight\u2019 an event\/memory (grant it greater significance) you may in fact be able to grant it longevity. This is the power of human consciousness, and of collective consciousness: culture. Culture teaches us what to emphasize and what not to emphasize, and primes us for some experiences but not others. Every culture has a variety of emphases, some similar and some radically different, but that is, in a nutshell, how it works. The \u201ccultural mind\u201d helps our \u201cpredictive brain\u201d decide what is relevant, and what is not, and thus affects memory.   Thus, brushing your teeth this morning may be irrelevant, but if, for whatever reason, today\u2019s brushing ought to be remembered, you can choose to focus your mind on the memory. Through repetition over time, the neural-chemical pathways that somehow make up these memories can be more easily \u2018triggered,\u2019 thus remembered. One way humans have done this \u201cconscious memory formation,\u201d is through ritual\/traditions. Collectively weighting an event and spending time doing it, and doing it again, and again, helps incorporate ideas, ideals, and other such things deemed \u2018important\u2019 into our frameworks.   This is all overview, and doesn\u2019t get into the nuts and bolts of how the parts actually form, respond, etc. but, as a system, I\u2019ve found this way of thinking about memory to be very helpful.   One component I left out is how easily memories are twisted, especially memories that haven\u2019t received repetitive reinforcement. This is one reason why \u201ceye-witness accounts\u201d have been studied and shown to be less than ideal in courts of law. Memory, especially of \u2018one-off\u2019 events,  is fickle, and is affected by any components relative to the memory. Thus, if a person is prejudiced against the Irish, and they see an Irishman do something, their interpretation and later memory of that event is likely to be impacted by the structures used in relating those new events of the Irishman with their past ideas\/memories of Irishman, which will include a negative bias toward them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23205.0,"score_ratio":4.3}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5lenj","c_root_id_B":"hz6zrxy","created_at_utc_A":1646291251,"created_at_utc_B":1646322042,"score_A":6,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"Billions of neurons firing simultaneously and rapidly every second and after retrieving insane amount of stimulus it decides what to keep in long term memory hence you remember the name of the person because that might be important and not what he wore when he told you the name. Hope that answers :)","human_ref_B":"One of component of this is that all new learning occurs by utilizing extant structures. That is: we relate new events to old, already experienced, events. You can also use this fact to improve your ability to learn\/remember things: try to relate it to things you already know. Also, the more broadly you explore, the easier it\u2019ll become to incorporate\/relate new experiences with old.   This also poses a problem: what happens when a new experience has very little relation to anything we\u2019ve experienced in the past? *Shock* is one example of the result. The implication being that it\u2019s quite challenging to learn things we have no preexisting framework for. When something so radically deviates from past events (or if we perceive it as such) it becomes difficult for our brain to do one of its most important tasks: make predictions about the future.   \u201cThe Enigma of Reason\u201d by Mercier and Sperber elucidates this idea well, showing that we are not nearly as \u201creasonable\u201d or \u201clogical\u201d as we like to believe. Rather, our intellect is, in many ways, a prediction \u2018machine.\u2019 Memories are a core part of this process.   New experiences are related to the past and are established as part of a predictive structure for the future. The more radically an experience deviates from the extant predictive framework, the more it challenges us, and the more inclined we are to remember it. The more \u2018common\u2019 experiences we go through are often forgotten. They don\u2019t need to be remembered as they don\u2019t affect the predictive framework.   This is what we call \u201cshort term\u201d and \u201clong term\u201d memory. Short term: did you brush your teeth this morning? Long term: you (hopefully) brush your teeth every morning, thus the memory is dumped (thanks amygdala). No new structures are needed to process this event, it\u2019s just like everything else you\u2019ve done, thus we might remember it for a time, but it\u2019s unlikely we\u2019ll remember it for longer than a few days.   Of course, if you consciously choose to \u2018weight\u2019 an event\/memory (grant it greater significance) you may in fact be able to grant it longevity. This is the power of human consciousness, and of collective consciousness: culture. Culture teaches us what to emphasize and what not to emphasize, and primes us for some experiences but not others. Every culture has a variety of emphases, some similar and some radically different, but that is, in a nutshell, how it works. The \u201ccultural mind\u201d helps our \u201cpredictive brain\u201d decide what is relevant, and what is not, and thus affects memory.   Thus, brushing your teeth this morning may be irrelevant, but if, for whatever reason, today\u2019s brushing ought to be remembered, you can choose to focus your mind on the memory. Through repetition over time, the neural-chemical pathways that somehow make up these memories can be more easily \u2018triggered,\u2019 thus remembered. One way humans have done this \u201cconscious memory formation,\u201d is through ritual\/traditions. Collectively weighting an event and spending time doing it, and doing it again, and again, helps incorporate ideas, ideals, and other such things deemed \u2018important\u2019 into our frameworks.   This is all overview, and doesn\u2019t get into the nuts and bolts of how the parts actually form, respond, etc. but, as a system, I\u2019ve found this way of thinking about memory to be very helpful.   One component I left out is how easily memories are twisted, especially memories that haven\u2019t received repetitive reinforcement. This is one reason why \u201ceye-witness accounts\u201d have been studied and shown to be less than ideal in courts of law. Memory, especially of \u2018one-off\u2019 events,  is fickle, and is affected by any components relative to the memory. Thus, if a person is prejudiced against the Irish, and they see an Irishman do something, their interpretation and later memory of that event is likely to be impacted by the structures used in relating those new events of the Irishman with their past ideas\/memories of Irishman, which will include a negative bias toward them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":30791.0,"score_ratio":7.1666666667}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz67yt5","c_root_id_B":"hz6zrxy","created_at_utc_A":1646308564,"created_at_utc_B":1646322042,"score_A":6,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"What is known about this is quite complicated, because we have neither a functionally homogeneous memory nor a temporally homogeneous memory. The facts about world, learned skills and your objective life experience information are all stored differently. Also working memory, short term memory and long term memory rely on different structures.   The simplest answer to remembering the name question would be your short term memories are electrical activity in your brain, which is held by limbic system to train your cortex for long term storage. If parts of your limbic system, especially hippocampus is damaged, you lose the ability to form such semantic memories. You forget as soon as you are distracted.      However not all information that is in your working memory required long term storage, so much of the information is processed and forgotten immediately. The rest may also be discarded, but if it is not, its actual storage is not immediate. It takes days to form a memory.","human_ref_B":"One of component of this is that all new learning occurs by utilizing extant structures. That is: we relate new events to old, already experienced, events. You can also use this fact to improve your ability to learn\/remember things: try to relate it to things you already know. Also, the more broadly you explore, the easier it\u2019ll become to incorporate\/relate new experiences with old.   This also poses a problem: what happens when a new experience has very little relation to anything we\u2019ve experienced in the past? *Shock* is one example of the result. The implication being that it\u2019s quite challenging to learn things we have no preexisting framework for. When something so radically deviates from past events (or if we perceive it as such) it becomes difficult for our brain to do one of its most important tasks: make predictions about the future.   \u201cThe Enigma of Reason\u201d by Mercier and Sperber elucidates this idea well, showing that we are not nearly as \u201creasonable\u201d or \u201clogical\u201d as we like to believe. Rather, our intellect is, in many ways, a prediction \u2018machine.\u2019 Memories are a core part of this process.   New experiences are related to the past and are established as part of a predictive structure for the future. The more radically an experience deviates from the extant predictive framework, the more it challenges us, and the more inclined we are to remember it. The more \u2018common\u2019 experiences we go through are often forgotten. They don\u2019t need to be remembered as they don\u2019t affect the predictive framework.   This is what we call \u201cshort term\u201d and \u201clong term\u201d memory. Short term: did you brush your teeth this morning? Long term: you (hopefully) brush your teeth every morning, thus the memory is dumped (thanks amygdala). No new structures are needed to process this event, it\u2019s just like everything else you\u2019ve done, thus we might remember it for a time, but it\u2019s unlikely we\u2019ll remember it for longer than a few days.   Of course, if you consciously choose to \u2018weight\u2019 an event\/memory (grant it greater significance) you may in fact be able to grant it longevity. This is the power of human consciousness, and of collective consciousness: culture. Culture teaches us what to emphasize and what not to emphasize, and primes us for some experiences but not others. Every culture has a variety of emphases, some similar and some radically different, but that is, in a nutshell, how it works. The \u201ccultural mind\u201d helps our \u201cpredictive brain\u201d decide what is relevant, and what is not, and thus affects memory.   Thus, brushing your teeth this morning may be irrelevant, but if, for whatever reason, today\u2019s brushing ought to be remembered, you can choose to focus your mind on the memory. Through repetition over time, the neural-chemical pathways that somehow make up these memories can be more easily \u2018triggered,\u2019 thus remembered. One way humans have done this \u201cconscious memory formation,\u201d is through ritual\/traditions. Collectively weighting an event and spending time doing it, and doing it again, and again, helps incorporate ideas, ideals, and other such things deemed \u2018important\u2019 into our frameworks.   This is all overview, and doesn\u2019t get into the nuts and bolts of how the parts actually form, respond, etc. but, as a system, I\u2019ve found this way of thinking about memory to be very helpful.   One component I left out is how easily memories are twisted, especially memories that haven\u2019t received repetitive reinforcement. This is one reason why \u201ceye-witness accounts\u201d have been studied and shown to be less than ideal in courts of law. Memory, especially of \u2018one-off\u2019 events,  is fickle, and is affected by any components relative to the memory. Thus, if a person is prejudiced against the Irish, and they see an Irishman do something, their interpretation and later memory of that event is likely to be impacted by the structures used in relating those new events of the Irishman with their past ideas\/memories of Irishman, which will include a negative bias toward them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13478.0,"score_ratio":7.1666666667}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5n4m4","c_root_id_B":"hz6zrxy","created_at_utc_A":1646292463,"created_at_utc_B":1646322042,"score_A":3,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"Separating memory and behaviours and perceptions has probably put back people\u2019s understanding of brain function.   If you think of reflexes as a whole where some input makes certain neutrons fire which go into the central nervous system to connect eventually with an out put - maybe like motor neuron firing.   Now consider that there are simple reflexes and we understand those 2 or 3 neuron ones pretty well. Some inputs go into the huge labyrinth of connections in the brain. It is here that complex interactions between millions of \u201creflexes\u201d can alter output. The static connection total or connectome alone can process, resonate, separate certain inputs into perceptions, and use these to build simulations of existence and choice options for actions which I would think is what we perceive as subjective experience.   This process is as quick as neuronal firing. But the whole complex structure of interlinking resonances and pathways which can already inhibit or promote certain resonances and pathways can adapt the connections themselves to provide for long term easy access to certain modes. This is what many people refer to as longer term learning.   Memorising simply means being able to repeat in my opinion. The resonances and changes that the complex brain connections can form is already enough to encode and hold things almost instantly but you may require longer term synaptic remodelling to be easily able to return to the resonance pattern in the neuron system years later without experiencing the same input patterns. Equally the remodelling over years may mean that in the future you might not experience the same activation of pathways even if you experience almost the same input patterns.","human_ref_B":"One of component of this is that all new learning occurs by utilizing extant structures. That is: we relate new events to old, already experienced, events. You can also use this fact to improve your ability to learn\/remember things: try to relate it to things you already know. Also, the more broadly you explore, the easier it\u2019ll become to incorporate\/relate new experiences with old.   This also poses a problem: what happens when a new experience has very little relation to anything we\u2019ve experienced in the past? *Shock* is one example of the result. The implication being that it\u2019s quite challenging to learn things we have no preexisting framework for. When something so radically deviates from past events (or if we perceive it as such) it becomes difficult for our brain to do one of its most important tasks: make predictions about the future.   \u201cThe Enigma of Reason\u201d by Mercier and Sperber elucidates this idea well, showing that we are not nearly as \u201creasonable\u201d or \u201clogical\u201d as we like to believe. Rather, our intellect is, in many ways, a prediction \u2018machine.\u2019 Memories are a core part of this process.   New experiences are related to the past and are established as part of a predictive structure for the future. The more radically an experience deviates from the extant predictive framework, the more it challenges us, and the more inclined we are to remember it. The more \u2018common\u2019 experiences we go through are often forgotten. They don\u2019t need to be remembered as they don\u2019t affect the predictive framework.   This is what we call \u201cshort term\u201d and \u201clong term\u201d memory. Short term: did you brush your teeth this morning? Long term: you (hopefully) brush your teeth every morning, thus the memory is dumped (thanks amygdala). No new structures are needed to process this event, it\u2019s just like everything else you\u2019ve done, thus we might remember it for a time, but it\u2019s unlikely we\u2019ll remember it for longer than a few days.   Of course, if you consciously choose to \u2018weight\u2019 an event\/memory (grant it greater significance) you may in fact be able to grant it longevity. This is the power of human consciousness, and of collective consciousness: culture. Culture teaches us what to emphasize and what not to emphasize, and primes us for some experiences but not others. Every culture has a variety of emphases, some similar and some radically different, but that is, in a nutshell, how it works. The \u201ccultural mind\u201d helps our \u201cpredictive brain\u201d decide what is relevant, and what is not, and thus affects memory.   Thus, brushing your teeth this morning may be irrelevant, but if, for whatever reason, today\u2019s brushing ought to be remembered, you can choose to focus your mind on the memory. Through repetition over time, the neural-chemical pathways that somehow make up these memories can be more easily \u2018triggered,\u2019 thus remembered. One way humans have done this \u201cconscious memory formation,\u201d is through ritual\/traditions. Collectively weighting an event and spending time doing it, and doing it again, and again, helps incorporate ideas, ideals, and other such things deemed \u2018important\u2019 into our frameworks.   This is all overview, and doesn\u2019t get into the nuts and bolts of how the parts actually form, respond, etc. but, as a system, I\u2019ve found this way of thinking about memory to be very helpful.   One component I left out is how easily memories are twisted, especially memories that haven\u2019t received repetitive reinforcement. This is one reason why \u201ceye-witness accounts\u201d have been studied and shown to be less than ideal in courts of law. Memory, especially of \u2018one-off\u2019 events,  is fickle, and is affected by any components relative to the memory. Thus, if a person is prejudiced against the Irish, and they see an Irishman do something, their interpretation and later memory of that event is likely to be impacted by the structures used in relating those new events of the Irishman with their past ideas\/memories of Irishman, which will include a negative bias toward them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":29579.0,"score_ratio":14.3333333333}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5vhhw","c_root_id_B":"hz5lenj","created_at_utc_A":1646298837,"created_at_utc_B":1646291251,"score_A":10,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"The short version, memory isn\u2019t memorization. Don\u2019t think of it as time dependent on physical changes. The reason you can \u201csometimes\u201d remember that name is due to how you encode that information.   Memory is much more in depth and fascinating for me to do it justice here. If you are interested there is a textbook by Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson called Memory that I\u2019d recommend.","human_ref_B":"Billions of neurons firing simultaneously and rapidly every second and after retrieving insane amount of stimulus it decides what to keep in long term memory hence you remember the name of the person because that might be important and not what he wore when he told you the name. Hope that answers :)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7586.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5n4m4","c_root_id_B":"hz5vhhw","created_at_utc_A":1646292463,"created_at_utc_B":1646298837,"score_A":3,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Separating memory and behaviours and perceptions has probably put back people\u2019s understanding of brain function.   If you think of reflexes as a whole where some input makes certain neutrons fire which go into the central nervous system to connect eventually with an out put - maybe like motor neuron firing.   Now consider that there are simple reflexes and we understand those 2 or 3 neuron ones pretty well. Some inputs go into the huge labyrinth of connections in the brain. It is here that complex interactions between millions of \u201creflexes\u201d can alter output. The static connection total or connectome alone can process, resonate, separate certain inputs into perceptions, and use these to build simulations of existence and choice options for actions which I would think is what we perceive as subjective experience.   This process is as quick as neuronal firing. But the whole complex structure of interlinking resonances and pathways which can already inhibit or promote certain resonances and pathways can adapt the connections themselves to provide for long term easy access to certain modes. This is what many people refer to as longer term learning.   Memorising simply means being able to repeat in my opinion. The resonances and changes that the complex brain connections can form is already enough to encode and hold things almost instantly but you may require longer term synaptic remodelling to be easily able to return to the resonance pattern in the neuron system years later without experiencing the same input patterns. Equally the remodelling over years may mean that in the future you might not experience the same activation of pathways even if you experience almost the same input patterns.","human_ref_B":"The short version, memory isn\u2019t memorization. Don\u2019t think of it as time dependent on physical changes. The reason you can \u201csometimes\u201d remember that name is due to how you encode that information.   Memory is much more in depth and fascinating for me to do it justice here. If you are interested there is a textbook by Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson called Memory that I\u2019d recommend.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6374.0,"score_ratio":3.3333333333}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz67yt5","c_root_id_B":"hz5n4m4","created_at_utc_A":1646308564,"created_at_utc_B":1646292463,"score_A":6,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"What is known about this is quite complicated, because we have neither a functionally homogeneous memory nor a temporally homogeneous memory. The facts about world, learned skills and your objective life experience information are all stored differently. Also working memory, short term memory and long term memory rely on different structures.   The simplest answer to remembering the name question would be your short term memories are electrical activity in your brain, which is held by limbic system to train your cortex for long term storage. If parts of your limbic system, especially hippocampus is damaged, you lose the ability to form such semantic memories. You forget as soon as you are distracted.      However not all information that is in your working memory required long term storage, so much of the information is processed and forgotten immediately. The rest may also be discarded, but if it is not, its actual storage is not immediate. It takes days to form a memory.","human_ref_B":"Separating memory and behaviours and perceptions has probably put back people\u2019s understanding of brain function.   If you think of reflexes as a whole where some input makes certain neutrons fire which go into the central nervous system to connect eventually with an out put - maybe like motor neuron firing.   Now consider that there are simple reflexes and we understand those 2 or 3 neuron ones pretty well. Some inputs go into the huge labyrinth of connections in the brain. It is here that complex interactions between millions of \u201creflexes\u201d can alter output. The static connection total or connectome alone can process, resonate, separate certain inputs into perceptions, and use these to build simulations of existence and choice options for actions which I would think is what we perceive as subjective experience.   This process is as quick as neuronal firing. But the whole complex structure of interlinking resonances and pathways which can already inhibit or promote certain resonances and pathways can adapt the connections themselves to provide for long term easy access to certain modes. This is what many people refer to as longer term learning.   Memorising simply means being able to repeat in my opinion. The resonances and changes that the complex brain connections can form is already enough to encode and hold things almost instantly but you may require longer term synaptic remodelling to be easily able to return to the resonance pattern in the neuron system years later without experiencing the same input patterns. Equally the remodelling over years may mean that in the future you might not experience the same activation of pathways even if you experience almost the same input patterns.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16101.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5n4m4","c_root_id_B":"hz71rp1","created_at_utc_A":1646292463,"created_at_utc_B":1646322833,"score_A":3,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Separating memory and behaviours and perceptions has probably put back people\u2019s understanding of brain function.   If you think of reflexes as a whole where some input makes certain neutrons fire which go into the central nervous system to connect eventually with an out put - maybe like motor neuron firing.   Now consider that there are simple reflexes and we understand those 2 or 3 neuron ones pretty well. Some inputs go into the huge labyrinth of connections in the brain. It is here that complex interactions between millions of \u201creflexes\u201d can alter output. The static connection total or connectome alone can process, resonate, separate certain inputs into perceptions, and use these to build simulations of existence and choice options for actions which I would think is what we perceive as subjective experience.   This process is as quick as neuronal firing. But the whole complex structure of interlinking resonances and pathways which can already inhibit or promote certain resonances and pathways can adapt the connections themselves to provide for long term easy access to certain modes. This is what many people refer to as longer term learning.   Memorising simply means being able to repeat in my opinion. The resonances and changes that the complex brain connections can form is already enough to encode and hold things almost instantly but you may require longer term synaptic remodelling to be easily able to return to the resonance pattern in the neuron system years later without experiencing the same input patterns. Equally the remodelling over years may mean that in the future you might not experience the same activation of pathways even if you experience almost the same input patterns.","human_ref_B":"The memory is the signal pattern, not the synapse pattern. They can be related but they don\u2019t have to be. Short term, a thought or memory is a loop. The same pattern loops through the same network repeatedly.    Long Term, there are encodings inside of neurons that change the firing thresholds for the neurons so that they are able to provide the expected output based on the expected input. These are adjusted by feedback signals which are related to that discomfort we have when we are corrected or the fatigue we have when we are trying to memorize things.  adding and removing synapses has to do with the amount of signal that comes in. If a large amount of signal comes in, that means there\u2019s a lot of input. That means you need more synapses to safely encode all of the information. Neurons are sort of like amoebas, and they will reach out as if they are pressurized from inside. Wherever can except the extra neurotransmitters will be where the extra synapses form. Wherever synapses fails to be used, that means those are not needed and eventually through normal recycling of cell parts they are destroyed and absorbed.   That is more like changing the resolution of the pattern just like you could change the resolution of an image. Some images you need a lot of pixels to figure out what they are, and some images you could have a very small number and still recognize it, especially if there are large block color patterns etc.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":30370.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5n4m4","c_root_id_B":"hz783a1","created_at_utc_A":1646292463,"created_at_utc_B":1646325337,"score_A":3,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Separating memory and behaviours and perceptions has probably put back people\u2019s understanding of brain function.   If you think of reflexes as a whole where some input makes certain neutrons fire which go into the central nervous system to connect eventually with an out put - maybe like motor neuron firing.   Now consider that there are simple reflexes and we understand those 2 or 3 neuron ones pretty well. Some inputs go into the huge labyrinth of connections in the brain. It is here that complex interactions between millions of \u201creflexes\u201d can alter output. The static connection total or connectome alone can process, resonate, separate certain inputs into perceptions, and use these to build simulations of existence and choice options for actions which I would think is what we perceive as subjective experience.   This process is as quick as neuronal firing. But the whole complex structure of interlinking resonances and pathways which can already inhibit or promote certain resonances and pathways can adapt the connections themselves to provide for long term easy access to certain modes. This is what many people refer to as longer term learning.   Memorising simply means being able to repeat in my opinion. The resonances and changes that the complex brain connections can form is already enough to encode and hold things almost instantly but you may require longer term synaptic remodelling to be easily able to return to the resonance pattern in the neuron system years later without experiencing the same input patterns. Equally the remodelling over years may mean that in the future you might not experience the same activation of pathways even if you experience almost the same input patterns.","human_ref_B":"Actually you start with the most synapses at birth and they get selectively pruned as you age. You keep those in the most frequent use as they stay relevant. That's why there are \"use it or lose it\" critical periods in development for sight, language...etc.   Memory comes from long-term potentiation - basically as a specific type of neuron with a specific type of receptor fires at the same time with another, they release a chain of bio-chemical signals that makes that same pattern easier to create the next time that context\/situation arises (sensitization).  The memory isnt the connection but the firing pattern.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":32874.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz783a1","c_root_id_B":"hz72oay","created_at_utc_A":1646325337,"created_at_utc_B":1646323187,"score_A":6,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Actually you start with the most synapses at birth and they get selectively pruned as you age. You keep those in the most frequent use as they stay relevant. That's why there are \"use it or lose it\" critical periods in development for sight, language...etc.   Memory comes from long-term potentiation - basically as a specific type of neuron with a specific type of receptor fires at the same time with another, they release a chain of bio-chemical signals that makes that same pattern easier to create the next time that context\/situation arises (sensitization).  The memory isnt the connection but the firing pattern.","human_ref_B":"I've often wondered about this too! Remember, they did an experiment back in the 70s where they mashed up the bodies of worms (t. elegans ?) and fed them to other worms. The un-mashed worms were able to complete a \"maze\" (it was just a \"T\" shape) without having learned it.   This suggests that synapse memory is only one kind of memory, and possibly other memories are formed through some type of chemical engram. It gave me hope that some day we would have pills to take that would instantly give you knowledge in chemistry, trigonometry, physics, stone-knapping, etc.   Alas, it's a quarter into the twenty-first century and no course-in-a-pill technology is even on the horizon.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2150.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz5n4m4","c_root_id_B":"hz7xvbv","created_at_utc_A":1646292463,"created_at_utc_B":1646335175,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Separating memory and behaviours and perceptions has probably put back people\u2019s understanding of brain function.   If you think of reflexes as a whole where some input makes certain neutrons fire which go into the central nervous system to connect eventually with an out put - maybe like motor neuron firing.   Now consider that there are simple reflexes and we understand those 2 or 3 neuron ones pretty well. Some inputs go into the huge labyrinth of connections in the brain. It is here that complex interactions between millions of \u201creflexes\u201d can alter output. The static connection total or connectome alone can process, resonate, separate certain inputs into perceptions, and use these to build simulations of existence and choice options for actions which I would think is what we perceive as subjective experience.   This process is as quick as neuronal firing. But the whole complex structure of interlinking resonances and pathways which can already inhibit or promote certain resonances and pathways can adapt the connections themselves to provide for long term easy access to certain modes. This is what many people refer to as longer term learning.   Memorising simply means being able to repeat in my opinion. The resonances and changes that the complex brain connections can form is already enough to encode and hold things almost instantly but you may require longer term synaptic remodelling to be easily able to return to the resonance pattern in the neuron system years later without experiencing the same input patterns. Equally the remodelling over years may mean that in the future you might not experience the same activation of pathways even if you experience almost the same input patterns.","human_ref_B":"Memory formation is complicated and poorly understood. But neurons are not as slow as you may be thinking. Especially because neural connections don't involve growing new cells, just growing and moving synapses.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":42712.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"t5lkfk","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If memories are synaptic connections in the brain, how are we able to learn\/memorize things so quickly? As I understand it, synapses are neurons making contact with one another. So to make new synapses, the neurons would have to change on a cellular level. Surely this would take hours, or possibly days (or more) to happen.  So why is it, if (for example) someone tells me their name, I'm sometimes able to remember it immediately for a very long time despite only being exposed to that information for far too short of a time for my brain to physically change?","c_root_id_A":"hz7xvbv","c_root_id_B":"hz72oay","created_at_utc_A":1646335175,"created_at_utc_B":1646323187,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Memory formation is complicated and poorly understood. But neurons are not as slow as you may be thinking. Especially because neural connections don't involve growing new cells, just growing and moving synapses.","human_ref_B":"I've often wondered about this too! Remember, they did an experiment back in the 70s where they mashed up the bodies of worms (t. elegans ?) and fed them to other worms. The un-mashed worms were able to complete a \"maze\" (it was just a \"T\" shape) without having learned it.   This suggests that synapse memory is only one kind of memory, and possibly other memories are formed through some type of chemical engram. It gave me hope that some day we would have pills to take that would instantly give you knowledge in chemistry, trigonometry, physics, stone-knapping, etc.   Alas, it's a quarter into the twenty-first century and no course-in-a-pill technology is even on the horizon.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11988.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"dcsrm2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Coming from a 3rd year electrical engineering students perspective, I know how static electricity works but what I don't know is why it works essentially. What I'm asking is; why do some materials hold a better charge than others and while one material likes to gain a negative charge, Visa versa? By Visa versa I mean another likes to give away electrons. I figure it has to do with surface area in some instances like with fur or styrofoam but with glass and other non conductors that can have the same surface area I don't know where these extra electrons or holes are stored.","c_root_id_A":"f2bv76m","c_root_id_B":"f2bkkwf","created_at_utc_A":1570131192,"created_at_utc_B":1570127658,"score_A":52,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"Posting what I think is an appropriate follow-up question:  Last week we had a party.  We had a bunch of balloons, all the same size, all made of the same latex.  They all had foil confetti stuffed into them and were then inflated.  Half were inflated the normal way, by breathing into them.  The other half were inflated with helium from a canister.    I tried to show my son how you could rub a balloon on your jumper repeatedly until it amassed enough overall charge on the surface that it would stick to the wall.  After rubbing different balloons we noticed that in the balloons containing air, the confetti distributed itself evenly across the inner surface of the balloon once it became charged.  In the helium-containing balloons, on the other hand, the majority of the confetti just sat in the bottom of the balloon, seemingly not attracted or repelled by any charge at all.  What is the explanation for this?  Does the gas inside the balloon somehow affect the ability of the latex to pick up or retain an overall charge?","human_ref_B":"Please take my answer with a grain of salt, just in case.  I suppose from a chemical point of view friction energy would be able to rip out electrons from rather *electropositive functional groups* in one material that will be captured by more *electronegative functional groups* in the other material. So I'd say it boils down to electronegativity.  This is similar to how sodium and chloride can react by forming ions. The difference is that in the case of NaCl, those ions mix together and have a strong ionic bond afterwards, while in the example above the ions of either kind are attached to only one of the materials respectively (e.g. the fur) and can therefore be separated from one another.  Just because a material is an \"isolator\" (every material becomes conductive at sufficient voltage) does not mean that there aren't any surface charges present, only that they do not propagate well.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3534.0,"score_ratio":1.625}
{"post_id":"dcsrm2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Coming from a 3rd year electrical engineering students perspective, I know how static electricity works but what I don't know is why it works essentially. What I'm asking is; why do some materials hold a better charge than others and while one material likes to gain a negative charge, Visa versa? By Visa versa I mean another likes to give away electrons. I figure it has to do with surface area in some instances like with fur or styrofoam but with glass and other non conductors that can have the same surface area I don't know where these extra electrons or holes are stored.","c_root_id_A":"f2bqqoy","c_root_id_B":"f2bv76m","created_at_utc_A":1570129803,"created_at_utc_B":1570131192,"score_A":11,"score_B":52,"human_ref_A":"It has to do with the chemical properties of the material being considered. More specifically, this would have to do with the atoms contained within the material and how they are organized. A very simplistic version of this is the idea of doping in semiconductor electronics. \u201cP Type\u201d or positive type is a material rich with electron holes  or positively charged ions. On the contrary, there is \u201cN Type\u201d or negatively charged material rich with electrons or have excess negatively charged electrons. Taking this idea into account, this is why some materials are very good at holding static electricity, while others (balanced with positive and negative charges) do not seem to be very effective. Here is a nice short article on wiki:   https:\/\/en.m.wikibooks.org\/wiki\/Semiconductor_Electronics\/Semiconductor\/Doping","human_ref_B":"Posting what I think is an appropriate follow-up question:  Last week we had a party.  We had a bunch of balloons, all the same size, all made of the same latex.  They all had foil confetti stuffed into them and were then inflated.  Half were inflated the normal way, by breathing into them.  The other half were inflated with helium from a canister.    I tried to show my son how you could rub a balloon on your jumper repeatedly until it amassed enough overall charge on the surface that it would stick to the wall.  After rubbing different balloons we noticed that in the balloons containing air, the confetti distributed itself evenly across the inner surface of the balloon once it became charged.  In the helium-containing balloons, on the other hand, the majority of the confetti just sat in the bottom of the balloon, seemingly not attracted or repelled by any charge at all.  What is the explanation for this?  Does the gas inside the balloon somehow affect the ability of the latex to pick up or retain an overall charge?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1389.0,"score_ratio":4.7272727273}
{"post_id":"dcsrm2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Coming from a 3rd year electrical engineering students perspective, I know how static electricity works but what I don't know is why it works essentially. What I'm asking is; why do some materials hold a better charge than others and while one material likes to gain a negative charge, Visa versa? By Visa versa I mean another likes to give away electrons. I figure it has to do with surface area in some instances like with fur or styrofoam but with glass and other non conductors that can have the same surface area I don't know where these extra electrons or holes are stored.","c_root_id_A":"f2d21nn","c_root_id_B":"f2bqqoy","created_at_utc_A":1570145870,"created_at_utc_B":1570129803,"score_A":17,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"There has been some recent research that suggested that the high school picture that in a pair of materials, one uniformly acquires positive and the other negative charge upon contact electrification is incorrect.  They propose that each surface supports a random mosaic of oppositely charged regions of nanoscopic dimensions.   They actually showed in their experiment that contact electrification was occuring between two sheets of the same material, which shouldn't happen according to the conventional view. There should be no thermodynamic force driving this electrification since the material surfaces\/bulk exhibit the same chemical potential.   They actually measured the charge distributions on surfaces of different materials and found these differently charged mosaics to be on an order of a micrometer or less across. Sometimes the local charges could be a few orders of magnitude higher than the average surface charge.  So to get back to your questions, from a physics point of view the topic seems to raise more questions the more research is conducted into the fundamentals of it. But for your questions regarding which materials become positively or negatively charged, the concepts of electronegativity and electron affinity should suffice. As to your question about why some materials can hold charge better than others, there isn't a single direct answer. You have to consider different loss mechanisms, surface area, breakdown processes and such.   Here's the link to the paper in case you want to read up on it:  https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/333\/6040\/308","human_ref_B":"It has to do with the chemical properties of the material being considered. More specifically, this would have to do with the atoms contained within the material and how they are organized. A very simplistic version of this is the idea of doping in semiconductor electronics. \u201cP Type\u201d or positive type is a material rich with electron holes  or positively charged ions. On the contrary, there is \u201cN Type\u201d or negatively charged material rich with electrons or have excess negatively charged electrons. Taking this idea into account, this is why some materials are very good at holding static electricity, while others (balanced with positive and negative charges) do not seem to be very effective. Here is a nice short article on wiki:   https:\/\/en.m.wikibooks.org\/wiki\/Semiconductor_Electronics\/Semiconductor\/Doping","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16067.0,"score_ratio":1.5454545455}
{"post_id":"dcsrm2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Coming from a 3rd year electrical engineering students perspective, I know how static electricity works but what I don't know is why it works essentially. What I'm asking is; why do some materials hold a better charge than others and while one material likes to gain a negative charge, Visa versa? By Visa versa I mean another likes to give away electrons. I figure it has to do with surface area in some instances like with fur or styrofoam but with glass and other non conductors that can have the same surface area I don't know where these extra electrons or holes are stored.","c_root_id_A":"f2drwzi","c_root_id_B":"f2dgo0m","created_at_utc_A":1570162787,"created_at_utc_B":1570153721,"score_A":6,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"You could think of it like the \"glue-ness\" of a material. Glues actually work at the electrostatic\/covalent level, so it's less of a metaphor and more of the same effect seen from a different perspective.  Static electricity is the effect of some electrons getting stuck to this or that material. If you rub two materials together, electrons will tend to stick to whichever is more \"sticky\" due to its outermost atoms, which are there due to its chemical formulation and whatever structure its molecules are organized into. Whichever material ends up losing electrons, it will have \"holes\" in their place. Holes are not stored anywhere, they're just an effect of an electrical imbalance... or if you prefer, they're \"stored\" in the nuclei of the material's atoms.  Some materials are much better at getting electrostatically charged if they have a structure composed of \"sticky\" atoms separated by non-conductive atoms, like it was made from a mesh of tiny capacitors. Glass and other \"non conductors\" are often just like that at the molecular level, not conducting at the macroscopic level but still having \"hotspots\" at the atomic-molecular level. This is also the basis for semiconductors to work, with dopants acting like hotspots where electrons tend to get attracted from the surrounding average material, or the surrounding average material tends to pull electrons from the dopant, creating a \"hole\".   PS: it's \"vice versa\", not \"Visa versa\".","human_ref_B":"There was actually some interesting progress on this recently. See here: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/pdf\/1904.10383.pdf Basically, many materials develop an electric field when there is nonuniform strain on them, as occurs when they are bent or flexed. Most surfaces have lots of small bumps and irregularities that stick out. When surfaces are rubbed against one another, the bits sticking out can bend and you get electric fields. The magnitude of this field is enough to yank charges around....static electricity. [not really my area of expertise but this was my quick read of this work]","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9066.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"dcsrm2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Coming from a 3rd year electrical engineering students perspective, I know how static electricity works but what I don't know is why it works essentially. What I'm asking is; why do some materials hold a better charge than others and while one material likes to gain a negative charge, Visa versa? By Visa versa I mean another likes to give away electrons. I figure it has to do with surface area in some instances like with fur or styrofoam but with glass and other non conductors that can have the same surface area I don't know where these extra electrons or holes are stored.","c_root_id_A":"f2drwzi","c_root_id_B":"f2djide","created_at_utc_A":1570162787,"created_at_utc_B":1570155886,"score_A":6,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"You could think of it like the \"glue-ness\" of a material. Glues actually work at the electrostatic\/covalent level, so it's less of a metaphor and more of the same effect seen from a different perspective.  Static electricity is the effect of some electrons getting stuck to this or that material. If you rub two materials together, electrons will tend to stick to whichever is more \"sticky\" due to its outermost atoms, which are there due to its chemical formulation and whatever structure its molecules are organized into. Whichever material ends up losing electrons, it will have \"holes\" in their place. Holes are not stored anywhere, they're just an effect of an electrical imbalance... or if you prefer, they're \"stored\" in the nuclei of the material's atoms.  Some materials are much better at getting electrostatically charged if they have a structure composed of \"sticky\" atoms separated by non-conductive atoms, like it was made from a mesh of tiny capacitors. Glass and other \"non conductors\" are often just like that at the molecular level, not conducting at the macroscopic level but still having \"hotspots\" at the atomic-molecular level. This is also the basis for semiconductors to work, with dopants acting like hotspots where electrons tend to get attracted from the surrounding average material, or the surrounding average material tends to pull electrons from the dopant, creating a \"hole\".   PS: it's \"vice versa\", not \"Visa versa\".","human_ref_B":"related, why does laundry in the drier built up so much? it goes from wet clothes, which (i think?) are very hard to hold a charge, plus hot air being pumped in that is also presumably neutral, into something that sticks to everything and messes up hair. additionally, how to drier sheets counteract this?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6901.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"zt5ado","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Did scientists know that nuclear explosions would produce mushroom clouds before the first one was set off?","c_root_id_A":"j1bx3f3","c_root_id_B":"j1c5kiz","created_at_utc_A":1671767919,"created_at_utc_B":1671772570,"score_A":728,"score_B":3203,"human_ref_A":"The mushroom cloud feature is merely an effect of hot, hot air rising, expanding, and cooling, which happens in traditional explosives as well. They're just synonymous with nuclear explosions because of the photos and because they're much much larger and much much hotter.   For example, here is a photo of the pyroclastic cloud of the SS Mont-Blanc, which was fully loaded with TNT, picric acid, the highly flammable fuel\u00a0benzol,\u00a0and\u00a0guncotton back in 1917.","human_ref_B":"They sure did. This is footage of an explosive test conducted by Manhattan Project scientists on May 7th 1945 near the site of the later Trinity test. The test utilized conventional explosives equivalent to 108 tonnes of TNT and produced the characteristic mushroom cloud of later nuclear explosions.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4651.0,"score_ratio":4.3997252747}
{"post_id":"zt5ado","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Did scientists know that nuclear explosions would produce mushroom clouds before the first one was set off?","c_root_id_A":"j1czm5c","c_root_id_B":"j1dvbgl","created_at_utc_A":1671794971,"created_at_utc_B":1671811644,"score_A":23,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"Yes, mushroom clouds are well known and are caused by air currents - the rising hot air cools and spreads out.  There must also be debris to make the effect visible.  Here's an in depth explanation of mushroom clouds:  https:\/\/scienceline.org\/2015\/06\/to-make-a-mushroom-cloud\/  I've seen one as small as 40 feet tall - one of the science teachers at my high school liked to make them.  This gives a method of how to make one:  https:\/\/www.popsci.com\/mushroom-cloud-made-coffee-creamer\/  But please don't try it.","human_ref_B":"Mushroom clouds are a feature of gas dynamics and not exclusive to nuclear explosions. Such phenomena had been observed in large explosions before nuclear weapons were even thought of.    They happen because the hot gas from the explosion is pushing against the relatively cool gas of the atmosphere. At low altitude, where atmospheric pressure is at its greatest, there is far more resistance to the explosions expansion so the hot gas is driven upwards into low pressure, high altitude air where it can expand (and cool) much more freely back to ambient levels.    As the hot gas rises and cools it starts to fall back to earth but hot gas in the centre of the column, which can remain hotter for longer, continues rising and pushes the cooler gas aside causing a billowing effect that results in the famous mushroom shape.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16673.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"wghdk6","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"Is it true that mad cow disease is caused by acts of cannibalism? If so, why is cow eating cow\u2019s brain more dangerous than cow eating rat\u2019s brain?","c_root_id_A":"iiztfhb","c_root_id_B":"iizzezi","created_at_utc_A":1659661697,"created_at_utc_B":1659664352,"score_A":976,"score_B":2829,"human_ref_A":"You might be conflating a couple of things.  Prions that are responsible for a variety of related diseases affect the nervous system.  Its possible to get a prion disease from eating the brains of an infected cow.  Its also possible to get a prion disease from eating the brains of an infected person.","human_ref_B":"Mad cow disease (aka bovine spongiform encephalopathy) is caused by misfolded proteins called prions. There are two types of mad cow disease: classical and atypical. Atypical is rarer, and occurs spontaneously. Classical BSE occurs when cows eat feed contaminated with BSE-infected meat and bone meal. So yes, some types of BSE are transmitted by cannibalism.  Like many other pathogens, prions tend to be restricted to the natural host species that they infect.  But just like many other pathogens, prions do, very rarely, cross species. The most well-known example would be variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, which infects humans when they consume contaminated bovine meat.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2655.0,"score_ratio":2.8985655738}
{"post_id":"wghdk6","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"Is it true that mad cow disease is caused by acts of cannibalism? If so, why is cow eating cow\u2019s brain more dangerous than cow eating rat\u2019s brain?","c_root_id_A":"ij014we","c_root_id_B":"ij03kt1","created_at_utc_A":1659665122,"created_at_utc_B":1659666236,"score_A":78,"score_B":248,"human_ref_A":"There is a lot of \"from my understanding\" or \"I believe X\" showing up that is trying to link Kuru to mad cow disease, also known as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy.   There is no known link between the two other than they are both prions, proteins that affect the brain and lead to death.   There is however a variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease that is considered to be the same prion as BSE. vCJD is what BSE is called when it is humans as well. vCJD can be contracted through eating tainted meat, the use of infected surgical equipment (cleaning doesn't work for prions) and possibly through blood transfusions.  In summary; Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease is what Mad Cow disease is called in humans. There is no relation to Kuru between the other two.","human_ref_B":"In the 19th century, they added cow brains to a certain brand of milk to increase the fat content and a lot of people died.  https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/magazine\/archive\/2018\/11\/crushed-bugs-calf-brains-and-other-wholesome-staples-of-the-past\/570793\/","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1114.0,"score_ratio":3.1794871795}
{"post_id":"g04pcz","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If there is only one virus that causes COVID-19, how can there be so many competing vaccines in the works? Were there multiple possible vaccines for Polio and other viruses as well?","c_root_id_A":"fn8712z","c_root_id_B":"fn86vjo","created_at_utc_A":1586735269,"created_at_utc_B":1586735174,"score_A":35,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"There are two Polio vaccines named after their creators. The Sabin vaccine and the Salk Vaccine. The Sabin vaccine is live Polio virus strains that have been weakened by getting them to adapt to non human animals. The Salk vaccine is an inactivated virus vaccine. You grow viruses in culture. Then use something (formaldehyde I think in the Salk vaccine case) to smash the viruses to pieces and inject the pieces. The Sabin vaccine has a benefit that it actually spreads in the community also spreading immunity, but without causing the poliomyelitis (the paralysis) that human Polio strains are famous for. But you have a very small chance of the Sabin vaccine reverting to being dangerous. These days there are actually more people infected by reverted Sabin vaccine than from the old wild strains. This is causing quite a debate in the eradication community. Because the Sabin vaccine is much, much, much easier to administer as it's just a few drops of liquid on your tongue. The Salk vaccine has to be injected into a muscle, and so requires a lot more training and equipment to distribute safely. Using the Sabin vaccine was probably the right choice when wild Polio was prevalent, but it's getting harder to justify it's use.  For Coronavirus most of the vaccines are targeting the \"spike\" protein that is on the outside of the virus. But there are a lot of choices, like what part of the spike, what concentrations, adjuvants (other stuff you add to the vaccine to make it work better), and manufacturing methods are being tried out. There are some very new types of vaccines called DNA vaccines that are being tried also. If one of those work out I believe it'll be the first DNA vaccine to be licensed.","human_ref_B":"Just an FYI, it was recently identified that there are actually three different strains of COVID-19 now due to mutations since it was originally found.   https:\/\/www.dailymail.co.uk\/sciencetech\/article-8204255\/There-THREE-separate-types-coronavirus.html","labels":1,"seconds_difference":95.0,"score_ratio":11.6666666667}
{"post_id":"g04pcz","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"If there is only one virus that causes COVID-19, how can there be so many competing vaccines in the works? Were there multiple possible vaccines for Polio and other viruses as well?","c_root_id_A":"fn874su","c_root_id_B":"fn86vjo","created_at_utc_A":1586735330,"created_at_utc_B":1586735174,"score_A":21,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Most attempts to make a vaccine don\u2019t work out. An untested vaccine might be useful, but not effective enough to stop the spread (e.g., the current flu vaccine is only borderline effective).  They might have unwanted side effects (there was a flu vaccine in the 70s that was associated with a small uptick in a rare autoimmune disorder). Sometimes untested vaccines can actually make you more susceptible to the disease.  It takes a long time to do trials of vaccines to prove that they are both safe and effective. So, many research organizations around the world are working on it for coronavirus. Maybe 10 of them will create a promising candidate, and maybe 2 of those pass the trials and be approved.  Also, this is what these experts have spent their whole life working for. This is their moment. Of course they\u2019re all gonna step up now.","human_ref_B":"Just an FYI, it was recently identified that there are actually three different strains of COVID-19 now due to mutations since it was originally found.   https:\/\/www.dailymail.co.uk\/sciencetech\/article-8204255\/There-THREE-separate-types-coronavirus.html","labels":1,"seconds_difference":156.0,"score_ratio":7.0}
{"post_id":"jphrna","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.82,"history":"Do different blood types exist everywhere in the animal kingdom? Do plants have something such a blood type? What is its role in the evolution of life? I mean do we have theories or facts about when, why and how this specific characteristic of biologic life came out?","c_root_id_A":"gbggi60","c_root_id_B":"gbgf84y","created_at_utc_A":1604760733,"created_at_utc_B":1604759954,"score_A":10,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Plants no, but almost all animals? Yes. Dogs have 13 identified types, cats 3 and horses a total of 8 types. Interesting anecdote; with human blood types  a typo led to us calling type 0, type O. Part of that typo is likely due to it originally being referred to as type \u201cohne\u201d due to Karl Landsteiner naming it that because it is \u201cwithout\u201d \u201czero\u201d or \u201cnull\u201d, (he originally named it type C but later changed it.) It\u2019s still written in many places and correct to call it \u201ctype 0\u201d though. Type 0 negative is also not a true \u201cuniversal\u201d donor as those with rh null cannot accept it. It\u2019s a general donor though.       It\u2019s believed that blood types evolved to fight off infectious diseases. There are diverging hypotheses that state that either type 0 was the ancient blood type or that type ab was the ancient type. Unless someone knows of more recent research on it, the emergence and evolution of human blood groups is unclear.      All we do know is that some ethnicities have a higher prevalence of specific blood types and rh factor. Some ethnicities also have a higher prevalence of specific rare blood types. Such as RzRz blood.      Almost forgot there are some animals without a circulatory system and thus do not have blood, those are; Flatworms, nematodes, and cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals).","human_ref_B":"> Do different blood types exist everywhere in the animal kingdom?  Don't know about \"everywhere\", but it's at least common among animals, with different groups of animals having different systems: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blood_type_(non-human)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":779.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"d3rt2b","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"Do other animals have blood types similar to humans? Humans have several different blood types A, B, AB, and O. Do other animals have something similar and does it work the same way as humans? Do some animals need a specific type?","c_root_id_A":"f05baqh","c_root_id_B":"f05ayg4","created_at_utc_A":1568406016,"created_at_utc_B":1568405785,"score_A":39,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Human blood types refer to \"antigens\" (proteins or polysaccharides) present on the surface of human blood cells. The most significant antigens (when considering possible immune reactions) are \"A\" and \"B\", and \"Rh(D)\" (which we represent with a \"+\" or \"-\". \"O\" means a person lacks both A and B antigens, \"-\" means they lack Rh(D). So an O- person doesn't have A, B, or Rh(D) antigens on their red blood cells, and an AB+ person has all three.  (There are actually over 50 antigens that may be present in humans, but most of them aren't likely enough to provoke a severe immune response.)  Having these antigens means the person's immune system ignores those antigens...otherwise their immune system would attack cells expressing those antigens. So an \"AB\" person can safely receive \"A\" blood...the AB person's body already ignores the \"A\" antigen, so \"A\" blood is safe. An O- person has none of the three major antigens, which is why we call that the \"universal donor\" blood type...nobody's immune system is going to attack O- blood cells, because they have none of the major antigens to provoke an immune attack.  On to animals! Yes, animals have blood types...but because those blood types are determined by these different possible antigens on the surfaces of blood cells, every animal has their own number and types of antigens. We're most familiar with the blood types of domesticated animals, since transfusions are more likely to be performed on those.  Cats, for example, have an \"A\" antigen and a \"B\" antigen. (These are different from human A and B antigens, just named the same.) In cats, these are mutually exclusive...the \"A\" antigen gene is dominant to the recessive \"B\" antigen gene, so a cat with \"A\" antigens can (almost) never also have B, and vice versa. So while humans can have a \"universal donor\" blood type (\"O-\"), cats cannot...A cats cannot receive B blood, and B cats cannot receive A blood.  Some animals have a LOT of possible antigens. Cows have 11 blood groups (and their \"B\" group has 60 different possible antigens in it), making it a little more work to find a good blood transfusion match for a cow.","human_ref_B":"Humans have several blood groups, of which two are most important from a donation perspective. The ABO group with the blood types you listed, and the Rhesus factor (Rh+ or Rh-) from which the positive or negative designation for blood type comes from.  Other mammals also have one or more blood groups with different varieties within the groups. Here is a quick list of blood groups for dogs, cats, cattle, sheep, etc.  http:\/\/eclinpath.com\/hemostasis\/transfusion-medicine\/blood-types\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":231.0,"score_ratio":13.0}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir4ddla","c_root_id_B":"ir4ahk7","created_at_utc_A":1664952377,"created_at_utc_B":1664950097,"score_A":4743,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"Phylogenetic bracketing. None of their relatives have anything similar to vocal cords so dinosaurs most probably didn\u2019t either, so they couldn\u2019t exactly roar. Something like the deep hisses of crocodiles or the cassowary\u2019s rumble might perhaps give you an idea of what they could have sounded like.  Edit: And similarly for singing, that\u2019s not an ability all birds have but is limited to songbirds, so it\u2019s not something we can hypothesize for dinosaurs as a whole.","human_ref_B":"There are various metods to aproximate what their call might have been. Soft tissue fosilizes rarely in conditions that would give us a more definitive answer, but what little we have uncovered by now point to more bird like than mammal like sounds.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2280.0,"score_ratio":71.8636363636}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir4e3tw","c_root_id_B":"ir5abki","created_at_utc_A":1664952972,"created_at_utc_B":1664975950,"score_A":432,"score_B":513,"human_ref_A":"There\u2019s a couple ways to go about it. I wouldn\u2019t say they chirped and sang but probably would\u2019ve had distinct calls. They probably wouldn\u2019t have roared all the time like in Jurassic park, why would they need to beyond communicating to one another? But a couple examples is scientists looking at big birds today and how they make sound. For instance a particular bird they use for reference quite a lot is the Shoebill, which makes deep rumbling sound.   A lot of scientists think this is similar to how big theropods like T.rex communicated only it would be much deeper and in some cases too deep for us to hear.   Another example is using the fossilised skull itself. Most notable is the parasaurolophus which had a crest with channels in it that it could push air through to make a kind of trumpet sound. There are examples on YouTube which are that, examples, they would probably have been able to change the pitch.   But long story short, kind of the chirps and sounds like that maybe the closest you\u2019d get to that is Dromeosaurs like velociraptors and other smaller dinosaurs like that","human_ref_B":"The ability to roar isn\u2019t universal. Big cats have specialized throat bones and musculature that facilitates roaring. House cats do not have this adaption and therefore cannot roar. We can tell from the fossil record that dinosaurs did not have this adaption. Whether they had other adaptations that allowed them to roar is fair game, but it wouldn\u2019t have sounded like a big cat\u2019s roar.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":22978.0,"score_ratio":1.1875}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir4zq62","c_root_id_B":"ir5abki","created_at_utc_A":1664970402,"created_at_utc_B":1664975950,"score_A":364,"score_B":513,"human_ref_A":"There was a good episode of this podcast called *Unexplainable* were they tried to figure out what dinosaurs from Jurassic Park would have actually sounded like.   They went with bird sounds but because dinosaurs were so huge, it would have sounded more like a  big vibration than a real sound.","human_ref_B":"The ability to roar isn\u2019t universal. Big cats have specialized throat bones and musculature that facilitates roaring. House cats do not have this adaption and therefore cannot roar. We can tell from the fossil record that dinosaurs did not have this adaption. Whether they had other adaptations that allowed them to roar is fair game, but it wouldn\u2019t have sounded like a big cat\u2019s roar.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5548.0,"score_ratio":1.4093406593}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir59izc","c_root_id_B":"ir5abki","created_at_utc_A":1664975576,"created_at_utc_B":1664975950,"score_A":118,"score_B":513,"human_ref_A":"I remember a documentary on one dinosaur who's fossil skull showed a large, hollow crest that was connected to the airway.  They thought the crest was connected to act as a sound generator and they simulated it and got a low, rumbling sound out of it.  https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=lBU6zfI1b0U","human_ref_B":"The ability to roar isn\u2019t universal. Big cats have specialized throat bones and musculature that facilitates roaring. House cats do not have this adaption and therefore cannot roar. We can tell from the fossil record that dinosaurs did not have this adaption. Whether they had other adaptations that allowed them to roar is fair game, but it wouldn\u2019t have sounded like a big cat\u2019s roar.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":374.0,"score_ratio":4.3474576271}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir4ahk7","c_root_id_B":"ir5abki","created_at_utc_A":1664950097,"created_at_utc_B":1664975950,"score_A":66,"score_B":513,"human_ref_A":"There are various metods to aproximate what their call might have been. Soft tissue fosilizes rarely in conditions that would give us a more definitive answer, but what little we have uncovered by now point to more bird like than mammal like sounds.","human_ref_B":"The ability to roar isn\u2019t universal. Big cats have specialized throat bones and musculature that facilitates roaring. House cats do not have this adaption and therefore cannot roar. We can tell from the fossil record that dinosaurs did not have this adaption. Whether they had other adaptations that allowed them to roar is fair game, but it wouldn\u2019t have sounded like a big cat\u2019s roar.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":25853.0,"score_ratio":7.7727272727}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir5abki","c_root_id_B":"ir4p6a9","created_at_utc_A":1664975950,"created_at_utc_B":1664962748,"score_A":513,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"The ability to roar isn\u2019t universal. Big cats have specialized throat bones and musculature that facilitates roaring. House cats do not have this adaption and therefore cannot roar. We can tell from the fossil record that dinosaurs did not have this adaption. Whether they had other adaptations that allowed them to roar is fair game, but it wouldn\u2019t have sounded like a big cat\u2019s roar.","human_ref_B":"Considering the vast array of calls across birds, crocodilians, and reptiles and how many different dinos there were Id think there would be just as much variety of sounds from the dinos. Everything from chirping and hissing to shrieking and trumpeting.  It\u2019s even possible some could make sounds similar to our speech considering how many birds can.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13202.0,"score_ratio":16.5483870968}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir4ahk7","c_root_id_B":"ir4e3tw","created_at_utc_A":1664950097,"created_at_utc_B":1664952972,"score_A":66,"score_B":432,"human_ref_A":"There are various metods to aproximate what their call might have been. Soft tissue fosilizes rarely in conditions that would give us a more definitive answer, but what little we have uncovered by now point to more bird like than mammal like sounds.","human_ref_B":"There\u2019s a couple ways to go about it. I wouldn\u2019t say they chirped and sang but probably would\u2019ve had distinct calls. They probably wouldn\u2019t have roared all the time like in Jurassic park, why would they need to beyond communicating to one another? But a couple examples is scientists looking at big birds today and how they make sound. For instance a particular bird they use for reference quite a lot is the Shoebill, which makes deep rumbling sound.   A lot of scientists think this is similar to how big theropods like T.rex communicated only it would be much deeper and in some cases too deep for us to hear.   Another example is using the fossilised skull itself. Most notable is the parasaurolophus which had a crest with channels in it that it could push air through to make a kind of trumpet sound. There are examples on YouTube which are that, examples, they would probably have been able to change the pitch.   But long story short, kind of the chirps and sounds like that maybe the closest you\u2019d get to that is Dromeosaurs like velociraptors and other smaller dinosaurs like that","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2875.0,"score_ratio":6.5454545455}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir4zq62","c_root_id_B":"ir4ahk7","created_at_utc_A":1664970402,"created_at_utc_B":1664950097,"score_A":364,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"There was a good episode of this podcast called *Unexplainable* were they tried to figure out what dinosaurs from Jurassic Park would have actually sounded like.   They went with bird sounds but because dinosaurs were so huge, it would have sounded more like a  big vibration than a real sound.","human_ref_B":"There are various metods to aproximate what their call might have been. Soft tissue fosilizes rarely in conditions that would give us a more definitive answer, but what little we have uncovered by now point to more bird like than mammal like sounds.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":20305.0,"score_ratio":5.5151515152}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir4p6a9","c_root_id_B":"ir4zq62","created_at_utc_A":1664962748,"created_at_utc_B":1664970402,"score_A":31,"score_B":364,"human_ref_A":"Considering the vast array of calls across birds, crocodilians, and reptiles and how many different dinos there were Id think there would be just as much variety of sounds from the dinos. Everything from chirping and hissing to shrieking and trumpeting.  It\u2019s even possible some could make sounds similar to our speech considering how many birds can.","human_ref_B":"There was a good episode of this podcast called *Unexplainable* were they tried to figure out what dinosaurs from Jurassic Park would have actually sounded like.   They went with bird sounds but because dinosaurs were so huge, it would have sounded more like a  big vibration than a real sound.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7654.0,"score_ratio":11.7419354839}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir59izc","c_root_id_B":"ir4ahk7","created_at_utc_A":1664975576,"created_at_utc_B":1664950097,"score_A":118,"score_B":66,"human_ref_A":"I remember a documentary on one dinosaur who's fossil skull showed a large, hollow crest that was connected to the airway.  They thought the crest was connected to act as a sound generator and they simulated it and got a low, rumbling sound out of it.  https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=lBU6zfI1b0U","human_ref_B":"There are various metods to aproximate what their call might have been. Soft tissue fosilizes rarely in conditions that would give us a more definitive answer, but what little we have uncovered by now point to more bird like than mammal like sounds.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":25479.0,"score_ratio":1.7878787879}
{"post_id":"xw1cfg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How do we know that dinosaurs didn't roar, like in Jurassic Park? Would they have chirped and cawed and sang, like birds today?","c_root_id_A":"ir4p6a9","c_root_id_B":"ir59izc","created_at_utc_A":1664962748,"created_at_utc_B":1664975576,"score_A":31,"score_B":118,"human_ref_A":"Considering the vast array of calls across birds, crocodilians, and reptiles and how many different dinos there were Id think there would be just as much variety of sounds from the dinos. Everything from chirping and hissing to shrieking and trumpeting.  It\u2019s even possible some could make sounds similar to our speech considering how many birds can.","human_ref_B":"I remember a documentary on one dinosaur who's fossil skull showed a large, hollow crest that was connected to the airway.  They thought the crest was connected to act as a sound generator and they simulated it and got a low, rumbling sound out of it.  https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=lBU6zfI1b0U","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12828.0,"score_ratio":3.8064516129}
{"post_id":"bctzhw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When food is frozen does the bacteria die or just go dormant? Curious if when food is thawed the bacteria that was on it comes back alive or if there is a \"clean slate\" and new bacteria grows?","c_root_id_A":"ektu5lu","c_root_id_B":"ekuhp4u","created_at_utc_A":1555193086,"created_at_utc_B":1555211372,"score_A":94,"score_B":100,"human_ref_A":"Freezing doesn\u2019t eliminate bacteria, food should be maintained outside the temperature danger zone which is above 40\u00b0f and bellow 140\u00b0f, bacteria in that zone multiply faster and are harder to kill during cooking.","human_ref_B":"The bacteria in there \"go dormant\" although that is not a biological term. Since their cellular structure is very simple, the stress of being frozen doesn't damage them to the extent that freezing eukaryotes does. Usually, the solution we used in lab for freezing bacteria for long term storage is called \"glycerol stock\" https:\/\/www.addgene.org\/protocols\/create-glycerol-stock\/ this addgene website is very trustworthy, it is what universities use for sending each other bacteria\/plasmids. They say that a stock is good for years at -80c (conventional freezers in our homes are only -20c).  Your \"clean slate\" situation is known in scientific terms as \"sterilization\". This requires complete death of any bacteria in the sample, freezing is not a method of sterilizing, this is usually done with heating (such as autoclaving or industrial pasteurization processes).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18286.0,"score_ratio":1.0638297872}
{"post_id":"bctzhw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When food is frozen does the bacteria die or just go dormant? Curious if when food is thawed the bacteria that was on it comes back alive or if there is a \"clean slate\" and new bacteria grows?","c_root_id_A":"ekuhp4u","c_root_id_B":"ekuaoug","created_at_utc_A":1555211372,"created_at_utc_B":1555205742,"score_A":100,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"The bacteria in there \"go dormant\" although that is not a biological term. Since their cellular structure is very simple, the stress of being frozen doesn't damage them to the extent that freezing eukaryotes does. Usually, the solution we used in lab for freezing bacteria for long term storage is called \"glycerol stock\" https:\/\/www.addgene.org\/protocols\/create-glycerol-stock\/ this addgene website is very trustworthy, it is what universities use for sending each other bacteria\/plasmids. They say that a stock is good for years at -80c (conventional freezers in our homes are only -20c).  Your \"clean slate\" situation is known in scientific terms as \"sterilization\". This requires complete death of any bacteria in the sample, freezing is not a method of sterilizing, this is usually done with heating (such as autoclaving or industrial pasteurization processes).","human_ref_B":"Mold produces Spores(mold eggs) and they survive freezing(and high temps).  So the idea is to not leave food out long enough for mold to mature to spore production.  Remember, cheese is mold and everything is a \u201clittle\u201d moldy, but spores are nasty.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5630.0,"score_ratio":20.0}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1d6b8l","c_root_id_B":"d1d7h38","created_at_utc_A":1458924272,"created_at_utc_B":1458925902,"score_A":997,"score_B":3367,"human_ref_A":"\"Boiling point\" does not mean \"evaporation point\". It means \"the point at which the vapor pressure exceeds pressure in the liquid phase.\" In other words, if you make a bubble in the liquid, the pressure in the vapor will be higher than the surrounding liquid, causing the bubble to expand, in other words: \"boiling.\" Another way of looking at it, is if you take a cup of water and put a lid on it, then if you are below the boiling point, there will be evaporation until the air above the liquid becomes so saturated that there is an equal amount of evaporation and condensation, you so reach equilibrium between the liquid and vapor phases. On the other hand if you are above boiling point, the pressure in the cup will rise (or if it's a big enough cup that the pressure rise is small enough that you can ignore the effect of the pressure rise on the boiling point, then the water will eventually evaporate away completely).","human_ref_B":"A somewhat counter-intuitive thing about temperature is that it is an aggregate property - so it is well-defined for a large group, but not so well for a few atoms. It is basically a function of the average velocity of molecules.  Individual molecules, however, have a distribution of velocities. You can think of this as a result of an infinite series of random collisions between atoms and molecules. For example, sometimes you can have two particles that happen to travel in almost the same direction impact a third one. That third one is going to get a hell of a kick and go must faster than any of the three were traveling to begin with.  As a result, some water molecules are quite faster than the average corresponding to the temperature. So they can achieve \"escape velocity,\" or get kicked out, depending on your perspective. And they fly off.  This is also the mechanism behind evaporative cooling. Since the molecules with the highest kinetic energy are the ones that are leaving, the average kinetic energy of those remaining drops, and so does the temperature.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1630.0,"score_ratio":3.3771313942}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1d724t","c_root_id_B":"d1d7h38","created_at_utc_A":1458925314,"created_at_utc_B":1458925902,"score_A":48,"score_B":3367,"human_ref_A":"Temperatures are an estimation of the energy of the molecules in a substance. Some molecules have a ridiculous amount of energy and they simply bounce around like crazy until they fly away.  When we boil water, we simply give most of the molecules enough energy to fly away.","human_ref_B":"A somewhat counter-intuitive thing about temperature is that it is an aggregate property - so it is well-defined for a large group, but not so well for a few atoms. It is basically a function of the average velocity of molecules.  Individual molecules, however, have a distribution of velocities. You can think of this as a result of an infinite series of random collisions between atoms and molecules. For example, sometimes you can have two particles that happen to travel in almost the same direction impact a third one. That third one is going to get a hell of a kick and go must faster than any of the three were traveling to begin with.  As a result, some water molecules are quite faster than the average corresponding to the temperature. So they can achieve \"escape velocity,\" or get kicked out, depending on your perspective. And they fly off.  This is also the mechanism behind evaporative cooling. Since the molecules with the highest kinetic energy are the ones that are leaving, the average kinetic energy of those remaining drops, and so does the temperature.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":588.0,"score_ratio":70.1458333333}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1ddl1y","c_root_id_B":"d1dczwu","created_at_utc_A":1458934569,"created_at_utc_B":1458933706,"score_A":26,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"I don't feel like there's a really simple answer yet, so here goes:  TL;DR: All liquids are trying to fill the vacuum of the atmosphere: Nitrogen, Oxygen, CO2, etc. fill most of the voids, but water has a portion.  Sometimes there isn't enough water in the nearby air to fill the void completely, so liquid water changes to a gas to make up for it.  If the wind blows, the voids get bigger, and that makes it easier for liquid to turn to gas.  Every (correct me if that's wrong) liquid substance exists in both liquid and gaseous states simultaneously, water is a good example of this.  In a closed system (imagine a sealed jar half-full of liquid water at room temperature), it's fairly easy to imagine:  First, assume the \"empty\" portion is actually filled with standard air (room temperature, atmospheric pressure).  Now watch; nothing happens^1 ; pretty boring.  Second, hook a vacuum pump^2 to the top of the jar.  If we observe this, the water would quickly boil to fill the void.  This is because, like I said, every liquid exists in both the liquid and gaseous states simultaneously, and as temperature increases, it tends toward the gaseous state (resulting in higher vapor pressure).  As other(s) have mentioned, this means boiling is really the point at which a substance's vapor pressure exceeds the pressure of its surroundings (commonly atmospheric pressure).  Why does this mean water can evaporate at room temperature?  There are a few reasons:  * Water (or any substance, really) doesn't have to be the same temperature as it's surroundings; it can pick up heat from other sources.  Additionally, there a ridiculous number of molecules in water (18 ml holds roughly 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules^3 ), and any one could have enough energy to be gaseous.  Normally that doesn't mean much, because others nearby are condensing, but when there are breezes and other forces pushing other molecules away, it can slowly make a difference.  * The earth is an enormous closed (mostly) system, so there are tons of things that affect how much moisture is currently in the air.  If the pressure of water in the air drops below it's \"usual\" level for the current temperature^4 , water can evaporate easily; if the pressure exceeds the \"usual\" level, water condenses easily (but can still evaporate if you're clever).  * The faster the air moves, the lower it's pressure must be^5 , so if there's a breeze, any liquid that's exposed to it has a much easier time vaporizing. Since water is the most abundant liquid on the planet, it's usually the one filling the gaps.  1) If we were watching at the molecular level, we'd see some molecules shifting to a higher energy level (gas) while others drop to a lower energy level (liquid).  2) I don't think a standard vacuum could do it, sorry.  Also, \"vacuum pump\" is a rather silly name.  3) That's called a mole.  4) About 2% of the total atmospheric pressure (17.5 mm Hg or 2.33 kPa).  See here for vapor pressures at other temperatures.  5) I know it's weird, but it's defined by Bernoulli's Principle","human_ref_B":"Water evaporating into air is similar to a solid dissolving into a liquid.   If you place a sugar cube in a cup of water, some of the molecules will slowly dissolve into the liquid. This will happen faster if you add heat, and slower if there is already some sugar dissolved in the water. As long as the water is not saturated, sugar will dissolve since it is moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (due to entropy).  Unless the air is fully saturated with water (i.e. is completely humid), water will slowly \"dissolve\" into the air. At higher temperatures, this happens faster, and at higher humidity, this happens slower. This is partly why humid days feels much hotter: your body cools down when sweat evaporates off your skin, and evaporation is slower at higher humidity.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":863.0,"score_ratio":1.8571428571}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1ddl1y","c_root_id_B":"d1ddfxd","created_at_utc_A":1458934569,"created_at_utc_B":1458934357,"score_A":26,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"I don't feel like there's a really simple answer yet, so here goes:  TL;DR: All liquids are trying to fill the vacuum of the atmosphere: Nitrogen, Oxygen, CO2, etc. fill most of the voids, but water has a portion.  Sometimes there isn't enough water in the nearby air to fill the void completely, so liquid water changes to a gas to make up for it.  If the wind blows, the voids get bigger, and that makes it easier for liquid to turn to gas.  Every (correct me if that's wrong) liquid substance exists in both liquid and gaseous states simultaneously, water is a good example of this.  In a closed system (imagine a sealed jar half-full of liquid water at room temperature), it's fairly easy to imagine:  First, assume the \"empty\" portion is actually filled with standard air (room temperature, atmospheric pressure).  Now watch; nothing happens^1 ; pretty boring.  Second, hook a vacuum pump^2 to the top of the jar.  If we observe this, the water would quickly boil to fill the void.  This is because, like I said, every liquid exists in both the liquid and gaseous states simultaneously, and as temperature increases, it tends toward the gaseous state (resulting in higher vapor pressure).  As other(s) have mentioned, this means boiling is really the point at which a substance's vapor pressure exceeds the pressure of its surroundings (commonly atmospheric pressure).  Why does this mean water can evaporate at room temperature?  There are a few reasons:  * Water (or any substance, really) doesn't have to be the same temperature as it's surroundings; it can pick up heat from other sources.  Additionally, there a ridiculous number of molecules in water (18 ml holds roughly 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules^3 ), and any one could have enough energy to be gaseous.  Normally that doesn't mean much, because others nearby are condensing, but when there are breezes and other forces pushing other molecules away, it can slowly make a difference.  * The earth is an enormous closed (mostly) system, so there are tons of things that affect how much moisture is currently in the air.  If the pressure of water in the air drops below it's \"usual\" level for the current temperature^4 , water can evaporate easily; if the pressure exceeds the \"usual\" level, water condenses easily (but can still evaporate if you're clever).  * The faster the air moves, the lower it's pressure must be^5 , so if there's a breeze, any liquid that's exposed to it has a much easier time vaporizing. Since water is the most abundant liquid on the planet, it's usually the one filling the gaps.  1) If we were watching at the molecular level, we'd see some molecules shifting to a higher energy level (gas) while others drop to a lower energy level (liquid).  2) I don't think a standard vacuum could do it, sorry.  Also, \"vacuum pump\" is a rather silly name.  3) That's called a mole.  4) About 2% of the total atmospheric pressure (17.5 mm Hg or 2.33 kPa).  See here for vapor pressures at other temperatures.  5) I know it's weird, but it's defined by Bernoulli's Principle","human_ref_B":"Because temperature is an average of molecular energy \/ motion, not a maximum energy.  An individual liquid water molecule becomes a water vapor molecule if it is moving fast enough to both overcome the bonds of its neighbors and push whatever is stoping it from moving around as a gas molecule out of the way.  At temps below boiling, some surface molecules are moving fast enough to do this.  At temps above boiling, even some of the molecules deep inside the mass of water have enough energy to do it, by pushing other water molecules out of the way.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":212.0,"score_ratio":3.7142857143}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1dabz8","c_root_id_B":"d1ddl1y","created_at_utc_A":1458929895,"created_at_utc_B":1458934569,"score_A":4,"score_B":26,"human_ref_A":"Temperature describes the average energy of the molecules. The individual molecules typically have a normal or Gaussian distribution of energy. Most of them are very close to average, but some are much higher or much lower. As they bump into each other, the molecules exchange energy and occasionally some of the molecules will have enough energy to break away from their neighbors and escape into the air. It will continue to do this until the \"vapor pressure\" of the air increases to an equilibrium point. On especially humid days water evaporates slower than on especially dry days.","human_ref_B":"I don't feel like there's a really simple answer yet, so here goes:  TL;DR: All liquids are trying to fill the vacuum of the atmosphere: Nitrogen, Oxygen, CO2, etc. fill most of the voids, but water has a portion.  Sometimes there isn't enough water in the nearby air to fill the void completely, so liquid water changes to a gas to make up for it.  If the wind blows, the voids get bigger, and that makes it easier for liquid to turn to gas.  Every (correct me if that's wrong) liquid substance exists in both liquid and gaseous states simultaneously, water is a good example of this.  In a closed system (imagine a sealed jar half-full of liquid water at room temperature), it's fairly easy to imagine:  First, assume the \"empty\" portion is actually filled with standard air (room temperature, atmospheric pressure).  Now watch; nothing happens^1 ; pretty boring.  Second, hook a vacuum pump^2 to the top of the jar.  If we observe this, the water would quickly boil to fill the void.  This is because, like I said, every liquid exists in both the liquid and gaseous states simultaneously, and as temperature increases, it tends toward the gaseous state (resulting in higher vapor pressure).  As other(s) have mentioned, this means boiling is really the point at which a substance's vapor pressure exceeds the pressure of its surroundings (commonly atmospheric pressure).  Why does this mean water can evaporate at room temperature?  There are a few reasons:  * Water (or any substance, really) doesn't have to be the same temperature as it's surroundings; it can pick up heat from other sources.  Additionally, there a ridiculous number of molecules in water (18 ml holds roughly 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules^3 ), and any one could have enough energy to be gaseous.  Normally that doesn't mean much, because others nearby are condensing, but when there are breezes and other forces pushing other molecules away, it can slowly make a difference.  * The earth is an enormous closed (mostly) system, so there are tons of things that affect how much moisture is currently in the air.  If the pressure of water in the air drops below it's \"usual\" level for the current temperature^4 , water can evaporate easily; if the pressure exceeds the \"usual\" level, water condenses easily (but can still evaporate if you're clever).  * The faster the air moves, the lower it's pressure must be^5 , so if there's a breeze, any liquid that's exposed to it has a much easier time vaporizing. Since water is the most abundant liquid on the planet, it's usually the one filling the gaps.  1) If we were watching at the molecular level, we'd see some molecules shifting to a higher energy level (gas) while others drop to a lower energy level (liquid).  2) I don't think a standard vacuum could do it, sorry.  Also, \"vacuum pump\" is a rather silly name.  3) That's called a mole.  4) About 2% of the total atmospheric pressure (17.5 mm Hg or 2.33 kPa).  See here for vapor pressures at other temperatures.  5) I know it's weird, but it's defined by Bernoulli's Principle","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4674.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1dczwu","c_root_id_B":"d1dabz8","created_at_utc_A":1458933706,"created_at_utc_B":1458929895,"score_A":14,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Water evaporating into air is similar to a solid dissolving into a liquid.   If you place a sugar cube in a cup of water, some of the molecules will slowly dissolve into the liquid. This will happen faster if you add heat, and slower if there is already some sugar dissolved in the water. As long as the water is not saturated, sugar will dissolve since it is moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (due to entropy).  Unless the air is fully saturated with water (i.e. is completely humid), water will slowly \"dissolve\" into the air. At higher temperatures, this happens faster, and at higher humidity, this happens slower. This is partly why humid days feels much hotter: your body cools down when sweat evaporates off your skin, and evaporation is slower at higher humidity.","human_ref_B":"Temperature describes the average energy of the molecules. The individual molecules typically have a normal or Gaussian distribution of energy. Most of them are very close to average, but some are much higher or much lower. As they bump into each other, the molecules exchange energy and occasionally some of the molecules will have enough energy to break away from their neighbors and escape into the air. It will continue to do this until the \"vapor pressure\" of the air increases to an equilibrium point. On especially humid days water evaporates slower than on especially dry days.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3811.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1dzmpl","c_root_id_B":"d1domkx","created_at_utc_A":1458977787,"created_at_utc_B":1458953103,"score_A":12,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Likely to get buried but I would like to offer an explanation from a thermodynamic standpoint that is more concerned with chemical equilibria that is actually pretty simple to understand.   Assuming that we're at a set temperature and atmospheric pressure, all liquids exist in chemical equilibrium with their gaseous state, which means that at any given point in time, there exists, say water, in both its liquid and gas state in a fixed ratio. This also means that the rate at which water is becoming a liquid is the same at which water is becoming a gas. You can shift equilibrium (change the ratio of liquid to gas state) by changing temperature. Obviously, at increasing temperatures, we're going to have more gaseous water than liquid water.   Even at room temperature, we're going to be in chemical equilibrium, albeit, liquid water is going to be more prominent. However, gaseous water doesn't need to condense back within the reservoir of water that it originated from. Because we're in equilibrium, more and more water is going to leave as a gas and get lost into the atmosphere as long as we're not at absolute zero.","human_ref_B":"Temperature corresponds to the AVERAGE kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. In water and most fluids, a single particle can have ANY kinetic energy, no matter what the average is. Even if the water is cold, there is a non-zero probability that at least one surface-lying particle has enough energy to spontaneously evaporate at any instant. This probability is given by statistical mechanics. If you heat water, this probability will increase as the water's temperature increases. Hence, water evaporates more quickly as it heats up.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":24684.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1ddfxd","c_root_id_B":"d1dzmpl","created_at_utc_A":1458934357,"created_at_utc_B":1458977787,"score_A":7,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Because temperature is an average of molecular energy \/ motion, not a maximum energy.  An individual liquid water molecule becomes a water vapor molecule if it is moving fast enough to both overcome the bonds of its neighbors and push whatever is stoping it from moving around as a gas molecule out of the way.  At temps below boiling, some surface molecules are moving fast enough to do this.  At temps above boiling, even some of the molecules deep inside the mass of water have enough energy to do it, by pushing other water molecules out of the way.","human_ref_B":"Likely to get buried but I would like to offer an explanation from a thermodynamic standpoint that is more concerned with chemical equilibria that is actually pretty simple to understand.   Assuming that we're at a set temperature and atmospheric pressure, all liquids exist in chemical equilibrium with their gaseous state, which means that at any given point in time, there exists, say water, in both its liquid and gas state in a fixed ratio. This also means that the rate at which water is becoming a liquid is the same at which water is becoming a gas. You can shift equilibrium (change the ratio of liquid to gas state) by changing temperature. Obviously, at increasing temperatures, we're going to have more gaseous water than liquid water.   Even at room temperature, we're going to be in chemical equilibrium, albeit, liquid water is going to be more prominent. However, gaseous water doesn't need to condense back within the reservoir of water that it originated from. Because we're in equilibrium, more and more water is going to leave as a gas and get lost into the atmosphere as long as we're not at absolute zero.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":43430.0,"score_ratio":1.7142857143}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1dzmpl","c_root_id_B":"d1dabz8","created_at_utc_A":1458977787,"created_at_utc_B":1458929895,"score_A":12,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Likely to get buried but I would like to offer an explanation from a thermodynamic standpoint that is more concerned with chemical equilibria that is actually pretty simple to understand.   Assuming that we're at a set temperature and atmospheric pressure, all liquids exist in chemical equilibrium with their gaseous state, which means that at any given point in time, there exists, say water, in both its liquid and gas state in a fixed ratio. This also means that the rate at which water is becoming a liquid is the same at which water is becoming a gas. You can shift equilibrium (change the ratio of liquid to gas state) by changing temperature. Obviously, at increasing temperatures, we're going to have more gaseous water than liquid water.   Even at room temperature, we're going to be in chemical equilibrium, albeit, liquid water is going to be more prominent. However, gaseous water doesn't need to condense back within the reservoir of water that it originated from. Because we're in equilibrium, more and more water is going to leave as a gas and get lost into the atmosphere as long as we're not at absolute zero.","human_ref_B":"Temperature describes the average energy of the molecules. The individual molecules typically have a normal or Gaussian distribution of energy. Most of them are very close to average, but some are much higher or much lower. As they bump into each other, the molecules exchange energy and occasionally some of the molecules will have enough energy to break away from their neighbors and escape into the air. It will continue to do this until the \"vapor pressure\" of the air increases to an equilibrium point. On especially humid days water evaporates slower than on especially dry days.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":47892.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1domkx","c_root_id_B":"d1ddfxd","created_at_utc_A":1458953103,"created_at_utc_B":1458934357,"score_A":9,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Temperature corresponds to the AVERAGE kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. In water and most fluids, a single particle can have ANY kinetic energy, no matter what the average is. Even if the water is cold, there is a non-zero probability that at least one surface-lying particle has enough energy to spontaneously evaporate at any instant. This probability is given by statistical mechanics. If you heat water, this probability will increase as the water's temperature increases. Hence, water evaporates more quickly as it heats up.","human_ref_B":"Because temperature is an average of molecular energy \/ motion, not a maximum energy.  An individual liquid water molecule becomes a water vapor molecule if it is moving fast enough to both overcome the bonds of its neighbors and push whatever is stoping it from moving around as a gas molecule out of the way.  At temps below boiling, some surface molecules are moving fast enough to do this.  At temps above boiling, even some of the molecules deep inside the mass of water have enough energy to do it, by pushing other water molecules out of the way.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18746.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1dabz8","c_root_id_B":"d1domkx","created_at_utc_A":1458929895,"created_at_utc_B":1458953103,"score_A":4,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Temperature describes the average energy of the molecules. The individual molecules typically have a normal or Gaussian distribution of energy. Most of them are very close to average, but some are much higher or much lower. As they bump into each other, the molecules exchange energy and occasionally some of the molecules will have enough energy to break away from their neighbors and escape into the air. It will continue to do this until the \"vapor pressure\" of the air increases to an equilibrium point. On especially humid days water evaporates slower than on especially dry days.","human_ref_B":"Temperature corresponds to the AVERAGE kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. In water and most fluids, a single particle can have ANY kinetic energy, no matter what the average is. Even if the water is cold, there is a non-zero probability that at least one surface-lying particle has enough energy to spontaneously evaporate at any instant. This probability is given by statistical mechanics. If you heat water, this probability will increase as the water's temperature increases. Hence, water evaporates more quickly as it heats up.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":23208.0,"score_ratio":2.25}
{"post_id":"4bx3kq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"If water has a boiling point of ~100 degrees C, why does it evaporate at room temperature?","c_root_id_A":"d1dabz8","c_root_id_B":"d1ddfxd","created_at_utc_A":1458929895,"created_at_utc_B":1458934357,"score_A":4,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Temperature describes the average energy of the molecules. The individual molecules typically have a normal or Gaussian distribution of energy. Most of them are very close to average, but some are much higher or much lower. As they bump into each other, the molecules exchange energy and occasionally some of the molecules will have enough energy to break away from their neighbors and escape into the air. It will continue to do this until the \"vapor pressure\" of the air increases to an equilibrium point. On especially humid days water evaporates slower than on especially dry days.","human_ref_B":"Because temperature is an average of molecular energy \/ motion, not a maximum energy.  An individual liquid water molecule becomes a water vapor molecule if it is moving fast enough to both overcome the bonds of its neighbors and push whatever is stoping it from moving around as a gas molecule out of the way.  At temps below boiling, some surface molecules are moving fast enough to do this.  At temps above boiling, even some of the molecules deep inside the mass of water have enough energy to do it, by pushing other water molecules out of the way.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4462.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ztack","c_root_id_B":"i7y6vzc","created_at_utc_A":1652145468,"created_at_utc_B":1652120227,"score_A":1064,"score_B":654,"human_ref_A":"Not a cave painting, but there's always the case of the \"Meidum goose\". The Meidum mural is one of Egypt's most famous ancient artworks, a 4,600-year-old painting found in the tomb of a prince named Nefermaat. One of the most interesting details of the mural is a picture of two geese, which have traditionally been identified as red-breasted geese, a species native to Siberia and not found anywhere near Egypt. However, there are a number of differences between the geese in the mural and real red-breasted geese. The red areas on their faces and breasts are smaller, and they have larger white patches on their necks and cheeks.   This has led to the suggestion that the Meidum geese are not, in fact, red-breasted geese at all, but the only known depiction of a goose native to Egypt that is now extinct. We already have remains of some animals that became extinct during the time of ancient Egypt, such as the Bennu heron (a giant heron that inspired the Egyptian mythical bird known as the Bennu),  but not of these geese. Egypt, at the time, was much wetter than it is today, and a number of animals are depicted in ancient Egyptian art that are now either extinct worldwide or no longer found in Egypt.","human_ref_B":"We obviously know about horses, but there are petroglyphs of what appear to be horses and people on horseback in South America hundreds (possibly even thousands) of years after horses are believed to have gone extinct in the Americas. It is unclear if horses persisted within native oral tradition for dozens of generations (which is an incredible feat if true), or if horses persisted in areas long after the known fossil record indicates.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":25241.0,"score_ratio":1.626911315}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ythpk","c_root_id_B":"i7ztack","created_at_utc_A":1652129469,"created_at_utc_B":1652145468,"score_A":340,"score_B":1064,"human_ref_A":"There is a creature in the Lascaux Caves nicknamed \"the unicorn.\" It has two horns but  they are rooted above the eyes and go straight forward. (Oddly, there is a more heavy bodied but similar creature depicted in statue form by the American mound builders.)","human_ref_B":"Not a cave painting, but there's always the case of the \"Meidum goose\". The Meidum mural is one of Egypt's most famous ancient artworks, a 4,600-year-old painting found in the tomb of a prince named Nefermaat. One of the most interesting details of the mural is a picture of two geese, which have traditionally been identified as red-breasted geese, a species native to Siberia and not found anywhere near Egypt. However, there are a number of differences between the geese in the mural and real red-breasted geese. The red areas on their faces and breasts are smaller, and they have larger white patches on their necks and cheeks.   This has led to the suggestion that the Meidum geese are not, in fact, red-breasted geese at all, but the only known depiction of a goose native to Egypt that is now extinct. We already have remains of some animals that became extinct during the time of ancient Egypt, such as the Bennu heron (a giant heron that inspired the Egyptian mythical bird known as the Bennu),  but not of these geese. Egypt, at the time, was much wetter than it is today, and a number of animals are depicted in ancient Egyptian art that are now either extinct worldwide or no longer found in Egypt.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15999.0,"score_ratio":3.1294117647}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ztack","c_root_id_B":"i7z5c9j","created_at_utc_A":1652145468,"created_at_utc_B":1652134564,"score_A":1064,"score_B":312,"human_ref_A":"Not a cave painting, but there's always the case of the \"Meidum goose\". The Meidum mural is one of Egypt's most famous ancient artworks, a 4,600-year-old painting found in the tomb of a prince named Nefermaat. One of the most interesting details of the mural is a picture of two geese, which have traditionally been identified as red-breasted geese, a species native to Siberia and not found anywhere near Egypt. However, there are a number of differences between the geese in the mural and real red-breasted geese. The red areas on their faces and breasts are smaller, and they have larger white patches on their necks and cheeks.   This has led to the suggestion that the Meidum geese are not, in fact, red-breasted geese at all, but the only known depiction of a goose native to Egypt that is now extinct. We already have remains of some animals that became extinct during the time of ancient Egypt, such as the Bennu heron (a giant heron that inspired the Egyptian mythical bird known as the Bennu),  but not of these geese. Egypt, at the time, was much wetter than it is today, and a number of animals are depicted in ancient Egyptian art that are now either extinct worldwide or no longer found in Egypt.","human_ref_B":"Yes. Extinct Ice Age megafauna depicted on Columbian rock art has been discovered. There are also depictions of extinct mammals in African rock art. Not sure if the animals depictedin rock art in Borneo or Indonesia are extinct, but they are approximately 40-50ky old.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10904.0,"score_ratio":3.4102564103}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ztack","c_root_id_B":"i7ymys5","created_at_utc_A":1652145468,"created_at_utc_B":1652126779,"score_A":1064,"score_B":190,"human_ref_A":"Not a cave painting, but there's always the case of the \"Meidum goose\". The Meidum mural is one of Egypt's most famous ancient artworks, a 4,600-year-old painting found in the tomb of a prince named Nefermaat. One of the most interesting details of the mural is a picture of two geese, which have traditionally been identified as red-breasted geese, a species native to Siberia and not found anywhere near Egypt. However, there are a number of differences between the geese in the mural and real red-breasted geese. The red areas on their faces and breasts are smaller, and they have larger white patches on their necks and cheeks.   This has led to the suggestion that the Meidum geese are not, in fact, red-breasted geese at all, but the only known depiction of a goose native to Egypt that is now extinct. We already have remains of some animals that became extinct during the time of ancient Egypt, such as the Bennu heron (a giant heron that inspired the Egyptian mythical bird known as the Bennu),  but not of these geese. Egypt, at the time, was much wetter than it is today, and a number of animals are depicted in ancient Egyptian art that are now either extinct worldwide or no longer found in Egypt.","human_ref_B":"This one is from South America but it must be outdated news. There were paintings found around some Tepuys in Brazil that had depictions of long necked animals with mottled patterns or so in a few of the drawings.  It is currently assumed that they may be depictions of camelids (guanacos or vigu\u00f1as) but so far i think theres no fossils of any of those animals in the area as it was near the Amazon region and current distribution of them is limited to the western side of teh continent around the Andes Mountains  Some madlads even speculated ( but its doubtable) that it may have been macrauchenids as the currently known camelids in south america dont have those fur patterns, at least not the wild species.  So its either we have an extinct species of camelid that lived during teh ice age around the amazon highlands or macrauchenia survived long enough to see and get hunted by early SA aboriginals.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18689.0,"score_ratio":5.6}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ysop9","c_root_id_B":"i7ztack","created_at_utc_A":1652129134,"created_at_utc_B":1652145468,"score_A":137,"score_B":1064,"human_ref_A":"There are Ancestral Puebloan and Fremont petroglyphs of desert bighorn in Utah. Desert bighorn were near-extinction by the turn of the 20th century but have since been making a resurgence through human-assisted relocation projects.   Source: I\u2019m an archaeologist.","human_ref_B":"Not a cave painting, but there's always the case of the \"Meidum goose\". The Meidum mural is one of Egypt's most famous ancient artworks, a 4,600-year-old painting found in the tomb of a prince named Nefermaat. One of the most interesting details of the mural is a picture of two geese, which have traditionally been identified as red-breasted geese, a species native to Siberia and not found anywhere near Egypt. However, there are a number of differences between the geese in the mural and real red-breasted geese. The red areas on their faces and breasts are smaller, and they have larger white patches on their necks and cheeks.   This has led to the suggestion that the Meidum geese are not, in fact, red-breasted geese at all, but the only known depiction of a goose native to Egypt that is now extinct. We already have remains of some animals that became extinct during the time of ancient Egypt, such as the Bennu heron (a giant heron that inspired the Egyptian mythical bird known as the Bennu),  but not of these geese. Egypt, at the time, was much wetter than it is today, and a number of animals are depicted in ancient Egyptian art that are now either extinct worldwide or no longer found in Egypt.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16334.0,"score_ratio":7.7664233577}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ztack","c_root_id_B":"i7yp7ck","created_at_utc_A":1652145468,"created_at_utc_B":1652127702,"score_A":1064,"score_B":130,"human_ref_A":"Not a cave painting, but there's always the case of the \"Meidum goose\". The Meidum mural is one of Egypt's most famous ancient artworks, a 4,600-year-old painting found in the tomb of a prince named Nefermaat. One of the most interesting details of the mural is a picture of two geese, which have traditionally been identified as red-breasted geese, a species native to Siberia and not found anywhere near Egypt. However, there are a number of differences between the geese in the mural and real red-breasted geese. The red areas on their faces and breasts are smaller, and they have larger white patches on their necks and cheeks.   This has led to the suggestion that the Meidum geese are not, in fact, red-breasted geese at all, but the only known depiction of a goose native to Egypt that is now extinct. We already have remains of some animals that became extinct during the time of ancient Egypt, such as the Bennu heron (a giant heron that inspired the Egyptian mythical bird known as the Bennu),  but not of these geese. Egypt, at the time, was much wetter than it is today, and a number of animals are depicted in ancient Egyptian art that are now either extinct worldwide or no longer found in Egypt.","human_ref_B":"Not a cave painting but the Indus seals from 2500bc have a single horned animal on them which are known as the unicorn. It might be a creation or something that went extinct (doubtful as no fossils have been found). The body is like that of a cattle as well.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17766.0,"score_ratio":8.1846153846}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ztack","c_root_id_B":"i7y46fy","created_at_utc_A":1652145468,"created_at_utc_B":1652119113,"score_A":1064,"score_B":117,"human_ref_A":"Not a cave painting, but there's always the case of the \"Meidum goose\". The Meidum mural is one of Egypt's most famous ancient artworks, a 4,600-year-old painting found in the tomb of a prince named Nefermaat. One of the most interesting details of the mural is a picture of two geese, which have traditionally been identified as red-breasted geese, a species native to Siberia and not found anywhere near Egypt. However, there are a number of differences between the geese in the mural and real red-breasted geese. The red areas on their faces and breasts are smaller, and they have larger white patches on their necks and cheeks.   This has led to the suggestion that the Meidum geese are not, in fact, red-breasted geese at all, but the only known depiction of a goose native to Egypt that is now extinct. We already have remains of some animals that became extinct during the time of ancient Egypt, such as the Bennu heron (a giant heron that inspired the Egyptian mythical bird known as the Bennu),  but not of these geese. Egypt, at the time, was much wetter than it is today, and a number of animals are depicted in ancient Egyptian art that are now either extinct worldwide or no longer found in Egypt.","human_ref_B":"If there were no fossil evidence, nobody would know for certain if the depicted animal was real or fiction. There are rock paintings in Australia of now extinct animals. Some of these animals went extinct tens of thousands of years ago, so perhaps someone saw these paintings and originally assumed they were imagined animals.  https:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/news\/2010-05-31\/megafauna-cave-painting-could-be-40000-years-old\/847564","labels":1,"seconds_difference":26355.0,"score_ratio":9.094017094}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7yu2lg","c_root_id_B":"i7ztack","created_at_utc_A":1652129715,"created_at_utc_B":1652145468,"score_A":57,"score_B":1064,"human_ref_A":"Can\u2019t say about cave paintings, but many many ancient Indian temples, including the ones at Angkor Wat (Cambodia) have the familiar yet unexplained animals shown as domesticated and tamed animals that help out in wars as guards, workers and even as weapons.. it\u2019s the repetitive use of the same type of animals represented so many times over so many different temples, that\u2019s it may have some legitimacy about their existence","human_ref_B":"Not a cave painting, but there's always the case of the \"Meidum goose\". The Meidum mural is one of Egypt's most famous ancient artworks, a 4,600-year-old painting found in the tomb of a prince named Nefermaat. One of the most interesting details of the mural is a picture of two geese, which have traditionally been identified as red-breasted geese, a species native to Siberia and not found anywhere near Egypt. However, there are a number of differences between the geese in the mural and real red-breasted geese. The red areas on their faces and breasts are smaller, and they have larger white patches on their necks and cheeks.   This has led to the suggestion that the Meidum geese are not, in fact, red-breasted geese at all, but the only known depiction of a goose native to Egypt that is now extinct. We already have remains of some animals that became extinct during the time of ancient Egypt, such as the Bennu heron (a giant heron that inspired the Egyptian mythical bird known as the Bennu),  but not of these geese. Egypt, at the time, was much wetter than it is today, and a number of animals are depicted in ancient Egyptian art that are now either extinct worldwide or no longer found in Egypt.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15753.0,"score_ratio":18.6666666667}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7y46fy","c_root_id_B":"i7y6vzc","created_at_utc_A":1652119113,"created_at_utc_B":1652120227,"score_A":117,"score_B":654,"human_ref_A":"If there were no fossil evidence, nobody would know for certain if the depicted animal was real or fiction. There are rock paintings in Australia of now extinct animals. Some of these animals went extinct tens of thousands of years ago, so perhaps someone saw these paintings and originally assumed they were imagined animals.  https:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/news\/2010-05-31\/megafauna-cave-painting-could-be-40000-years-old\/847564","human_ref_B":"We obviously know about horses, but there are petroglyphs of what appear to be horses and people on horseback in South America hundreds (possibly even thousands) of years after horses are believed to have gone extinct in the Americas. It is unclear if horses persisted within native oral tradition for dozens of generations (which is an incredible feat if true), or if horses persisted in areas long after the known fossil record indicates.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1114.0,"score_ratio":5.5897435897}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ythpk","c_root_id_B":"i7ymys5","created_at_utc_A":1652129469,"created_at_utc_B":1652126779,"score_A":340,"score_B":190,"human_ref_A":"There is a creature in the Lascaux Caves nicknamed \"the unicorn.\" It has two horns but  they are rooted above the eyes and go straight forward. (Oddly, there is a more heavy bodied but similar creature depicted in statue form by the American mound builders.)","human_ref_B":"This one is from South America but it must be outdated news. There were paintings found around some Tepuys in Brazil that had depictions of long necked animals with mottled patterns or so in a few of the drawings.  It is currently assumed that they may be depictions of camelids (guanacos or vigu\u00f1as) but so far i think theres no fossils of any of those animals in the area as it was near the Amazon region and current distribution of them is limited to the western side of teh continent around the Andes Mountains  Some madlads even speculated ( but its doubtable) that it may have been macrauchenids as the currently known camelids in south america dont have those fur patterns, at least not the wild species.  So its either we have an extinct species of camelid that lived during teh ice age around the amazon highlands or macrauchenia survived long enough to see and get hunted by early SA aboriginals.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2690.0,"score_ratio":1.7894736842}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ythpk","c_root_id_B":"i7ysop9","created_at_utc_A":1652129469,"created_at_utc_B":1652129134,"score_A":340,"score_B":137,"human_ref_A":"There is a creature in the Lascaux Caves nicknamed \"the unicorn.\" It has two horns but  they are rooted above the eyes and go straight forward. (Oddly, there is a more heavy bodied but similar creature depicted in statue form by the American mound builders.)","human_ref_B":"There are Ancestral Puebloan and Fremont petroglyphs of desert bighorn in Utah. Desert bighorn were near-extinction by the turn of the 20th century but have since been making a resurgence through human-assisted relocation projects.   Source: I\u2019m an archaeologist.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":335.0,"score_ratio":2.4817518248}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7yp7ck","c_root_id_B":"i7ythpk","created_at_utc_A":1652127702,"created_at_utc_B":1652129469,"score_A":130,"score_B":340,"human_ref_A":"Not a cave painting but the Indus seals from 2500bc have a single horned animal on them which are known as the unicorn. It might be a creation or something that went extinct (doubtful as no fossils have been found). The body is like that of a cattle as well.","human_ref_B":"There is a creature in the Lascaux Caves nicknamed \"the unicorn.\" It has two horns but  they are rooted above the eyes and go straight forward. (Oddly, there is a more heavy bodied but similar creature depicted in statue form by the American mound builders.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1767.0,"score_ratio":2.6153846154}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7y46fy","c_root_id_B":"i7ythpk","created_at_utc_A":1652119113,"created_at_utc_B":1652129469,"score_A":117,"score_B":340,"human_ref_A":"If there were no fossil evidence, nobody would know for certain if the depicted animal was real or fiction. There are rock paintings in Australia of now extinct animals. Some of these animals went extinct tens of thousands of years ago, so perhaps someone saw these paintings and originally assumed they were imagined animals.  https:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/news\/2010-05-31\/megafauna-cave-painting-could-be-40000-years-old\/847564","human_ref_B":"There is a creature in the Lascaux Caves nicknamed \"the unicorn.\" It has two horns but  they are rooted above the eyes and go straight forward. (Oddly, there is a more heavy bodied but similar creature depicted in statue form by the American mound builders.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10356.0,"score_ratio":2.905982906}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7z5c9j","c_root_id_B":"i7ymys5","created_at_utc_A":1652134564,"created_at_utc_B":1652126779,"score_A":312,"score_B":190,"human_ref_A":"Yes. Extinct Ice Age megafauna depicted on Columbian rock art has been discovered. There are also depictions of extinct mammals in African rock art. Not sure if the animals depictedin rock art in Borneo or Indonesia are extinct, but they are approximately 40-50ky old.","human_ref_B":"This one is from South America but it must be outdated news. There were paintings found around some Tepuys in Brazil that had depictions of long necked animals with mottled patterns or so in a few of the drawings.  It is currently assumed that they may be depictions of camelids (guanacos or vigu\u00f1as) but so far i think theres no fossils of any of those animals in the area as it was near the Amazon region and current distribution of them is limited to the western side of teh continent around the Andes Mountains  Some madlads even speculated ( but its doubtable) that it may have been macrauchenids as the currently known camelids in south america dont have those fur patterns, at least not the wild species.  So its either we have an extinct species of camelid that lived during teh ice age around the amazon highlands or macrauchenia survived long enough to see and get hunted by early SA aboriginals.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7785.0,"score_ratio":1.6421052632}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7z5c9j","c_root_id_B":"i7ysop9","created_at_utc_A":1652134564,"created_at_utc_B":1652129134,"score_A":312,"score_B":137,"human_ref_A":"Yes. Extinct Ice Age megafauna depicted on Columbian rock art has been discovered. There are also depictions of extinct mammals in African rock art. Not sure if the animals depictedin rock art in Borneo or Indonesia are extinct, but they are approximately 40-50ky old.","human_ref_B":"There are Ancestral Puebloan and Fremont petroglyphs of desert bighorn in Utah. Desert bighorn were near-extinction by the turn of the 20th century but have since been making a resurgence through human-assisted relocation projects.   Source: I\u2019m an archaeologist.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5430.0,"score_ratio":2.2773722628}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7yp7ck","c_root_id_B":"i7z5c9j","created_at_utc_A":1652127702,"created_at_utc_B":1652134564,"score_A":130,"score_B":312,"human_ref_A":"Not a cave painting but the Indus seals from 2500bc have a single horned animal on them which are known as the unicorn. It might be a creation or something that went extinct (doubtful as no fossils have been found). The body is like that of a cattle as well.","human_ref_B":"Yes. Extinct Ice Age megafauna depicted on Columbian rock art has been discovered. There are also depictions of extinct mammals in African rock art. Not sure if the animals depictedin rock art in Borneo or Indonesia are extinct, but they are approximately 40-50ky old.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6862.0,"score_ratio":2.4}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7y46fy","c_root_id_B":"i7z5c9j","created_at_utc_A":1652119113,"created_at_utc_B":1652134564,"score_A":117,"score_B":312,"human_ref_A":"If there were no fossil evidence, nobody would know for certain if the depicted animal was real or fiction. There are rock paintings in Australia of now extinct animals. Some of these animals went extinct tens of thousands of years ago, so perhaps someone saw these paintings and originally assumed they were imagined animals.  https:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/news\/2010-05-31\/megafauna-cave-painting-could-be-40000-years-old\/847564","human_ref_B":"Yes. Extinct Ice Age megafauna depicted on Columbian rock art has been discovered. There are also depictions of extinct mammals in African rock art. Not sure if the animals depictedin rock art in Borneo or Indonesia are extinct, but they are approximately 40-50ky old.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15451.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7yu2lg","c_root_id_B":"i7z5c9j","created_at_utc_A":1652129715,"created_at_utc_B":1652134564,"score_A":57,"score_B":312,"human_ref_A":"Can\u2019t say about cave paintings, but many many ancient Indian temples, including the ones at Angkor Wat (Cambodia) have the familiar yet unexplained animals shown as domesticated and tamed animals that help out in wars as guards, workers and even as weapons.. it\u2019s the repetitive use of the same type of animals represented so many times over so many different temples, that\u2019s it may have some legitimacy about their existence","human_ref_B":"Yes. Extinct Ice Age megafauna depicted on Columbian rock art has been discovered. There are also depictions of extinct mammals in African rock art. Not sure if the animals depictedin rock art in Borneo or Indonesia are extinct, but they are approximately 40-50ky old.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4849.0,"score_ratio":5.4736842105}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7y46fy","c_root_id_B":"i7ymys5","created_at_utc_A":1652119113,"created_at_utc_B":1652126779,"score_A":117,"score_B":190,"human_ref_A":"If there were no fossil evidence, nobody would know for certain if the depicted animal was real or fiction. There are rock paintings in Australia of now extinct animals. Some of these animals went extinct tens of thousands of years ago, so perhaps someone saw these paintings and originally assumed they were imagined animals.  https:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/news\/2010-05-31\/megafauna-cave-painting-could-be-40000-years-old\/847564","human_ref_B":"This one is from South America but it must be outdated news. There were paintings found around some Tepuys in Brazil that had depictions of long necked animals with mottled patterns or so in a few of the drawings.  It is currently assumed that they may be depictions of camelids (guanacos or vigu\u00f1as) but so far i think theres no fossils of any of those animals in the area as it was near the Amazon region and current distribution of them is limited to the western side of teh continent around the Andes Mountains  Some madlads even speculated ( but its doubtable) that it may have been macrauchenids as the currently known camelids in south america dont have those fur patterns, at least not the wild species.  So its either we have an extinct species of camelid that lived during teh ice age around the amazon highlands or macrauchenia survived long enough to see and get hunted by early SA aboriginals.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7666.0,"score_ratio":1.6239316239}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7ysop9","c_root_id_B":"i7yp7ck","created_at_utc_A":1652129134,"created_at_utc_B":1652127702,"score_A":137,"score_B":130,"human_ref_A":"There are Ancestral Puebloan and Fremont petroglyphs of desert bighorn in Utah. Desert bighorn were near-extinction by the turn of the 20th century but have since been making a resurgence through human-assisted relocation projects.   Source: I\u2019m an archaeologist.","human_ref_B":"Not a cave painting but the Indus seals from 2500bc have a single horned animal on them which are known as the unicorn. It might be a creation or something that went extinct (doubtful as no fossils have been found). The body is like that of a cattle as well.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1432.0,"score_ratio":1.0538461538}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7y46fy","c_root_id_B":"i7ysop9","created_at_utc_A":1652119113,"created_at_utc_B":1652129134,"score_A":117,"score_B":137,"human_ref_A":"If there were no fossil evidence, nobody would know for certain if the depicted animal was real or fiction. There are rock paintings in Australia of now extinct animals. Some of these animals went extinct tens of thousands of years ago, so perhaps someone saw these paintings and originally assumed they were imagined animals.  https:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/news\/2010-05-31\/megafauna-cave-painting-could-be-40000-years-old\/847564","human_ref_B":"There are Ancestral Puebloan and Fremont petroglyphs of desert bighorn in Utah. Desert bighorn were near-extinction by the turn of the 20th century but have since been making a resurgence through human-assisted relocation projects.   Source: I\u2019m an archaeologist.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10021.0,"score_ratio":1.1709401709}
{"post_id":"ultkcv","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"Are there any extinct animals recorded in cave paintings that we don't otherwise know about? Could there be cave paintings containing animals we haven't found fossil records for yet? And if there were, how would we tell if the animal being depicted was actually real and not some made up creature?","c_root_id_A":"i7yp7ck","c_root_id_B":"i7y46fy","created_at_utc_A":1652127702,"created_at_utc_B":1652119113,"score_A":130,"score_B":117,"human_ref_A":"Not a cave painting but the Indus seals from 2500bc have a single horned animal on them which are known as the unicorn. It might be a creation or something that went extinct (doubtful as no fossils have been found). The body is like that of a cattle as well.","human_ref_B":"If there were no fossil evidence, nobody would know for certain if the depicted animal was real or fiction. There are rock paintings in Australia of now extinct animals. Some of these animals went extinct tens of thousands of years ago, so perhaps someone saw these paintings and originally assumed they were imagined animals.  https:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/news\/2010-05-31\/megafauna-cave-painting-could-be-40000-years-old\/847564","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8589.0,"score_ratio":1.1111111111}
{"post_id":"ri0m4s","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"How long does it take a star to turn on? That is, during formation of a planetary system, the mass in the center condenses and eventually nuclear processes are started. How long does it take until the entire mass is \u201clit\u201c, and the star begins to shine?","c_root_id_A":"hou86qq","c_root_id_B":"hov5i3w","created_at_utc_A":1639693626,"created_at_utc_B":1639708409,"score_A":61,"score_B":62,"human_ref_A":"Stars form out of fragmentation of molecular clouds and the typical measure for if fragmentation will occur is the Jeans Criterion. We do not need the details of this though. Once the instability sets in then collapse of matter progresses at free fall timescale which is t = (3 pi \/ 32 G \\rho)^(1\/2) where G is the gravitational constant and \\rho is the background density of the molecular cloud prior to collapse. Plugging in some rough numbers, the timescale for interstellar density is 10^7 years, for a typical protostellar clump 10^5 years. Of course it should be noted that this estimate of for the homogeneous collapse of a sphere to r=0, clearly the star will not contract until this singular point and pressure will become important until it eventually balances gravity.  For the interested (and happy with a very technical book) one could seek further information in Stellar structure and evolution.  Edit - too add this is a rough estimate for the development of the proto-stellar phase (and prestellar phase). After the stars initial collapse to this point if will have ignited fusion (this occurs at about 0.08 solar masses) and you then get radiation pressure preventing further accretion is stopped. This stopping point is called the zero age main sequence and defines the transition from a pre-main sequence star to a proper main sequence star.  Edit 2 - this figure is probably quite informative. ZAMS is the point where a star becomes a main sequence star.","human_ref_B":"The star shines before nuclear fusion has started. This is known as a pre-main-sequence star and its energy source is gravitational contraction. The stellar winds are enough to clear away the surrounding dust and the star is visible, but the core is not yet hot enough for hydrogen fusion.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pre-main-sequence_star","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14783.0,"score_ratio":1.0163934426}
{"post_id":"rvepm4","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When you successfully fight off a mutated pathogen via antibodies from a previous infection\/vaccination (that have reduced effectiveness, but still get the job done), does your body create updated antibodies for the mutated pathogen? This question is geared towards the Omicron Covid-19 outbreak, but really extends to the immune system in general.  After receiving a booster of the Covid-19 vaccine, your body will produce antibodies targeting the original strain of the virus. Even though the potency of the antibodies against the Omicron variant is greatly diminished, this is still thought to improve your defenses against the disease.  I'm particularly interested in the case where your body easily defeats an exposure to Omicron due to a large abundance of antibodies from a recent booster. Will the body bother creating updated antibodies in this case? Or will subsequent exposures still carry risk of infection, especially as the level of antibodies in your system wane over time since receiving the booster?","c_root_id_A":"hr5q6pj","c_root_id_B":"hr687vq","created_at_utc_A":1641262749,"created_at_utc_B":1641270598,"score_A":79,"score_B":726,"human_ref_A":"During the course of infection or vaccination your immune system will continually have random mutations in b-cells.  Some of these random mutations will be more efficient at detecting the new variant, which we call affinity, and will therefore multiply more than the previous generations with lower affinity.","human_ref_B":"Yes. This is a well-studied process called affinity maturation. Basically when you get reinfected, the white blood cells that responded to the initial infection or vaccine multiply, then each copy mutates itself slightly to produce slightly different antibodies. The antibodies with the tightest fit to the new infection are selected for and they get to multiply even more to fight the infection.   https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affinity_maturation","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7849.0,"score_ratio":9.1898734177}
{"post_id":"rvepm4","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"When you successfully fight off a mutated pathogen via antibodies from a previous infection\/vaccination (that have reduced effectiveness, but still get the job done), does your body create updated antibodies for the mutated pathogen? This question is geared towards the Omicron Covid-19 outbreak, but really extends to the immune system in general.  After receiving a booster of the Covid-19 vaccine, your body will produce antibodies targeting the original strain of the virus. Even though the potency of the antibodies against the Omicron variant is greatly diminished, this is still thought to improve your defenses against the disease.  I'm particularly interested in the case where your body easily defeats an exposure to Omicron due to a large abundance of antibodies from a recent booster. Will the body bother creating updated antibodies in this case? Or will subsequent exposures still carry risk of infection, especially as the level of antibodies in your system wane over time since receiving the booster?","c_root_id_A":"hr687vq","c_root_id_B":"hr5qbtk","created_at_utc_A":1641270598,"created_at_utc_B":1641262807,"score_A":726,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"Yes. This is a well-studied process called affinity maturation. Basically when you get reinfected, the white blood cells that responded to the initial infection or vaccine multiply, then each copy mutates itself slightly to produce slightly different antibodies. The antibodies with the tightest fit to the new infection are selected for and they get to multiply even more to fight the infection.   https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affinity_maturation","human_ref_B":"To an extent, yes - there will be some updates. However, a topic you may be interested in is \"original antigenic sin\" .  It's not settled science, but is something that has been proposed and investigated with regard to influenza for decades.  Here's a tldr on ongoing research  to see whether the concept applies to covid-19. It doesn't appear to, according to the link, meaning the immune response is much more \"tunable\" to coronavirus infections.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7791.0,"score_ratio":15.7826086957}
{"post_id":"9zfin9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"A lot of sources online say that we\u2019ve only discovered about 14 to 15% of over 8 million species on earth. I don\u2019t understand how we know that there are 6.5 MM+ undiscovered species if we haven\u2019t discovered them yet. how do we know what we don\u2019t know?","c_root_id_A":"ea8yvnl","c_root_id_B":"ea94mkp","created_at_utc_A":1542911079,"created_at_utc_B":1542916218,"score_A":4,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"I've never looked into this, curious. By that estimate, someone explain why there would only be 8.7 million? If we continue to find them, unless there's a slowing down? If there's a slowing down I understand the math behind that but if there's 8.7 million species and we so far have only found 15% of them, wouldn't it be a fair assumption that since we're still \"evolving\" that we would constantly find more til the end of time? As new species pop up in the evolutionary tree? I guess technically that would be 8.7 million estimated to currently exist then huh","human_ref_B":"I think donald rumsfield summed it up the best: Reports that say that something hasn't happened are always interesting to me, because as we know, there are known knowns; there are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns; that is to say we know there are some things we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns \u2014 the ones we don't know we don't know.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5139.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"10xv8r","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are the cells of a Blue whale bigger than those of a human?","c_root_id_A":"c6hld3k","c_root_id_B":"c6hlgfw","created_at_utc_A":1349370050,"created_at_utc_B":1349370388,"score_A":10,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Ostrich egg is pretty big and heavy cell. Giraffes have nerve cells that run the length of their neck which is several meters. Its hypothesized that blue whale neuron length could be 10-30 meters long, but our knowledge of blue whale anatomy is incomplete.","human_ref_B":"Can't comment on human vs blue whale, but I can comment on other animals in reference to neuro-biology.  The standard action potential that most people learn in biology was developed in the un-myelinated axon of a squid.  This axon is actually quite physically bigger than a human's or a rat's axon, but surprisingly the voltages tend to be in the same magnitude.  In the same area, the Schwann cell, a myelinating and repairing cell of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), also undergoes differing sizes between rats, pigs, primates, and humans (although the last two are similar in sizes).  Here are cultured human SCs at 20x phase contrast, Levi et al 1995  Here are culture rat SCs at 20x phase contrast with nuclear labeling, unpublished  Even though the image sizes are different, the scale bars are the same if you re-size the images to the same size.  You'll notice the differences in the size of the cell bodies as a better explanation of cell size changes.  Going back to neurons, the neurons in your spinal cord are all one long cell going from where they receive the signal in the brain (if a motor neuron) to wherever they exit.  So the axons that control your toes' wiggling picks up the signal from the brain in the brain stem and then continues one long continous cell until it reaches the end of your spinal cord, named the cauda equina (because it looks like a horses tail), and exits the spinal cord to relay the signal to another axon.  On top of that, that cell is the same cell from when you are born until the day you die, so that cell grows in size.  The same goes for most vertebrates, if I recall correctly, so neurons lengths differ between species and so a blue whale's neuron in the spinal cord should be bigger in terms of length compared to the same one in a human.  So look at that, I did answer your question.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":338.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"qm5qwp","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.71,"history":"Is possible to get 2 viruses at once? If so, would one be more dominant than the other? For example, if you got a flu-like illness but also a cold, would they combine to make you more ill, or would one dominate the other to produce the majority of your symptoms?  Likewise, if you got a viral sickness bug, is it possible to get a bad cold at the same time and have both viruses expressing symptoms simultaneously?","c_root_id_A":"hj7js9j","c_root_id_B":"hj7lr46","created_at_utc_A":1635978518,"created_at_utc_B":1635979352,"score_A":14,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"It depends on the virus. Some viruses kick the immune system into overdrive, limiting how free other viruses can move within the body. Other viruses slide in, undetected. It's possible that you already have a few viruses in your body already.","human_ref_B":"All of what you stated can be true.   Cold sores\/fever blisters are the herpes virus lying dormant in your nerves, in check by your immune system. You get a cold, and boom you have an ulcer on your lip. You might get a fever from the cold, and your ulcer will hurt. Two different viruses at work. Shingles works similarly.   We saw lots of RSV and Covid this summer in tandem in the pediatric group. Yes it made kids sicker.   It\u2019s possible to get two viruses and only one of them cause your symptoms but that might be hard to determine which is causing what and that distinction isn\u2019t always that important. It entirely depends on how your immune system responds to what\u2019s in your body and the treatments you\u2019re given.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":834.0,"score_ratio":2.0714285714}
{"post_id":"qm5qwp","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.71,"history":"Is possible to get 2 viruses at once? If so, would one be more dominant than the other? For example, if you got a flu-like illness but also a cold, would they combine to make you more ill, or would one dominate the other to produce the majority of your symptoms?  Likewise, if you got a viral sickness bug, is it possible to get a bad cold at the same time and have both viruses expressing symptoms simultaneously?","c_root_id_A":"hj80p6n","c_root_id_B":"hj9tcjr","created_at_utc_A":1635985916,"created_at_utc_B":1636027836,"score_A":6,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"One \"fun\" example is Hepatitis B and Hepatitis D. You can only get Hep D if you already have Hep B.","human_ref_B":"I didn\u2019t know that two viruses can infect the human body at the same time, but I do know that some viruses outcompete others. For instance, Malaria outcompetes Yellow Fever in the body. Yellow Fever doesn\u2019t have a cure, but Malaria does. So when someone catches Yellow Fever, doctors will infect the patient with Malaria and then cure the Malaria.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":41920.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"vdkkzc","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.82,"history":"I've been aware of wet bulb temp, with it's possible danger to mankind for a few years. I never considered it's impact on livestock. How critical is wet bulb temps when it comes to sheep and cattle? I did some quick intertube research and found a vet manual showing sheep and cattle pretty much reach the danger zone from 29 to 33c.. and this map https:\/\/www.weather.gov\/tsa\/wbgt show wet bulb in the midwest exceeding this temp.  &#x200B;  this question was triggered by the 10k dead cattle in kansas headlines today.","c_root_id_A":"iclxtva","c_root_id_B":"icm097y","created_at_utc_A":1655402389,"created_at_utc_B":1655403393,"score_A":17,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"It's as least as critical, as livestock have a similar body temperature and metabolic output, may not perspire as efficiently, and aren't generally air-conditioned. Discussed here, for example.","human_ref_B":"The threshold for wet-bulb temperatures thought to be fatal for humans is also thought to apply to basically all mammals, at least within a few degrees depending on average internal body-temperature and size (e.g., Sherwood et al., 2010).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1004.0,"score_ratio":1.8823529412}
{"post_id":"32i1re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Do scientists take precautions when probing other planets\/bodies for microbial life to ensure that the equipment doesn't have existing microbes on them? If so, how?","c_root_id_A":"cqbs1jz","c_root_id_B":"cqbq95d","created_at_utc_A":1428997789,"created_at_utc_B":1428991445,"score_A":9,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Thought I'd pop in and contribute a bit to the conversation. I'm an undergrad but in our class today Dr. Steven Finkel (PhD, Biological Chemistry) spoke to us a little bit about this very topic.  As others have mentioned, we have clean rooms such as the Spacecraft Assembly Facility in which we put together rovers such as Curiosity. Interestingly, there is one major bacterium that keeps coming back despite sterilization with chemicals, gas, and\/or UV light: Bacillus pumilus SAFR032. A series of experiments were conducted in which 3 billion bacterial cells were put in space for ~14 months and then surveyed after. Only 19 survived (an incredibly small amount) but interestingly 2 of the surviving cells were shown to be more resistant to UV light. This demonstrates an incredible ability for bacterial evolution, but also shows that there is little risk of bacteria on the outside of a rover, for example, surviving. We do, however, have to be extremely careful about the inside of machines, which could provide more hospitable conditions. [A link to a relevant article, though you may not be able to access it without a subscription] (http:\/\/online.liebertpub.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1089\/ast.2011.0738) I just wanted to post this because I found it interesting from lecture today. If anyone has any corrections feel free to reply them!","human_ref_B":"I talked to a microbiologist who worked on a probe mission. He said they take great lengths to sterilize everything they put together and the area it is built in, but they generally used radiation to sterilize. That means after many cycles they start to accidentally select for bacteria that is more and more resistant to radiation. The end result, he believed, was that there was a good chance we could end up making bacteria that could survive the radiation of space if we keep trying hard enough.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6344.0,"score_ratio":1.125}
{"post_id":"32i1re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Do scientists take precautions when probing other planets\/bodies for microbial life to ensure that the equipment doesn't have existing microbes on them? If so, how?","c_root_id_A":"cqbn948","c_root_id_B":"cqbs1jz","created_at_utc_A":1428984084,"created_at_utc_B":1428997789,"score_A":7,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Can anyone explain the opposite. Why can't they send microbes\/bacteria etc to another planet to see if forms of life grow. Is it due to unpredictability?   Might we create something that would be incurable if we visited again or do they not do the above to find existing microbes\/bacteria that exist without our interference.","human_ref_B":"Thought I'd pop in and contribute a bit to the conversation. I'm an undergrad but in our class today Dr. Steven Finkel (PhD, Biological Chemistry) spoke to us a little bit about this very topic.  As others have mentioned, we have clean rooms such as the Spacecraft Assembly Facility in which we put together rovers such as Curiosity. Interestingly, there is one major bacterium that keeps coming back despite sterilization with chemicals, gas, and\/or UV light: Bacillus pumilus SAFR032. A series of experiments were conducted in which 3 billion bacterial cells were put in space for ~14 months and then surveyed after. Only 19 survived (an incredibly small amount) but interestingly 2 of the surviving cells were shown to be more resistant to UV light. This demonstrates an incredible ability for bacterial evolution, but also shows that there is little risk of bacteria on the outside of a rover, for example, surviving. We do, however, have to be extremely careful about the inside of machines, which could provide more hospitable conditions. [A link to a relevant article, though you may not be able to access it without a subscription] (http:\/\/online.liebertpub.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1089\/ast.2011.0738) I just wanted to post this because I found it interesting from lecture today. If anyone has any corrections feel free to reply them!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13705.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"32i1re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Do scientists take precautions when probing other planets\/bodies for microbial life to ensure that the equipment doesn't have existing microbes on them? If so, how?","c_root_id_A":"cqc6irw","c_root_id_B":"cqbq95d","created_at_utc_A":1429033131,"created_at_utc_B":1428991445,"score_A":9,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"There are a lot of great answers here. I am a Planetary Protection Engineer at NASA JPL. As you read from previous responses, the answer is yes, scientists take precautions when sending rovers, probes, etc. into our solar system and beyond. Depending on where we intend to explore, the science that will be conducted, and the path that the spacecraft takes to get to the target body, there are varying levels of requirements that the mission needs to satisfy. Much of it has to do with spacecraft cleanliness but there are also other documentation that is needed to show that we are minimizing the probability of contaminating an environment that has the potential to harbor life. We also have a lot of neat questions to answer with the Mars 2020 sample caching mission which is in its development stage. We hope to eventually bring those samples back to Earth, marking the first sample return from Mars (besides, you know, the natural transit of rocks ejected from Mars that makes its way back to Earth on its own)!!","human_ref_B":"I talked to a microbiologist who worked on a probe mission. He said they take great lengths to sterilize everything they put together and the area it is built in, but they generally used radiation to sterilize. That means after many cycles they start to accidentally select for bacteria that is more and more resistant to radiation. The end result, he believed, was that there was a good chance we could end up making bacteria that could survive the radiation of space if we keep trying hard enough.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":41686.0,"score_ratio":1.125}
{"post_id":"32i1re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Do scientists take precautions when probing other planets\/bodies for microbial life to ensure that the equipment doesn't have existing microbes on them? If so, how?","c_root_id_A":"cqbn948","c_root_id_B":"cqc6irw","created_at_utc_A":1428984084,"created_at_utc_B":1429033131,"score_A":7,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Can anyone explain the opposite. Why can't they send microbes\/bacteria etc to another planet to see if forms of life grow. Is it due to unpredictability?   Might we create something that would be incurable if we visited again or do they not do the above to find existing microbes\/bacteria that exist without our interference.","human_ref_B":"There are a lot of great answers here. I am a Planetary Protection Engineer at NASA JPL. As you read from previous responses, the answer is yes, scientists take precautions when sending rovers, probes, etc. into our solar system and beyond. Depending on where we intend to explore, the science that will be conducted, and the path that the spacecraft takes to get to the target body, there are varying levels of requirements that the mission needs to satisfy. Much of it has to do with spacecraft cleanliness but there are also other documentation that is needed to show that we are minimizing the probability of contaminating an environment that has the potential to harbor life. We also have a lot of neat questions to answer with the Mars 2020 sample caching mission which is in its development stage. We hope to eventually bring those samples back to Earth, marking the first sample return from Mars (besides, you know, the natural transit of rocks ejected from Mars that makes its way back to Earth on its own)!!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":49047.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"32i1re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Do scientists take precautions when probing other planets\/bodies for microbial life to ensure that the equipment doesn't have existing microbes on them? If so, how?","c_root_id_A":"cqbsmdj","c_root_id_B":"cqc6irw","created_at_utc_A":1429000335,"created_at_utc_B":1429033131,"score_A":6,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Yes in theory they need to take certain precautions-- but in practice, the ones setting stuff up can pretty much play hard and fast with rules based on the situation at the time.  For example: (1) In Curiousity probe-- there was a lady in NASA whose job was to approve that every little item that went onboard was properly sterilized. But there were others in that mission team who at the last moment felt that the scientific payoffs of adding extra drill bit incase one fails will far outweigh the risks of contaminating Mars- and they went ahead and added a extra unsterilised drill bit-- irrespective of rules-- because they felt that risk of contamination was negligible.  I hope this helps... all the science apart, all I can say is that outer space is still pretty much cowboy territory... and many times folks just take a shot at winging it - irrespective of consequences!!!       http:\/\/www.space.com\/13783-nasa-msl-curiosity-mars-rover-planetary-protection.html http:\/\/www.space.com\/16101-nasa-mars-rover-contamination-landing.html http:\/\/www.npr.org\/2012\/09\/14\/161156787\/mars-rover-may-be-contaminated-with-earth-microbes http:\/\/www.wired.co.uk\/news\/archive\/2012-09\/11\/curiosity-bacteria-mars","human_ref_B":"There are a lot of great answers here. I am a Planetary Protection Engineer at NASA JPL. As you read from previous responses, the answer is yes, scientists take precautions when sending rovers, probes, etc. into our solar system and beyond. Depending on where we intend to explore, the science that will be conducted, and the path that the spacecraft takes to get to the target body, there are varying levels of requirements that the mission needs to satisfy. Much of it has to do with spacecraft cleanliness but there are also other documentation that is needed to show that we are minimizing the probability of contaminating an environment that has the potential to harbor life. We also have a lot of neat questions to answer with the Mars 2020 sample caching mission which is in its development stage. We hope to eventually bring those samples back to Earth, marking the first sample return from Mars (besides, you know, the natural transit of rocks ejected from Mars that makes its way back to Earth on its own)!!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":32796.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"32i1re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Do scientists take precautions when probing other planets\/bodies for microbial life to ensure that the equipment doesn't have existing microbes on them? If so, how?","c_root_id_A":"cqbn948","c_root_id_B":"cqbq95d","created_at_utc_A":1428984084,"created_at_utc_B":1428991445,"score_A":7,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Can anyone explain the opposite. Why can't they send microbes\/bacteria etc to another planet to see if forms of life grow. Is it due to unpredictability?   Might we create something that would be incurable if we visited again or do they not do the above to find existing microbes\/bacteria that exist without our interference.","human_ref_B":"I talked to a microbiologist who worked on a probe mission. He said they take great lengths to sterilize everything they put together and the area it is built in, but they generally used radiation to sterilize. That means after many cycles they start to accidentally select for bacteria that is more and more resistant to radiation. The end result, he believed, was that there was a good chance we could end up making bacteria that could survive the radiation of space if we keep trying hard enough.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7361.0,"score_ratio":1.1428571429}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmiaasc","c_root_id_B":"gmgsot8","created_at_utc_A":1612732283,"created_at_utc_B":1612715712,"score_A":17,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Not a medical expert, by any means. But I read something that appears to make sense.   The rate of mutatation is directly related to the rate of spread. If you reduce the rate of spread of a disease, it has fewer opportunities to mutate. By vaccinating for the original strain, you should see fewer mutations.  This is why you need to vaccinate everyone, including the poorer countries.  If you leave them out, you leave 4 billion vectors of the new covid.","human_ref_B":"No it won\u2019t run out of mutations but viruses mutate into less deadly variants over time because it helps them spread more easily.  For example the more deadly Spanish Flu of 1918 was much more deadly than Coronavirus, and its mutated offspring still circulate the globe, yet people aren\u2019t dying from these variants","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16571.0,"score_ratio":1.1333333333}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmgqkqz","c_root_id_B":"gmgsot8","created_at_utc_A":1612715266,"created_at_utc_B":1612715712,"score_A":7,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Theoretically, yes. Some viruses effectively do this, Flu for example is a constant race between the mutations and the new vaccines.   There are reasons to think that this coronavirus won\u2019t do that though. There are two variants that everyone is talking about at the moment, the UK \u201cspread faster\u201d mutation and the South Africa \u201cdodge the immune system\u201d mutation.   Very recently we\u2019ve detected some cases in the UK where the \u201cspread faster\u201d strain has also independently evolved the \u201cevade the immune system\u201d mutation.   Which is very scary, in the short term. Hopefully we can keep that one under control.   In the long run it\u2019s actually very reassuring that the virus is retreading the same ground.   If there were loads of options for how to evade the immune response then it\u2019s very unlikely that the same one would have independently evolved twice. That suggests that even if this turns into a game of whack-a-mole we will eventually win.","human_ref_B":"No it won\u2019t run out of mutations but viruses mutate into less deadly variants over time because it helps them spread more easily.  For example the more deadly Spanish Flu of 1918 was much more deadly than Coronavirus, and its mutated offspring still circulate the globe, yet people aren\u2019t dying from these variants","labels":0,"seconds_difference":446.0,"score_ratio":2.1428571429}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmgsot8","c_root_id_B":"gmgjqeh","created_at_utc_A":1612715712,"created_at_utc_B":1612713755,"score_A":15,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"No it won\u2019t run out of mutations but viruses mutate into less deadly variants over time because it helps them spread more easily.  For example the more deadly Spanish Flu of 1918 was much more deadly than Coronavirus, and its mutated offspring still circulate the globe, yet people aren\u2019t dying from these variants","human_ref_B":"hi i only have 3 credits worth of experience in microbiology so i dont think i can answer this but this article was really interesting and may help a lil","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1957.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmgsot8","c_root_id_B":"gmgo81i","created_at_utc_A":1612715712,"created_at_utc_B":1612714751,"score_A":15,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"No it won\u2019t run out of mutations but viruses mutate into less deadly variants over time because it helps them spread more easily.  For example the more deadly Spanish Flu of 1918 was much more deadly than Coronavirus, and its mutated offspring still circulate the globe, yet people aren\u2019t dying from these variants","human_ref_B":"From a genetic point of view, no it can not run out of new mutations. The spikes you see(known as antigens) are build of very specific amino acids that give it its unique shape and characteristic. The virus can continue to mutate those, adding or changing the amino acids that make it up. It\u2019s also important to note, it\u2019s an RNA make up, which make it less stable and more prone to mutations. There\u2019s also other mutation pathways for it to take to make it easier to hide and avoid the immune system. With the constant mutations, we won\u2019t be making constant vaccines. We would most likely take an approach like we do with the Tetnus shot(where adults should take one every 10 years) we will probably be taking renewed vaccines or booster shots every 6-10 years to make sure immunity lasts, and if need be, introduce the newer mutated cells","labels":1,"seconds_difference":961.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmgqkqz","c_root_id_B":"gmiaasc","created_at_utc_A":1612715266,"created_at_utc_B":1612732283,"score_A":7,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"Theoretically, yes. Some viruses effectively do this, Flu for example is a constant race between the mutations and the new vaccines.   There are reasons to think that this coronavirus won\u2019t do that though. There are two variants that everyone is talking about at the moment, the UK \u201cspread faster\u201d mutation and the South Africa \u201cdodge the immune system\u201d mutation.   Very recently we\u2019ve detected some cases in the UK where the \u201cspread faster\u201d strain has also independently evolved the \u201cevade the immune system\u201d mutation.   Which is very scary, in the short term. Hopefully we can keep that one under control.   In the long run it\u2019s actually very reassuring that the virus is retreading the same ground.   If there were loads of options for how to evade the immune response then it\u2019s very unlikely that the same one would have independently evolved twice. That suggests that even if this turns into a game of whack-a-mole we will eventually win.","human_ref_B":"Not a medical expert, by any means. But I read something that appears to make sense.   The rate of mutatation is directly related to the rate of spread. If you reduce the rate of spread of a disease, it has fewer opportunities to mutate. By vaccinating for the original strain, you should see fewer mutations.  This is why you need to vaccinate everyone, including the poorer countries.  If you leave them out, you leave 4 billion vectors of the new covid.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":17017.0,"score_ratio":2.4285714286}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmgjqeh","c_root_id_B":"gmiaasc","created_at_utc_A":1612713755,"created_at_utc_B":1612732283,"score_A":3,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"hi i only have 3 credits worth of experience in microbiology so i dont think i can answer this but this article was really interesting and may help a lil","human_ref_B":"Not a medical expert, by any means. But I read something that appears to make sense.   The rate of mutatation is directly related to the rate of spread. If you reduce the rate of spread of a disease, it has fewer opportunities to mutate. By vaccinating for the original strain, you should see fewer mutations.  This is why you need to vaccinate everyone, including the poorer countries.  If you leave them out, you leave 4 billion vectors of the new covid.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18528.0,"score_ratio":5.6666666667}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmiaasc","c_root_id_B":"gmhaexf","created_at_utc_A":1612732283,"created_at_utc_B":1612719679,"score_A":17,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Not a medical expert, by any means. But I read something that appears to make sense.   The rate of mutatation is directly related to the rate of spread. If you reduce the rate of spread of a disease, it has fewer opportunities to mutate. By vaccinating for the original strain, you should see fewer mutations.  This is why you need to vaccinate everyone, including the poorer countries.  If you leave them out, you leave 4 billion vectors of the new covid.","human_ref_B":"It's somewhat limited in the case of covid because the target of our vaccines is also the key that the virus uses to infect cells - the so-called \"Spike protein\".  So mutations have to change the Spike protein enough to evade the immune system while also preserving its function. There are not an infinite number of ways to do that.  Also, we are not observing this to be the case with naturally acquired immunity, other than RARE cases of \"reinfection\".   Several countries have demonstrated their ability to contain\/eradicate covid, even WITHOUT a vaccine, just by using strictly enforced public mitigation measures.  I expect vaccines to eradicate covid from the human race writhin a few years.   Obviously the disease will still exist in animal reservoirs like SARS and MERS and Ebola but I doubt it will remain a significant threat.  I'm an MD but not an immunologist or covid expert.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12604.0,"score_ratio":3.4}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmiaasc","c_root_id_B":"gmgo81i","created_at_utc_A":1612732283,"created_at_utc_B":1612714751,"score_A":17,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Not a medical expert, by any means. But I read something that appears to make sense.   The rate of mutatation is directly related to the rate of spread. If you reduce the rate of spread of a disease, it has fewer opportunities to mutate. By vaccinating for the original strain, you should see fewer mutations.  This is why you need to vaccinate everyone, including the poorer countries.  If you leave them out, you leave 4 billion vectors of the new covid.","human_ref_B":"From a genetic point of view, no it can not run out of new mutations. The spikes you see(known as antigens) are build of very specific amino acids that give it its unique shape and characteristic. The virus can continue to mutate those, adding or changing the amino acids that make it up. It\u2019s also important to note, it\u2019s an RNA make up, which make it less stable and more prone to mutations. There\u2019s also other mutation pathways for it to take to make it easier to hide and avoid the immune system. With the constant mutations, we won\u2019t be making constant vaccines. We would most likely take an approach like we do with the Tetnus shot(where adults should take one every 10 years) we will probably be taking renewed vaccines or booster shots every 6-10 years to make sure immunity lasts, and if need be, introduce the newer mutated cells","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17532.0,"score_ratio":5.6666666667}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmgqkqz","c_root_id_B":"gmgjqeh","created_at_utc_A":1612715266,"created_at_utc_B":1612713755,"score_A":7,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Theoretically, yes. Some viruses effectively do this, Flu for example is a constant race between the mutations and the new vaccines.   There are reasons to think that this coronavirus won\u2019t do that though. There are two variants that everyone is talking about at the moment, the UK \u201cspread faster\u201d mutation and the South Africa \u201cdodge the immune system\u201d mutation.   Very recently we\u2019ve detected some cases in the UK where the \u201cspread faster\u201d strain has also independently evolved the \u201cevade the immune system\u201d mutation.   Which is very scary, in the short term. Hopefully we can keep that one under control.   In the long run it\u2019s actually very reassuring that the virus is retreading the same ground.   If there were loads of options for how to evade the immune response then it\u2019s very unlikely that the same one would have independently evolved twice. That suggests that even if this turns into a game of whack-a-mole we will eventually win.","human_ref_B":"hi i only have 3 credits worth of experience in microbiology so i dont think i can answer this but this article was really interesting and may help a lil","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1511.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmgo81i","c_root_id_B":"gmgqkqz","created_at_utc_A":1612714751,"created_at_utc_B":1612715266,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"From a genetic point of view, no it can not run out of new mutations. The spikes you see(known as antigens) are build of very specific amino acids that give it its unique shape and characteristic. The virus can continue to mutate those, adding or changing the amino acids that make it up. It\u2019s also important to note, it\u2019s an RNA make up, which make it less stable and more prone to mutations. There\u2019s also other mutation pathways for it to take to make it easier to hide and avoid the immune system. With the constant mutations, we won\u2019t be making constant vaccines. We would most likely take an approach like we do with the Tetnus shot(where adults should take one every 10 years) we will probably be taking renewed vaccines or booster shots every 6-10 years to make sure immunity lasts, and if need be, introduce the newer mutated cells","human_ref_B":"Theoretically, yes. Some viruses effectively do this, Flu for example is a constant race between the mutations and the new vaccines.   There are reasons to think that this coronavirus won\u2019t do that though. There are two variants that everyone is talking about at the moment, the UK \u201cspread faster\u201d mutation and the South Africa \u201cdodge the immune system\u201d mutation.   Very recently we\u2019ve detected some cases in the UK where the \u201cspread faster\u201d strain has also independently evolved the \u201cevade the immune system\u201d mutation.   Which is very scary, in the short term. Hopefully we can keep that one under control.   In the long run it\u2019s actually very reassuring that the virus is retreading the same ground.   If there were loads of options for how to evade the immune response then it\u2019s very unlikely that the same one would have independently evolved twice. That suggests that even if this turns into a game of whack-a-mole we will eventually win.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":515.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmhaexf","c_root_id_B":"gmgjqeh","created_at_utc_A":1612719679,"created_at_utc_B":1612713755,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"It's somewhat limited in the case of covid because the target of our vaccines is also the key that the virus uses to infect cells - the so-called \"Spike protein\".  So mutations have to change the Spike protein enough to evade the immune system while also preserving its function. There are not an infinite number of ways to do that.  Also, we are not observing this to be the case with naturally acquired immunity, other than RARE cases of \"reinfection\".   Several countries have demonstrated their ability to contain\/eradicate covid, even WITHOUT a vaccine, just by using strictly enforced public mitigation measures.  I expect vaccines to eradicate covid from the human race writhin a few years.   Obviously the disease will still exist in animal reservoirs like SARS and MERS and Ebola but I doubt it will remain a significant threat.  I'm an MD but not an immunologist or covid expert.","human_ref_B":"hi i only have 3 credits worth of experience in microbiology so i dont think i can answer this but this article was really interesting and may help a lil","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5924.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"lemdqb","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If the coronavirus keeps mutating to evade our vaccines, like the South African mutation, and we keep on updating vaccines to protect against the new variants, would the virus ever \u201crun out\u201d of new mutations to try? Just thinking of the worst case scenario where every time we create a new vaccine the coronavirus mutates again to get around it. Is the number of possible mutations that could affect vaccine response limited in any way?","c_root_id_A":"gmgo81i","c_root_id_B":"gmhaexf","created_at_utc_A":1612714751,"created_at_utc_B":1612719679,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"From a genetic point of view, no it can not run out of new mutations. The spikes you see(known as antigens) are build of very specific amino acids that give it its unique shape and characteristic. The virus can continue to mutate those, adding or changing the amino acids that make it up. It\u2019s also important to note, it\u2019s an RNA make up, which make it less stable and more prone to mutations. There\u2019s also other mutation pathways for it to take to make it easier to hide and avoid the immune system. With the constant mutations, we won\u2019t be making constant vaccines. We would most likely take an approach like we do with the Tetnus shot(where adults should take one every 10 years) we will probably be taking renewed vaccines or booster shots every 6-10 years to make sure immunity lasts, and if need be, introduce the newer mutated cells","human_ref_B":"It's somewhat limited in the case of covid because the target of our vaccines is also the key that the virus uses to infect cells - the so-called \"Spike protein\".  So mutations have to change the Spike protein enough to evade the immune system while also preserving its function. There are not an infinite number of ways to do that.  Also, we are not observing this to be the case with naturally acquired immunity, other than RARE cases of \"reinfection\".   Several countries have demonstrated their ability to contain\/eradicate covid, even WITHOUT a vaccine, just by using strictly enforced public mitigation measures.  I expect vaccines to eradicate covid from the human race writhin a few years.   Obviously the disease will still exist in animal reservoirs like SARS and MERS and Ebola but I doubt it will remain a significant threat.  I'm an MD but not an immunologist or covid expert.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4928.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"cdcfn7","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"How do parrots (and other birds that can talk) make labial sounds like f or b if they don\u2019t have flexible lips?","c_root_id_A":"ettwr6o","c_root_id_B":"ettw9cp","created_at_utc_A":1563198288,"created_at_utc_B":1563197888,"score_A":126,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"It's true that birds don't have lips, but they also don't have vocal cords, flexible tongues, or teeth, which in some ways makes it even more incredible that some species can mimic us so well!  Birds use a structure called a syrinx to produce almost all sounds, which is located much further down their trachea than our larynx.  And unlike our vocal cords which open and close, the syrinx uses a system of rings to compress the trachea in different locations.  Songbirds can actually use both sides of the syrinx semi-independently to produce more complicated sounds, as this cool interactive demo shows.  While this system does allow some sounds to be produced in the same ways as they are in humans, other sounds must be mimicked with fundamentally different mechanisms.  For example, Warren et al. 1996 discuss some of the similarities and differences between vowel production in humans and parrots, such as modulation of the length of the trachea (which humans can't do).  Other studies like Beckers et al. 2004 have demonstrated that tongue placement can be used to change sound quality, despite the fact that parrot tongues are very different from ours and contain bones.  I couldn't find anything that specifically addresses \"f\" sounds, but Patterson and Pepperberg 1998 discusses stop consonants in parrots (including \"b\" and \"p\").  Frustratingly though, I was unable to access the full text of this article even through my university's system, so I can't go into details; maybe someone else will be able to describe that paper more.  Edit: I was able to track down a full version of that paper thanks to some help from u\/sorhead.  It contains a lot more linguistics than biology and so is somewhat over my head, but suffice it to say there are indeed differences in how parrots pronounce some of these sounds compared to humans, and certain sounds are noticeably less consistent and also not quite as intelligible as others.  To quote one section that summarizes nicely:  >\\[The parrot's\\] \/b\/ was somewhat of an outlier, and \/p\/ clustered nearer \/d,g\/ than \/k,t\/. Such findings are not surprising given that Alex \\[the parrot\\] produces \/b,p\/ without lips or teeth; he may compensate by using specific glottal and esophageal mechanisms unavailable to humans.","human_ref_B":"I've seen this question answered before. If I'm remembering correctly, what they said was that a bird's vocal cords themselves are much more versatile than ours and act more like a speaker. While our vocal cords can only make one tone at a time, theirs can make several, and, since all sounds can be made by combining tones, they're able to make any sound using only their vocal cords. If none of that really made sense, just know that birds basically have biological speakers in their throats and can make just about any sound they want.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":400.0,"score_ratio":31.5}
{"post_id":"zi9bq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Where i'm from in Eastern Europe it is a common belief that by sitting or walking barefoot an a cold floor you become more prone to UTIs. Is there any truth to this? All my life all the women in my family have been nagging me about not sitting on the ground and not walking barefoot and especially not going into cold water because i will be forever doomed with constant UTIs. But since there are few things i enjoy more than sitting on the floor, i need some scientific evidence to back this up.","c_root_id_A":"c64vq6q","c_root_id_B":"c64vmth","created_at_utc_A":1347038970,"created_at_utc_B":1347038642,"score_A":29,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"In all likelihood - no.  There is no reason this should be the case, unless you are in the habit of sitting on a terribly dirty floor while completely naked, and\/or finding a way to stick your terribly dirty feet from your terribly dirty floor into a part of your anatomy they were not meant to be stuck in  the \"cold water\" part is unlikely as well. think about all the civilizations that live on the banks of cold water bodies.","human_ref_B":"Sorry, but what is a UTI?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":328.0,"score_ratio":4.1428571429}
{"post_id":"zi9bq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Where i'm from in Eastern Europe it is a common belief that by sitting or walking barefoot an a cold floor you become more prone to UTIs. Is there any truth to this? All my life all the women in my family have been nagging me about not sitting on the ground and not walking barefoot and especially not going into cold water because i will be forever doomed with constant UTIs. But since there are few things i enjoy more than sitting on the floor, i need some scientific evidence to back this up.","c_root_id_A":"c64wnqz","c_root_id_B":"c64vmth","created_at_utc_A":1347042301,"created_at_utc_B":1347038642,"score_A":25,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"It's a great question, and it deserves to be asked not only in _askscience_, but also in _askhumanities_ (if a subreddit like that does exist). Because the superstition against sitting on the ground \/ stones \/ rocks is really strong in some Eastern European countries (Russia, Ukraine), while it doesn't seem to be known in Western Europe \/ Americas.  Let me quote this nice blog:  > \"It is widely believed in Russia that sitting on cold surfaces, such as rocks or even the ground, is not simply taboo for a woman, but it is extremely hazardous to her health and inhibits her ability to bear children (by somehow exposing her ovaries to the cold). It is a practice that is rigorously upheld, especially in cold weather and with young children, who will often unknowingly sit on the ground, and who will frequently be lifted up by a supervising adult.\"  I remember reading a book that argued that this superstition stems from some old, pagan, pre-Christian Eastern Slavic traditions, in which Mother Earth (usually referred as Mother Moist-Earth) was an important force, or even deity, making the relations between a man and the Earth quite complicated. I tried to google out a reference for it, but could not find one.  Note also that while it's universally considered very bad to sit on a stone, it is OK to sit on it if you put a thin shirt between your butt and the stone. Also note that with the sacred stones situation is the opposite in a way: people are supposed to sit on them to get healing (this tradition is not at all ancient, but it illuminates the paradigm within which the people are thinking).  All this information is not quite about Science, but I think it may be interesting to know. Also it can hint indirectly that most probably this \"sitting-on-stones\" theory is indeed a cultural marker, and not a scientifically valid claim.","human_ref_B":"Sorry, but what is a UTI?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3659.0,"score_ratio":3.5714285714}
{"post_id":"wgl8x3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"In cultures that speak Romance languages, the heart (coeur, corazon, cuore) is closely linked with the concept of love. Is this a just a quirk of these languages or does the relationship between the organ and the feeling exist more broadly across human cultures and languages? Our brain does our thinking, which justifies associating the word brain with both the organ and the more intangible concept of intelligence (e.g. \u201cshe\u2019s got brains\u201d). The heart by contrast does none of our feeling, yet is credited in at least English, Spanish, French and Italian with being the metaphorical centre of love, passion, and conviction. Is this just a quirk of these particular languages or is it something more universal about in human belief to connect the heart organ with emotional functions?","c_root_id_A":"ij3rg1b","c_root_id_B":"ij3743i","created_at_utc_A":1659733034,"created_at_utc_B":1659725110,"score_A":13,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"In German, Herz and Liebe are closely connected. By association, lore and language.    Poems and songs link heart and love, no questions asked.     And as for brain: You know that the brain does the thinking bc you have been told. It is far from obvious.     If you are body sensitive though, you FEEL in the heart area. Ever been REALLY hurt by love? There you go.     Our emotions are represented in the body. Whether you are aware of it, or not. Thoughts and concepts tend to override body sensations in our culture. It can take a while to become aware of physical emotions again.","human_ref_B":"It's not just Romance languages.  In Mandarin Chinese the character \u5fc3 is the heart and is used for many words describing feelings, for example \u5b89\u5fc3 is \"at peace\" or literally \"peaceful heart\".  This question is probably better suited to an anthropologist.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7924.0,"score_ratio":1.4444444444}
{"post_id":"wgl8x3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"In cultures that speak Romance languages, the heart (coeur, corazon, cuore) is closely linked with the concept of love. Is this a just a quirk of these languages or does the relationship between the organ and the feeling exist more broadly across human cultures and languages? Our brain does our thinking, which justifies associating the word brain with both the organ and the more intangible concept of intelligence (e.g. \u201cshe\u2019s got brains\u201d). The heart by contrast does none of our feeling, yet is credited in at least English, Spanish, French and Italian with being the metaphorical centre of love, passion, and conviction. Is this just a quirk of these particular languages or is it something more universal about in human belief to connect the heart organ with emotional functions?","c_root_id_A":"ij3rg1b","c_root_id_B":"ij3ljuj","created_at_utc_A":1659733034,"created_at_utc_B":1659730708,"score_A":13,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"In German, Herz and Liebe are closely connected. By association, lore and language.    Poems and songs link heart and love, no questions asked.     And as for brain: You know that the brain does the thinking bc you have been told. It is far from obvious.     If you are body sensitive though, you FEEL in the heart area. Ever been REALLY hurt by love? There you go.     Our emotions are represented in the body. Whether you are aware of it, or not. Thoughts and concepts tend to override body sensations in our culture. It can take a while to become aware of physical emotions again.","human_ref_B":"In Slavic languages, \"heart\" and \"love\" are completely unrelated from linguistic point of view. I don't want to go into much detail here, but in general, \"heart\" is roughly related to words that convey the meaning of \"inside\" or \"the thing that's inside something\". It varies between languages, but all share the same consonant root of \"s-r-d\", whereas \"love\" is totally different.  On the other hand, we have words with roots like \"m-l-*\" or \"l-b-*\", that have general meaning of loving, liking, being fond of something. Sometimes actual meanings may be swapped, so \"to love\" in one Slavic language may be simply \"to be fond of\" in another and vice versa, but the meaning is shared between these 2 roots in general, and not that one related to \"heart\".","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2326.0,"score_ratio":2.1666666667}
{"post_id":"wgl8x3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"In cultures that speak Romance languages, the heart (coeur, corazon, cuore) is closely linked with the concept of love. Is this a just a quirk of these languages or does the relationship between the organ and the feeling exist more broadly across human cultures and languages? Our brain does our thinking, which justifies associating the word brain with both the organ and the more intangible concept of intelligence (e.g. \u201cshe\u2019s got brains\u201d). The heart by contrast does none of our feeling, yet is credited in at least English, Spanish, French and Italian with being the metaphorical centre of love, passion, and conviction. Is this just a quirk of these particular languages or is it something more universal about in human belief to connect the heart organ with emotional functions?","c_root_id_A":"ij34nur","c_root_id_B":"ij3rg1b","created_at_utc_A":1659724168,"created_at_utc_B":1659733034,"score_A":2,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Before people really understood the human body, they thought that the brain\u2019s function was to cool the body, and that love occurred in the heart.   I suppose the assumption probably comes from how your heart feels when you experience an adrenaline rush, or when you get nervous","human_ref_B":"In German, Herz and Liebe are closely connected. By association, lore and language.    Poems and songs link heart and love, no questions asked.     And as for brain: You know that the brain does the thinking bc you have been told. It is far from obvious.     If you are body sensitive though, you FEEL in the heart area. Ever been REALLY hurt by love? There you go.     Our emotions are represented in the body. Whether you are aware of it, or not. Thoughts and concepts tend to override body sensations in our culture. It can take a while to become aware of physical emotions again.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8866.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"wgl8x3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"In cultures that speak Romance languages, the heart (coeur, corazon, cuore) is closely linked with the concept of love. Is this a just a quirk of these languages or does the relationship between the organ and the feeling exist more broadly across human cultures and languages? Our brain does our thinking, which justifies associating the word brain with both the organ and the more intangible concept of intelligence (e.g. \u201cshe\u2019s got brains\u201d). The heart by contrast does none of our feeling, yet is credited in at least English, Spanish, French and Italian with being the metaphorical centre of love, passion, and conviction. Is this just a quirk of these particular languages or is it something more universal about in human belief to connect the heart organ with emotional functions?","c_root_id_A":"ij34nur","c_root_id_B":"ij3743i","created_at_utc_A":1659724168,"created_at_utc_B":1659725110,"score_A":2,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Before people really understood the human body, they thought that the brain\u2019s function was to cool the body, and that love occurred in the heart.   I suppose the assumption probably comes from how your heart feels when you experience an adrenaline rush, or when you get nervous","human_ref_B":"It's not just Romance languages.  In Mandarin Chinese the character \u5fc3 is the heart and is used for many words describing feelings, for example \u5b89\u5fc3 is \"at peace\" or literally \"peaceful heart\".  This question is probably better suited to an anthropologist.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":942.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"wgl8x3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"In cultures that speak Romance languages, the heart (coeur, corazon, cuore) is closely linked with the concept of love. Is this a just a quirk of these languages or does the relationship between the organ and the feeling exist more broadly across human cultures and languages? Our brain does our thinking, which justifies associating the word brain with both the organ and the more intangible concept of intelligence (e.g. \u201cshe\u2019s got brains\u201d). The heart by contrast does none of our feeling, yet is credited in at least English, Spanish, French and Italian with being the metaphorical centre of love, passion, and conviction. Is this just a quirk of these particular languages or is it something more universal about in human belief to connect the heart organ with emotional functions?","c_root_id_A":"ij3ljuj","c_root_id_B":"ij34nur","created_at_utc_A":1659730708,"created_at_utc_B":1659724168,"score_A":6,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"In Slavic languages, \"heart\" and \"love\" are completely unrelated from linguistic point of view. I don't want to go into much detail here, but in general, \"heart\" is roughly related to words that convey the meaning of \"inside\" or \"the thing that's inside something\". It varies between languages, but all share the same consonant root of \"s-r-d\", whereas \"love\" is totally different.  On the other hand, we have words with roots like \"m-l-*\" or \"l-b-*\", that have general meaning of loving, liking, being fond of something. Sometimes actual meanings may be swapped, so \"to love\" in one Slavic language may be simply \"to be fond of\" in another and vice versa, but the meaning is shared between these 2 roots in general, and not that one related to \"heart\".","human_ref_B":"Before people really understood the human body, they thought that the brain\u2019s function was to cool the body, and that love occurred in the heart.   I suppose the assumption probably comes from how your heart feels when you experience an adrenaline rush, or when you get nervous","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6540.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"1jqm3n","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"If we lived on a planet orbiting a sun (with similar characteristics of our Earth and solar system) closer to the center of our galaxy, could the light coming from the gas cloud surrounding a black hole outshine the sun? By a black hole I meant the black hole at the center of The Milky Way.","c_root_id_A":"cbhfbg0","c_root_id_B":"cbhefru","created_at_utc_A":1375722316,"created_at_utc_B":1375720021,"score_A":139,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"In our galaxy, the SMBH at the center isn't accretiing, so it is completely dark. In active galaxies the accretion disk (and surrounding associated gas) is incredibly bright. The luminosity of  the sun  is ~4x10^33 erg\/s. A typical AGN might have a luminosity of ~10^44 erg\/s. That is 11 orders of magnitude brighter!  However, the question was whether the light would outshine our sun. So let's plonk our solar system in the center of an actve galaxy. Luminosity falls off as 1\/r^2, so for the AGN to have the same brightness, it would have to be 158000 times further away. That works out to just 2.5 light years, which is ridiculously close on galactic scales!   So the answer is no on two counts. Firstly our galaxy's SMBH doesn't have an accretion disk. And if it did then you would have to be very, very close indeed to outshine the sun.","human_ref_B":"Unlikely, the light you see from the center of the galaxy is integrated light, whereas when you see the Sun its just flux from the Sun. I haven't done the math, but I am fairly sure there will be enough scattering locally to not be able to see the reflected light in the dust grains(which is what I hope youre asking)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2295.0,"score_ratio":17.375}
{"post_id":"1jqm3n","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"If we lived on a planet orbiting a sun (with similar characteristics of our Earth and solar system) closer to the center of our galaxy, could the light coming from the gas cloud surrounding a black hole outshine the sun? By a black hole I meant the black hole at the center of The Milky Way.","c_root_id_A":"cbhf9nb","c_root_id_B":"cbhfbg0","created_at_utc_A":1375722187,"created_at_utc_B":1375722316,"score_A":6,"score_B":139,"human_ref_A":"The center of our galaxy is way too extreme for humans. We are out in the Goldilocks zone.","human_ref_B":"In our galaxy, the SMBH at the center isn't accretiing, so it is completely dark. In active galaxies the accretion disk (and surrounding associated gas) is incredibly bright. The luminosity of  the sun  is ~4x10^33 erg\/s. A typical AGN might have a luminosity of ~10^44 erg\/s. That is 11 orders of magnitude brighter!  However, the question was whether the light would outshine our sun. So let's plonk our solar system in the center of an actve galaxy. Luminosity falls off as 1\/r^2, so for the AGN to have the same brightness, it would have to be 158000 times further away. That works out to just 2.5 light years, which is ridiculously close on galactic scales!   So the answer is no on two counts. Firstly our galaxy's SMBH doesn't have an accretion disk. And if it did then you would have to be very, very close indeed to outshine the sun.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":129.0,"score_ratio":23.1666666667}
{"post_id":"x9yd50","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"If a human were to be cloned, would the clone have identical fingerprints?","c_root_id_A":"inu2i5v","c_root_id_B":"insf61e","created_at_utc_A":1662800274,"created_at_utc_B":1662764819,"score_A":12,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"1\/2 of identical twin here (1\/3 of triplet actually but youngest did not survive birth). Have tested fingerprints using several sensors on phones \/ laptops. Can confirm that my fingerprints are not identical but they are similar, very similar even. My brother's left middle finger's print matches my right index finger's print enough to enable him to unlock my phone\/laptop.","human_ref_B":"Cloned how? If they were cloned such that the clone would have to be born and raised from a zygote, then the fingerprints would be different (because fingerprints are formed by more than just genetics). If the original were cloned, as an adult, like in a Star Trek transporter accident, then the fingerprints of the clone would be identical to the original's.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":35455.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"x9yd50","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"If a human were to be cloned, would the clone have identical fingerprints?","c_root_id_A":"inu2i5v","c_root_id_B":"insmht8","created_at_utc_A":1662800274,"created_at_utc_B":1662768290,"score_A":12,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"1\/2 of identical twin here (1\/3 of triplet actually but youngest did not survive birth). Have tested fingerprints using several sensors on phones \/ laptops. Can confirm that my fingerprints are not identical but they are similar, very similar even. My brother's left middle finger's print matches my right index finger's print enough to enable him to unlock my phone\/laptop.","human_ref_B":"My finger prints on my left hand don't register on finger print scanners because if nerve damage my fingers no longer secrete sweat and the scanners can't read my finger print for some reason. I got arrested once (big misunderstanding and was released without chsrge) and they couldn't get any prints off my left hand and had to get the ink pads out lol","labels":1,"seconds_difference":31984.0,"score_ratio":6.0}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hnbx1ie","c_root_id_B":"hnbrq8w","created_at_utc_A":1638717443,"created_at_utc_B":1638714844,"score_A":22,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"I remember hearing that corvids (crows, ravens, etc.) will.  Researchers would wear a mask (corvids can recognize faces) and harass crows.  When the researchers were near their nests later on wearing the masks, the crows would fly at them and make a big ruckus.  I don't recall all the details, though.","human_ref_B":"If you think of the short term, there are plenty of videos of primates that appear to be taking revenge. Most examples I can think of is when an adult harasses a child, the mother will collect the child then seek out the adult to punish it. You could argue this is defense but when the young is safe and the mother then attacks, I call that revenge.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2599.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hnbx1ie","c_root_id_B":"hnbqfx6","created_at_utc_A":1638717443,"created_at_utc_B":1638714182,"score_A":22,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I remember hearing that corvids (crows, ravens, etc.) will.  Researchers would wear a mask (corvids can recognize faces) and harass crows.  When the researchers were near their nests later on wearing the masks, the crows would fly at them and make a big ruckus.  I don't recall all the details, though.","human_ref_B":"Got me curious.. a quick google search tells me that the current consensus is \"no, because animals don't have the level of self awareness for it to classify as vengeance\" but IMO even if they did we couldn't classify it as vengeance since intent is such a big part of vengeance.  To elaborate, if those wolves came home and found their dead pups, and bear tracks, hunted down the bears and killed them, we can't say for sure they did that to retaliate for their dead pups vs they realized the bear would be a continuous threat to them and their pack, so was this an act of vengeance or simply fighting for continued survival?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3261.0,"score_ratio":4.4}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hnbx1ie","c_root_id_B":"hnbqf2y","created_at_utc_A":1638717443,"created_at_utc_B":1638714170,"score_A":22,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I remember hearing that corvids (crows, ravens, etc.) will.  Researchers would wear a mask (corvids can recognize faces) and harass crows.  When the researchers were near their nests later on wearing the masks, the crows would fly at them and make a big ruckus.  I don't recall all the details, though.","human_ref_B":"I think it's more likely that the predators would hunt down the other predators in an effort to kill a competitor than they would actually be acting in \"revenge\".   However, there's a decent to fair chance that Primates exhibit many of these traits within their own groups. Could be more a Jealousy thing than a revenge thing.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3273.0,"score_ratio":11.0}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hnbqfx6","c_root_id_B":"hnbrq8w","created_at_utc_A":1638714182,"created_at_utc_B":1638714844,"score_A":5,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Got me curious.. a quick google search tells me that the current consensus is \"no, because animals don't have the level of self awareness for it to classify as vengeance\" but IMO even if they did we couldn't classify it as vengeance since intent is such a big part of vengeance.  To elaborate, if those wolves came home and found their dead pups, and bear tracks, hunted down the bears and killed them, we can't say for sure they did that to retaliate for their dead pups vs they realized the bear would be a continuous threat to them and their pack, so was this an act of vengeance or simply fighting for continued survival?","human_ref_B":"If you think of the short term, there are plenty of videos of primates that appear to be taking revenge. Most examples I can think of is when an adult harasses a child, the mother will collect the child then seek out the adult to punish it. You could argue this is defense but when the young is safe and the mother then attacks, I call that revenge.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":662.0,"score_ratio":2.2}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hnbrq8w","c_root_id_B":"hnbqf2y","created_at_utc_A":1638714844,"created_at_utc_B":1638714170,"score_A":11,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"If you think of the short term, there are plenty of videos of primates that appear to be taking revenge. Most examples I can think of is when an adult harasses a child, the mother will collect the child then seek out the adult to punish it. You could argue this is defense but when the young is safe and the mother then attacks, I call that revenge.","human_ref_B":"I think it's more likely that the predators would hunt down the other predators in an effort to kill a competitor than they would actually be acting in \"revenge\".   However, there's a decent to fair chance that Primates exhibit many of these traits within their own groups. Could be more a Jealousy thing than a revenge thing.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":674.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hnbqf2y","c_root_id_B":"hnbqfx6","created_at_utc_A":1638714170,"created_at_utc_B":1638714182,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I think it's more likely that the predators would hunt down the other predators in an effort to kill a competitor than they would actually be acting in \"revenge\".   However, there's a decent to fair chance that Primates exhibit many of these traits within their own groups. Could be more a Jealousy thing than a revenge thing.","human_ref_B":"Got me curious.. a quick google search tells me that the current consensus is \"no, because animals don't have the level of self awareness for it to classify as vengeance\" but IMO even if they did we couldn't classify it as vengeance since intent is such a big part of vengeance.  To elaborate, if those wolves came home and found their dead pups, and bear tracks, hunted down the bears and killed them, we can't say for sure they did that to retaliate for their dead pups vs they realized the bear would be a continuous threat to them and their pack, so was this an act of vengeance or simply fighting for continued survival?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hncdzga","c_root_id_B":"hnbqf2y","created_at_utc_A":1638724597,"created_at_utc_B":1638714170,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"One of the most horrifying is the Mafia Hypothesis by birds that practice brood parasitism. You know how some birds, like cuckoos, lay eggs on the nests of other birds? There are studies showing that if the hosts get rid of the parasitic eggs, their nests get destroyed in \u201crevenge\u201d.","human_ref_B":"I think it's more likely that the predators would hunt down the other predators in an effort to kill a competitor than they would actually be acting in \"revenge\".   However, there's a decent to fair chance that Primates exhibit many of these traits within their own groups. Could be more a Jealousy thing than a revenge thing.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":10427.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hnc4vrz","c_root_id_B":"hncdzga","created_at_utc_A":1638720812,"created_at_utc_B":1638724597,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Animals will try to attack other animals that are taking their young or have already taken their young. It could be classed as self-defence of course. I saw a documentary where lions had killed a young giraffe and one of the parents attacked them. With a well-placed kick, that could kill a lion.","human_ref_B":"One of the most horrifying is the Mafia Hypothesis by birds that practice brood parasitism. You know how some birds, like cuckoos, lay eggs on the nests of other birds? There are studies showing that if the hosts get rid of the parasitic eggs, their nests get destroyed in \u201crevenge\u201d.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3785.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hndpq2a","c_root_id_B":"hnbqf2y","created_at_utc_A":1638742186,"created_at_utc_B":1638714170,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"To add onto what others are saying about corvids: ravens will stop participating in exercises where they trade items with humans for food if they see another raven being given food without having an item to exchange. If a fellow raven cheats them in a teamwork exercise (stealing\/getting more food), they will refuse to participate with that raven for months afterward. They will also avoid humans that barter 'unfairly' with them, as in, if they observe a human giving better quality or greater amounts of meat to other ravens in comparison to what they receive.","human_ref_B":"I think it's more likely that the predators would hunt down the other predators in an effort to kill a competitor than they would actually be acting in \"revenge\".   However, there's a decent to fair chance that Primates exhibit many of these traits within their own groups. Could be more a Jealousy thing than a revenge thing.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":28016.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hndpq2a","c_root_id_B":"hnc4vrz","created_at_utc_A":1638742186,"created_at_utc_B":1638720812,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"To add onto what others are saying about corvids: ravens will stop participating in exercises where they trade items with humans for food if they see another raven being given food without having an item to exchange. If a fellow raven cheats them in a teamwork exercise (stealing\/getting more food), they will refuse to participate with that raven for months afterward. They will also avoid humans that barter 'unfairly' with them, as in, if they observe a human giving better quality or greater amounts of meat to other ravens in comparison to what they receive.","human_ref_B":"Animals will try to attack other animals that are taking their young or have already taken their young. It could be classed as self-defence of course. I saw a documentary where lions had killed a young giraffe and one of the parents attacked them. With a well-placed kick, that could kill a lion.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":21374.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"r9625f","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"Do any animals besides humans exhibit behavior that can be classified as \"revenge\"? I saw a video of a bear finding a den of wolf pups and eating them while the parent wolves were away. If they were human, I would assume the parents would hunt down that bear and kill it out of revenge. Do any animals besides humans actually behave that way?","c_root_id_A":"hnd2vho","c_root_id_B":"hndpq2a","created_at_utc_A":1638733786,"created_at_utc_B":1638742186,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Revenge is a useful social concept of protection by threatening possible aggressors with consequences. That of course only make sense if the aggressors can learn to expect revengeful behavior. This is almost solely possible for members of the same social group. Therefore revengeful behavior is to be suspected by social creatures. Of course they can enact there revenge also against alien species although that's mostly useless, because they won't really learn to expect it.","human_ref_B":"To add onto what others are saying about corvids: ravens will stop participating in exercises where they trade items with humans for food if they see another raven being given food without having an item to exchange. If a fellow raven cheats them in a teamwork exercise (stealing\/getting more food), they will refuse to participate with that raven for months afterward. They will also avoid humans that barter 'unfairly' with them, as in, if they observe a human giving better quality or greater amounts of meat to other ravens in comparison to what they receive.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8400.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"2aohtr","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do any other animals intentionally mix ingredients for food? We humans go to great lengths to craft more desirable flavors and textures (and even colors!) in our diets.  I'm curious if there are any known instances of other animals intentionally combining ingredients in order to create better, novel, and\/or more complex flavors.  Except for us, it seems (to me) like every animal just eats what they find, as-is.  As a side (and admittedly, less objective) question: are there any hypotheses on why we do this?  Why isn't eating more mundane and utilitarian, like drinking water and breathing?","c_root_id_A":"cixbhic","c_root_id_B":"cixeoeg","created_at_utc_A":1405366535,"created_at_utc_B":1405372549,"score_A":245,"score_B":1919,"human_ref_A":"There are some Japanese macaques that wash\/season potatoes in ocean water.   As to your second part, I remember a study where a snake's energy absorption was compared between a cooked and raw steak. Cooking the meat resulted in more available calories. The article suggested  our culinary habits evolved out of this.   Can't find the news article, but I did find this.","human_ref_B":"Yes, they do. Although I didn't major in primatology or anything, I took a few course in primate studies. Two examples come to mind right off the top of my head that might help answer your question.  I can't remember which primate it was, but I don't think it was an ape. Perhaps a macaque or maybe even a gibbon. Anyway, they had these leaves that they really liked to eat, but the leaves were semi-toxic and it would make them sick. Somehow, one of the bunch learned that if he ate charcoal along with these leaves, he wouldn't get as sick. The behavior spread and soon they were raiding researchers camps for bags of charcoal briquettes, or just stealing the charcoal from cold campfires. This might be considered primitive medicine, but it certainly was related to primates modifying a food so that they could enjoy flavor.  The chimpanzee example is better. Chimpanzees *love* eggs. It's one of their favorite foods. The regularly try to steal eggs from researchers if they are aware that they have them. The way that they like to eat it is unique. When they get eggs, they search the area for a particular plant that they like to eat with eggs. They gather some leaves, put the whole raw egg in one cheek, and a few leaves from whatever plant it was in the other cheek. Then they crack the egg inside their cheek and mix the egg and leaf together and chew it. This is, in my opinion, clearly an example of chimpanzees using spices\/herbs to flavor their food.  Edit: it was red colobus monkeys that used charcoal to neutralize toxins. Paper","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6014.0,"score_ratio":7.8326530612}
{"post_id":"2aohtr","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do any other animals intentionally mix ingredients for food? We humans go to great lengths to craft more desirable flavors and textures (and even colors!) in our diets.  I'm curious if there are any known instances of other animals intentionally combining ingredients in order to create better, novel, and\/or more complex flavors.  Except for us, it seems (to me) like every animal just eats what they find, as-is.  As a side (and admittedly, less objective) question: are there any hypotheses on why we do this?  Why isn't eating more mundane and utilitarian, like drinking water and breathing?","c_root_id_A":"cixeoeg","c_root_id_B":"cix7qiu","created_at_utc_A":1405372549,"created_at_utc_B":1405359664,"score_A":1919,"score_B":76,"human_ref_A":"Yes, they do. Although I didn't major in primatology or anything, I took a few course in primate studies. Two examples come to mind right off the top of my head that might help answer your question.  I can't remember which primate it was, but I don't think it was an ape. Perhaps a macaque or maybe even a gibbon. Anyway, they had these leaves that they really liked to eat, but the leaves were semi-toxic and it would make them sick. Somehow, one of the bunch learned that if he ate charcoal along with these leaves, he wouldn't get as sick. The behavior spread and soon they were raiding researchers camps for bags of charcoal briquettes, or just stealing the charcoal from cold campfires. This might be considered primitive medicine, but it certainly was related to primates modifying a food so that they could enjoy flavor.  The chimpanzee example is better. Chimpanzees *love* eggs. It's one of their favorite foods. The regularly try to steal eggs from researchers if they are aware that they have them. The way that they like to eat it is unique. When they get eggs, they search the area for a particular plant that they like to eat with eggs. They gather some leaves, put the whole raw egg in one cheek, and a few leaves from whatever plant it was in the other cheek. Then they crack the egg inside their cheek and mix the egg and leaf together and chew it. This is, in my opinion, clearly an example of chimpanzees using spices\/herbs to flavor their food.  Edit: it was red colobus monkeys that used charcoal to neutralize toxins. Paper","human_ref_B":"Best example:  Bees make honey.  Perhaps not a good example:  Some types of Ants grow \"mushroom\" type things by combining things that they don't eat but which \"mushrooms\" eat and then the ants eat the \"mushrooms\"","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12885.0,"score_ratio":25.25}
{"post_id":"2aohtr","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do any other animals intentionally mix ingredients for food? We humans go to great lengths to craft more desirable flavors and textures (and even colors!) in our diets.  I'm curious if there are any known instances of other animals intentionally combining ingredients in order to create better, novel, and\/or more complex flavors.  Except for us, it seems (to me) like every animal just eats what they find, as-is.  As a side (and admittedly, less objective) question: are there any hypotheses on why we do this?  Why isn't eating more mundane and utilitarian, like drinking water and breathing?","c_root_id_A":"cixeoeg","c_root_id_B":"cix9n2n","created_at_utc_A":1405372549,"created_at_utc_B":1405363156,"score_A":1919,"score_B":42,"human_ref_A":"Yes, they do. Although I didn't major in primatology or anything, I took a few course in primate studies. Two examples come to mind right off the top of my head that might help answer your question.  I can't remember which primate it was, but I don't think it was an ape. Perhaps a macaque or maybe even a gibbon. Anyway, they had these leaves that they really liked to eat, but the leaves were semi-toxic and it would make them sick. Somehow, one of the bunch learned that if he ate charcoal along with these leaves, he wouldn't get as sick. The behavior spread and soon they were raiding researchers camps for bags of charcoal briquettes, or just stealing the charcoal from cold campfires. This might be considered primitive medicine, but it certainly was related to primates modifying a food so that they could enjoy flavor.  The chimpanzee example is better. Chimpanzees *love* eggs. It's one of their favorite foods. The regularly try to steal eggs from researchers if they are aware that they have them. The way that they like to eat it is unique. When they get eggs, they search the area for a particular plant that they like to eat with eggs. They gather some leaves, put the whole raw egg in one cheek, and a few leaves from whatever plant it was in the other cheek. Then they crack the egg inside their cheek and mix the egg and leaf together and chew it. This is, in my opinion, clearly an example of chimpanzees using spices\/herbs to flavor their food.  Edit: it was red colobus monkeys that used charcoal to neutralize toxins. Paper","human_ref_B":"\"French prehistorian Catherine Perles accepts that we share many aspects of feeding with other animals: other animals carry food to their lairs or transform it before consumption. However, she says, we transform food on a different level. **The human species prepares its food by heat...and combines ingredients**...She proposes that the culinary act distinguishes the human species, and is not just a symbol of, but a factor in, that very humanisation...Cooking is highly intentional...the culinary act is essentially sharing.\" -A History of Cooks and Cooking, Michael Symons, University of Chicago:Urbana, 2000","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9393.0,"score_ratio":45.6904761905}
{"post_id":"2aohtr","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do any other animals intentionally mix ingredients for food? We humans go to great lengths to craft more desirable flavors and textures (and even colors!) in our diets.  I'm curious if there are any known instances of other animals intentionally combining ingredients in order to create better, novel, and\/or more complex flavors.  Except for us, it seems (to me) like every animal just eats what they find, as-is.  As a side (and admittedly, less objective) question: are there any hypotheses on why we do this?  Why isn't eating more mundane and utilitarian, like drinking water and breathing?","c_root_id_A":"cix7qiu","c_root_id_B":"cixbhic","created_at_utc_A":1405359664,"created_at_utc_B":1405366535,"score_A":76,"score_B":245,"human_ref_A":"Best example:  Bees make honey.  Perhaps not a good example:  Some types of Ants grow \"mushroom\" type things by combining things that they don't eat but which \"mushrooms\" eat and then the ants eat the \"mushrooms\"","human_ref_B":"There are some Japanese macaques that wash\/season potatoes in ocean water.   As to your second part, I remember a study where a snake's energy absorption was compared between a cooked and raw steak. Cooking the meat resulted in more available calories. The article suggested  our culinary habits evolved out of this.   Can't find the news article, but I did find this.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6871.0,"score_ratio":3.2236842105}
{"post_id":"2aohtr","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do any other animals intentionally mix ingredients for food? We humans go to great lengths to craft more desirable flavors and textures (and even colors!) in our diets.  I'm curious if there are any known instances of other animals intentionally combining ingredients in order to create better, novel, and\/or more complex flavors.  Except for us, it seems (to me) like every animal just eats what they find, as-is.  As a side (and admittedly, less objective) question: are there any hypotheses on why we do this?  Why isn't eating more mundane and utilitarian, like drinking water and breathing?","c_root_id_A":"cix9n2n","c_root_id_B":"cixbhic","created_at_utc_A":1405363156,"created_at_utc_B":1405366535,"score_A":42,"score_B":245,"human_ref_A":"\"French prehistorian Catherine Perles accepts that we share many aspects of feeding with other animals: other animals carry food to their lairs or transform it before consumption. However, she says, we transform food on a different level. **The human species prepares its food by heat...and combines ingredients**...She proposes that the culinary act distinguishes the human species, and is not just a symbol of, but a factor in, that very humanisation...Cooking is highly intentional...the culinary act is essentially sharing.\" -A History of Cooks and Cooking, Michael Symons, University of Chicago:Urbana, 2000","human_ref_B":"There are some Japanese macaques that wash\/season potatoes in ocean water.   As to your second part, I remember a study where a snake's energy absorption was compared between a cooked and raw steak. Cooking the meat resulted in more available calories. The article suggested  our culinary habits evolved out of this.   Can't find the news article, but I did find this.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3379.0,"score_ratio":5.8333333333}
{"post_id":"2aohtr","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do any other animals intentionally mix ingredients for food? We humans go to great lengths to craft more desirable flavors and textures (and even colors!) in our diets.  I'm curious if there are any known instances of other animals intentionally combining ingredients in order to create better, novel, and\/or more complex flavors.  Except for us, it seems (to me) like every animal just eats what they find, as-is.  As a side (and admittedly, less objective) question: are there any hypotheses on why we do this?  Why isn't eating more mundane and utilitarian, like drinking water and breathing?","c_root_id_A":"cix7qiu","c_root_id_B":"cixlvpy","created_at_utc_A":1405359664,"created_at_utc_B":1405387416,"score_A":76,"score_B":77,"human_ref_A":"Best example:  Bees make honey.  Perhaps not a good example:  Some types of Ants grow \"mushroom\" type things by combining things that they don't eat but which \"mushrooms\" eat and then the ants eat the \"mushrooms\"","human_ref_B":"Adding to your question OP: Cooking does serve a utilitarian value! When our ancestors started cooking starchy potato-like roots and grains, our calorie intake skyrocketed. Not only was this more edible and digestible, some anthropologists believe this helped humans get more nutritious meat in our diet. The addition of energy concentrated foods gave us more energy to go and hunt for meat.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":27752.0,"score_ratio":1.0131578947}
{"post_id":"2aohtr","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Do any other animals intentionally mix ingredients for food? We humans go to great lengths to craft more desirable flavors and textures (and even colors!) in our diets.  I'm curious if there are any known instances of other animals intentionally combining ingredients in order to create better, novel, and\/or more complex flavors.  Except for us, it seems (to me) like every animal just eats what they find, as-is.  As a side (and admittedly, less objective) question: are there any hypotheses on why we do this?  Why isn't eating more mundane and utilitarian, like drinking water and breathing?","c_root_id_A":"cixlvpy","c_root_id_B":"cix9n2n","created_at_utc_A":1405387416,"created_at_utc_B":1405363156,"score_A":77,"score_B":42,"human_ref_A":"Adding to your question OP: Cooking does serve a utilitarian value! When our ancestors started cooking starchy potato-like roots and grains, our calorie intake skyrocketed. Not only was this more edible and digestible, some anthropologists believe this helped humans get more nutritious meat in our diet. The addition of energy concentrated foods gave us more energy to go and hunt for meat.","human_ref_B":"\"French prehistorian Catherine Perles accepts that we share many aspects of feeding with other animals: other animals carry food to their lairs or transform it before consumption. However, she says, we transform food on a different level. **The human species prepares its food by heat...and combines ingredients**...She proposes that the culinary act distinguishes the human species, and is not just a symbol of, but a factor in, that very humanisation...Cooking is highly intentional...the culinary act is essentially sharing.\" -A History of Cooks and Cooking, Michael Symons, University of Chicago:Urbana, 2000","labels":1,"seconds_difference":24260.0,"score_ratio":1.8333333333}
{"post_id":"opjssn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.82,"history":"How do we test for the different variants of Covid? (Alpha, beta, delta, lambda, yada) Do we look for different DNA sequences with the PCR tests, different symptoms? With all the media hammering on about the variants it would be nice to actually know how we identify these.","c_root_id_A":"h662ke4","c_root_id_B":"h65nr96","created_at_utc_A":1626985287,"created_at_utc_B":1626978831,"score_A":48,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"The \"Normal\" PCR test for COVID-19 targets regions of the DNA that we believe are likely to be \"highly conserved\" ie not likely to mutate.  This has allowed us to build tests looking at things like ORF and N-Gene to identify whether what we found up your nose was in fact COVID.  Once we have a confirmed positive for a sample the remainder of the Viral Transport Medium from the swab gets split up, some is sent for sequencing and any remainder for Variant of Concern (VoC) testing.  VoC testing is PCR tests that target the actual mutations that exist in the variants.  As an example we could look for Delta by determining whether P681R is mutant (sample is Delta) or wild type (sample is not)  We can either run multiple simple PCR's one for each mutation and asses the results overall or we can run a multiplex that allows us to make our assesment off a single reaction (both methods come with their own benefits).  VoC testing is basically a way of getting a quick answer whilst genotyping gives us a slower but more details response.","human_ref_B":"Whole genome sequencing, yes. In my province (in Canada) we had to wait until there was a whole genome sequencing lab set up. It took a bit, but eventually  each test went through sequencing to figure out what variant of the virus it is.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6456.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxyxzss","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620908981,"score_A":172,"score_B":156,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1890.0,"score_ratio":1.1025641026}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxyrj3h","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620904823,"score_A":172,"score_B":108,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"How well do the vaccines prevent infection and spread of the variants?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6048.0,"score_ratio":1.5925925926}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxys0sn","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620905163,"score_A":172,"score_B":86,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"If a vaccine-resistant variant of the covid emerges, how much of the development and trials would have to be repeated for a version of vaccine that could tackle a new variant?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5708.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzx9m","c_root_id_B":"gxz1el1","created_at_utc_A":1620910077,"created_at_utc_B":1620910871,"score_A":70,"score_B":172,"human_ref_A":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","human_ref_B":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":794.0,"score_ratio":2.4571428571}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxz0mil","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620910456,"score_A":172,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":415.0,"score_ratio":2.8196721311}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyjto","c_root_id_B":"gxz1el1","created_at_utc_A":1620909301,"created_at_utc_B":1620910871,"score_A":63,"score_B":172,"human_ref_A":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","human_ref_B":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1570.0,"score_ratio":2.7301587302}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyx0o","c_root_id_B":"gxz1el1","created_at_utc_A":1620909510,"created_at_utc_B":1620910871,"score_A":59,"score_B":172,"human_ref_A":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","human_ref_B":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1361.0,"score_ratio":2.9152542373}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0g6c","c_root_id_B":"gxz1el1","created_at_utc_A":1620910361,"created_at_utc_B":1620910871,"score_A":48,"score_B":172,"human_ref_A":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","human_ref_B":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":510.0,"score_ratio":3.5833333333}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":172,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1736.0,"score_ratio":3.7391304348}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzalb","c_root_id_B":"gxz1el1","created_at_utc_A":1620909725,"created_at_utc_B":1620910871,"score_A":50,"score_B":172,"human_ref_A":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","human_ref_B":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1146.0,"score_ratio":3.44}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxz1el1","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620910871,"score_A":46,"score_B":172,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2319.0,"score_ratio":3.7391304348}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxyrpgo","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620904944,"score_A":172,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5927.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxyxaob","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620908569,"score_A":172,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2302.0,"score_ratio":4.4102564103}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxz1el1","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620910871,"score_A":31,"score_B":172,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2385.0,"score_ratio":5.5483870968}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxz0pze","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620910508,"score_A":172,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"I'm from India and a lot of people are still being infected long after the second dose of the vaccines. Why is this? Aren't vaccines supposed to give you immunity against the virus?  Also the vaccines appear to be give out in a rush, any long term implications of the different vaccines? Are mRNA vaccines better than other kind of vaccines ?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":363.0,"score_ratio":5.9310344828}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz1el1","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620910871,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":172,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"I always hear a very faulty piece of logic when people answer \"Are the vaccines safe?\" - they answer with \"they are better than getting COVID, and the fastest path back to normality\" - neither of those actually answer the question!  So, are the vaccines as safe as any other vaccine? Why is the rapid development process seemingly considered as safe as a regular development process...?  (To be clear, I am pro-vax in general, and *already* vaccinated against COVID (Moderna), but I still don't understand.)","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4128.0,"score_ratio":5.9310344828}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxyxzss","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620908981,"score_A":165,"score_B":156,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2251.0,"score_ratio":1.0576923077}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyrj3h","c_root_id_B":"gxz232w","created_at_utc_A":1620904823,"created_at_utc_B":1620911232,"score_A":108,"score_B":165,"human_ref_A":"How well do the vaccines prevent infection and spread of the variants?","human_ref_B":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6409.0,"score_ratio":1.5277777778}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxys0sn","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620905163,"score_A":165,"score_B":86,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"If a vaccine-resistant variant of the covid emerges, how much of the development and trials would have to be repeated for a version of vaccine that could tackle a new variant?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6069.0,"score_ratio":1.9186046512}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":165,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1155.0,"score_ratio":2.3571428571}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxz0mil","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620910456,"score_A":165,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":776.0,"score_ratio":2.7049180328}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyjto","c_root_id_B":"gxz232w","created_at_utc_A":1620909301,"created_at_utc_B":1620911232,"score_A":63,"score_B":165,"human_ref_A":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","human_ref_B":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1931.0,"score_ratio":2.619047619}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyx0o","c_root_id_B":"gxz232w","created_at_utc_A":1620909510,"created_at_utc_B":1620911232,"score_A":59,"score_B":165,"human_ref_A":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","human_ref_B":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1722.0,"score_ratio":2.7966101695}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0g6c","c_root_id_B":"gxz232w","created_at_utc_A":1620910361,"created_at_utc_B":1620911232,"score_A":48,"score_B":165,"human_ref_A":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","human_ref_B":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":871.0,"score_ratio":3.4375}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":165,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2097.0,"score_ratio":3.5869565217}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxyzalb","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620909725,"score_A":165,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1507.0,"score_ratio":3.3}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxz232w","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620911232,"score_A":46,"score_B":165,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2680.0,"score_ratio":3.5869565217}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxyrpgo","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620904944,"score_A":165,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6288.0,"score_ratio":3.8372093023}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxyxaob","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620908569,"score_A":165,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2663.0,"score_ratio":4.2307692308}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxyx5m9","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620908486,"score_A":165,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2746.0,"score_ratio":5.3225806452}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxz0pze","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620910508,"score_A":165,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"I'm from India and a lot of people are still being infected long after the second dose of the vaccines. Why is this? Aren't vaccines supposed to give you immunity against the virus?  Also the vaccines appear to be give out in a rush, any long term implications of the different vaccines? Are mRNA vaccines better than other kind of vaccines ?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":724.0,"score_ratio":5.6896551724}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz232w","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620911232,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":165,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"Anthony Fauci in one of his recent interview said that India's Covaxin vaccine is effective against more variants than any other. What does it do better than the rest of the vaccines in the market?","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4489.0,"score_ratio":5.6896551724}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxzss","c_root_id_B":"gxyrj3h","created_at_utc_A":1620908981,"created_at_utc_B":1620904823,"score_A":156,"score_B":108,"human_ref_A":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","human_ref_B":"How well do the vaccines prevent infection and spread of the variants?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4158.0,"score_ratio":1.4444444444}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxys0sn","c_root_id_B":"gxyxzss","created_at_utc_A":1620905163,"created_at_utc_B":1620908981,"score_A":86,"score_B":156,"human_ref_A":"If a vaccine-resistant variant of the covid emerges, how much of the development and trials would have to be repeated for a version of vaccine that could tackle a new variant?","human_ref_B":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3818.0,"score_ratio":1.8139534884}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxzss","c_root_id_B":"gxyx9mg","created_at_utc_A":1620908981,"created_at_utc_B":1620908552,"score_A":156,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","human_ref_B":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":429.0,"score_ratio":3.3913043478}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyrpgo","c_root_id_B":"gxyxzss","created_at_utc_A":1620904944,"created_at_utc_B":1620908981,"score_A":43,"score_B":156,"human_ref_A":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","human_ref_B":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4037.0,"score_ratio":3.6279069767}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxaob","c_root_id_B":"gxyxzss","created_at_utc_A":1620908569,"created_at_utc_B":1620908981,"score_A":39,"score_B":156,"human_ref_A":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","human_ref_B":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":412.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxyxzss","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620908981,"score_A":31,"score_B":156,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":495.0,"score_ratio":5.0322580645}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxzss","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620908981,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":156,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"I remember reading a few months back that the reason the spike protien was target for vaccines was because if the virus mutates enough to evade the vaccine immune response it would also no longer to be able to infect the cell. I'm sure this is a very simplistic understanding but my question is how accurate is this and if this were to happen would the spike protien be able to infect the cell from another route?","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2238.0,"score_ratio":5.3793103448}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxys0sn","c_root_id_B":"gxz3dqq","created_at_utc_A":1620905163,"created_at_utc_B":1620911897,"score_A":86,"score_B":103,"human_ref_A":"If a vaccine-resistant variant of the covid emerges, how much of the development and trials would have to be repeated for a version of vaccine that could tackle a new variant?","human_ref_B":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6734.0,"score_ratio":1.1976744186}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":103,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1820.0,"score_ratio":1.4714285714}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0mil","c_root_id_B":"gxz3dqq","created_at_utc_A":1620910456,"created_at_utc_B":1620911897,"score_A":61,"score_B":103,"human_ref_A":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","human_ref_B":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1441.0,"score_ratio":1.6885245902}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxyyjto","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620909301,"score_A":103,"score_B":63,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2596.0,"score_ratio":1.6349206349}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxyyx0o","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620909510,"score_A":103,"score_B":59,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2387.0,"score_ratio":1.7457627119}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxz0g6c","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620910361,"score_A":103,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1536.0,"score_ratio":2.1458333333}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":103,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2762.0,"score_ratio":2.2391304348}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzalb","c_root_id_B":"gxz3dqq","created_at_utc_A":1620909725,"created_at_utc_B":1620911897,"score_A":50,"score_B":103,"human_ref_A":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","human_ref_B":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2172.0,"score_ratio":2.06}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxz3dqq","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620911897,"score_A":46,"score_B":103,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3345.0,"score_ratio":2.2391304348}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyrpgo","c_root_id_B":"gxz3dqq","created_at_utc_A":1620904944,"created_at_utc_B":1620911897,"score_A":43,"score_B":103,"human_ref_A":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","human_ref_B":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6953.0,"score_ratio":2.3953488372}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxyxaob","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620908569,"score_A":103,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3328.0,"score_ratio":2.641025641}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxz3aan","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620911849,"score_A":103,"score_B":35,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"If more people don't come back for their second shot, does that increase the risk of a vaccine resistant variant emerging? Sort of like when people don't complete their round of antibiotics","labels":1,"seconds_difference":48.0,"score_ratio":2.9428571429}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxz3dqq","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620911897,"score_A":31,"score_B":103,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3411.0,"score_ratio":3.3225806452}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0pze","c_root_id_B":"gxz3dqq","created_at_utc_A":1620910508,"created_at_utc_B":1620911897,"score_A":29,"score_B":103,"human_ref_A":"I'm from India and a lot of people are still being infected long after the second dose of the vaccines. Why is this? Aren't vaccines supposed to give you immunity against the virus?  Also the vaccines appear to be give out in a rush, any long term implications of the different vaccines? Are mRNA vaccines better than other kind of vaccines ?","human_ref_B":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1389.0,"score_ratio":3.5517241379}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":103,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5154.0,"score_ratio":3.5517241379}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3dqq","c_root_id_B":"gxz2lp2","created_at_utc_A":1620911897,"created_at_utc_B":1620911502,"score_A":103,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"Most of the reports that make it into the media are about the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. How is the J&J vaccine holding up against the variants?","human_ref_B":"What are the best practices and precautions re: unvaccinated children? What do we know about the multi system inflammatory syndrome (?) that had been afflicting some kids?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":395.0,"score_ratio":4.2916666667}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxys0sn","c_root_id_B":"gxyrpgo","created_at_utc_A":1620905163,"created_at_utc_B":1620904944,"score_A":86,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"If a vaccine-resistant variant of the covid emerges, how much of the development and trials would have to be repeated for a version of vaccine that could tackle a new variant?","human_ref_B":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","labels":1,"seconds_difference":219.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":74,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2896.0,"score_ratio":1.0571428571}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0mil","c_root_id_B":"gxz5k9d","created_at_utc_A":1620910456,"created_at_utc_B":1620912973,"score_A":61,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","human_ref_B":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2517.0,"score_ratio":1.2131147541}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyjto","c_root_id_B":"gxz5k9d","created_at_utc_A":1620909301,"created_at_utc_B":1620912973,"score_A":63,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","human_ref_B":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3672.0,"score_ratio":1.1746031746}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxyyx0o","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620909510,"score_A":74,"score_B":59,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3463.0,"score_ratio":1.2542372881}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxz0g6c","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620910361,"score_A":74,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2612.0,"score_ratio":1.5416666667}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":74,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3838.0,"score_ratio":1.6086956522}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxyzalb","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620909725,"score_A":74,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3248.0,"score_ratio":1.48}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxz5k9d","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620912973,"score_A":46,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4421.0,"score_ratio":1.6086956522}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyrpgo","c_root_id_B":"gxz5k9d","created_at_utc_A":1620904944,"created_at_utc_B":1620912973,"score_A":43,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","human_ref_B":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8029.0,"score_ratio":1.7209302326}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxaob","c_root_id_B":"gxz5k9d","created_at_utc_A":1620908569,"created_at_utc_B":1620912973,"score_A":39,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","human_ref_B":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4404.0,"score_ratio":1.8974358974}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxz3aan","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620911849,"score_A":74,"score_B":35,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"If more people don't come back for their second shot, does that increase the risk of a vaccine resistant variant emerging? Sort of like when people don't complete their round of antibiotics","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1124.0,"score_ratio":2.1142857143}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxyx5m9","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620908486,"score_A":74,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4487.0,"score_ratio":2.3870967742}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0pze","c_root_id_B":"gxz5k9d","created_at_utc_A":1620910508,"created_at_utc_B":1620912973,"score_A":29,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"I'm from India and a lot of people are still being infected long after the second dose of the vaccines. Why is this? Aren't vaccines supposed to give you immunity against the virus?  Also the vaccines appear to be give out in a rush, any long term implications of the different vaccines? Are mRNA vaccines better than other kind of vaccines ?","human_ref_B":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2465.0,"score_ratio":2.5517241379}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":74,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6230.0,"score_ratio":2.5517241379}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz2lp2","c_root_id_B":"gxz5k9d","created_at_utc_A":1620911502,"created_at_utc_B":1620912973,"score_A":24,"score_B":74,"human_ref_A":"What are the best practices and precautions re: unvaccinated children? What do we know about the multi system inflammatory syndrome (?) that had been afflicting some kids?","human_ref_B":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1471.0,"score_ratio":3.0833333333}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz5k9d","c_root_id_B":"gxz4cox","created_at_utc_A":1620912973,"created_at_utc_B":1620912378,"score_A":74,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"How do we think natural immunity from getting covid stacks up against vaccination?","human_ref_B":"Is there any update on the possibility of spreading the virus once you are vaccinated?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":595.0,"score_ratio":3.0833333333}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyjto","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620909301,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":63,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":776.0,"score_ratio":1.1111111111}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyx0o","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620909510,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":59,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":567.0,"score_ratio":1.186440678}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyy9br","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620909135,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":46,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":942.0,"score_ratio":1.5217391304}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzx9m","c_root_id_B":"gxyzalb","created_at_utc_A":1620910077,"created_at_utc_B":1620909725,"score_A":70,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","human_ref_B":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":352.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":46,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1525.0,"score_ratio":1.5217391304}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyrpgo","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620904944,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":43,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5133.0,"score_ratio":1.6279069767}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxaob","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620908569,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":39,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1508.0,"score_ratio":1.7948717949}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":31,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1591.0,"score_ratio":2.2580645161}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyuciz","c_root_id_B":"gxyzx9m","created_at_utc_A":1620906743,"created_at_utc_B":1620910077,"score_A":29,"score_B":70,"human_ref_A":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","human_ref_B":"Would you recommend a person with an autoimune disease to get the vaccine if they work from home, and have a low risk of catching the virus? What is risk\/benefit ratio in this situation and is there any data on how people with autoimune diseases react to the vaccine?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3334.0,"score_ratio":2.4137931034}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyx0o","c_root_id_B":"gxz0mil","created_at_utc_A":1620909510,"created_at_utc_B":1620910456,"score_A":59,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","human_ref_B":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":946.0,"score_ratio":1.0338983051}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0mil","c_root_id_B":"gxz0g6c","created_at_utc_A":1620910456,"created_at_utc_B":1620910361,"score_A":61,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","human_ref_B":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":95.0,"score_ratio":1.2708333333}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0mil","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620910456,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":61,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1321.0,"score_ratio":1.3260869565}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzalb","c_root_id_B":"gxz0mil","created_at_utc_A":1620909725,"created_at_utc_B":1620910456,"score_A":50,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","human_ref_B":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":731.0,"score_ratio":1.22}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxz0mil","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620910456,"score_A":46,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1904.0,"score_ratio":1.3260869565}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0mil","c_root_id_B":"gxyrpgo","created_at_utc_A":1620910456,"created_at_utc_B":1620904944,"score_A":61,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","human_ref_B":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5512.0,"score_ratio":1.4186046512}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxaob","c_root_id_B":"gxz0mil","created_at_utc_A":1620908569,"created_at_utc_B":1620910456,"score_A":39,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","human_ref_B":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1887.0,"score_ratio":1.5641025641}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxz0mil","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620910456,"score_A":31,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1970.0,"score_ratio":1.9677419355}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0mil","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620910456,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":61,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"The AZ vaccine was only found to be \\~10% effective against B1351- albeit in a poorly designed, underpowered study. Meanwhile, J&J released results from SA showing decent efficacy (>55%) for their vaccine   My question is, how effective would you guess the AZ vaccine is against B1351 in reality?  I know the two vaccines are far from identical but they use similair delivery and with AZ being two-doses, I would have assumed it would've performed better.","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3713.0,"score_ratio":2.1034482759}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyy9br","c_root_id_B":"gxyyjto","created_at_utc_A":1620909135,"created_at_utc_B":1620909301,"score_A":46,"score_B":63,"human_ref_A":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","human_ref_B":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":166.0,"score_ratio":1.3695652174}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxyyjto","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620909301,"score_A":46,"score_B":63,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":749.0,"score_ratio":1.3695652174}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyrpgo","c_root_id_B":"gxyyjto","created_at_utc_A":1620904944,"created_at_utc_B":1620909301,"score_A":43,"score_B":63,"human_ref_A":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","human_ref_B":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4357.0,"score_ratio":1.4651162791}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxaob","c_root_id_B":"gxyyjto","created_at_utc_A":1620908569,"created_at_utc_B":1620909301,"score_A":39,"score_B":63,"human_ref_A":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","human_ref_B":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":732.0,"score_ratio":1.6153846154}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyjto","c_root_id_B":"gxyx5m9","created_at_utc_A":1620909301,"created_at_utc_B":1620908486,"score_A":63,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","human_ref_B":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":815.0,"score_ratio":2.0322580645}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyuciz","c_root_id_B":"gxyyjto","created_at_utc_A":1620906743,"created_at_utc_B":1620909301,"score_A":29,"score_B":63,"human_ref_A":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","human_ref_B":"Is it possible that even more and more (and worse) variants begin spreading? How bad\/deadly can variants be?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2558.0,"score_ratio":2.1724137931}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyx0o","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620909510,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":59,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":375.0,"score_ratio":1.2826086957}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxyyx0o","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620909510,"score_A":46,"score_B":59,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":958.0,"score_ratio":1.2826086957}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyrpgo","c_root_id_B":"gxyyx0o","created_at_utc_A":1620904944,"created_at_utc_B":1620909510,"score_A":43,"score_B":59,"human_ref_A":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","human_ref_B":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4566.0,"score_ratio":1.3720930233}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxaob","c_root_id_B":"gxyyx0o","created_at_utc_A":1620908569,"created_at_utc_B":1620909510,"score_A":39,"score_B":59,"human_ref_A":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","human_ref_B":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":941.0,"score_ratio":1.5128205128}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxyyx0o","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620909510,"score_A":31,"score_B":59,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1024.0,"score_ratio":1.9032258065}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyyx0o","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620909510,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":59,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"In my country we're being vaccinated with a mix of Pfizer and Moderna and it is widely touted that everything will be fine once we're all vaccinated, and we'll be back to normal.  But we've had a recent outbreak of the Indian variant amongst people who were already vaccinated  with Pfizer of Moderna.  It's... disheartening  to say the least. Is it that the Indian variant is resistant to the vaccine? Or is it possible that something went wrong with the storage of the vaccines and they were rendered ineffective? How much should we be panicking, basically?","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2767.0,"score_ratio":2.0344827586}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0g6c","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620910361,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":48,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1226.0,"score_ratio":1.0434782609}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0g6c","c_root_id_B":"gxyx9mg","created_at_utc_A":1620910361,"created_at_utc_B":1620908552,"score_A":48,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","human_ref_B":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1809.0,"score_ratio":1.0434782609}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyrpgo","c_root_id_B":"gxz0g6c","created_at_utc_A":1620904944,"created_at_utc_B":1620910361,"score_A":43,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","human_ref_B":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5417.0,"score_ratio":1.1162790698}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0g6c","c_root_id_B":"gxyxaob","created_at_utc_A":1620910361,"created_at_utc_B":1620908569,"score_A":48,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","human_ref_B":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1792.0,"score_ratio":1.2307692308}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxz0g6c","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620910361,"score_A":31,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1875.0,"score_ratio":1.5483870968}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz0g6c","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620910361,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":48,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"How can we get more vaccines to the rest of the world fast? This seems the best way to stop the spread of variants.","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3618.0,"score_ratio":1.6551724138}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzalb","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620909725,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":50,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":590.0,"score_ratio":1.0869565217}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyy9br","c_root_id_B":"gxyrpgo","created_at_utc_A":1620909135,"created_at_utc_B":1620904944,"score_A":46,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","human_ref_B":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4191.0,"score_ratio":1.0697674419}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxaob","c_root_id_B":"gxyy9br","created_at_utc_A":1620908569,"created_at_utc_B":1620909135,"score_A":39,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","human_ref_B":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":566.0,"score_ratio":1.1794871795}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyy9br","c_root_id_B":"gxyx5m9","created_at_utc_A":1620909135,"created_at_utc_B":1620908486,"score_A":46,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","human_ref_B":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":649.0,"score_ratio":1.4838709677}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyy9br","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620909135,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":46,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"If someone has recently had COVID-19 and recovered from it, should they still get vaccinated? How does natural immunity compare to vaccine-based immunity?","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2392.0,"score_ratio":1.5862068966}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzalb","c_root_id_B":"gxyx9mg","created_at_utc_A":1620909725,"created_at_utc_B":1620908552,"score_A":50,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","human_ref_B":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1173.0,"score_ratio":1.0869565217}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzalb","c_root_id_B":"gxyrpgo","created_at_utc_A":1620909725,"created_at_utc_B":1620904944,"score_A":50,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","human_ref_B":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4781.0,"score_ratio":1.1627906977}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyxaob","c_root_id_B":"gxyzalb","created_at_utc_A":1620908569,"created_at_utc_B":1620909725,"score_A":39,"score_B":50,"human_ref_A":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","human_ref_B":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1156.0,"score_ratio":1.2820512821}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzalb","c_root_id_B":"gxyx5m9","created_at_utc_A":1620909725,"created_at_utc_B":1620908486,"score_A":50,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","human_ref_B":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1239.0,"score_ratio":1.6129032258}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyzalb","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620909725,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":50,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"What to we know about the protection of current vaccines against the Indian variant? What is the likelihood that a new, vaccine-resistant variant will come up and basically take us back to square one?","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2982.0,"score_ratio":1.724137931}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxyrpgo","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620904944,"score_A":46,"score_B":43,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"Hi, How long did the immunity will last? How can I prepare my immune system before getting vaccinated? When can we get vaccinated with second generation vaccines? Thank you in advance for the answers","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3608.0,"score_ratio":1.0697674419}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxyx5m9","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620908486,"score_A":46,"score_B":31,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":66.0,"score_ratio":1.4838709677}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx9mg","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620908552,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":46,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"If the mRNA vaccines help your body produce antibodies to fight the infection, will a vaccine recipient test positive for antibodies? Thank you!","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1809.0,"score_ratio":1.5862068966}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxyxaob","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620908569,"score_A":31,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":83.0,"score_ratio":1.2580645161}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyuciz","c_root_id_B":"gxyxaob","created_at_utc_A":1620906743,"created_at_utc_B":1620908569,"score_A":29,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","human_ref_B":"Is Covid-19 something that will eventually go away completely? Or, will it linger around the world and have the occasional epidemic in unvaccinated areas? Will getting boosters become a normal thing?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1826.0,"score_ratio":1.3448275862}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxz3aan","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620911849,"score_A":31,"score_B":35,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"If more people don't come back for their second shot, does that increase the risk of a vaccine resistant variant emerging? Sort of like when people don't complete their round of antibiotics","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3363.0,"score_ratio":1.1290322581}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3aan","c_root_id_B":"gxz0pze","created_at_utc_A":1620911849,"created_at_utc_B":1620910508,"score_A":35,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"If more people don't come back for their second shot, does that increase the risk of a vaccine resistant variant emerging? Sort of like when people don't complete their round of antibiotics","human_ref_B":"I'm from India and a lot of people are still being infected long after the second dose of the vaccines. Why is this? Aren't vaccines supposed to give you immunity against the virus?  Also the vaccines appear to be give out in a rush, any long term implications of the different vaccines? Are mRNA vaccines better than other kind of vaccines ?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1341.0,"score_ratio":1.2068965517}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyuciz","c_root_id_B":"gxz3aan","created_at_utc_A":1620906743,"created_at_utc_B":1620911849,"score_A":29,"score_B":35,"human_ref_A":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","human_ref_B":"If more people don't come back for their second shot, does that increase the risk of a vaccine resistant variant emerging? Sort of like when people don't complete their round of antibiotics","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5106.0,"score_ratio":1.2068965517}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz3aan","c_root_id_B":"gxz2lp2","created_at_utc_A":1620911849,"created_at_utc_B":1620911502,"score_A":35,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"If more people don't come back for their second shot, does that increase the risk of a vaccine resistant variant emerging? Sort of like when people don't complete their round of antibiotics","human_ref_B":"What are the best practices and precautions re: unvaccinated children? What do we know about the multi system inflammatory syndrome (?) that had been afflicting some kids?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":347.0,"score_ratio":1.4583333333}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxzia9s","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620918690,"score_A":31,"score_B":35,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"A recent study showed that the spike protein SARS-CoV-2 uses to infect us can cause damage on its own. Specifically, the spike protein was shown to cause lung damage to the hamsters they injected their psuedo virus into. If this is shown to be reliable information, what does that mean for the vaccines which use mRNA to trigger an immune response by instructing our cells to produce the spike protein? I wonder if there is not a concern here that producing the spike protein could cause cardiovascular damage, and if this damage can occur, what's the timescale like (long term, short term).  The study in question","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10204.0,"score_ratio":1.1290322581}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxzia9s","c_root_id_B":"gxz0pze","created_at_utc_A":1620918690,"created_at_utc_B":1620910508,"score_A":35,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"A recent study showed that the spike protein SARS-CoV-2 uses to infect us can cause damage on its own. Specifically, the spike protein was shown to cause lung damage to the hamsters they injected their psuedo virus into. If this is shown to be reliable information, what does that mean for the vaccines which use mRNA to trigger an immune response by instructing our cells to produce the spike protein? I wonder if there is not a concern here that producing the spike protein could cause cardiovascular damage, and if this damage can occur, what's the timescale like (long term, short term).  The study in question","human_ref_B":"I'm from India and a lot of people are still being infected long after the second dose of the vaccines. Why is this? Aren't vaccines supposed to give you immunity against the virus?  Also the vaccines appear to be give out in a rush, any long term implications of the different vaccines? Are mRNA vaccines better than other kind of vaccines ?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8182.0,"score_ratio":1.2068965517}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxzia9s","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620918690,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":35,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"A recent study showed that the spike protein SARS-CoV-2 uses to infect us can cause damage on its own. Specifically, the spike protein was shown to cause lung damage to the hamsters they injected their psuedo virus into. If this is shown to be reliable information, what does that mean for the vaccines which use mRNA to trigger an immune response by instructing our cells to produce the spike protein? I wonder if there is not a concern here that producing the spike protein could cause cardiovascular damage, and if this damage can occur, what's the timescale like (long term, short term).  The study in question","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11947.0,"score_ratio":1.2068965517}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxzia9s","c_root_id_B":"gxz2lp2","created_at_utc_A":1620918690,"created_at_utc_B":1620911502,"score_A":35,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"A recent study showed that the spike protein SARS-CoV-2 uses to infect us can cause damage on its own. Specifically, the spike protein was shown to cause lung damage to the hamsters they injected their psuedo virus into. If this is shown to be reliable information, what does that mean for the vaccines which use mRNA to trigger an immune response by instructing our cells to produce the spike protein? I wonder if there is not a concern here that producing the spike protein could cause cardiovascular damage, and if this damage can occur, what's the timescale like (long term, short term).  The study in question","human_ref_B":"What are the best practices and precautions re: unvaccinated children? What do we know about the multi system inflammatory syndrome (?) that had been afflicting some kids?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7188.0,"score_ratio":1.4583333333}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxz4cox","c_root_id_B":"gxzia9s","created_at_utc_A":1620912378,"created_at_utc_B":1620918690,"score_A":24,"score_B":35,"human_ref_A":"Is there any update on the possibility of spreading the virus once you are vaccinated?","human_ref_B":"A recent study showed that the spike protein SARS-CoV-2 uses to infect us can cause damage on its own. Specifically, the spike protein was shown to cause lung damage to the hamsters they injected their psuedo virus into. If this is shown to be reliable information, what does that mean for the vaccines which use mRNA to trigger an immune response by instructing our cells to produce the spike protein? I wonder if there is not a concern here that producing the spike protein could cause cardiovascular damage, and if this damage can occur, what's the timescale like (long term, short term).  The study in question","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6312.0,"score_ratio":1.4583333333}
{"post_id":"nbdz24","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: COVID Variants and Vaccines - We are a physician scientist and emergency physician, ask us anything! We will be answering your questions related to the latest information about COVID variants and vaccines starting 11a ET (15 UT). We want to bring clarity to the available science and data based on what is currently known.  + Gregory A. Poland, M.D., FIDSA, MACP, FRCP (London) is a physician-scientist and the founding and current director of Mayo Clinic's Vaccine Research Group - a state-of-the-art research group and laboratory that seeks to understand genetic drivers of viral vaccine response and application of systems biology approaches to the generation of immunity, as well as the development of novel vaccines against emerging pathogens important to public health. The Poland lab developed the field of viral vaccine immunogenetics, the immune response network theory, and the field of vaccinomics and adversomics. Dr. Poland holds the academic rank of professor of medicine and infectious diseases and molecular pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. He is the Distinguished Investigator of the Mayo Clinic, and is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal *Vaccine*. + Elizabeth P. Clayborne, MD, MA Bioethics is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine Department of Emergency Medicine with an academic focus on ethics, health policy, end of life care, health disparities, and innovation\/entrepreneurship. She developed a novel epistaxis device, bleedfreeze.com, as a resident and in 2015 was awarded the NSF I-Corps grant which helped to launch her company Emergency Medical Innovation, LLC. She is the former Chair of the MedChi Committee on Ethics and Judicial Affairs, serves on the Ethics Committee of the American College of Emergency Physicians and is an active member of the Society of Academic Emergency Medicine, the American Medical Association and the National Medical Association. Please follow her on Twitter and Instagram @DrElizPC + Medscape is the leading online global destination for physicians and healthcare professionals worldwide, offering the latest medical news, expert perspectives, and relevant professional education and CME. Twitter @Medscape @MedscapeCME  Poland and Clayborne sit on the steering committee for Medscape Education's Neutralizing the Pandemic Clinical Advances center, a clinician resource offering expert commentaries, CME opportunities, and new insights that aim to improve health outcomes for all patients. https:\/\/www.medscape.org\/sites\/advances\/neutralizing-antibodies  Username: \/u\/Medscape","c_root_id_A":"gxyx5m9","c_root_id_B":"gxyuciz","created_at_utc_A":1620908486,"created_at_utc_B":1620906743,"score_A":31,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"We only have sinovac available in our country, but based on the published efficacy,its quite low. Many are thinking of getting a better vaccine like pfizer, say after 6 months when there's more supply. Do you think this is recommended? Or is the protection enough?","human_ref_B":"What do we know about mixing Vaccines? Is for example mixing Astra and BioNTech as good as two shots BioNTech?  In Germany around 2 million people which got the first Astra Vaccine will get BioNTech as the second Vaccine because of the danger of thrombosis related to young people which got Astra. Is this in your opinion the right way?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1743.0,"score_ratio":1.0689655172}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i6xcp","c_root_id_B":"c8i52po","created_at_utc_A":1361325862,"created_at_utc_B":1361320124,"score_A":436,"score_B":191,"human_ref_A":"At 1 atm it wont form a solid until -78.5 C.  CO2 Phase Diagram","human_ref_B":"The freezing point of CO2 is really only valid when going from liquid CO2 to solid and at a specific pressure, probably sea level or one atmosphere. The same thing with water if you have water that has impurities it affects the freezing and boiling points the 0 C and 100 C freezing and boiling points of water are really only valid in distilled water at one atmosphere.   The concentration of CO2 in earths atmosphere is ~.0387% or 387 PPM. That is really too low to cause it to condense and fall to the ground out of the air like snow.   Source on carbon dioxide in earths atmosphere  Also you point out the boiling point. This is only where CO2 goes from a gas to a liquid at standard atmosphere. it's melting point (when going from solid to liquid) is -78 C which is colder than the -68 C in an inhabited place. http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_dioxide","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5738.0,"score_ratio":2.2827225131}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i5kth","c_root_id_B":"c8i6xcp","created_at_utc_A":1361321680,"created_at_utc_B":1361325862,"score_A":16,"score_B":436,"human_ref_A":"Carbon Dioxide's boiling point is -57 \u00b0C under 5.11 atm. So no, it will not condense out of the air, as it's far too low pressure.","human_ref_B":"At 1 atm it wont form a solid until -78.5 C.  CO2 Phase Diagram","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4182.0,"score_ratio":27.25}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i6xcp","c_root_id_B":"c8i57ca","created_at_utc_A":1361325862,"created_at_utc_B":1361320523,"score_A":436,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"At 1 atm it wont form a solid until -78.5 C.  CO2 Phase Diagram","human_ref_B":"http:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/askscience\/comments\/ya5gh\/at_those_frigit_places_on_earth_that_can\/  http:\/\/www.newton.dep.anl.gov\/askasci\/env99\/env188.htm","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5339.0,"score_ratio":48.4444444444}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i6xcp","c_root_id_B":"c8i6e1p","created_at_utc_A":1361325862,"created_at_utc_B":1361324220,"score_A":436,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"At 1 atm it wont form a solid until -78.5 C.  CO2 Phase Diagram","human_ref_B":"It doesn't really work like that. Every compound has a vapor pressure at various temperatures. For example, the vapor pressure of water at 100\u00b0C is 760 mmHg (atmospheric pressure) this means that liquid water molecules will continue to turn into vapor until the pressure of water vapor in the system is equal to atmospheric pressure.  Even though water's boiling point is 100\u00b0C, there is water in the atmosphere which is well below that temperature. Same is true for CO2.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1642.0,"score_ratio":54.5}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8ib10v","c_root_id_B":"c8i52po","created_at_utc_A":1361338126,"created_at_utc_B":1361320124,"score_A":235,"score_B":191,"human_ref_A":"I don't want to rain (CO2 frost) on the parade here but Vostok Station is at an altitude of 3,488 meters (or 11,444 feet) and this site describes \"atmospheric pressure here is very low comprising 624.2 hPa on average for a year.\"   So about 62% of standard temperature pressure. The CO2 phase change line for sublimation slopes such that lower pressures means the phase change takes place at *even lower* temperatures than the -78C at STP.  Wolfram Alpha says CO2 sublimates at -84C at 624.2 hPa.  But wait, it gets *worser* because all the above assumes we are dealing with pure CO2 at 1 atmosphere (or 0.6 atmosphere at Vostok.)   CO2 in the earths atmosphere is only about 0.036% (creeping up on that 400 ppm, go climate denial!) so the partial pressure of CO2 is *much* lower. Plugging *that* into Wolfram Alpha gives you a much chillier -144C.  But wait, there's more! -144C is how cold it would have to be at Vostok *this winter* for CO2 to sublimate out. The -89.2 \u00b0C was almost thirty years ago in 1983, back when CO2 was about 10 effing percent lower than today at 340ppm. Putting the lower partial pressure into Wolfram Alpha gives us -145.1C as the temperature that it would have to have been at Vostok in 1983 for CO2 frost.  Figuring out the likelihood of Vostok Station ever seeing -89.2 \u00b0C again in the face of CO2 growing at about 2ppm per year is left as an exercise.","human_ref_B":"The freezing point of CO2 is really only valid when going from liquid CO2 to solid and at a specific pressure, probably sea level or one atmosphere. The same thing with water if you have water that has impurities it affects the freezing and boiling points the 0 C and 100 C freezing and boiling points of water are really only valid in distilled water at one atmosphere.   The concentration of CO2 in earths atmosphere is ~.0387% or 387 PPM. That is really too low to cause it to condense and fall to the ground out of the air like snow.   Source on carbon dioxide in earths atmosphere  Also you point out the boiling point. This is only where CO2 goes from a gas to a liquid at standard atmosphere. it's melting point (when going from solid to liquid) is -78 C which is colder than the -68 C in an inhabited place. http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_dioxide","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18002.0,"score_ratio":1.2303664921}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i5kth","c_root_id_B":"c8ib10v","created_at_utc_A":1361321680,"created_at_utc_B":1361338126,"score_A":16,"score_B":235,"human_ref_A":"Carbon Dioxide's boiling point is -57 \u00b0C under 5.11 atm. So no, it will not condense out of the air, as it's far too low pressure.","human_ref_B":"I don't want to rain (CO2 frost) on the parade here but Vostok Station is at an altitude of 3,488 meters (or 11,444 feet) and this site describes \"atmospheric pressure here is very low comprising 624.2 hPa on average for a year.\"   So about 62% of standard temperature pressure. The CO2 phase change line for sublimation slopes such that lower pressures means the phase change takes place at *even lower* temperatures than the -78C at STP.  Wolfram Alpha says CO2 sublimates at -84C at 624.2 hPa.  But wait, it gets *worser* because all the above assumes we are dealing with pure CO2 at 1 atmosphere (or 0.6 atmosphere at Vostok.)   CO2 in the earths atmosphere is only about 0.036% (creeping up on that 400 ppm, go climate denial!) so the partial pressure of CO2 is *much* lower. Plugging *that* into Wolfram Alpha gives you a much chillier -144C.  But wait, there's more! -144C is how cold it would have to be at Vostok *this winter* for CO2 to sublimate out. The -89.2 \u00b0C was almost thirty years ago in 1983, back when CO2 was about 10 effing percent lower than today at 340ppm. Putting the lower partial pressure into Wolfram Alpha gives us -145.1C as the temperature that it would have to have been at Vostok in 1983 for CO2 frost.  Figuring out the likelihood of Vostok Station ever seeing -89.2 \u00b0C again in the face of CO2 growing at about 2ppm per year is left as an exercise.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16446.0,"score_ratio":14.6875}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i57ca","c_root_id_B":"c8ib10v","created_at_utc_A":1361320523,"created_at_utc_B":1361338126,"score_A":9,"score_B":235,"human_ref_A":"http:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/askscience\/comments\/ya5gh\/at_those_frigit_places_on_earth_that_can\/  http:\/\/www.newton.dep.anl.gov\/askasci\/env99\/env188.htm","human_ref_B":"I don't want to rain (CO2 frost) on the parade here but Vostok Station is at an altitude of 3,488 meters (or 11,444 feet) and this site describes \"atmospheric pressure here is very low comprising 624.2 hPa on average for a year.\"   So about 62% of standard temperature pressure. The CO2 phase change line for sublimation slopes such that lower pressures means the phase change takes place at *even lower* temperatures than the -78C at STP.  Wolfram Alpha says CO2 sublimates at -84C at 624.2 hPa.  But wait, it gets *worser* because all the above assumes we are dealing with pure CO2 at 1 atmosphere (or 0.6 atmosphere at Vostok.)   CO2 in the earths atmosphere is only about 0.036% (creeping up on that 400 ppm, go climate denial!) so the partial pressure of CO2 is *much* lower. Plugging *that* into Wolfram Alpha gives you a much chillier -144C.  But wait, there's more! -144C is how cold it would have to be at Vostok *this winter* for CO2 to sublimate out. The -89.2 \u00b0C was almost thirty years ago in 1983, back when CO2 was about 10 effing percent lower than today at 340ppm. Putting the lower partial pressure into Wolfram Alpha gives us -145.1C as the temperature that it would have to have been at Vostok in 1983 for CO2 frost.  Figuring out the likelihood of Vostok Station ever seeing -89.2 \u00b0C again in the face of CO2 growing at about 2ppm per year is left as an exercise.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":17603.0,"score_ratio":26.1111111111}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i6e1p","c_root_id_B":"c8ib10v","created_at_utc_A":1361324220,"created_at_utc_B":1361338126,"score_A":8,"score_B":235,"human_ref_A":"It doesn't really work like that. Every compound has a vapor pressure at various temperatures. For example, the vapor pressure of water at 100\u00b0C is 760 mmHg (atmospheric pressure) this means that liquid water molecules will continue to turn into vapor until the pressure of water vapor in the system is equal to atmospheric pressure.  Even though water's boiling point is 100\u00b0C, there is water in the atmosphere which is well below that temperature. Same is true for CO2.","human_ref_B":"I don't want to rain (CO2 frost) on the parade here but Vostok Station is at an altitude of 3,488 meters (or 11,444 feet) and this site describes \"atmospheric pressure here is very low comprising 624.2 hPa on average for a year.\"   So about 62% of standard temperature pressure. The CO2 phase change line for sublimation slopes such that lower pressures means the phase change takes place at *even lower* temperatures than the -78C at STP.  Wolfram Alpha says CO2 sublimates at -84C at 624.2 hPa.  But wait, it gets *worser* because all the above assumes we are dealing with pure CO2 at 1 atmosphere (or 0.6 atmosphere at Vostok.)   CO2 in the earths atmosphere is only about 0.036% (creeping up on that 400 ppm, go climate denial!) so the partial pressure of CO2 is *much* lower. Plugging *that* into Wolfram Alpha gives you a much chillier -144C.  But wait, there's more! -144C is how cold it would have to be at Vostok *this winter* for CO2 to sublimate out. The -89.2 \u00b0C was almost thirty years ago in 1983, back when CO2 was about 10 effing percent lower than today at 340ppm. Putting the lower partial pressure into Wolfram Alpha gives us -145.1C as the temperature that it would have to have been at Vostok in 1983 for CO2 frost.  Figuring out the likelihood of Vostok Station ever seeing -89.2 \u00b0C again in the face of CO2 growing at about 2ppm per year is left as an exercise.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13906.0,"score_ratio":29.375}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i57ca","c_root_id_B":"c8i5kth","created_at_utc_A":1361320523,"created_at_utc_B":1361321680,"score_A":9,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"http:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/askscience\/comments\/ya5gh\/at_those_frigit_places_on_earth_that_can\/  http:\/\/www.newton.dep.anl.gov\/askasci\/env99\/env188.htm","human_ref_B":"Carbon Dioxide's boiling point is -57 \u00b0C under 5.11 atm. So no, it will not condense out of the air, as it's far too low pressure.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1157.0,"score_ratio":1.7777777778}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i57ca","c_root_id_B":"c8ic4v8","created_at_utc_A":1361320523,"created_at_utc_B":1361342458,"score_A":9,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"http:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/askscience\/comments\/ya5gh\/at_those_frigit_places_on_earth_that_can\/  http:\/\/www.newton.dep.anl.gov\/askasci\/env99\/env188.htm","human_ref_B":"Think of the water vapour: the boiling temperature of water is 100 Celsius, yet you can still have water vapour in the air at temperatures below 0 Celsius.  The temperature at which gas condenses out of the atmosphere is dependent on its partial pressure in the atmosphere (i.e. concentration times total pressure). At lower partial pressures, the condensation temperature is lower.  The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is 0.039% , thus the partial pressure is about  0.00039 atmospheres. The vapour pressure of CO2 is such at -142 \u00b0C","labels":0,"seconds_difference":21935.0,"score_ratio":1.4444444444}
{"post_id":"18umpf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"The boiling point of carbon dioxide is -57 \u00b0C. The coldest recorded temperature in an inhabited place is almost -68 \u00b0C. Does this mean that carbon dioxide condenses out of the air in these places? This is what got me thinking: http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-21500649. Furthmore, the lowest recorded natural temperature anywhere on earth is -89.2 \u00b0C according to wikipedia, colder than the freezing point of CO2. Would carbon dioxide ice freeze out of the air under those conditions?","c_root_id_A":"c8i6e1p","c_root_id_B":"c8ic4v8","created_at_utc_A":1361324220,"created_at_utc_B":1361342458,"score_A":8,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"It doesn't really work like that. Every compound has a vapor pressure at various temperatures. For example, the vapor pressure of water at 100\u00b0C is 760 mmHg (atmospheric pressure) this means that liquid water molecules will continue to turn into vapor until the pressure of water vapor in the system is equal to atmospheric pressure.  Even though water's boiling point is 100\u00b0C, there is water in the atmosphere which is well below that temperature. Same is true for CO2.","human_ref_B":"Think of the water vapour: the boiling temperature of water is 100 Celsius, yet you can still have water vapour in the air at temperatures below 0 Celsius.  The temperature at which gas condenses out of the atmosphere is dependent on its partial pressure in the atmosphere (i.e. concentration times total pressure). At lower partial pressures, the condensation temperature is lower.  The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is 0.039% , thus the partial pressure is about  0.00039 atmospheres. The vapour pressure of CO2 is such at -142 \u00b0C","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18238.0,"score_ratio":1.625}
{"post_id":"1h8xl9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.69,"history":"When doctors determine a drug dose for their patient it is often based on body weight. Is this because heavier people have more space that the medicine needs to travel, or do they have more efficient liver\/kidneys?","c_root_id_A":"cas02da","c_root_id_B":"cas178l","created_at_utc_A":1372432401,"created_at_utc_B":1372435568,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Substances that are added to the human organism are stored in three different storages:  intravasal(arteries,veins,capillaries) - this gets saturated the fastest also called central compartment  low perfusion high volume compartments - those get saturated the slowest(fatty tissue)  high perfusion low volume compartments - relatively faster than the former(muscular cells, organ tissue, other liquids like bile etc   Heavier people have higher voluminas in usually all compartments which requires higher dosage to reach the required concentration.  Look up pharmacokinetics - compartment models for more information.","human_ref_B":"The majority of the reason is something called Volume of Distribution.  Think of your body as a big bag of water and oil. Drugs dissolve in the water, the oil, or both (it depends on the drug). The effect of a drug depends on the concentration in the location of action. So if you are taking a drug like aspirin that is working in watery areas (like an inflamed joint), then the concentration of aspirin in your body water (blood, etc) determines how well it works.  A bigger person has more water and more fat. This applies for both fat and muscular people, albeit in somewhat different proportions. A fat person has more oily space, but also more watery because fat requires blood vessels feeding it.  Organs do scale with your size, mostly your healthy size -- so a 6' vs 5' person will have different sizes, but a 6' fat person and a 6' thin person wont vary as much functionally. A fat person might have an enlarged fatty liver, but it's not working any better. The thing is, they also have more volume to process, so the efficiency won't vary much.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3167.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"2hw7re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?","c_root_id_A":"ckwplly","c_root_id_B":"ckwkhn1","created_at_utc_A":1412100707,"created_at_utc_B":1412090905,"score_A":1314,"score_B":113,"human_ref_A":"The other answers you are getting are right (yes), but I want to contrast them by pointing out that the stars you can see with your eyes are only dozens of light years away, not billions. There are a handful that are hundreds, they are ALL within out galaxy. Even with a very impressive backyard telescope you are still limited to the galactic neighbourhood.  Our nearest major neighbouring galaxy is 2 million light years away (Andromeda), far from a billion, and the individual stars are basically not discernible unless there is a major event like a supernova, or a specific pulsar we can detect. Hubble can pick out individual stars near the edges, but the middle is just too cluttered.  http:\/\/jean-baptiste-faure.blogspot.com\/2011\/07\/hubble-sees-individual-stars-in.html  So, given that the average star [light] you see is only a couple dozen years old, and the average [star] life is many orders of magnitude greater, the chance of a single star we can see with our eyes having already expired and we just don't know it yet is extremely low. For reference I think there are around 5-6 thousand visible stars in total, maybe 9k with great eyes, and only around 1500-2000 at a given moment when looking up in perfect conditions.  On the opposite hand, I believe a large galaxy (ours) averages about 1 supernova every 100 years or so, and has a diameter of about 100k light years. Thus there are hundreds of supernovas (of stars that aren't visible pre-explosion) that have already happened in our galaxy where the light just hasn't reached us yet.","human_ref_B":"Well, yeah. I mean...a \"reasonable rate\" really isn't scientific. However, assuming that you chose a star that exploded at the proper time, then yes, traveling towards that star would \"speed up\" (from your perspective) the explosion.  Scientists can detect the neutrino emissions from stellar supernovae a short time before seeing the visible light of a supernova. Let's say for argument's sake that this technology is \"advanced\" and you can suddenly detect a supernova about a year before it would become visible from Earth.   If you set out towards that star at say, half the speed of light and traveled for six months, you'd see the visible light explosion from the supernova sooner (a quarter sooner, I believe but I'm bad at math) than if you just sat there on Earth.   This is because the speed of light is a fixed number that doesn't change depending on where an observer is.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9802.0,"score_ratio":11.6283185841}
{"post_id":"2hw7re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?","c_root_id_A":"ckwplly","c_root_id_B":"ckwndlo","created_at_utc_A":1412100707,"created_at_utc_B":1412096522,"score_A":1314,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"The other answers you are getting are right (yes), but I want to contrast them by pointing out that the stars you can see with your eyes are only dozens of light years away, not billions. There are a handful that are hundreds, they are ALL within out galaxy. Even with a very impressive backyard telescope you are still limited to the galactic neighbourhood.  Our nearest major neighbouring galaxy is 2 million light years away (Andromeda), far from a billion, and the individual stars are basically not discernible unless there is a major event like a supernova, or a specific pulsar we can detect. Hubble can pick out individual stars near the edges, but the middle is just too cluttered.  http:\/\/jean-baptiste-faure.blogspot.com\/2011\/07\/hubble-sees-individual-stars-in.html  So, given that the average star [light] you see is only a couple dozen years old, and the average [star] life is many orders of magnitude greater, the chance of a single star we can see with our eyes having already expired and we just don't know it yet is extremely low. For reference I think there are around 5-6 thousand visible stars in total, maybe 9k with great eyes, and only around 1500-2000 at a given moment when looking up in perfect conditions.  On the opposite hand, I believe a large galaxy (ours) averages about 1 supernova every 100 years or so, and has a diameter of about 100k light years. Thus there are hundreds of supernovas (of stars that aren't visible pre-explosion) that have already happened in our galaxy where the light just hasn't reached us yet.","human_ref_B":"Yes. Or if you sit still you will also see it explode, a little later.   If the sun exploded right now, you could  (a) stay put and see the explosion in eight minutes, (b) move towards it and see the explosion sooner, or (c) move away and delay the moment of explosion, as experienced by you by a little.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4185.0,"score_ratio":17.52}
{"post_id":"2hw7re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?","c_root_id_A":"ckwx94h","c_root_id_B":"ckws29h","created_at_utc_A":1412115271,"created_at_utc_B":1412105293,"score_A":19,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I am not sure others are reading this the same way as me, so here goes:  OP asks to pick an already dead star...not a \"dying\" star.  I assume the OP means it's already exploded at some point in our visual history of it.  Maybe the explosion happened billions of years ago, but the light came and went past Earth. The star to us, now, is dead.  Out.  A halo of dust.  Which to me, means the answer to the question is: In order to witness the explosion, we would need to move AWAY...not TOWARDS the dead star.   If your 'reasonable' speed is = faster- than-light away from the dead star...then ultimately yes, you would be able to turn around and witness the...wait for it.... birth of the universe.","human_ref_B":"Yes, of course. I'm not sure why anyone would doubt that. Whether you travel or not, you will eventually see it explode. Unless you're travelling at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light, your travel will make very little difference to the time you see it.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9978.0,"score_ratio":4.75}
{"post_id":"2hw7re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?","c_root_id_A":"ckwx94h","c_root_id_B":"ckwqjjx","created_at_utc_A":1412115271,"created_at_utc_B":1412102494,"score_A":19,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"I am not sure others are reading this the same way as me, so here goes:  OP asks to pick an already dead star...not a \"dying\" star.  I assume the OP means it's already exploded at some point in our visual history of it.  Maybe the explosion happened billions of years ago, but the light came and went past Earth. The star to us, now, is dead.  Out.  A halo of dust.  Which to me, means the answer to the question is: In order to witness the explosion, we would need to move AWAY...not TOWARDS the dead star.   If your 'reasonable' speed is = faster- than-light away from the dead star...then ultimately yes, you would be able to turn around and witness the...wait for it.... birth of the universe.","human_ref_B":"You don't have to travel at all if you pick the right one--we see them explode from time to time from our current vantage point, as the light of the explosion reaches Earth.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12777.0,"score_ratio":9.5}
{"post_id":"2hw7re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?","c_root_id_A":"ckwx94h","c_root_id_B":"ckwus1p","created_at_utc_A":1412115271,"created_at_utc_B":1412110339,"score_A":19,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I am not sure others are reading this the same way as me, so here goes:  OP asks to pick an already dead star...not a \"dying\" star.  I assume the OP means it's already exploded at some point in our visual history of it.  Maybe the explosion happened billions of years ago, but the light came and went past Earth. The star to us, now, is dead.  Out.  A halo of dust.  Which to me, means the answer to the question is: In order to witness the explosion, we would need to move AWAY...not TOWARDS the dead star.   If your 'reasonable' speed is = faster- than-light away from the dead star...then ultimately yes, you would be able to turn around and witness the...wait for it.... birth of the universe.","human_ref_B":"Events don't happen until the light cone reaches you. It doesn't make sense to talk of a sun having exploded if we haven't seen it yet from a physics standpoint. From a rational standpoint, it makes sense because our minds are used to slow-speed (relative to light) events. For example, we can know an explosion has happened before the sound reaches us, but only because the light from the explosion reached us first. Well, what happens if the only information you receive IS light?   This is where light cones and causality comes in. The event doesn't actually occur until the information reaches you, and the information in the case of a star exploding will be particles (light) travelling at the speed of light.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4932.0,"score_ratio":4.75}
{"post_id":"2hw7re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?","c_root_id_A":"ckws29h","c_root_id_B":"ckwqjjx","created_at_utc_A":1412105293,"created_at_utc_B":1412102494,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Yes, of course. I'm not sure why anyone would doubt that. Whether you travel or not, you will eventually see it explode. Unless you're travelling at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light, your travel will make very little difference to the time you see it.","human_ref_B":"You don't have to travel at all if you pick the right one--we see them explode from time to time from our current vantage point, as the light of the explosion reaches Earth.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2799.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"2hw7re","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?","c_root_id_A":"ckwus1p","c_root_id_B":"ckwqjjx","created_at_utc_A":1412110339,"created_at_utc_B":1412102494,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Events don't happen until the light cone reaches you. It doesn't make sense to talk of a sun having exploded if we haven't seen it yet from a physics standpoint. From a rational standpoint, it makes sense because our minds are used to slow-speed (relative to light) events. For example, we can know an explosion has happened before the sound reaches us, but only because the light from the explosion reached us first. Well, what happens if the only information you receive IS light?   This is where light cones and causality comes in. The event doesn't actually occur until the information reaches you, and the information in the case of a star exploding will be particles (light) travelling at the speed of light.","human_ref_B":"You don't have to travel at all if you pick the right one--we see them explode from time to time from our current vantage point, as the light of the explosion reaches Earth.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7845.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"1j4vis","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"If gravitation propagates at the speed of light, then isn't the Sun actually pulling the Earth from where the Earth was 8 minutes ago? What physical consequences does this have?","c_root_id_A":"cbb47ct","c_root_id_B":"cbb4u8u","created_at_utc_A":1374888108,"created_at_utc_B":1374890263,"score_A":2,"score_B":69,"human_ref_A":"Mass creates a gravitational field. It's this field which propagate at the speed of light. Since the Sun has been around much longer than that, the field is already established and the gravitational potential in each point of Earth's orbit is established.   The fact that gravitational fields propagates at the speed of light only has effects if there are changes in the source of gravity. For example: If the sun where to suddenly disappear it would take 8 minutes until the Earth stopped orbiting and shooting of into space with it's current velocity.","human_ref_B":"This is a surprisingly subtle question, that has been answered best in a paper by S. Carlip, found here.  In short, the force on the Earth points toward the Sun's current position, not its position 8 minutes ago.  This can be seen from simple symmetry arguments, and is referred to as the *lack of gravitational aberration*.  It is actually not unique to gravity; a similar effect arises for the Coulomb force in electromagnetism.  The argument is more complicated in the gravitational case than for electromagnetism, but the basic idea is the same.  Suppose we have a star and a planet, with the planet stationary and the star moving at constant velocity.  Which way does the force on the planet point?  The answer is that it points directly toward the instantaneous position of the star!  To see this, go to the frame in which the star is at rest.  In that frame, the planet is moving in a fixed gravitational field, and so as the planet moves at constant velocity, it experiences a force directly towards the instantaneous position of the star.  Now switch frames back to the one in which the star is moving, and the result that the force points directly to the star must still hold regardless of frame, and so the force on the planet points to the instantaneous position of the star, not where the star was.    This description I've provided is exactly the case for the Coulomb force in electromagnetism, which only uses special relativity; the analogous argument for general relativity is little more complicated, but the basic idea still holds.  In both cases, if abstract symmetry arguments make you nervous, you can also do the calculation explicitly and see the result emerge.  Note that this does not mean the speed at which gravity propagates is anything other than *c*.  What it means is that there are various effects that propagate at speed *c* that combine to produce this (perhaps surprising) effect.  As Carlip says in referencing the electric case, \"This effect does not mean that the electric field propagates instantaneously; rather, the field of a moving charge has a velocity-dependent component that cancels the effect of propagation delay to first order.\"  There is even experimental evidence.  The orbits in the solar system would be show marked changes if the net Newtonian gravitational force pointed to where the Sun had been rather than to its instantaneous position; this has been known for two centuries.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2155.0,"score_ratio":34.5}
{"post_id":"wb9lnu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.69,"history":"If ectotherm are less capable of maintaining an internal temperature, does this mean they display less homeostatis? Are there organisms which clearly display different levels of homeostatis? Title asks it all :)","c_root_id_A":"ii5u2hd","c_root_id_B":"ii5vbkk","created_at_utc_A":1659120179,"created_at_utc_B":1659120676,"score_A":4,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Homeostasis is actually kind of an outdated term. Nothing is constant; biology the to use what's called \"dynamic equilibrium\", which means things bounce up and down around rather than stay at one number. For example, core body temperature is rarely my 98.6, but dances around that, cooler in sleep, warmer in the day. But, to your point, yes! Tuna and sharks, for example, keep themselves about 10 degrees above their surroundings. It's not a full continuum, but creatures can definitely be \"kinda cold blooded\" instead of just cold blooded.","human_ref_B":"Bump. Hope someone else answers this question better.  I would assume that homeostasis is more a general term to describe a state of balance; not necessarily a term used to describe instability of an organism.   to answer your question, a polar bear is better at keeping homeostasis in cold weather than a lizard. While a lizard would be better at keeping homeostasis in hot weather versus a polar bear.  But at the same time, both reptiles and bears are in Tennessee and have thriving ecosystems. So which one is better at keeping homeostasis? Well both seem to be doing a pretty good job.   Do different organisms have different definitions of homeostasis? No. Do they have different mechanisms to reach homeostasis? Yes. Are some organisms superior at maintaining homeostasis? Yes.   Maybe you could redefine your question a little because their just aren\u2019t \u201cdifferent levels of homeostasis\u201d. You\u2019re either dead or alive","labels":0,"seconds_difference":497.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"1v43y3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"If a adult receives an not fully matured organ from a donor, will the organ continue to develop? Hope I worded that clearly enough... I guess what I'm asking is if an adult receives a child's organ, will the organ develop proportionally with the rest of the recipient's organs?","c_root_id_A":"ceonpix","c_root_id_B":"ceokixg","created_at_utc_A":1389642738,"created_at_utc_B":1389635722,"score_A":68,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Here's a case study on pediatric kidneys being transplanted into adults","human_ref_B":"Theoretically, it will keep growing to some extent, but in reality you'd need target-specific hormones for that kidney. And all this, considering that the organ was not rejected and that a child's organ managed to support your adult body. Again theoretically, if you can manage to keep the organ viable long enough, you could accelerate its growth and in a matter of weeks, you could transplant it to the patient who needs it, but currently it is not achievable to keep a donated organ alive and able to function normally for more than 48 hours, and it is not worth it to try experiments on such organs at this point.   There's also talks and research on how to improve the vitality of transplanted organs and success rate for such operations by improving drugs given to the patient prior and after the surgery, and by adding to the infrastructure of the transplanted area. The idea comes from transplanting lab cloned organs from ES cells into adult patients, where they also add a sort of scaffolding for the organ, made by biodegradable materials, which contains chemicals necessary for the organ's initial assimilation and proper growth. By using a similar method, the idea is, to provide transplanted organs with drugs needed, directly in the organ's vicinity, without forcing patients to keep a tight drug schedule and reducing the strain the organs take due to fluctuations in the concentrations of such drugs in the patient's bloodstream.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7016.0,"score_ratio":7.5555555556}
{"post_id":"1v43y3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"If a adult receives an not fully matured organ from a donor, will the organ continue to develop? Hope I worded that clearly enough... I guess what I'm asking is if an adult receives a child's organ, will the organ develop proportionally with the rest of the recipient's organs?","c_root_id_A":"ceonpix","c_root_id_B":"ceolrkm","created_at_utc_A":1389642738,"created_at_utc_B":1389638527,"score_A":68,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Here's a case study on pediatric kidneys being transplanted into adults","human_ref_B":"Since others have already answered your question, I just want to add that kidneys recovered from young children are typically transplanted as a pair into an adult, because individually they would not be sufficient.  They would continue to grow, but would not likely develop as much as they would if they had remained in the donor.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4211.0,"score_ratio":17.0}
{"post_id":"1v43y3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"If a adult receives an not fully matured organ from a donor, will the organ continue to develop? Hope I worded that clearly enough... I guess what I'm asking is if an adult receives a child's organ, will the organ develop proportionally with the rest of the recipient's organs?","c_root_id_A":"ceonpix","c_root_id_B":"ceolz4a","created_at_utc_A":1389642738,"created_at_utc_B":1389638995,"score_A":68,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Here's a case study on pediatric kidneys being transplanted into adults","human_ref_B":"This is a really big questions with a lot of unknowns. Other people have mentioned that certain endocrine signals (hormones) are needed to properly develop some organs, and that transplanting an underdeveloped organ would be a very bad idea. In other cases, I would argue that some biological systems are capable of regenerating, even in adults. Namely, the vascular system.  Endothelial cells (the cells that make up a blood vessel) are able to restart their development programs to resupply hypoxic tissues (lacking oxygen) following an injury. Hypoxic tissues secrete growth factors that pre-existing vessels can detect and send sprouts to grow towards. The endothelial cells self-assemble into a grid-like network of small vessels that remodel until a healthy new vascular network is in place. Once the tissues are satisfied with their nutrient supply, they stop sending the signals and the vessels return to homeostasis.  This works well during normal development and wound healing, but unfortunately tumors (which are *very* nutrient-hungry) often take advantage of this process to give themselves access to the blood, which sustains their growth and gives them an opportunity to metastasize.  However, we can learn from tumors to help vascularize tissues that we want to transplant, but lack a healthy vascular system. Many people who attempt to grow transplantable organs in the lab are finding that blood vessels networks are extremely hard to mimic using available techniques in microfabrication. Many researchers are now turning to the process of vascular morphogenesis (the self-assembly of new vessels) to overcome this problem.  Our hope is that we can control the regeneration of vascular networks in the body well enough to \"plumb\" these underdeveloped artificial organs after they are implanted.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3743.0,"score_ratio":22.6666666667}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9bv5c","c_root_id_B":"ce9aqwv","created_at_utc_A":1387907422,"created_at_utc_B":1387904445,"score_A":1201,"score_B":325,"human_ref_A":"I won't bore you with the specifics regarding aetiology, but essentially Down's is due to a an extra chromosome leading to significant neural and physical defects, one of which is their 'similar' appearance as you term it.  Those with Down's appear to have a significant degree of deficiency in midfacial area, mandibular area, and endocranial area^1, perhaps due to muscular atrophy caused by the disease.  Otherwise, why they look similar is down to human conditioning. In simple terms, we are very adept at noticing facial differences in our own race, however often, we look at other races, black, asian etc. and cannot differentiate as well between the faces^2. This is what occurs with those with Down's syndrome; we see a similar trait and assume they all 'look the same'. This is obviously not the case as those with Down's syndrome often have very different features, but we can't see past this human trait of recognising those similar to us, far better.   **TL:DR - Down's syndrome sufferers look the same as each other, much the same as other races often look similar as a group, due to a human conditioning effect called the 'Other Race Effect'^3.**   ^(^As ^far ^as ^my ^own ^research ^can ^tell!)  1. Fink GB, Madaus WK, Walker GF. A quantitative study of the face in Down's syndrome. Am J Orthod. 1975;67(5):540-53. 2. Bar-haim Y, Saidel T, Yovel G. The role of skin colour in face recognition. Perception. 2009;38(1):145-8. 3. Anzures G, Kelly DJ, Pascalis O, et al. Own- and Other-Race Face Identity Recognition in Children: The Effects of Pose and Feature Composition. Dev Psychol. 2013;","human_ref_B":"Plenty of disorders have both neurocognitive effects and physical developmental effects. For example, Dubowitz syndrome causes severe retardation as well as microcephaly (small hands and feet) and specific facial features.  Often one major mutation can cause more than one phenotypic effect. Traits are frequently linked and inherited together during meiosis.  In the case of Down's syndrome, you have a partial or complete third copy of Chromosome 21. That's a pretty massive mutation, so it effects both neurocognitive development and physical development. We've learned a lot about different coding regions of Chromosome 21 by studying the effects of Down's.  As for why \"people with Down's syndrome look alike\", they don't. They have a series of shared facial features, but they have as much variation within their facial features as neuro-normatives do. It's like how \"all Asians look alike\" to other ethnic groups, despite plenty of in-group variation. Anyone who has spent time with Down's individuals can tell you they are all distinct individuals.It is proposed that when human beings recognize other humans, we focus on the differences between their facial features, the features of those nearest them, and our own. When someone neuro-normative looks at someone with Down's (or someone in an out-group ethnic group) we instantly recognize the features that are the most different from our own. This is also proposed to be the mechanism behind the flashed face distortion effect and why we have difficulty recognizing faces in crowds.  Edit: Microcephaly is reduced head size. I was trying to remember the phrase for reduced hands and feet (still can't think of it) and when I couldn't I removed the wrong half of the sentence. Perils of editing on a tiny screen.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2977.0,"score_ratio":3.6953846154}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9ao6b","c_root_id_B":"ce9bv5c","created_at_utc_A":1387904241,"created_at_utc_B":1387907422,"score_A":84,"score_B":1201,"human_ref_A":"All genetic disorders affect the phenotype, a phenotype is just the physical manifestation of the genotype, for example with sickle-cell it's the shape of the red blood cells.  Down syndrome affects all kinds of systems in the body, from holes in the heart to shortened ear canals. The specific malformations that give rise to Down's give the face a distinctive look, for example the epicanthic folds around the eyes.  There are a number of disorders that look distinctive for those that know what to look for. Look at the Wiki page for facies (medical) - too lazy to link, sorry! Doctors are trained to spot the signs of abnormalities such as foetal alcohol syndrome, Williams syndrome, etc.","human_ref_B":"I won't bore you with the specifics regarding aetiology, but essentially Down's is due to a an extra chromosome leading to significant neural and physical defects, one of which is their 'similar' appearance as you term it.  Those with Down's appear to have a significant degree of deficiency in midfacial area, mandibular area, and endocranial area^1, perhaps due to muscular atrophy caused by the disease.  Otherwise, why they look similar is down to human conditioning. In simple terms, we are very adept at noticing facial differences in our own race, however often, we look at other races, black, asian etc. and cannot differentiate as well between the faces^2. This is what occurs with those with Down's syndrome; we see a similar trait and assume they all 'look the same'. This is obviously not the case as those with Down's syndrome often have very different features, but we can't see past this human trait of recognising those similar to us, far better.   **TL:DR - Down's syndrome sufferers look the same as each other, much the same as other races often look similar as a group, due to a human conditioning effect called the 'Other Race Effect'^3.**   ^(^As ^far ^as ^my ^own ^research ^can ^tell!)  1. Fink GB, Madaus WK, Walker GF. A quantitative study of the face in Down's syndrome. Am J Orthod. 1975;67(5):540-53. 2. Bar-haim Y, Saidel T, Yovel G. The role of skin colour in face recognition. Perception. 2009;38(1):145-8. 3. Anzures G, Kelly DJ, Pascalis O, et al. Own- and Other-Race Face Identity Recognition in Children: The Effects of Pose and Feature Composition. Dev Psychol. 2013;","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3181.0,"score_ratio":14.2976190476}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9anvz","c_root_id_B":"ce9bv5c","created_at_utc_A":1387904219,"created_at_utc_B":1387907422,"score_A":48,"score_B":1201,"human_ref_A":"Sickle-cell anaemia and albinism actually do affect the phenotype, i.e. the physical appearance.  Two recessive albino alleles will make the phenotype for \"albino\".  The same goes for sickle cell anemia, even though you can't see the phenotype expressed without a microscope.  I think what you're referring to are the specific facial features that people with Down Syndrome share.    First, it's important to note that Down Syndrome (although caused by genes) is not genetically inherited like albinism and sickle cell.   Secondly, sickle cell and albinism are both caused by simple recessive genes...it's like an on\/off switch for one single characteristic.  Meanwhile, Down Syndrome is not a simple recessive gene.  It's an extra chromosome entirely.  Most people have 46 chromosomes, while a person with Down Syndrome has 47.  Think of albinism as being caused by just one misspelled word in a book, and Down Syndrome being a whole extra copy of chapter 21.  That extra copy of chromosome 21 creates the similar facial appearances in people with Down Syndrome.","human_ref_B":"I won't bore you with the specifics regarding aetiology, but essentially Down's is due to a an extra chromosome leading to significant neural and physical defects, one of which is their 'similar' appearance as you term it.  Those with Down's appear to have a significant degree of deficiency in midfacial area, mandibular area, and endocranial area^1, perhaps due to muscular atrophy caused by the disease.  Otherwise, why they look similar is down to human conditioning. In simple terms, we are very adept at noticing facial differences in our own race, however often, we look at other races, black, asian etc. and cannot differentiate as well between the faces^2. This is what occurs with those with Down's syndrome; we see a similar trait and assume they all 'look the same'. This is obviously not the case as those with Down's syndrome often have very different features, but we can't see past this human trait of recognising those similar to us, far better.   **TL:DR - Down's syndrome sufferers look the same as each other, much the same as other races often look similar as a group, due to a human conditioning effect called the 'Other Race Effect'^3.**   ^(^As ^far ^as ^my ^own ^research ^can ^tell!)  1. Fink GB, Madaus WK, Walker GF. A quantitative study of the face in Down's syndrome. Am J Orthod. 1975;67(5):540-53. 2. Bar-haim Y, Saidel T, Yovel G. The role of skin colour in face recognition. Perception. 2009;38(1):145-8. 3. Anzures G, Kelly DJ, Pascalis O, et al. Own- and Other-Race Face Identity Recognition in Children: The Effects of Pose and Feature Composition. Dev Psychol. 2013;","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3203.0,"score_ratio":25.0208333333}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9atpn","c_root_id_B":"ce9bv5c","created_at_utc_A":1387904660,"created_at_utc_B":1387907422,"score_A":31,"score_B":1201,"human_ref_A":"I think there is some confusion in the meaning of the word phenotype. Phenotype means a trait that you can observe. It does not only refer to appearance, as observation is not limited to macroscopic appearance. In the instance of sickle cell anemia, the phenotypic abnormality would be abnormal hemoglobin structure, which results in the numerous clinical manifestations of sickle cell disease (the crises, autoinfarcation of the spleen and susceptibility to encapsulated organism infection, etc). You can observe the abnormality of S hemoglobin (the type present in sickle cell disease) by several methods, including microscopic red cell examination and hemoglobin electrophoresis","human_ref_B":"I won't bore you with the specifics regarding aetiology, but essentially Down's is due to a an extra chromosome leading to significant neural and physical defects, one of which is their 'similar' appearance as you term it.  Those with Down's appear to have a significant degree of deficiency in midfacial area, mandibular area, and endocranial area^1, perhaps due to muscular atrophy caused by the disease.  Otherwise, why they look similar is down to human conditioning. In simple terms, we are very adept at noticing facial differences in our own race, however often, we look at other races, black, asian etc. and cannot differentiate as well between the faces^2. This is what occurs with those with Down's syndrome; we see a similar trait and assume they all 'look the same'. This is obviously not the case as those with Down's syndrome often have very different features, but we can't see past this human trait of recognising those similar to us, far better.   **TL:DR - Down's syndrome sufferers look the same as each other, much the same as other races often look similar as a group, due to a human conditioning effect called the 'Other Race Effect'^3.**   ^(^As ^far ^as ^my ^own ^research ^can ^tell!)  1. Fink GB, Madaus WK, Walker GF. A quantitative study of the face in Down's syndrome. Am J Orthod. 1975;67(5):540-53. 2. Bar-haim Y, Saidel T, Yovel G. The role of skin colour in face recognition. Perception. 2009;38(1):145-8. 3. Anzures G, Kelly DJ, Pascalis O, et al. Own- and Other-Race Face Identity Recognition in Children: The Effects of Pose and Feature Composition. Dev Psychol. 2013;","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2762.0,"score_ratio":38.7419354839}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9bsbl","c_root_id_B":"ce9bv5c","created_at_utc_A":1387907219,"created_at_utc_B":1387907422,"score_A":3,"score_B":1201,"human_ref_A":"The overexpression of particular genes, causes changes in the development of tissue and the morphology (structure) that individual. If you have a particular set of instructions to build a functional human being  of a particular shape and you begin altering pieces of their genome, the result will be an incorrect coding of cells causing them to form an organism with unusual proportions.   In the case of Down syndrome, the mutation that leads to an extra chromosome is generally the same for any person with this disorder; causing similar characteristics because the cells use this genetic code (and hormones) to form what we consider to be an \"irregular\" looking human being.","human_ref_B":"I won't bore you with the specifics regarding aetiology, but essentially Down's is due to a an extra chromosome leading to significant neural and physical defects, one of which is their 'similar' appearance as you term it.  Those with Down's appear to have a significant degree of deficiency in midfacial area, mandibular area, and endocranial area^1, perhaps due to muscular atrophy caused by the disease.  Otherwise, why they look similar is down to human conditioning. In simple terms, we are very adept at noticing facial differences in our own race, however often, we look at other races, black, asian etc. and cannot differentiate as well between the faces^2. This is what occurs with those with Down's syndrome; we see a similar trait and assume they all 'look the same'. This is obviously not the case as those with Down's syndrome often have very different features, but we can't see past this human trait of recognising those similar to us, far better.   **TL:DR - Down's syndrome sufferers look the same as each other, much the same as other races often look similar as a group, due to a human conditioning effect called the 'Other Race Effect'^3.**   ^(^As ^far ^as ^my ^own ^research ^can ^tell!)  1. Fink GB, Madaus WK, Walker GF. A quantitative study of the face in Down's syndrome. Am J Orthod. 1975;67(5):540-53. 2. Bar-haim Y, Saidel T, Yovel G. The role of skin colour in face recognition. Perception. 2009;38(1):145-8. 3. Anzures G, Kelly DJ, Pascalis O, et al. Own- and Other-Race Face Identity Recognition in Children: The Effects of Pose and Feature Composition. Dev Psychol. 2013;","labels":0,"seconds_difference":203.0,"score_ratio":400.3333333333}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9aqwv","c_root_id_B":"ce9ao6b","created_at_utc_A":1387904445,"created_at_utc_B":1387904241,"score_A":325,"score_B":84,"human_ref_A":"Plenty of disorders have both neurocognitive effects and physical developmental effects. For example, Dubowitz syndrome causes severe retardation as well as microcephaly (small hands and feet) and specific facial features.  Often one major mutation can cause more than one phenotypic effect. Traits are frequently linked and inherited together during meiosis.  In the case of Down's syndrome, you have a partial or complete third copy of Chromosome 21. That's a pretty massive mutation, so it effects both neurocognitive development and physical development. We've learned a lot about different coding regions of Chromosome 21 by studying the effects of Down's.  As for why \"people with Down's syndrome look alike\", they don't. They have a series of shared facial features, but they have as much variation within their facial features as neuro-normatives do. It's like how \"all Asians look alike\" to other ethnic groups, despite plenty of in-group variation. Anyone who has spent time with Down's individuals can tell you they are all distinct individuals.It is proposed that when human beings recognize other humans, we focus on the differences between their facial features, the features of those nearest them, and our own. When someone neuro-normative looks at someone with Down's (or someone in an out-group ethnic group) we instantly recognize the features that are the most different from our own. This is also proposed to be the mechanism behind the flashed face distortion effect and why we have difficulty recognizing faces in crowds.  Edit: Microcephaly is reduced head size. I was trying to remember the phrase for reduced hands and feet (still can't think of it) and when I couldn't I removed the wrong half of the sentence. Perils of editing on a tiny screen.","human_ref_B":"All genetic disorders affect the phenotype, a phenotype is just the physical manifestation of the genotype, for example with sickle-cell it's the shape of the red blood cells.  Down syndrome affects all kinds of systems in the body, from holes in the heart to shortened ear canals. The specific malformations that give rise to Down's give the face a distinctive look, for example the epicanthic folds around the eyes.  There are a number of disorders that look distinctive for those that know what to look for. Look at the Wiki page for facies (medical) - too lazy to link, sorry! Doctors are trained to spot the signs of abnormalities such as foetal alcohol syndrome, Williams syndrome, etc.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":204.0,"score_ratio":3.869047619}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9aqwv","c_root_id_B":"ce9anvz","created_at_utc_A":1387904445,"created_at_utc_B":1387904219,"score_A":325,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"Plenty of disorders have both neurocognitive effects and physical developmental effects. For example, Dubowitz syndrome causes severe retardation as well as microcephaly (small hands and feet) and specific facial features.  Often one major mutation can cause more than one phenotypic effect. Traits are frequently linked and inherited together during meiosis.  In the case of Down's syndrome, you have a partial or complete third copy of Chromosome 21. That's a pretty massive mutation, so it effects both neurocognitive development and physical development. We've learned a lot about different coding regions of Chromosome 21 by studying the effects of Down's.  As for why \"people with Down's syndrome look alike\", they don't. They have a series of shared facial features, but they have as much variation within their facial features as neuro-normatives do. It's like how \"all Asians look alike\" to other ethnic groups, despite plenty of in-group variation. Anyone who has spent time with Down's individuals can tell you they are all distinct individuals.It is proposed that when human beings recognize other humans, we focus on the differences between their facial features, the features of those nearest them, and our own. When someone neuro-normative looks at someone with Down's (or someone in an out-group ethnic group) we instantly recognize the features that are the most different from our own. This is also proposed to be the mechanism behind the flashed face distortion effect and why we have difficulty recognizing faces in crowds.  Edit: Microcephaly is reduced head size. I was trying to remember the phrase for reduced hands and feet (still can't think of it) and when I couldn't I removed the wrong half of the sentence. Perils of editing on a tiny screen.","human_ref_B":"Sickle-cell anaemia and albinism actually do affect the phenotype, i.e. the physical appearance.  Two recessive albino alleles will make the phenotype for \"albino\".  The same goes for sickle cell anemia, even though you can't see the phenotype expressed without a microscope.  I think what you're referring to are the specific facial features that people with Down Syndrome share.    First, it's important to note that Down Syndrome (although caused by genes) is not genetically inherited like albinism and sickle cell.   Secondly, sickle cell and albinism are both caused by simple recessive genes...it's like an on\/off switch for one single characteristic.  Meanwhile, Down Syndrome is not a simple recessive gene.  It's an extra chromosome entirely.  Most people have 46 chromosomes, while a person with Down Syndrome has 47.  Think of albinism as being caused by just one misspelled word in a book, and Down Syndrome being a whole extra copy of chapter 21.  That extra copy of chromosome 21 creates the similar facial appearances in people with Down Syndrome.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":226.0,"score_ratio":6.7708333333}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9ao6b","c_root_id_B":"ce9anvz","created_at_utc_A":1387904241,"created_at_utc_B":1387904219,"score_A":84,"score_B":48,"human_ref_A":"All genetic disorders affect the phenotype, a phenotype is just the physical manifestation of the genotype, for example with sickle-cell it's the shape of the red blood cells.  Down syndrome affects all kinds of systems in the body, from holes in the heart to shortened ear canals. The specific malformations that give rise to Down's give the face a distinctive look, for example the epicanthic folds around the eyes.  There are a number of disorders that look distinctive for those that know what to look for. Look at the Wiki page for facies (medical) - too lazy to link, sorry! Doctors are trained to spot the signs of abnormalities such as foetal alcohol syndrome, Williams syndrome, etc.","human_ref_B":"Sickle-cell anaemia and albinism actually do affect the phenotype, i.e. the physical appearance.  Two recessive albino alleles will make the phenotype for \"albino\".  The same goes for sickle cell anemia, even though you can't see the phenotype expressed without a microscope.  I think what you're referring to are the specific facial features that people with Down Syndrome share.    First, it's important to note that Down Syndrome (although caused by genes) is not genetically inherited like albinism and sickle cell.   Secondly, sickle cell and albinism are both caused by simple recessive genes...it's like an on\/off switch for one single characteristic.  Meanwhile, Down Syndrome is not a simple recessive gene.  It's an extra chromosome entirely.  Most people have 46 chromosomes, while a person with Down Syndrome has 47.  Think of albinism as being caused by just one misspelled word in a book, and Down Syndrome being a whole extra copy of chapter 21.  That extra copy of chromosome 21 creates the similar facial appearances in people with Down Syndrome.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":22.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9bvdd","c_root_id_B":"ce9eszr","created_at_utc_A":1387907437,"created_at_utc_B":1387915156,"score_A":6,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"technically, both sickle cell and albinism affect phenotype. Remember phenotype isnt necessarily what you see with the naked eye, its not just an \"FLK\" as we call it in peds (funny lookin kid).    For example, sickle cell you can see on a blood smear   You should also consider that the genetic variations which effect down syndrome (which is a trisomy, adding an extra 21st chromosome) is very different than the genetic variation leading to sickle cell disease (which is a point mutation substituting the hydrophilic amino acid glutamate with valine, a very hydrophobic amino acid).   You see the physical \"syndromic\" commonalities with other trisomies as well, like  edwards (trisomy 18)and pataus (trisomy 13) syndrome.   Its the diff btw adding an ENTIRE CHROMOSOME vs just a point mutation on a strand of dna","human_ref_B":"Genotype and phenotype are sort of out of date terms in many ways. At least they are over simplifying the context. The concept of a 'silent' code is sort of not completely true. Anyways, in relation to your question, there are many diseases and syndromes which have genetic causes and have 'typical' looks. I have linked a couple pictures.  Other people have noted that some of the genetic issues that you mentioned having no noticeable phenotype. I will not go into that in anymore detail.  As to why an arbitrary extra copy of a chromosome makes people with Down syndrome look so similar? As you know, genes affect how you look. Down syndrome has an extra copy of chromosome 21. I am bad at analogies but imagine if you had endless parts to an Ikea table and you followed one portion of the directions twice. It would duplicate those physical features. In the case of a human, the instructions simply put, accentuate the same processes and products. Because all down's are problems with the same genetics, the same 'look' occurs.     http:\/\/medchrome.com\/major\/medicine\/diagnostic-facies\/  http:\/\/www.imnotebook.com\/content\/face  Source: BS in Biology, Did research in cytogenetics and computational genetic analysis","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7719.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9eszr","c_root_id_B":"ce9bsbl","created_at_utc_A":1387915156,"created_at_utc_B":1387907219,"score_A":10,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Genotype and phenotype are sort of out of date terms in many ways. At least they are over simplifying the context. The concept of a 'silent' code is sort of not completely true. Anyways, in relation to your question, there are many diseases and syndromes which have genetic causes and have 'typical' looks. I have linked a couple pictures.  Other people have noted that some of the genetic issues that you mentioned having no noticeable phenotype. I will not go into that in anymore detail.  As to why an arbitrary extra copy of a chromosome makes people with Down syndrome look so similar? As you know, genes affect how you look. Down syndrome has an extra copy of chromosome 21. I am bad at analogies but imagine if you had endless parts to an Ikea table and you followed one portion of the directions twice. It would duplicate those physical features. In the case of a human, the instructions simply put, accentuate the same processes and products. Because all down's are problems with the same genetics, the same 'look' occurs.     http:\/\/medchrome.com\/major\/medicine\/diagnostic-facies\/  http:\/\/www.imnotebook.com\/content\/face  Source: BS in Biology, Did research in cytogenetics and computational genetic analysis","human_ref_B":"The overexpression of particular genes, causes changes in the development of tissue and the morphology (structure) that individual. If you have a particular set of instructions to build a functional human being  of a particular shape and you begin altering pieces of their genome, the result will be an incorrect coding of cells causing them to form an organism with unusual proportions.   In the case of Down syndrome, the mutation that leads to an extra chromosome is generally the same for any person with this disorder; causing similar characteristics because the cells use this genetic code (and hormones) to form what we consider to be an \"irregular\" looking human being.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7937.0,"score_ratio":3.3333333333}
{"post_id":"1tlrud","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why do people with Down's Syndrome look very much alike? From what I know, the genotype affects the phenotype. Besides Down's Syndrome, there are other genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anaemia and Albinism. Why is it that only Down's Syndrome affect the phenotype?","c_root_id_A":"ce9bsbl","c_root_id_B":"ce9bvdd","created_at_utc_A":1387907219,"created_at_utc_B":1387907437,"score_A":3,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"The overexpression of particular genes, causes changes in the development of tissue and the morphology (structure) that individual. If you have a particular set of instructions to build a functional human being  of a particular shape and you begin altering pieces of their genome, the result will be an incorrect coding of cells causing them to form an organism with unusual proportions.   In the case of Down syndrome, the mutation that leads to an extra chromosome is generally the same for any person with this disorder; causing similar characteristics because the cells use this genetic code (and hormones) to form what we consider to be an \"irregular\" looking human being.","human_ref_B":"technically, both sickle cell and albinism affect phenotype. Remember phenotype isnt necessarily what you see with the naked eye, its not just an \"FLK\" as we call it in peds (funny lookin kid).    For example, sickle cell you can see on a blood smear   You should also consider that the genetic variations which effect down syndrome (which is a trisomy, adding an extra 21st chromosome) is very different than the genetic variation leading to sickle cell disease (which is a point mutation substituting the hydrophilic amino acid glutamate with valine, a very hydrophobic amino acid).   You see the physical \"syndromic\" commonalities with other trisomies as well, like  edwards (trisomy 18)and pataus (trisomy 13) syndrome.   Its the diff btw adding an ENTIRE CHROMOSOME vs just a point mutation on a strand of dna","labels":0,"seconds_difference":218.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"y304qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?","c_root_id_A":"is8njrb","c_root_id_B":"is8nax4","created_at_utc_A":1665714631,"created_at_utc_B":1665714517,"score_A":422,"score_B":137,"human_ref_A":"The general phenomenon you're asking about is called dispersion. There is a small amount of dispersion for sound waves in free air, but it's not much at all in the normal regime. It gets stronger in the ultrasound and for sounds that are loud enough to start seeing nonlinear effects.  Since most sounds we hear are broadband, the effect is less that some sounds travel faster than others, and more that a sound will get smeared out a bit so that different frequencies of the original sound will arrive at slightly different times.","human_ref_B":"All sounds travel at the speed of sound, but the speed of sound is not a singular speed.    Instead, the speed changes with temperature, pressure, density, and other variables.  Related to the items there, changing the medium (what the sound moves through) changes the speed of sound.  The speed of sound is faster in a solid than a liquid, and liquid than a gas.  The reason is the molecules are closer together and can more quickly interact with each other.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":114.0,"score_ratio":3.0802919708}
{"post_id":"y304qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?","c_root_id_A":"is9v2oo","c_root_id_B":"is9k3ih","created_at_utc_A":1665745248,"created_at_utc_B":1665736215,"score_A":9,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"The speed of sound depends on the medium that the sound is traveling through.  The speed of sound is much faster in water than air.  The speed of sound is faster in warm air than it is in colder air.  Within the same medium though, the speed of sound is constant, regardless of frequency or amplitude.","human_ref_B":"As I understand it, no. Sound is a vibration, and vibrations will propagate at a fixed rate depending on the medium they're travelling through.     Some frequencies do travel better in different mediums. For example the high-pitched noises whales and dolphins make can travel much further underwater than they do in air.   The high pitched sounds don't travel faster than other deeper noises though, they just don't disperse as quickly.   Loudness is also a factor (obviously). The bigger the vibration, the longer it takes to disperse.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9033.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"y304qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?","c_root_id_A":"is9v2oo","c_root_id_B":"is9jbya","created_at_utc_A":1665745248,"created_at_utc_B":1665735542,"score_A":9,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"The speed of sound depends on the medium that the sound is traveling through.  The speed of sound is much faster in water than air.  The speed of sound is faster in warm air than it is in colder air.  Within the same medium though, the speed of sound is constant, regardless of frequency or amplitude.","human_ref_B":"Speed of sound is constant in a medium with constant parameters, but not all wave travel as far, there are exception when goind through solids, where some forms travel faster than other, but the general principle remains the same.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9706.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"y304qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?","c_root_id_A":"isae8y2","c_root_id_B":"is9k3ih","created_at_utc_A":1665755379,"created_at_utc_B":1665736215,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Mars has two sound speeds.  https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/feature\/jpl\/what-sounds-captured-by-nasa-s-perseverance-rover-reveal-about-mars\/  On Earth, sounds typically travel at 767 mph (343 meters per second). But on Mars, low-pitched sounds travel at about 537 mph (240 meters per second), while higher-pitched sounds move at 559 mph (250 meters per second).","human_ref_B":"As I understand it, no. Sound is a vibration, and vibrations will propagate at a fixed rate depending on the medium they're travelling through.     Some frequencies do travel better in different mediums. For example the high-pitched noises whales and dolphins make can travel much further underwater than they do in air.   The high pitched sounds don't travel faster than other deeper noises though, they just don't disperse as quickly.   Loudness is also a factor (obviously). The bigger the vibration, the longer it takes to disperse.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":19164.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"y304qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?","c_root_id_A":"is9jbya","c_root_id_B":"isae8y2","created_at_utc_A":1665735542,"created_at_utc_B":1665755379,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Speed of sound is constant in a medium with constant parameters, but not all wave travel as far, there are exception when goind through solids, where some forms travel faster than other, but the general principle remains the same.","human_ref_B":"Mars has two sound speeds.  https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/feature\/jpl\/what-sounds-captured-by-nasa-s-perseverance-rover-reveal-about-mars\/  On Earth, sounds typically travel at 767 mph (343 meters per second). But on Mars, low-pitched sounds travel at about 537 mph (240 meters per second), while higher-pitched sounds move at 559 mph (250 meters per second).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19837.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"y304qu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?","c_root_id_A":"is9jbya","c_root_id_B":"is9k3ih","created_at_utc_A":1665735542,"created_at_utc_B":1665736215,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Speed of sound is constant in a medium with constant parameters, but not all wave travel as far, there are exception when goind through solids, where some forms travel faster than other, but the general principle remains the same.","human_ref_B":"As I understand it, no. Sound is a vibration, and vibrations will propagate at a fixed rate depending on the medium they're travelling through.     Some frequencies do travel better in different mediums. For example the high-pitched noises whales and dolphins make can travel much further underwater than they do in air.   The high pitched sounds don't travel faster than other deeper noises though, they just don't disperse as quickly.   Loudness is also a factor (obviously). The bigger the vibration, the longer it takes to disperse.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":673.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"oxu7tx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"How did the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal affect the local ecosystem in their area?","c_root_id_A":"h7pnlvo","c_root_id_B":"h7pjsjp","created_at_utc_A":1628104091,"created_at_utc_B":1628102503,"score_A":2234,"score_B":530,"human_ref_A":"Panama uses locks to go uphill to a man-made freshwater lake and then back down. It isn't as drastic effect as the Suez.  The Suez is actually making the water saltier on northern Egypt's coast and is killing native species around there and some species from the Red Sea are crossing over.","human_ref_B":"The Suez Canal is an open cut between the Mediterranean and Red Seas, there are no locks or barriers of any kind. Therefore several species have been able to cross between them.  The Panama Canal on the other hand contains numerous locks, making it much more difficult for anything to cross over it.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1588.0,"score_ratio":4.2150943396}
{"post_id":"oxu7tx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"How did the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal affect the local ecosystem in their area?","c_root_id_A":"h7ouaav","c_root_id_B":"h7pnlvo","created_at_utc_A":1628092042,"created_at_utc_B":1628104091,"score_A":392,"score_B":2234,"human_ref_A":"Panama canal.  Daming of the Chagres River.  Now the river exits both into the Caribbean and Pacific oceans.    One of the dams created the Gatun lake.*removed* On that lake is an island.  Barro Colorado Island the Smithsonian institute is there.  Lots of interesting stuff has been learned here.  Eco tourism loves the jungles around the lake.","human_ref_B":"Panama uses locks to go uphill to a man-made freshwater lake and then back down. It isn't as drastic effect as the Suez.  The Suez is actually making the water saltier on northern Egypt's coast and is killing native species around there and some species from the Red Sea are crossing over.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12049.0,"score_ratio":5.6989795918}
{"post_id":"oxu7tx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"How did the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal affect the local ecosystem in their area?","c_root_id_A":"h7ouaav","c_root_id_B":"h7pjsjp","created_at_utc_A":1628092042,"created_at_utc_B":1628102503,"score_A":392,"score_B":530,"human_ref_A":"Panama canal.  Daming of the Chagres River.  Now the river exits both into the Caribbean and Pacific oceans.    One of the dams created the Gatun lake.*removed* On that lake is an island.  Barro Colorado Island the Smithsonian institute is there.  Lots of interesting stuff has been learned here.  Eco tourism loves the jungles around the lake.","human_ref_B":"The Suez Canal is an open cut between the Mediterranean and Red Seas, there are no locks or barriers of any kind. Therefore several species have been able to cross between them.  The Panama Canal on the other hand contains numerous locks, making it much more difficult for anything to cross over it.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10461.0,"score_ratio":1.3520408163}
{"post_id":"oxu7tx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.96,"history":"How did the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal affect the local ecosystem in their area?","c_root_id_A":"h7r09gt","c_root_id_B":"h7qhh51","created_at_utc_A":1628125841,"created_at_utc_B":1628116977,"score_A":59,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"The not the canal itself, but when the US took over the Panama canal project they sent armies of workers out into the swamps to kill mosquitoes. They basically covered all the open water with a layer of oil and they were actually quite successful in eradicating essentially all mosquitoes in the canal zone. I can't imagine any of that was good for the local ecosystems.","human_ref_B":"It's also worth looking into the multiple attempts to build the canals and how they had to battle with the constant rain\/mud, built man made lakes, and tried to eradicate the mosquitoes.  I found the behind the bastards podcast on panama worth a listen as well, but that focuses more on the political, economic, and conquest influences","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8864.0,"score_ratio":3.6875}
{"post_id":"g6ulf","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":1.0,"history":"Does the moon's gravity effect the Earth's mantle in \r a similar way that it effects the tides? The recent situation in Japan got me thinking... If the gravitational pull of the moon has the power to shift billions of cubic meters of water on the Earth's surface, what's it doing to the magma beneath the Earth's crust? Since the plates are essentially huge, overlapping islands floating on a sea of magma, what implications does the moon's gravitation have for seismic activity?","c_root_id_A":"c1lbsfm","c_root_id_B":"c1lchh6","created_at_utc_A":1300502864,"created_at_utc_B":1300515862,"score_A":3,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth_tide","human_ref_B":"The plates are not islands floating on a sea of magma at all, the mantle is solid.  The plates are not floating on magma at all.  The part of the mantle that isn't attached to the crust acts as a fluid, but it is most certainly still a solid.  Only small amounts of magma are generated at the plate boundaries, mid-ocean ridges or subduction zones.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12998.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"1gc4m6","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Is it actually possible to suffer a heart attack from being scared or startled? I just read another Reddit post about a woman who was presumed dead, only to wake up at her funeral, then dying of a heart attack because she was so shocked at the fact that she woke up at her funeral. Is this actually possible? I assume that if you already have a weak heart it's likely, but what if you have a healthy heart? Can you be startled\/scared so badly that it can cause a heart attack?","c_root_id_A":"caitaxm","c_root_id_B":"caisbuh","created_at_utc_A":1371222328,"created_at_utc_B":1371219230,"score_A":229,"score_B":33,"human_ref_A":"As \/u\/eosha said, if there is some underlying coronary artery disease, a sudden elevation of blood pressure or heart rate triggered by a sympathetic surge could be enough to cause a plaque to rupture and cause infarction.  This is also a condition triggered by stress (physiologic or emotional) called Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, and it was first described in Japan. It's named after traditional octopus traps there because the left ventricle dilates and looks like those pots when you do a ventriculogram. These patients present like an acute coronary syndrome and therefore often undergo angiography, and the apex of the heart is usually akinetic (doesn't move properly) with a dilated left ventricle.   Normal left ventricular function: Left image is diastole (filling of the ventricle), right image is systole (the \"squeeze\"). Notice how in the normal LV, there is symmetric contraction of the ventricle.  Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: Again, left side is diastole (normal appearing), but on the right you have ballooning and akenesis of the ventricular apex.","human_ref_B":"Yes. Fear can activate the body's sympathetic nervous system, which controls heart rate and blood pressure, among other things. In extreme cases, or if the circulatory system is already damaged\/weak this can cause stroke, heart attack, etc.  http:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article.cfm?id=scared-to-death-heart-attack","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3098.0,"score_ratio":6.9393939394}
{"post_id":"zzgd7y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Do nerve endings closer to the brain \/ spinal cord take less time to transmit signals because there is less distance to travel? On a related note, do different nerves or nerve endings have greatly different reaction times or time taken to transmit signals irrespective of the distance the signal must travel back to the brain \/ spinal cord?  Is sensitivity of any kind (olfatory, visual, tactile) a measurable paramter between different humans?  What affects the magnitude of sensory input required for a person to detect a new stimulus?","c_root_id_A":"j2cej5s","c_root_id_B":"j2ce9ur","created_at_utc_A":1672463403,"created_at_utc_B":1672463259,"score_A":61,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Yes, it takes longer for information from your toe for example to reach your brain that information from your eye. Your brain actually synchronizes all those inputs and so there's a delay for you and the information which got to your brain first has to \"wait\" to get synced with the one which got there last. You're always living slightly in the past.","human_ref_B":"Semi related answer, yes I know there is a noticable time delay for sending signals for the brain to your feet\/hands, something in the range of 50-100ms. I assume that since it's an actual electrical signal travelling through the nerves, further things take longer.   But the exciting thing is, that is way slower than the speed of a signal through a wire. So for someone with a prosthetic leg, if you get the signals from the brain stem and send them through wires (or other digital means) to muscles\/actuators in a robot leg, you would make faster reflexes and response times.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":144.0,"score_ratio":12.2}
{"post_id":"zzgd7y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Do nerve endings closer to the brain \/ spinal cord take less time to transmit signals because there is less distance to travel? On a related note, do different nerves or nerve endings have greatly different reaction times or time taken to transmit signals irrespective of the distance the signal must travel back to the brain \/ spinal cord?  Is sensitivity of any kind (olfatory, visual, tactile) a measurable paramter between different humans?  What affects the magnitude of sensory input required for a person to detect a new stimulus?","c_root_id_A":"j2ce9ur","c_root_id_B":"j2ceo3p","created_at_utc_A":1672463259,"created_at_utc_B":1672463482,"score_A":5,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"Semi related answer, yes I know there is a noticable time delay for sending signals for the brain to your feet\/hands, something in the range of 50-100ms. I assume that since it's an actual electrical signal travelling through the nerves, further things take longer.   But the exciting thing is, that is way slower than the speed of a signal through a wire. So for someone with a prosthetic leg, if you get the signals from the brain stem and send them through wires (or other digital means) to muscles\/actuators in a robot leg, you would make faster reflexes and response times.","human_ref_B":"This depends on the sensation being transmitted to the brain. Some nerves travel at hundreds of metres per second (A-delta fibres), others travel at only 2 m\/s (C-fibres).  The distance to the brain will impact the time taken for the sensation to be delivered to the brain. But it\u2019s usually imperceptible because the signals are so quick.  Nociception (noxious stimulus) carried by C-fibres, are integrated in the thalamus and modulated by pro and anti-nociceptive areas of the brain, which can delay your perception of pain.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":223.0,"score_ratio":4.8}
{"post_id":"utcsi7","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.74,"history":"Why do modern depictions seem to show flying dinosaurs having webbed skin wings instead of feathered wings?","c_root_id_A":"i99864w","c_root_id_B":"i9986jk","created_at_utc_A":1652998188,"created_at_utc_B":1652998194,"score_A":15,"score_B":107,"human_ref_A":"Are you talking about pterosaurs? If so, they are not in fact dinosaurs although they lived and died around the same time as dinosaurs. As far as I know, pterosaurs were not feathered.","human_ref_B":"Flying dinosaurs are also called birds, and they're definitely depicted with feathered wings. You may be thinking of pterosaurs which *were not dinosaurs* but an entirely separate clade of reptiles, branched from common archosaur ancestors, that were the earliest known vertebrates to evolve flight, and did so completely separately from the later flying dinosaurs (aka birds). The structure of their wing is very different from bird wings.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6.0,"score_ratio":7.1333333333}
{"post_id":"31452p","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"If caterpillars turn to \"soup\" during metamorphosis, how can butterflies possibly remember what they learned as caterpillars? I stumbled upon this [article]( http:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2008\/03\/080304200858.htm) claiming that some butterflies can remember things they have learned as caterpillars. At the same time it states that the caterpillar turns into \"soup\" and that the whole nervous system is rearranged during metamorphosis. How is this possible? Where are those memories physically stored without corrupting? I was under  the impression that memory was such a fragile thing that even small changes or damages to the neuronal structure (e.g. head traumata) would cause information to get lost.","c_root_id_A":"cpyjf8j","c_root_id_B":"cpyiodz","created_at_utc_A":1427944943,"created_at_utc_B":1427943361,"score_A":378,"score_B":82,"human_ref_A":"From this article:  >*We know that a larva releases enzymes that break down many of its tissues into their constituent proteins. Textbooks will commonly talk about the insect dissolving into a kind of \u201csoup\u201d, but that\u2019s not entirely accurate. Some organs stay intact. Others, like muscles, break down into clumps of cells that can be re-used, like a Lego sculpture decomposing into bricks. And some cells create imaginal discs\u2014structures that produce adult body parts. There\u2019s a pair for the antennae, a pair for the eyes, one for each leg and wing, and so on. So if the pupa contains a soup, it\u2019s an organised broth full of chunky bits.*  Basically, the caterpillar doesn't completely dissolve away. Instead, the caterpillar breaks down certain tissues and reconstitutes the localized pools of proteins that result into the adult form.  The above article links to this video with 3D scans of within the chrysalis, where you can see that the main structures are still in tact.","human_ref_B":"I think you may have misread the article. It claims that the idea of retained memory actually refutes the idea that caterpillars are turned to \"soup\". Says right here, \"it challenges a broadly-held view of metamorphosis -- that the larva essentially turns to soup and its components are entirely rebuilt as a butterfly\". That's in paragraph 3 of the article if you want to find it yourself. I'm nowhere near qualified to speak on the biology aspect of this, but I hope pointing that out at least helped!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1582.0,"score_ratio":4.6097560976}
{"post_id":"zydijg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"How old is the oldest bone that isn\u2019t a fossil? Is there a limit for how long bones are preserved without becoming fossilised?","c_root_id_A":"j2bcqhz","c_root_id_B":"j27szcw","created_at_utc_A":1672445614,"created_at_utc_B":1672383057,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Things that aren't yet fossilized are usually referred to as \"subfossils\" , which is probably how you want to search for this information  Anyway, I did some research and here's some things I found  This paper describes camel bones from about 3 million years ago on Ellesmere Island.  They are embedded in layers of leaf and moss that are described as \"subfossil\" and the bones themselves were fresh enough to allow the removal of significant collagen for analysis.  There have been reports of even older collagen\/soft tissue, but that's in bones that have clearly been fossilized.  I'm guessing these bones are closer to what you are talking about, given the context of their preservation.    Here's a similar study from the same area looking at beaver teeth and local vegetation, comparing isotope ratios to see what beavers were eating.  So we are talking about plant and animal remains that still have organic material that isn't too heavily modified.    Finally, here's a paper that managed to snag _DNA_ from mammoth teeth slightly more than a million years old.  That's less than the previous studies, but DNA is more fragile than collagen, so we are talking better preserved specimens here.  Anyway, the answer is _probably_ \"A few million years, and you find them in frozen sediments\"  Although who knows what might be frozen under the ice at the bottom of Antarctica","human_ref_B":"Not bones but even better. Scientists found soft tissue from dinosaurs that was 75 million years old.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":62557.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"zydijg","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"How old is the oldest bone that isn\u2019t a fossil? Is there a limit for how long bones are preserved without becoming fossilised?","c_root_id_A":"j2bcqhz","c_root_id_B":"j27z728","created_at_utc_A":1672445614,"created_at_utc_B":1672387632,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Things that aren't yet fossilized are usually referred to as \"subfossils\" , which is probably how you want to search for this information  Anyway, I did some research and here's some things I found  This paper describes camel bones from about 3 million years ago on Ellesmere Island.  They are embedded in layers of leaf and moss that are described as \"subfossil\" and the bones themselves were fresh enough to allow the removal of significant collagen for analysis.  There have been reports of even older collagen\/soft tissue, but that's in bones that have clearly been fossilized.  I'm guessing these bones are closer to what you are talking about, given the context of their preservation.    Here's a similar study from the same area looking at beaver teeth and local vegetation, comparing isotope ratios to see what beavers were eating.  So we are talking about plant and animal remains that still have organic material that isn't too heavily modified.    Finally, here's a paper that managed to snag _DNA_ from mammoth teeth slightly more than a million years old.  That's less than the previous studies, but DNA is more fragile than collagen, so we are talking better preserved specimens here.  Anyway, the answer is _probably_ \"A few million years, and you find them in frozen sediments\"  Although who knows what might be frozen under the ice at the bottom of Antarctica","human_ref_B":"Can't speak for bone, but the bases of trees in a forest which is drowned due to sea level rise can remain as wood for many thousands of years. I suspect that in waterlogged but not anaerobic conditions the same would be true of bone.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":57982.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmmfr7i","c_root_id_B":"hmm8d29","created_at_utc_A":1638245446,"created_at_utc_B":1638242008,"score_A":1020,"score_B":139,"human_ref_A":"Spike protein is on the outside of the virus and that is the first thing that the body will see. The majority of antibodies from natural infection are against the spike protein, too. These are the only antibodies that can clear a virus prior to replication. Antibodies to the other functional proteins like the RdRp, and proteases, 3CLpro and PLpro, can only clear the virus once replication has begun.","human_ref_B":"I\u2019m just a non-medical person with a BS in chemistry, but my understanding is this: Spike can only mutate so much before it\u2019s useless. Every mutation changes its shape; eventually it will no longer fit the ACE-2 receptor SARS-CoV-2 uses to gain entry into cells.   Imagine trying to use a badly made key for your front door, or even a key for a different lock. You probably won\u2019t have much luck.   Do you have a source on spike being the \u201cmost mutable\u201d protein? I\u2019d be interested in reading it.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3438.0,"score_ratio":7.3381294964}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmmfr7i","c_root_id_B":"hmm7rvr","created_at_utc_A":1638245446,"created_at_utc_B":1638241741,"score_A":1020,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"Spike protein is on the outside of the virus and that is the first thing that the body will see. The majority of antibodies from natural infection are against the spike protein, too. These are the only antibodies that can clear a virus prior to replication. Antibodies to the other functional proteins like the RdRp, and proteases, 3CLpro and PLpro, can only clear the virus once replication has begun.","human_ref_B":"One of the reasons that they chose to target the spike proteins is simply that it is easier. Those proteins are easily accessed and easy for the body to produce in mass. The other reason is that the spike proteins, although mutable, cannot mutate too far without making the virus particles less virulent. I think theory was, and I do remember hearing a spokesman say this, that in order for the virus to mutate in such a way as to make the vaccine less effective it would also have to be less communicable. Unfortunately it seems that they weren't entirely right about that.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3705.0,"score_ratio":16.7213114754}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmmc8o3","c_root_id_B":"hmmfr7i","created_at_utc_A":1638243786,"created_at_utc_B":1638245446,"score_A":55,"score_B":1020,"human_ref_A":"The spike protein is the \"functional\" protein of the virus. It's what allows entry into the cell. Therefore if you can neutralize it, you can stop the virus from infecting cells. It was somewhat of a gamble to only target spike with the vaccines, but it paid off. The evidence is pretty clear now that the vaccines provide better immunity than natural infection. Likely because they solely focus on spike (and don't have to contend with immune suppression by the active virus).   It is unlikely that the vaccines are driving the spread of new mutants. It's possible but I would need to see evidence. As far as I know there is none","human_ref_B":"Spike protein is on the outside of the virus and that is the first thing that the body will see. The majority of antibodies from natural infection are against the spike protein, too. These are the only antibodies that can clear a virus prior to replication. Antibodies to the other functional proteins like the RdRp, and proteases, 3CLpro and PLpro, can only clear the virus once replication has begun.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1660.0,"score_ratio":18.5454545455}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmmfr7i","c_root_id_B":"hmmd0k5","created_at_utc_A":1638245446,"created_at_utc_B":1638244149,"score_A":1020,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Spike protein is on the outside of the virus and that is the first thing that the body will see. The majority of antibodies from natural infection are against the spike protein, too. These are the only antibodies that can clear a virus prior to replication. Antibodies to the other functional proteins like the RdRp, and proteases, 3CLpro and PLpro, can only clear the virus once replication has begun.","human_ref_B":"A big part is simply that so much of the work had already been done. The vaccine development that had been done for SARS and MERS based on coronavirus spike proteins meant that adapting those sequences for COVID-19 was almost trivial. Redoing that development work for another viral protein would have taken a bunch of time and the goal was to get something out the door as quickly as possible.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1297.0,"score_ratio":68.0}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmmfr7i","c_root_id_B":"hmmbvam","created_at_utc_A":1638245446,"created_at_utc_B":1638243614,"score_A":1020,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Spike protein is on the outside of the virus and that is the first thing that the body will see. The majority of antibodies from natural infection are against the spike protein, too. These are the only antibodies that can clear a virus prior to replication. Antibodies to the other functional proteins like the RdRp, and proteases, 3CLpro and PLpro, can only clear the virus once replication has begun.","human_ref_B":"The primary reason the spike protein is the target for the vaccine is because in order for the vaccine to be maximally effective, it needs to target something on the virus which is critical for the virus life cycle.  By targeting the spike protein (which is present on the surface of the virus), the vaccine can induce your immune system to produce antibodies that target and bind to the spike protein on the virus itself.  When this happens the spike protein can't do its \"job\" (binding to cells and fusing with them), thereby inactivating the virus and preventing infections.  This is what is known as a \"neutralizing antibody\". Due to the structure of the virus, there really isn't any other target on the virus which would serve this function, other than the spike protein.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1832.0,"score_ratio":127.5}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmm7rvr","c_root_id_B":"hmm8d29","created_at_utc_A":1638241741,"created_at_utc_B":1638242008,"score_A":61,"score_B":139,"human_ref_A":"One of the reasons that they chose to target the spike proteins is simply that it is easier. Those proteins are easily accessed and easy for the body to produce in mass. The other reason is that the spike proteins, although mutable, cannot mutate too far without making the virus particles less virulent. I think theory was, and I do remember hearing a spokesman say this, that in order for the virus to mutate in such a way as to make the vaccine less effective it would also have to be less communicable. Unfortunately it seems that they weren't entirely right about that.","human_ref_B":"I\u2019m just a non-medical person with a BS in chemistry, but my understanding is this: Spike can only mutate so much before it\u2019s useless. Every mutation changes its shape; eventually it will no longer fit the ACE-2 receptor SARS-CoV-2 uses to gain entry into cells.   Imagine trying to use a badly made key for your front door, or even a key for a different lock. You probably won\u2019t have much luck.   Do you have a source on spike being the \u201cmost mutable\u201d protein? I\u2019d be interested in reading it.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":267.0,"score_ratio":2.2786885246}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmm7rvr","c_root_id_B":"hmnpy1v","created_at_utc_A":1638241741,"created_at_utc_B":1638278025,"score_A":61,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"One of the reasons that they chose to target the spike proteins is simply that it is easier. Those proteins are easily accessed and easy for the body to produce in mass. The other reason is that the spike proteins, although mutable, cannot mutate too far without making the virus particles less virulent. I think theory was, and I do remember hearing a spokesman say this, that in order for the virus to mutate in such a way as to make the vaccine less effective it would also have to be less communicable. Unfortunately it seems that they weren't entirely right about that.","human_ref_B":"**1. Why would they target the most mutable part of the virus?**  You target the most immunogenic and functional part of the virus. You target the most immunogenic part of the virus because that's what's going to give you the best immune response. The spike protein is so immunogenic because it's on the outside of the virus, and it's pretty exposed. It's easy for your immune system to \"see\" it.  You target the functional part too. The spike protein is necessary for viral entry into host cells. This means that blocking a spike protein directly impacts a viral particle's ability to enter a cell.  Taken together, these two aspects are, in part, the reason that the spike protein *is* mutable in the first place. Firstly, antibodies recognising spike proteins provide a selection pressure for mutation. That means that the very properties that mean that the spike protein is a good vaccine target also contribute to it having a higher mutation rate. Secondly, viruses often evolve in such a way that high mutability is a survival strategy. The same thing is true for cold viruses and flu viruses. The same principle occurs in bacteria and eukaryotic pathogens, albeit through different metabolic pathways.  The take away point here is that *those parts of a pathogen which are most visible to the immune system often have evolved to be the most variable.* It's not planned obsolescence when it's seasonal flu, so it isn't planned obsolescence now.  **2. Why does natural immunity have less selection pressure?**  Where is this notion from? How have you come to the conclusion that natural immunity has less selection pressure? The Omicron variant appears to have come from a part of the world with relatively low rates of vaccination.  I could speculate and say that it may be because vaccines generate antibodies which focus on a more limited repertoire of epitopes than a natural infection, so a vaccine may create a higher mutation pressure at a specific epitope. That said, I don't know if this notion is borne out of the data.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":36284.0,"score_ratio":1.0491803279}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmnpy1v","c_root_id_B":"hmmc8o3","created_at_utc_A":1638278025,"created_at_utc_B":1638243786,"score_A":64,"score_B":55,"human_ref_A":"**1. Why would they target the most mutable part of the virus?**  You target the most immunogenic and functional part of the virus. You target the most immunogenic part of the virus because that's what's going to give you the best immune response. The spike protein is so immunogenic because it's on the outside of the virus, and it's pretty exposed. It's easy for your immune system to \"see\" it.  You target the functional part too. The spike protein is necessary for viral entry into host cells. This means that blocking a spike protein directly impacts a viral particle's ability to enter a cell.  Taken together, these two aspects are, in part, the reason that the spike protein *is* mutable in the first place. Firstly, antibodies recognising spike proteins provide a selection pressure for mutation. That means that the very properties that mean that the spike protein is a good vaccine target also contribute to it having a higher mutation rate. Secondly, viruses often evolve in such a way that high mutability is a survival strategy. The same thing is true for cold viruses and flu viruses. The same principle occurs in bacteria and eukaryotic pathogens, albeit through different metabolic pathways.  The take away point here is that *those parts of a pathogen which are most visible to the immune system often have evolved to be the most variable.* It's not planned obsolescence when it's seasonal flu, so it isn't planned obsolescence now.  **2. Why does natural immunity have less selection pressure?**  Where is this notion from? How have you come to the conclusion that natural immunity has less selection pressure? The Omicron variant appears to have come from a part of the world with relatively low rates of vaccination.  I could speculate and say that it may be because vaccines generate antibodies which focus on a more limited repertoire of epitopes than a natural infection, so a vaccine may create a higher mutation pressure at a specific epitope. That said, I don't know if this notion is borne out of the data.","human_ref_B":"The spike protein is the \"functional\" protein of the virus. It's what allows entry into the cell. Therefore if you can neutralize it, you can stop the virus from infecting cells. It was somewhat of a gamble to only target spike with the vaccines, but it paid off. The evidence is pretty clear now that the vaccines provide better immunity than natural infection. Likely because they solely focus on spike (and don't have to contend with immune suppression by the active virus).   It is unlikely that the vaccines are driving the spread of new mutants. It's possible but I would need to see evidence. As far as I know there is none","labels":1,"seconds_difference":34239.0,"score_ratio":1.1636363636}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmnpy1v","c_root_id_B":"hmmd0k5","created_at_utc_A":1638278025,"created_at_utc_B":1638244149,"score_A":64,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"**1. Why would they target the most mutable part of the virus?**  You target the most immunogenic and functional part of the virus. You target the most immunogenic part of the virus because that's what's going to give you the best immune response. The spike protein is so immunogenic because it's on the outside of the virus, and it's pretty exposed. It's easy for your immune system to \"see\" it.  You target the functional part too. The spike protein is necessary for viral entry into host cells. This means that blocking a spike protein directly impacts a viral particle's ability to enter a cell.  Taken together, these two aspects are, in part, the reason that the spike protein *is* mutable in the first place. Firstly, antibodies recognising spike proteins provide a selection pressure for mutation. That means that the very properties that mean that the spike protein is a good vaccine target also contribute to it having a higher mutation rate. Secondly, viruses often evolve in such a way that high mutability is a survival strategy. The same thing is true for cold viruses and flu viruses. The same principle occurs in bacteria and eukaryotic pathogens, albeit through different metabolic pathways.  The take away point here is that *those parts of a pathogen which are most visible to the immune system often have evolved to be the most variable.* It's not planned obsolescence when it's seasonal flu, so it isn't planned obsolescence now.  **2. Why does natural immunity have less selection pressure?**  Where is this notion from? How have you come to the conclusion that natural immunity has less selection pressure? The Omicron variant appears to have come from a part of the world with relatively low rates of vaccination.  I could speculate and say that it may be because vaccines generate antibodies which focus on a more limited repertoire of epitopes than a natural infection, so a vaccine may create a higher mutation pressure at a specific epitope. That said, I don't know if this notion is borne out of the data.","human_ref_B":"A big part is simply that so much of the work had already been done. The vaccine development that had been done for SARS and MERS based on coronavirus spike proteins meant that adapting those sequences for COVID-19 was almost trivial. Redoing that development work for another viral protein would have taken a bunch of time and the goal was to get something out the door as quickly as possible.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":33876.0,"score_ratio":4.2666666667}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmmbvam","c_root_id_B":"hmnpy1v","created_at_utc_A":1638243614,"created_at_utc_B":1638278025,"score_A":8,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"The primary reason the spike protein is the target for the vaccine is because in order for the vaccine to be maximally effective, it needs to target something on the virus which is critical for the virus life cycle.  By targeting the spike protein (which is present on the surface of the virus), the vaccine can induce your immune system to produce antibodies that target and bind to the spike protein on the virus itself.  When this happens the spike protein can't do its \"job\" (binding to cells and fusing with them), thereby inactivating the virus and preventing infections.  This is what is known as a \"neutralizing antibody\". Due to the structure of the virus, there really isn't any other target on the virus which would serve this function, other than the spike protein.","human_ref_B":"**1. Why would they target the most mutable part of the virus?**  You target the most immunogenic and functional part of the virus. You target the most immunogenic part of the virus because that's what's going to give you the best immune response. The spike protein is so immunogenic because it's on the outside of the virus, and it's pretty exposed. It's easy for your immune system to \"see\" it.  You target the functional part too. The spike protein is necessary for viral entry into host cells. This means that blocking a spike protein directly impacts a viral particle's ability to enter a cell.  Taken together, these two aspects are, in part, the reason that the spike protein *is* mutable in the first place. Firstly, antibodies recognising spike proteins provide a selection pressure for mutation. That means that the very properties that mean that the spike protein is a good vaccine target also contribute to it having a higher mutation rate. Secondly, viruses often evolve in such a way that high mutability is a survival strategy. The same thing is true for cold viruses and flu viruses. The same principle occurs in bacteria and eukaryotic pathogens, albeit through different metabolic pathways.  The take away point here is that *those parts of a pathogen which are most visible to the immune system often have evolved to be the most variable.* It's not planned obsolescence when it's seasonal flu, so it isn't planned obsolescence now.  **2. Why does natural immunity have less selection pressure?**  Where is this notion from? How have you come to the conclusion that natural immunity has less selection pressure? The Omicron variant appears to have come from a part of the world with relatively low rates of vaccination.  I could speculate and say that it may be because vaccines generate antibodies which focus on a more limited repertoire of epitopes than a natural infection, so a vaccine may create a higher mutation pressure at a specific epitope. That said, I don't know if this notion is borne out of the data.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":34411.0,"score_ratio":8.0}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmnpy1v","c_root_id_B":"hmmjbok","created_at_utc_A":1638278025,"created_at_utc_B":1638247229,"score_A":64,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"**1. Why would they target the most mutable part of the virus?**  You target the most immunogenic and functional part of the virus. You target the most immunogenic part of the virus because that's what's going to give you the best immune response. The spike protein is so immunogenic because it's on the outside of the virus, and it's pretty exposed. It's easy for your immune system to \"see\" it.  You target the functional part too. The spike protein is necessary for viral entry into host cells. This means that blocking a spike protein directly impacts a viral particle's ability to enter a cell.  Taken together, these two aspects are, in part, the reason that the spike protein *is* mutable in the first place. Firstly, antibodies recognising spike proteins provide a selection pressure for mutation. That means that the very properties that mean that the spike protein is a good vaccine target also contribute to it having a higher mutation rate. Secondly, viruses often evolve in such a way that high mutability is a survival strategy. The same thing is true for cold viruses and flu viruses. The same principle occurs in bacteria and eukaryotic pathogens, albeit through different metabolic pathways.  The take away point here is that *those parts of a pathogen which are most visible to the immune system often have evolved to be the most variable.* It's not planned obsolescence when it's seasonal flu, so it isn't planned obsolescence now.  **2. Why does natural immunity have less selection pressure?**  Where is this notion from? How have you come to the conclusion that natural immunity has less selection pressure? The Omicron variant appears to have come from a part of the world with relatively low rates of vaccination.  I could speculate and say that it may be because vaccines generate antibodies which focus on a more limited repertoire of epitopes than a natural infection, so a vaccine may create a higher mutation pressure at a specific epitope. That said, I don't know if this notion is borne out of the data.","human_ref_B":"You have cause and effect reversed here. The spike protein is a good target because it's key to the virus entering cells and causing infection. You generally want to target something that is essential for the virus's virulence, whether that's entry (COVID-19), exit (influenza), or pathogenicity (toxoids). Targeting this protein has resulted in a selection pressure on the virus, selecting for strains that are especially good at avoiding the antibodies, i.e., those that have mutated spike proteins. These strains come to be prevalent.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":30796.0,"score_ratio":12.8}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmnpy1v","c_root_id_B":"hmnn14s","created_at_utc_A":1638278025,"created_at_utc_B":1638276336,"score_A":64,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"**1. Why would they target the most mutable part of the virus?**  You target the most immunogenic and functional part of the virus. You target the most immunogenic part of the virus because that's what's going to give you the best immune response. The spike protein is so immunogenic because it's on the outside of the virus, and it's pretty exposed. It's easy for your immune system to \"see\" it.  You target the functional part too. The spike protein is necessary for viral entry into host cells. This means that blocking a spike protein directly impacts a viral particle's ability to enter a cell.  Taken together, these two aspects are, in part, the reason that the spike protein *is* mutable in the first place. Firstly, antibodies recognising spike proteins provide a selection pressure for mutation. That means that the very properties that mean that the spike protein is a good vaccine target also contribute to it having a higher mutation rate. Secondly, viruses often evolve in such a way that high mutability is a survival strategy. The same thing is true for cold viruses and flu viruses. The same principle occurs in bacteria and eukaryotic pathogens, albeit through different metabolic pathways.  The take away point here is that *those parts of a pathogen which are most visible to the immune system often have evolved to be the most variable.* It's not planned obsolescence when it's seasonal flu, so it isn't planned obsolescence now.  **2. Why does natural immunity have less selection pressure?**  Where is this notion from? How have you come to the conclusion that natural immunity has less selection pressure? The Omicron variant appears to have come from a part of the world with relatively low rates of vaccination.  I could speculate and say that it may be because vaccines generate antibodies which focus on a more limited repertoire of epitopes than a natural infection, so a vaccine may create a higher mutation pressure at a specific epitope. That said, I don't know if this notion is borne out of the data.","human_ref_B":"Your body has two types of immunity. Antibody based immunity (humoral immunity) and T cell mediated (cell-mediate immunity). The former works by coating viruses in antibodies, which can block their bonding to cells and cause them to be eaten up (called opsonization). The latter works by causing killing infected cells, preventing the virus from replicating.   Antibody based immunities inherently only work on epitopes can be accessed from the outside. The spike protein decorates all coronavirus surfaces and the single most critical protein for binding to target cells. (https:\/\/www.nih.gov\/news-events\/nih-research-matters\/novel-coronavirus-structure-reveals-targets-vaccines-treatments). It sticks out quite a bit so if you wanted to neutralize the virus before it infected cells, this is the target. M is a potential target but less effective since it's underneath the canopy of spike proteins so harder to access.  In contrast, the N protein is inside the cell (N= nucleoplasmid) as it coats the genetic code for SARS. It's NOT exposed outside so antibodies would be ineffective against N protein. You can't touch something inside free-floating viruses. Instead, cell-mediated immunity (cell killing) in this case. (in case you're wondering how, your cells are constantly showing off what it's making to other cells. If it's a normal protein, it doesn't get killed. But if it looks weird like N protein, it triggers cell suicide).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1689.0,"score_ratio":16.0}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmmc8o3","c_root_id_B":"hmmbvam","created_at_utc_A":1638243786,"created_at_utc_B":1638243614,"score_A":55,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"The spike protein is the \"functional\" protein of the virus. It's what allows entry into the cell. Therefore if you can neutralize it, you can stop the virus from infecting cells. It was somewhat of a gamble to only target spike with the vaccines, but it paid off. The evidence is pretty clear now that the vaccines provide better immunity than natural infection. Likely because they solely focus on spike (and don't have to contend with immune suppression by the active virus).   It is unlikely that the vaccines are driving the spread of new mutants. It's possible but I would need to see evidence. As far as I know there is none","human_ref_B":"The primary reason the spike protein is the target for the vaccine is because in order for the vaccine to be maximally effective, it needs to target something on the virus which is critical for the virus life cycle.  By targeting the spike protein (which is present on the surface of the virus), the vaccine can induce your immune system to produce antibodies that target and bind to the spike protein on the virus itself.  When this happens the spike protein can't do its \"job\" (binding to cells and fusing with them), thereby inactivating the virus and preventing infections.  This is what is known as a \"neutralizing antibody\". Due to the structure of the virus, there really isn't any other target on the virus which would serve this function, other than the spike protein.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":172.0,"score_ratio":6.875}
{"post_id":"r5czbw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"Why would vaccines target the spike protein, when it's the most mutable protein in covid? If the spike protein isn't the most mutable, why don't they target multiple proteins? I was scrolling through popular and ran into this post (yeah I know, it's from conspiracy).  Anyway, upon looking at the sources, it seems like future variants of covid will have more variation in the spike protein. Also, it looks like the spike protein had more mutations before vaccines were even accessible yet. As a matter of fact, the N-protein had MORE selective pressure from the presence of natural immunity at the time (because it was the only type of immunity) and STILL was less mutable than the spike protein. And now, the spike protein is mutating even MORE with the vaccine. Could I be looking at the article incorrectly? It's like the vaccine is doomed to some (un)planned obsolescence when using the spike protein.  So I have two questions, why would they select the most mutating protein, and why would the selective pressures from natural immunity not be as strong?","c_root_id_A":"hmmbvam","c_root_id_B":"hmmd0k5","created_at_utc_A":1638243614,"created_at_utc_B":1638244149,"score_A":8,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"The primary reason the spike protein is the target for the vaccine is because in order for the vaccine to be maximally effective, it needs to target something on the virus which is critical for the virus life cycle.  By targeting the spike protein (which is present on the surface of the virus), the vaccine can induce your immune system to produce antibodies that target and bind to the spike protein on the virus itself.  When this happens the spike protein can't do its \"job\" (binding to cells and fusing with them), thereby inactivating the virus and preventing infections.  This is what is known as a \"neutralizing antibody\". Due to the structure of the virus, there really isn't any other target on the virus which would serve this function, other than the spike protein.","human_ref_B":"A big part is simply that so much of the work had already been done. The vaccine development that had been done for SARS and MERS based on coronavirus spike proteins meant that adapting those sequences for COVID-19 was almost trivial. Redoing that development work for another viral protein would have taken a bunch of time and the goal was to get something out the door as quickly as possible.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":535.0,"score_ratio":1.875}
{"post_id":"he1prs","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.73,"history":"Has there ever been a moment in time where the human population on Earth was lower than previously? Is the birthrate enough to outnumber the deaths of wars and pandemics? Further, does this fluctuation have any adverse effects? Given the finite size of this planet, would there be an ideal population size? I'm sure there's plenty of room with how we are currently building upward and the eventuality of humans developing outward into the ocean. Before those next advancements, I'm curious.     These questions stem from recently reading discussions involving global fertility rates, global temperature increases, the continued spread of disease, and an alleged increase in deaths resulting from a natural disaster. Thanks in advance!      Note: Repeat submission due to not flairing the post, as per the rules. Anthropology seems to fit, and I'm curious what folks who work in that field have to say in response to these questions.","c_root_id_A":"fvpnegc","c_root_id_B":"fvpdpgx","created_at_utc_A":1592886814,"created_at_utc_B":1592880460,"score_A":13,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"It's believed that, about 70,000 years ago, the Toba volcanic eruption caused a dramatic climate disruption that wiped out much of the human population, reducing the total number to 3000 to 10,000, producing a genetic bottleneck.","human_ref_B":"There are plenty of examples in our past where total population has gone down due to famine, disease, or war. Both World Wars led to significant decreases in total population. The following prosperity led to population recovery and eventually population increase.  Carrying capacity is the term used to express the maximum number of organisms an environment can sustain. Limiting factors can be as simple as a limited amount of food or a buildup of toxins in the local environment that either kills the living organisms or reduces their reproduction rate to below zero. More complex social interactions can also limit carrying capacity. There were some experiments conducted on overcrowding in a rat colony. If I recall correctly, the only limited resource was space. They ended up cannibalizing each other.  The way a population reacts when it exceeds carrying capacity is a function of the type of limiting factor. Toxin buildup or famine leads to large swings in total population. These are exponential growth curves. Excellent examples of this are the mouse explosions in Australia and locust swarms in Africa. Both are driven by wet conditions leading to bumper crops followed by population explosions and eventually population crashes once the food runs out.  If the mechanism is more subtle, the population may have small oscillations around the maximum. This is a logistic growth curve, typical of larger mammalian species with relative low reproductive rates.  Correction - the population decreases after the wars were national, not worldwide. The growth rate did decrease worldwide. Where they used to predict uncontrolled growth, the latest research shows the reproductive rate dropping below replacement ate as countries become industrialized. The long-term expectation is that exponential growth will not continue and our population will level off or even drop over time.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6354.0,"score_ratio":1.625}
{"post_id":"v90xzo","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Can Maillard reaction happen by boiling food in conditions that raises water's boiling point (e.g. salted water or high atmospheric pressure)?","c_root_id_A":"ibue7s5","c_root_id_B":"ibuexhi","created_at_utc_A":1654861139,"created_at_utc_B":1654861595,"score_A":7,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Atmospheric pressure? No.  The temperatures you'd need would necessitate too much pressure. If you look at the vapor pressure of water vs. temperature for something like 400 F (ca. 200 C), you'd be looking at a pressure of greater that 40 atmospheres. So either you've severely heated a body of water at great depth on Earth - like a undersea volcano vent or you're cooking on Venus - which is already at great temperature. Could you make a reactor capable of those temps\/pressures? Sure, but that's a lot of engineering for lunch.  No amount of salt is capable of raising the BP of water to those temperatures either. Even if it were, the salt itself would render the food inedible.  For instance, even a 5 wt% salt solution raises the bp of water by less than 1 C.   I'm also skeptical that you'd get Maillard reactions in any boiling water environment since (a) the mechanisms involve dehydration and (b) are reversible.  The presence of a large amount of water would tend to favor the starting materials in the equilibrium and the overall loss of water involved in the chemistry is similarly disfavored.","human_ref_B":"As I understand you can achieve Maillard reactions in a pressure cooker by adding baking soda to change the ph value. The topic is discussed in an older reddit thread https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/instantpot\/comments\/8n9v65\/maillard_reaction_inside_a_pressure_cooker\/?utm_medium=android_app&utm_source=share","labels":0,"seconds_difference":456.0,"score_ratio":2.1428571429}
{"post_id":"3ie9t0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"Why do automatic reflexes like blinking and swallowing 'pause' when you think about them? And how does this work biologically?","c_root_id_A":"cug2irl","c_root_id_B":"cug0zdv","created_at_utc_A":1440578750,"created_at_utc_B":1440572774,"score_A":37,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I don't know the biological side of this, but I can talk a bit about the psychological side.  It has a lot to do with attention. If you don't give something attention, like a reflex, it will work on its own quickly and efficiently. If you start paying attention to them, you start to gain more control over them. Just like when you're driving or walking or eating, you don't really always pay attention to what you're doing yet it's still quick and efficient. The moment you start to pay conscious attention, you slow down and you might even do something wrong, but you also have more say in what happens.  There's usually a tradeoff between doing something *efficiently* or doing something *consciously*.","human_ref_B":"I think I can give a basic explanation. I'm sure someone will fill in the rest.   Certain autonomic actions can be controlled somatically (like your muscles are controlled somatically). When you begin to think about moving those autonomic functions, you have already engaged the action planning portion of your brain, which has higher order over the automatic movements of blinking and breathing. If you just think about blinking, but then don't consciously engage your palpebral muscles, then you will not blink until your blink reflex engages. Just by think about blinking you have engaged your higher order action planning and disengaged your autonomic function.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5976.0,"score_ratio":12.3333333333}
{"post_id":"3ie9t0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"Why do automatic reflexes like blinking and swallowing 'pause' when you think about them? And how does this work biologically?","c_root_id_A":"cug0zdv","c_root_id_B":"cug4fe4","created_at_utc_A":1440572774,"created_at_utc_B":1440586738,"score_A":3,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"I think I can give a basic explanation. I'm sure someone will fill in the rest.   Certain autonomic actions can be controlled somatically (like your muscles are controlled somatically). When you begin to think about moving those autonomic functions, you have already engaged the action planning portion of your brain, which has higher order over the automatic movements of blinking and breathing. If you just think about blinking, but then don't consciously engage your palpebral muscles, then you will not blink until your blink reflex engages. Just by think about blinking you have engaged your higher order action planning and disengaged your autonomic function.","human_ref_B":"Both blinking and Swallowing are not strictly autonomic. Swallowing is partially autonomic, ie the control of your esophageal sphincter, however the actual control of swallowing is somatic, your brain is just able to control it without you directly thinking about it (much like how you walk without having to think about contracting each individual muscle). This is the same with blinking, the nerves are somatic, you are able to consciously control them, though there would be autonomic nerves influencing other things in the eyes. Autonomic functions are this such as the contraction\/dilation of blood vessels, other smooth muscle control, control of heart rate, digestion, which, although you can influence them with conscious actions like eating, exercising or speeding up your breathing, you have no direct conscious control over them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13964.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"dwgg4g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.74,"history":"How did the spread of the Black Plague die down? So I know the plague was spread by rats but how did it get to such low rates and how long did it take to die down?","c_root_id_A":"f7jvkci","c_root_id_B":"f7jo044","created_at_utc_A":1573787594,"created_at_utc_B":1573782163,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"There is no definitive answer as to why Black Death or the Plague ended. The most popular theory is the implementation of quarantines. Bubonic plague is caused by flea bites, whereas pneumonic plague is transmitted to humans by inhalation of infectious droplets. This is why quarantine works; it protects others from breathing infectious droplets. The growing practice of cremation and improved personal hygiene also helped.  It is very unlikely that the Plague ended because those left living were resistant and everyone else died. Consider the fact that this bacteria that continues to cause serious infections and fatalities. In the case Black Death, it is more a question of how susceptible as a person was as oppose to whether they became resistant. Hygiene and health was poor back then, and people were malnourished and sickly.  Black death last for 7 years ( 1346-53 )  https:\/\/www.theweek.co.uk\/76088\/what-was-black-death-and-how-did-it-end  https:\/\/www.who.int\/en\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/plague","human_ref_B":"Actually two people in China contracted the plague this year. Also over 2000 people have contracted it from 2010 to 2015. We have the ability to treat it but it\u2019s still a thing.  https:\/\/www.google.com\/amp\/s\/www.vox.com\/platform\/amp\/future-perfect\/2019\/11\/14\/20963154\/plague-china-pneumonic-bubonic-pandemic-preparedness","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5431.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"45holr","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.83,"history":"I get on a spaceship and travel at nearly the speed of light. When I come back to earth, I've aged less than you. But given that speed is relative, how does the universe \"know\" which one of us was moving quickly?","c_root_id_A":"czy73w6","c_root_id_B":"czy2p9w","created_at_utc_A":1455339880,"created_at_utc_B":1455330509,"score_A":11,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"The technically correct answers so far may still leave you confused, because intuitively you realize (correctly) that regardless of whether or not one twin accelerated, if motion is truly relative, then the aging should be the same for both twins unless the aging is mediated directly by the acceleration itself (which it straightforwardly is not, in special relativity -- you can make the contribution during the acceleration arbitrarily small, by making the acceleration very high for a very short time). The confusion ultimately stems from thinking relativity is Machian; in other words the philosophy (which inspired Einstein) that in a very deep sense motion is truly relative, that for example in a universe containing a single particle, acceleration is impossible. The real world (and Relativity) turns out to *not* be Machian -- there really is something that *keeps track* of motion, or that motion is *relative to*. That *thing* is spacetime. Probably the clearest counter-example that shows relativity is *not* Machian is the existence of gravitational waves: ie waves in the fabric of spacetime. So don't be confused -- things really do move *relative* to something: space time itself. And therefore there is something to \"keep track\" of which twin really accelerated and which did not. What's \"relative\" in relativity are the laws of physics and the speed of light: the laws of physics are the same for any moving body. But movement isn't \"relative\" in the deep philosophic sense that might lead you to get confused about the twin paradox.","human_ref_B":"Acceleration is not relative - that is what distinguishes you. Until you accelerate to turn around again, both the person in the spaceship and the person on Earth seem to have aged less compared to the other person.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9371.0,"score_ratio":2.2}
{"post_id":"luzqo9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Are there any animals that migrate south for the summer and north for the winter? I mean northern hemisphere animals - do any seek out extremes of temperature like this?","c_root_id_A":"gpamxgv","c_root_id_B":"gpb7unu","created_at_utc_A":1614604022,"created_at_utc_B":1614615077,"score_A":20,"score_B":121,"human_ref_A":"Happens idiosyncratically in some species like the Heermann's gull, which spends summer on the Pacific Coast of Mexico, then disperses north all the way to British Columbia. Probably in response to food sources. The west coast of North America has mild winters, so weather is probably not a factor.","human_ref_B":"Homo Sapiens: All the beaches in the Med are full of tomato-coloured Scandinavians during summertime, all while plenty of Arabs visit the Norwegian snowslopes and the frozen Icelandic landscapes during the winter.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11055.0,"score_ratio":6.05}
{"post_id":"rk3sc2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Would it be possible and make sense to combine a COVID vaccine booster with a flu shot in a single, annual dose?","c_root_id_A":"hp7iqw6","c_root_id_B":"hp7tj5n","created_at_utc_A":1639945195,"created_at_utc_B":1639949649,"score_A":618,"score_B":731,"human_ref_A":"The only downside to this is that if the current anti-COVID vaccine sentiment keeps up, that could decrease flu vaccine rates.  Additionally it may depend on how many doses COVID ends up needing in a season\/year.","human_ref_B":"Moderna is working on a combined flu\/COVID vaccine:  https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/business\/healthcare-pharmaceuticals\/moderna-developing-single-dose-combination-vaccine-covid-19-flu-2021-09-09\/  Sept 9 (Reuters) - Moderna Inc (MRNA.O) said on Thursday it is developing a single vaccine that combines a booster dose against COVID-19 with its experimental flu shot.\r   \r   The company hopes to eventually add vaccines it is working on for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and other respiratory diseases as an annual shot.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4454.0,"score_ratio":1.1828478964}
{"post_id":"rk3sc2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Would it be possible and make sense to combine a COVID vaccine booster with a flu shot in a single, annual dose?","c_root_id_A":"hp9hmvh","c_root_id_B":"hp82vs5","created_at_utc_A":1639978706,"created_at_utc_B":1639953639,"score_A":180,"score_B":107,"human_ref_A":"So I got the COVID booster and the flu shot at the same time at my local pharmacy. Absolutely possible to do, but think about how well you handle shots. I was miserably sick for a while before my body adjusted to both shots.","human_ref_B":"Maybe... maybe not.  There's a few factors to consider. The \"flu\" is seasonal; it's much more infectious in cooler weather. This gives it a weather-driven annual cycle.  COVID19 isn't showing the same outbreak pattern. We've seen upticks in July 2020, October 2020, April 2021, July 2021, and now. So it's not showing the same calendral patterns as the flu.  If COVID19 continues it's non-seasonal surges, and the antibody persistence ends up being significantly less than 12 months, then the optimal timing for flu vaccines may not line up with optimal timing for COVID19 boosters.  Of course, we could get lucky and the timings of these 2 vaccines will line up, and there won't be undesirable interactions between them, and we'll only need 1 shot a year. We can hope!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":25067.0,"score_ratio":1.6822429907}
{"post_id":"rk3sc2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Would it be possible and make sense to combine a COVID vaccine booster with a flu shot in a single, annual dose?","c_root_id_A":"hp8k92a","c_root_id_B":"hp9hmvh","created_at_utc_A":1639961527,"created_at_utc_B":1639978706,"score_A":60,"score_B":180,"human_ref_A":"I have a slightly different take then some of these answers.  The flu needs an annual shot because the four viruses in the flu shot change so much from year to year. (Look up antigenic drift vs shift for flu)  Right now, we need boosters for Covid19 for two reasons: 1) we don't know what antibody levels correlate to protection to severe disease and 2) there is a large reservoir of people in which the virus can mutate.   Most vaccines against viruses are only given over a 2-4 shot series in childhood, which confers lifetime protection. Other vaccines like dTAP have to be given every 10 years to maintain protection.   There is every reason to believe that, eventually, we will not need annual shots for Covid19.","human_ref_B":"So I got the COVID booster and the flu shot at the same time at my local pharmacy. Absolutely possible to do, but think about how well you handle shots. I was miserably sick for a while before my body adjusted to both shots.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":17179.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"rk3sc2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Would it be possible and make sense to combine a COVID vaccine booster with a flu shot in a single, annual dose?","c_root_id_A":"hp8ryfu","c_root_id_B":"hp9hmvh","created_at_utc_A":1639965304,"created_at_utc_B":1639978706,"score_A":30,"score_B":180,"human_ref_A":"Please go easy on me if this is an ignorant question bc I don't really know how all of this works beyond common knowledge.... and I don't really know how to word it in a way that makes sense. But if you can get the vaccine and the booster at the same time, why wouldn't they start manufacturing the vaccine to include the booster? So you just get the one shot?   Again,  sorry if that obviously doesn't make sense to those that understand the inner workings of it all \ud83d\ude47\u200d\u2640\ufe0f","human_ref_B":"So I got the COVID booster and the flu shot at the same time at my local pharmacy. Absolutely possible to do, but think about how well you handle shots. I was miserably sick for a while before my body adjusted to both shots.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13402.0,"score_ratio":6.0}
{"post_id":"w9ba6y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why is the brain not damaged by impact from running, how is it protected from this sort of impact but not from other impacts?","c_root_id_A":"ihuvh0v","c_root_id_B":"ihv74n8","created_at_utc_A":1658932867,"created_at_utc_B":1658937400,"score_A":54,"score_B":526,"human_ref_A":"The brain is covered in membranes that protect it from contact with the skull and inside those membranes it is suspended in fluid. The membranes and the fluid cushion it against impacts and jostling but a sufficiently hard impact overcomes that protection.","human_ref_B":"There is very little \"impact\" on any part of the body as a result of efficient running. Ankles, knees, hips, spine.....they absorb what little there is. If you catch an elite marathon where a camera is following a lead runner, just watch their head. It will look to be doing little more than floating along.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4533.0,"score_ratio":9.7407407407}
{"post_id":"w9ba6y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why is the brain not damaged by impact from running, how is it protected from this sort of impact but not from other impacts?","c_root_id_A":"ihvlciq","c_root_id_B":"ihv939a","created_at_utc_A":1658942718,"created_at_utc_B":1658938143,"score_A":218,"score_B":141,"human_ref_A":"Humans also have a specialized ligament called the ligamentum nuchae that stabilizes the head while running.  This is a critical feature that may have evolved to help us hunt prey.  It\u2019s posited that our ancient ancestors may have hunted by running animals to exhaustion, known as persistence hunting.  This is an area of ongoing anthropological research.","human_ref_B":"I have seen the csf answer in here and that is correct. But it also has to do with the type of impact. Very short duration impacts don't move the mass of the brain very much as it sits in the csf. Like flcking the side of an aquarium, the fluid doesn't move very much because inertia keeps everything in place. The amplitude can be pretty high and still not move the brain, you are more likely to get a skul facture. Impacts from walking are like that and also well short of the jolt needed to move the brain. Concussions have to have a sufficient duration and amplitude to cause the brain to move, slosh, and\/or tear for a Concussion to happen. Source: my area of research is Concussion prevention.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4575.0,"score_ratio":1.5460992908}
{"post_id":"w9ba6y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why is the brain not damaged by impact from running, how is it protected from this sort of impact but not from other impacts?","c_root_id_A":"ihvlciq","c_root_id_B":"ihuvh0v","created_at_utc_A":1658942718,"created_at_utc_B":1658932867,"score_A":218,"score_B":54,"human_ref_A":"Humans also have a specialized ligament called the ligamentum nuchae that stabilizes the head while running.  This is a critical feature that may have evolved to help us hunt prey.  It\u2019s posited that our ancient ancestors may have hunted by running animals to exhaustion, known as persistence hunting.  This is an area of ongoing anthropological research.","human_ref_B":"The brain is covered in membranes that protect it from contact with the skull and inside those membranes it is suspended in fluid. The membranes and the fluid cushion it against impacts and jostling but a sufficiently hard impact overcomes that protection.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9851.0,"score_ratio":4.037037037}
{"post_id":"w9ba6y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why is the brain not damaged by impact from running, how is it protected from this sort of impact but not from other impacts?","c_root_id_A":"ihvcvq2","c_root_id_B":"ihvlciq","created_at_utc_A":1658939563,"created_at_utc_B":1658942718,"score_A":24,"score_B":218,"human_ref_A":"Your head is essentially floating in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) which protects the brain in 2 ways.  First, CSF acts as a shock absorber, cushioning the brain against the skull. Second, CSF allows the brain and spinal cord to become buoyant, reducing the effective weight of the brain from its normal 1,500 grams to a much lesser 50 grams.  This same principal is why large animals such as whales can support their huge bodies.","human_ref_B":"Humans also have a specialized ligament called the ligamentum nuchae that stabilizes the head while running.  This is a critical feature that may have evolved to help us hunt prey.  It\u2019s posited that our ancient ancestors may have hunted by running animals to exhaustion, known as persistence hunting.  This is an area of ongoing anthropological research.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3155.0,"score_ratio":9.0833333333}
{"post_id":"w9ba6y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why is the brain not damaged by impact from running, how is it protected from this sort of impact but not from other impacts?","c_root_id_A":"ihuvh0v","c_root_id_B":"ihv939a","created_at_utc_A":1658932867,"created_at_utc_B":1658938143,"score_A":54,"score_B":141,"human_ref_A":"The brain is covered in membranes that protect it from contact with the skull and inside those membranes it is suspended in fluid. The membranes and the fluid cushion it against impacts and jostling but a sufficiently hard impact overcomes that protection.","human_ref_B":"I have seen the csf answer in here and that is correct. But it also has to do with the type of impact. Very short duration impacts don't move the mass of the brain very much as it sits in the csf. Like flcking the side of an aquarium, the fluid doesn't move very much because inertia keeps everything in place. The amplitude can be pretty high and still not move the brain, you are more likely to get a skul facture. Impacts from walking are like that and also well short of the jolt needed to move the brain. Concussions have to have a sufficient duration and amplitude to cause the brain to move, slosh, and\/or tear for a Concussion to happen. Source: my area of research is Concussion prevention.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5276.0,"score_ratio":2.6111111111}
{"post_id":"mswg7k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do nuclear bombs form this typical mushroom cloud and not just a ball shaped cloud?","c_root_id_A":"gux927w","c_root_id_B":"gux8t26","created_at_utc_A":1618709073,"created_at_utc_B":1618708926,"score_A":1188,"score_B":312,"human_ref_A":"Mushroom clouds form in any case where there is a very hot central feature, causing a strong updraft shaft where that heated air rises.  This rising against the stagnant colder air around the circular rising center \"stem\" causes swirling currents in the form of a muffin top or mushroom cap.","human_ref_B":"Another reason not yet mentioned is that the shockwave may reflect off the ground, pushing the fireball into a donut shape, which helps catalyze the other effects mentioned. Here is a slow motion video of this happening. If you think this is weird looking, I suggest reading about the rope trick effect.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":147.0,"score_ratio":3.8076923077}
{"post_id":"mswg7k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do nuclear bombs form this typical mushroom cloud and not just a ball shaped cloud?","c_root_id_A":"guxpqq9","c_root_id_B":"guxbdyu","created_at_utc_A":1618719266,"created_at_utc_B":1618710459,"score_A":33,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"The initial cloud IS ball shaped - if you watch high-speed film of the initial milliseconds of nuclear explosions, you can see that. The ball-shaped cloud is much hotter than the air around it, and (because it's an explosion) it expands rapidly. That makes the cloud much lighter than the air around it, and it begins rising, like a hot air balloon would, but much faster, since it's much hotter and therefore much lighter.  The \"stem\" of the mushroom can be thought of as like a column of smoke rising from the detonation site. I say \"like\" smoke, because, while there's probably some smoke in that column, it's actually hot, turbulent, dusty air, heated by the energy that the ground absorbed.  Mushroom clouds are associated with detonations on or near the ground; detonations at higher altitudes generally don't have the iconic mushroom cloud.","human_ref_B":"Imagine it wants to be a ball but the the ground is in the way so it spreads out like a dome instead until the colder air outside the dome has enough pressure to start rushing back in towards ground zero under the hot dome. This sends the dome  of hot air up.  Now it a bubble but it convexing. The boundary is cold falling, like ice cream melting, the interior is hot pushing up.  The much colder high pressure atmosphere rushes in under the bubble forcing the hot air into a column. The bubble continues to rise turning itself inside out rolling into a torus kinda like you would roll a sock. The torus sits on top of a column of warm air and looks like a mushroom.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8807.0,"score_ratio":1.1785714286}
{"post_id":"mswg7k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do nuclear bombs form this typical mushroom cloud and not just a ball shaped cloud?","c_root_id_A":"gux9snf","c_root_id_B":"guxpqq9","created_at_utc_A":1618709511,"created_at_utc_B":1618719266,"score_A":15,"score_B":33,"human_ref_A":"As others said, it's because of the atmosphere, which means that explosion at high altitude creates a more spherical ball of fire:   https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion#Differences_from_atmospheric_tests  Here is a recording of one:   https:\/\/youtu.be\/OLbyY76zt9w?t=44","human_ref_B":"The initial cloud IS ball shaped - if you watch high-speed film of the initial milliseconds of nuclear explosions, you can see that. The ball-shaped cloud is much hotter than the air around it, and (because it's an explosion) it expands rapidly. That makes the cloud much lighter than the air around it, and it begins rising, like a hot air balloon would, but much faster, since it's much hotter and therefore much lighter.  The \"stem\" of the mushroom can be thought of as like a column of smoke rising from the detonation site. I say \"like\" smoke, because, while there's probably some smoke in that column, it's actually hot, turbulent, dusty air, heated by the energy that the ground absorbed.  Mushroom clouds are associated with detonations on or near the ground; detonations at higher altitudes generally don't have the iconic mushroom cloud.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9755.0,"score_ratio":2.2}
{"post_id":"mswg7k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do nuclear bombs form this typical mushroom cloud and not just a ball shaped cloud?","c_root_id_A":"gux9snf","c_root_id_B":"guxbdyu","created_at_utc_A":1618709511,"created_at_utc_B":1618710459,"score_A":15,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"As others said, it's because of the atmosphere, which means that explosion at high altitude creates a more spherical ball of fire:   https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion#Differences_from_atmospheric_tests  Here is a recording of one:   https:\/\/youtu.be\/OLbyY76zt9w?t=44","human_ref_B":"Imagine it wants to be a ball but the the ground is in the way so it spreads out like a dome instead until the colder air outside the dome has enough pressure to start rushing back in towards ground zero under the hot dome. This sends the dome  of hot air up.  Now it a bubble but it convexing. The boundary is cold falling, like ice cream melting, the interior is hot pushing up.  The much colder high pressure atmosphere rushes in under the bubble forcing the hot air into a column. The bubble continues to rise turning itself inside out rolling into a torus kinda like you would roll a sock. The torus sits on top of a column of warm air and looks like a mushroom.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":948.0,"score_ratio":1.8666666667}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2mqkjt","c_root_id_B":"c2mqkf2","created_at_utc_A":1317062883,"created_at_utc_B":1317062820,"score_A":1025,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"X-rays: Roentgen, an experimental physicist, trying to figure out how cathode rays work. Didn't give a shit about medical imaging at the time.  MRI: Isadore Rabi, an experimental physicist, realized that nuclei resonate in magnetic fields. Didn't give a shit about medical imaging.  PET: Paul Dirac, a theoretical physicist, realized that his equation allowed for a positively charged electron. Didn't give a shit about medical imaging.  All these things were invented by people doing physics for the sake of physics, none of whom cared about medical imaging. Yet, their physics lead to medical imaging.  But do we do physics because it leads to medical imaging technology? No, we do it because it's awesome.","human_ref_B":"Because it is these sorts of curiosities that lead to practical inventions in the future. It was only a curiosity of why certain \"wandering stars\" didn't move like the rest of the stars when the telescope was invented. However, our knowledge of what our planet is, where we are in the solar system, and how gravity operates allowed us to launch a network of satellites that allows near instant communication anywhere in the world. Mendel being curious about why certain plants bred the way they did have led to selective breeding which allows us to breed plants which can actually produce enough food to feed the world. Einstein musing about relativity gave the last pieces we needed in order to build nuclear reactors. Super market scanners use principles of quantum mechanics. The list can go on and on. Every technology we have started out as a scientific curiosity, and sometimes the fruits of the curiosity took hundreds of years to develop.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":63.0,"score_ratio":22.7777777778}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2ms0gv","c_root_id_B":"c2mqkf2","created_at_utc_A":1317074296,"created_at_utc_B":1317062820,"score_A":250,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"> Physics is like sex. Sure, it may give some practical results, but that's not why we do it.  -Richard Feynman","human_ref_B":"Because it is these sorts of curiosities that lead to practical inventions in the future. It was only a curiosity of why certain \"wandering stars\" didn't move like the rest of the stars when the telescope was invented. However, our knowledge of what our planet is, where we are in the solar system, and how gravity operates allowed us to launch a network of satellites that allows near instant communication anywhere in the world. Mendel being curious about why certain plants bred the way they did have led to selective breeding which allows us to breed plants which can actually produce enough food to feed the world. Einstein musing about relativity gave the last pieces we needed in order to build nuclear reactors. Super market scanners use principles of quantum mechanics. The list can go on and on. Every technology we have started out as a scientific curiosity, and sometimes the fruits of the curiosity took hundreds of years to develop.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11476.0,"score_ratio":5.5555555556}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2ms0gv","c_root_id_B":"c2mqkyl","created_at_utc_A":1317074296,"created_at_utc_B":1317062981,"score_A":250,"score_B":38,"human_ref_A":"> Physics is like sex. Sure, it may give some practical results, but that's not why we do it.  -Richard Feynman","human_ref_B":"Every piece of equipment she comes into contact with. Imaging equipment may be of particular interest as they're more closely related to less macro concepts, x-ray, magnetic force. Of course \"the latest neutrino experiment\" doesn't have a use right now. To ask that is a bit silly. Generally speaking, the more we have been able to understand about everything, the more we have been able to do.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11315.0,"score_ratio":6.5789473684}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2mqkf2","c_root_id_B":"c2mskb1","created_at_utc_A":1317062820,"created_at_utc_B":1317078257,"score_A":45,"score_B":86,"human_ref_A":"Because it is these sorts of curiosities that lead to practical inventions in the future. It was only a curiosity of why certain \"wandering stars\" didn't move like the rest of the stars when the telescope was invented. However, our knowledge of what our planet is, where we are in the solar system, and how gravity operates allowed us to launch a network of satellites that allows near instant communication anywhere in the world. Mendel being curious about why certain plants bred the way they did have led to selective breeding which allows us to breed plants which can actually produce enough food to feed the world. Einstein musing about relativity gave the last pieces we needed in order to build nuclear reactors. Super market scanners use principles of quantum mechanics. The list can go on and on. Every technology we have started out as a scientific curiosity, and sometimes the fruits of the curiosity took hundreds of years to develop.","human_ref_B":">She's a nurse.   How can you be in a scientific field that bases all of it's procedures and work on science and not understand how important science is?   Without sombody fucking around in a lab (like myself) you would still be hacking off limbs to prevent gangrene.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15437.0,"score_ratio":1.9111111111}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2mqkyl","c_root_id_B":"c2mskb1","created_at_utc_A":1317062981,"created_at_utc_B":1317078257,"score_A":38,"score_B":86,"human_ref_A":"Every piece of equipment she comes into contact with. Imaging equipment may be of particular interest as they're more closely related to less macro concepts, x-ray, magnetic force. Of course \"the latest neutrino experiment\" doesn't have a use right now. To ask that is a bit silly. Generally speaking, the more we have been able to understand about everything, the more we have been able to do.","human_ref_B":">She's a nurse.   How can you be in a scientific field that bases all of it's procedures and work on science and not understand how important science is?   Without sombody fucking around in a lab (like myself) you would still be hacking off limbs to prevent gangrene.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15276.0,"score_ratio":2.2631578947}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2mskb1","c_root_id_B":"c2ms4h3","created_at_utc_A":1317078257,"created_at_utc_B":1317075034,"score_A":86,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":">She's a nurse.   How can you be in a scientific field that bases all of it's procedures and work on science and not understand how important science is?   Without sombody fucking around in a lab (like myself) you would still be hacking off limbs to prevent gangrene.","human_ref_B":"Proton therapy is a medical therapy that arose directly out of research on particle accelerators.  The neutrinos in the neutrino experiment come from a very similar proton beam, which emits neutrinos when it collides with a graphite plate.  Medical particle accelerators are basically scaled down versions of the ones physicists invented and use for these experiments.  More tangentially, the World Wide Web was developed at CERN, by a researcher looking for ways to organize and collaborate on scientific information.  If they had been a commercial company instead (and played their cards right), they'd be a rival to Microsoft and Google in size now.  Instead, member states pay them a relatively small amount per year, amounts that pale in comparison to other national budgetary items or to the amounts that people pay to Microsoft for running Windows and Office.  As for \"we\" paying for this, if you happen to be American, you're not paying that much for this.  CERN is a European venture, and the US is not a CERN member state and doesn't contribute directly to its budget.  The US has contributed to the cost of the LHC, but as the media will tell you:  > 'The Large Hadron Collider is a symptom of America's decline in particle physics and Europe's rise. Many scientists and educators fear that it also signals a broader decline in scientific leadership on the part of the United States.'  > 'A quick look at the numbers, however, reveals how far the United States stands to fall in leadership once the LHC goes live. The U.S. contribution amounts to $500 million\u2014barely 5 percent of the bill. The big bucks have come from the Europeans. Germany is picking up 20 percent of the tab, the British are contributing 17 percent, and the French are giving 14 percent. Even the Bulgarians have chipped in less than 1 percent. Despite the U.S. dominance of recent decades in physics, most of the brainpower is European as well. \"The contribution of the non-Europeans has been essential, but limited,\" says Els Koffeman, professor of particle physics at the University of Amsterdam.'  To get an idea of the sort of passion and dedication which scientists commit to these kinds of projects, perhaps have your girlfriend watch the TED video about Extreme Astrophysics, which shows how scientists literally risk their lives on shoestring budgets to do their work.  The presenter ends up making a rather spiritual point about the importance of these activities.  Brian Cox also has a TED talk that's more directly about the LHC.  His enthusiasm is infectious, and he has a good perspective on it.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3223.0,"score_ratio":3.9090909091}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2mss8q","c_root_id_B":"c2mqkf2","created_at_utc_A":1317079914,"created_at_utc_B":1317062820,"score_A":64,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"This is a severe problem. If a person who everyday uses tools that were developed from this kind of research doesn't see the value in it, how are we supposed to convince every body else of its value?","human_ref_B":"Because it is these sorts of curiosities that lead to practical inventions in the future. It was only a curiosity of why certain \"wandering stars\" didn't move like the rest of the stars when the telescope was invented. However, our knowledge of what our planet is, where we are in the solar system, and how gravity operates allowed us to launch a network of satellites that allows near instant communication anywhere in the world. Mendel being curious about why certain plants bred the way they did have led to selective breeding which allows us to breed plants which can actually produce enough food to feed the world. Einstein musing about relativity gave the last pieces we needed in order to build nuclear reactors. Super market scanners use principles of quantum mechanics. The list can go on and on. Every technology we have started out as a scientific curiosity, and sometimes the fruits of the curiosity took hundreds of years to develop.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17094.0,"score_ratio":1.4222222222}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2mqkyl","c_root_id_B":"c2mss8q","created_at_utc_A":1317062981,"created_at_utc_B":1317079914,"score_A":38,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"Every piece of equipment she comes into contact with. Imaging equipment may be of particular interest as they're more closely related to less macro concepts, x-ray, magnetic force. Of course \"the latest neutrino experiment\" doesn't have a use right now. To ask that is a bit silly. Generally speaking, the more we have been able to understand about everything, the more we have been able to do.","human_ref_B":"This is a severe problem. If a person who everyday uses tools that were developed from this kind of research doesn't see the value in it, how are we supposed to convince every body else of its value?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16933.0,"score_ratio":1.6842105263}
{"post_id":"ks26i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.9,"history":"I told my girlfriend about the latest neutrino experiment's results, and she said \"Why do we pay for this kind of stuff?  What does it matter?\"  Practically, what do we gain from experiments like this?  She's a nurse, so I started to explain that lots of the equipment they use in a hospital come from this kind of scientific inquiry, but I didn't really have any examples off-hand and I wasn't sure what the best thing to say was.","c_root_id_A":"c2ms4h3","c_root_id_B":"c2mss8q","created_at_utc_A":1317075034,"created_at_utc_B":1317079914,"score_A":22,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"Proton therapy is a medical therapy that arose directly out of research on particle accelerators.  The neutrinos in the neutrino experiment come from a very similar proton beam, which emits neutrinos when it collides with a graphite plate.  Medical particle accelerators are basically scaled down versions of the ones physicists invented and use for these experiments.  More tangentially, the World Wide Web was developed at CERN, by a researcher looking for ways to organize and collaborate on scientific information.  If they had been a commercial company instead (and played their cards right), they'd be a rival to Microsoft and Google in size now.  Instead, member states pay them a relatively small amount per year, amounts that pale in comparison to other national budgetary items or to the amounts that people pay to Microsoft for running Windows and Office.  As for \"we\" paying for this, if you happen to be American, you're not paying that much for this.  CERN is a European venture, and the US is not a CERN member state and doesn't contribute directly to its budget.  The US has contributed to the cost of the LHC, but as the media will tell you:  > 'The Large Hadron Collider is a symptom of America's decline in particle physics and Europe's rise. Many scientists and educators fear that it also signals a broader decline in scientific leadership on the part of the United States.'  > 'A quick look at the numbers, however, reveals how far the United States stands to fall in leadership once the LHC goes live. The U.S. contribution amounts to $500 million\u2014barely 5 percent of the bill. The big bucks have come from the Europeans. Germany is picking up 20 percent of the tab, the British are contributing 17 percent, and the French are giving 14 percent. Even the Bulgarians have chipped in less than 1 percent. Despite the U.S. dominance of recent decades in physics, most of the brainpower is European as well. \"The contribution of the non-Europeans has been essential, but limited,\" says Els Koffeman, professor of particle physics at the University of Amsterdam.'  To get an idea of the sort of passion and dedication which scientists commit to these kinds of projects, perhaps have your girlfriend watch the TED video about Extreme Astrophysics, which shows how scientists literally risk their lives on shoestring budgets to do their work.  The presenter ends up making a rather spiritual point about the importance of these activities.  Brian Cox also has a TED talk that's more directly about the LHC.  His enthusiasm is infectious, and he has a good perspective on it.","human_ref_B":"This is a severe problem. If a person who everyday uses tools that were developed from this kind of research doesn't see the value in it, how are we supposed to convince every body else of its value?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4880.0,"score_ratio":2.9090909091}
{"post_id":"9ne0mn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.71,"history":"How does a zip file work? Like, how can there be a lot of data and then compressed and THEN decompressed again on another computer?","c_root_id_A":"e7mhqba","c_root_id_B":"e7mgr4e","created_at_utc_A":1539329364,"created_at_utc_B":1539327476,"score_A":113,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Typically, files are divided into _bytes_.  Each byte is a fixed size -- on your standard PC, a byte is typically 8 bits^0 long, where a single 'bit' is either a 0 or a 1.  Each byte is generally large enough to represent a single character^1.  However, not every character of data represents as much _useful_ information as other characters.  Think of English for a second, and words that start with a 'Q'.  Virtually all words in English that start with a 'Q' are then followed by a 'U'.  Knowing this, how much information does the 'U' actually convey to the computer?  What if you could replace 'QU' with a single character instead?  This is the crux of data compression -- how much useful information does each byte represent?^13  And for those characters that represent less-useful information, how can we make them also use less storage space in the process?  Let's think of vowels for a minute.  Vowels are very common in English^2, and because of how common they are, they don't actually impart a lot of information into the words we use.  In fact, you could get rid of vowels altogether and still get some idea of what a sentence says^3 .  Try that with consonants, and all meaning is lost^4.  This isn't to say that vowels are _unimportant_, but as they convey less information, they don't need to be the same size as consonants.  This is what data compression tries to achieve -- it tries to look at the data, get an idea of how much information each character conveys, and then tries to minimize that.  As such, a single character may no longer be 8 bits long -- a very common character may be represented by only a few bits.  We can extend this even further than just single characters.  Groups of characters may be common enough that we can represent them by a smaller number of bytes.  For example, with the \"QU\" example above, if you're using \"QU\" words often enough, we could replace them with fewer than 16 bits.  Or how about words with \"TH\" in them?  These are quite common in English, and we could also replace every instance of \"TH\" with something less than 16 bits.  What about the word \"THE\"?  That's a very common word that takes up 24 bits uncompressed, but could take up fewer bits.  ZIP files effectively use both strategies, using an algorithm known as DEFLATE.  DEFLATE itself is a combination of two compression strategies -- LZ77 and Huffman Coding.    LZ77 effectively looks for groupings of characters, and replaces duplicates with a pair of numbers that represent a _length-distance pair_.  If the compression algorithm comes across a series of characters it has encountered previously (such as the word \"the\"), it will simply replace the characters with a pair of numbers, the first indicating how many bytes are being duplicated (in this case, 3), and how long ago in the document this sequence was previously encountered^5.    Let's take a look at the very first sentence of this post.  If we represent the length-distance pairs as {L,D}, it might look like:  >Typically, files are divided into _bytes_.  Each {4,14} is a fixed size -- on your standard PC{2,80}{2,37}{4,43} {3,42}t{8,94} 8 bits long{2,19}where {2,26}single \u2018{3,25}\u2019 {3,34}either {2,20}0 or {2,6}1.^6 ^7  As mentioned above, ZIP's DEFLATE also uses Huffman Coding.  This is way to take a look at each byte, and build a tree for each byte value in the document^8 such that the byte values that occur the most are higher up in the tree than those that occur the least.  This is very difficult to demonstrate without diagrams, so I suggest reading over the Wikipedia document if you're interested in how this works.  But suffice to say, what happens when we apply this algorithm is that bytes that occur many times in a given file can thus be represented by fewer bits (for example, space, 'a', and 'e' may only require 3 bits each), and letters which occur less often may require more (and in fact may not compress at all -- if a document only uses '#' once, then it may continue to use 8 bits -- or possibly even more).^10  As these are well-known algorithms, decompression is actually pretty easy.  To remove the Huffman Coding, you simply build the tree for each byte value of the document, and as you encounter bits, you walk the tree (where conceptually the left branch is 0, and the right branch is 1), and when you encounter a leaf node, you look at what character that node represents, and output that character to the decompression buffer.  Once you've done that for the entire file, you can undo the LZ77 compression by finding all of the _length-distance_ pairs, and decoding them by moving backward _distance_ bytes in the file, and copying _length_ characters into the decompression buffer^11.  In the end, you have your original file back.  To virtually _guarantee_ this, ZIP files also contains a CRC-32 code, which is a numeric error detecting code value derived from the original file.  Once the decompression is complete, your ZIP too of choice can compare the end result to the CRC-32 value to virtually^12 ensure the data you're outputting is the same as what was compressed in the first place.  And there you have it -- that's how ZIP works in a nutshell.  ----- ^0 - okay, it really depends on _where_ the byte exists on the computer.  Some storage media and data transfer mechanisms may represent the byte as more than 8 bits in order to add some error correction capabilities, but for our purposes a bytes is 8 bits long.   ^1 -- I'm trying to keep things somewhat simple here, so I'm assuming the standard \"latin-1\" character set, or more specifically the 8-bit portion of the UTF-8 character set.  If we're working with characters from non-Latin-1 languages (like Chinese, Japanese, or Arabic), a single character may be multiple bytes.   ^2 -- and other languages as well, but as we're conversing in English, I'm going to keep this about English, but the basic concepts are much the same.  Languages that are logogram based (like Chinese) where a character represents an entire word don't encode vowels as single bytes, but in truth, the computer doesn't care -- the bytes are just numbers, and it makes no semantic difference between one and another when it comes to compression.   ^3 -- \"n fct, y cld gt rd f vwls ltgthr nd stll gt sm d f wht  sntnc sys\"   ^4 -- \" a i ooa, a a eai i o\".   ^5 -- The algorithm doesn't generally store the entire document, but only looks at some fixed number of bytes at a time.  This is to keep the _distance_ number from getting really big -- in some huge multi-gigabyte document where you use the word \"moist\" once at the beginning and once at the end, it really doesn't make much sense to have a _distance_ value that represents a position several gigabytes in size (as at some point, the number of bits needed to store the _length-distance pair_ may be bigger than the bytes you're compressing).  This fixed number of bytes is known as the _sliding window_, and in ZIP files is 32kb in size.   ^6 -- as I calculated this by hand, expect there to be errors.  It's possible I missed some two-letter groupings that are repeated, and I suspect some of the _distance_ values are wrong, as I had to go back a few times and make corrections for things I missed.  Which is why we normally let computers handle this task!   ^7 -- Because of the really inefficient way I've chosen to represent the _length-distance_ pairs, and because this is a very small example, we've actually made the example text _longer_ (original: 169 bytes, new: 207 bytes).  However, even with my inefficient representation, longer text with more repetition would show noticeable size improvements.   ^8 -- Not all byte values are equally likely, especially in text.  In fact, certain values are highly _unlikely_ in a text document -- for example, the computer generally doesn't store the backspace value in a file, and we generally don't deal with much in the way of special symbols.  I haven't used the percent symbol ('%') once in this document for example^9, but I've used 'e' hundreds of times.   ^9 -- well, I suppose I have now!   ^10 -- all of this assumes that characters don't occur with the exact same frequency, which is generally true of human languages.  Random data however may have all bytes having identical frequencies, in which case the data becomes incompressible.  This is why you can't run a ZIP file through ZIP and get a smaller file out of it.  In fact, doing so generally results in a slightly _larger_ file, as ZIP has a certain amount of overhead to describe the files it stores.   ^11 -- as a weird aside, the length can be greater that the distance value.  So you could have \"length 5, distance 1\" which would mean copying the last character five times.   ^12 -- CRC-32 generates a 32 bit value from your file.  As the number of possible 32-bit values is finite (2^32 values, or 4 294 967 296 possible values) it's possible for two different files to have the same CRC-32 value.  However, when decompressing data with errors having the original file and the error file having the same CRC-32 value is so incredibly unlikely, I doubt if it's ever happened in the history of the world.   ^13 -- Read the rest of the post, and then come back here at the end.  Done?  Good.  Interestingly, once we've compressed the data we can calculate the average number of bits a given character needs to represent it, and given the two different compression methods we're using, this average may not even be a whole number of bits!  We may find that an 'e' only requires 0.8 bits to represent in our compressed file!  -----  EDIT: typos.   EDIT 2: Added note #13","human_ref_B":"The zip format actually specifies a number of different kinds of compression. You can read the details elsewhere#Compression_methods), but in general any compression algorithm just tries to figure out how to represent data more compactly.  A lot of compression techniques are simple in concept but difficult to implement effectively and efficiently. One concept is to find occurrences of repeated data and replace those multiple copies with a compact representation. For example, a text file might have a long sequence of the \"a\" character repeated many times, so rather than literally copying the value many times, you replace it with a special code that says \"insert 100 copies of the 'a' character\". For another example, a picture file might have large solid-color sections, and rather than explicitly saving the color of every pixel in the image you can say \"this 100x100 square of pixels should be blue\".   More complicated techniques analyze the statistical distribution of data in a file and comes up with more compact representations for frequent data. For example, in Morse Code the letter \"e\" is represented by a single dot because \"e\" is the most common character in English and a single dot is the fastest code to transmit. Huffman coding does something analogous with the binary encoding of a file- by default individual characters might be stored with one, two, or more bytes (depending on basic encoding, like ASCII vs. Unicode), but Huffman coding identifies the most frequently used characters and derives an unambiguous encoding that is statistically more compact.  &#x200B;  &#x200B;","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1888.0,"score_ratio":14.125}
{"post_id":"9ne0mn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.71,"history":"How does a zip file work? Like, how can there be a lot of data and then compressed and THEN decompressed again on another computer?","c_root_id_A":"e7mgr4e","c_root_id_B":"e7mmt7v","created_at_utc_A":1539327476,"created_at_utc_B":1539340108,"score_A":8,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"The zip format actually specifies a number of different kinds of compression. You can read the details elsewhere#Compression_methods), but in general any compression algorithm just tries to figure out how to represent data more compactly.  A lot of compression techniques are simple in concept but difficult to implement effectively and efficiently. One concept is to find occurrences of repeated data and replace those multiple copies with a compact representation. For example, a text file might have a long sequence of the \"a\" character repeated many times, so rather than literally copying the value many times, you replace it with a special code that says \"insert 100 copies of the 'a' character\". For another example, a picture file might have large solid-color sections, and rather than explicitly saving the color of every pixel in the image you can say \"this 100x100 square of pixels should be blue\".   More complicated techniques analyze the statistical distribution of data in a file and comes up with more compact representations for frequent data. For example, in Morse Code the letter \"e\" is represented by a single dot because \"e\" is the most common character in English and a single dot is the fastest code to transmit. Huffman coding does something analogous with the binary encoding of a file- by default individual characters might be stored with one, two, or more bytes (depending on basic encoding, like ASCII vs. Unicode), but Huffman coding identifies the most frequently used characters and derives an unambiguous encoding that is statistically more compact.  &#x200B;  &#x200B;","human_ref_B":"Take a book like harry Potter, certain words are going to appear really often, like the word magic, harry, hermione, Hogwarts, etc. So, the computer analyzes all the words for frequency and creates a list. Then, at the beginning of the zip file the list of words is used as a dictionary. All instances of harry Potter are replaced with a reference to word 1 in that list, Hogwarts is changed to a reference to 2. And so on.   Clearly harry is five letters long, and the number 1 is 1 character long, so we hare 5x smaller than we started. But, there's the cost of the list at the beginning, so it only makes sense to do this for really common words.    For computers, they don't operate on words, the operate on the 1s and 0s that a file is made of. They find the common patterns, build a list of those patterns and replace the patterns with smaller references to those patterns. When it reads or decompresses the file, it looks it up in the list and replaced it. Viola, no information is lost.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12632.0,"score_ratio":1.625}
{"post_id":"9ne0mn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.71,"history":"How does a zip file work? Like, how can there be a lot of data and then compressed and THEN decompressed again on another computer?","c_root_id_A":"e7mmt7v","c_root_id_B":"e7mikfv","created_at_utc_A":1539340108,"created_at_utc_B":1539331067,"score_A":13,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Take a book like harry Potter, certain words are going to appear really often, like the word magic, harry, hermione, Hogwarts, etc. So, the computer analyzes all the words for frequency and creates a list. Then, at the beginning of the zip file the list of words is used as a dictionary. All instances of harry Potter are replaced with a reference to word 1 in that list, Hogwarts is changed to a reference to 2. And so on.   Clearly harry is five letters long, and the number 1 is 1 character long, so we hare 5x smaller than we started. But, there's the cost of the list at the beginning, so it only makes sense to do this for really common words.    For computers, they don't operate on words, the operate on the 1s and 0s that a file is made of. They find the common patterns, build a list of those patterns and replace the patterns with smaller references to those patterns. When it reads or decompresses the file, it looks it up in the list and replaced it. Viola, no information is lost.","human_ref_B":"A cool fact is that no algorithm can losslessly compress everything. In fact, the vast majority of all possible files would get a little *longer* after compression. Why then does it seem like every single file can be compressed? Because data formats that we humans devise are usually quite redundant, especially if they contain human readable text.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9041.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"9ne0mn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.71,"history":"How does a zip file work? Like, how can there be a lot of data and then compressed and THEN decompressed again on another computer?","c_root_id_A":"e7mmt7v","c_root_id_B":"e7mjery","created_at_utc_A":1539340108,"created_at_utc_B":1539332886,"score_A":13,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Take a book like harry Potter, certain words are going to appear really often, like the word magic, harry, hermione, Hogwarts, etc. So, the computer analyzes all the words for frequency and creates a list. Then, at the beginning of the zip file the list of words is used as a dictionary. All instances of harry Potter are replaced with a reference to word 1 in that list, Hogwarts is changed to a reference to 2. And so on.   Clearly harry is five letters long, and the number 1 is 1 character long, so we hare 5x smaller than we started. But, there's the cost of the list at the beginning, so it only makes sense to do this for really common words.    For computers, they don't operate on words, the operate on the 1s and 0s that a file is made of. They find the common patterns, build a list of those patterns and replace the patterns with smaller references to those patterns. When it reads or decompresses the file, it looks it up in the list and replaced it. Viola, no information is lost.","human_ref_B":"There are different modes to compress a file, but the easiest to explain is to look for patterns.  If you have a sequence that appears more than once, you can just take that sequence, give it a number and when it is repeated, just write down \"insert sequence #n\".  When the sequence is longer than the reference, you save memory.  &#x200B;  Especially in images, where you have a common pattern of pixels and their descriptive values, you can pretty easily save memory alone by replacing the hex-values of colors with short-codes or writing it down as \"20 pixels red, followed by 10 pixels blue\" which is shorter than \"red, red, red, ... blue, blue, blue,...\"   &#x200B;  Over time, more and more methods to compress data have been found and added, so these algorithms are getting better over time.  &#x200B;  I think it is easiest to understand compression when you think about images and video.  If you have a video where the image does not change for multipla frames, because it's a still image, just noting down that the previous one will be repeated instead of describing how the new frame should look, can save you a lot of memory.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7222.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"9rn49y","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.66,"history":"How is it possible for a nuclear power plant's capacity factor to be over 100%? I am sifting through the USNRC's dataset on power reactors, and I noticed that in 2017 some reactors (Surry Power Station Unit 1, Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station,Nine Mile Point Nuclear Station Unit 2, Donald C. Cook Nuclear Plant Unit 2) had capacity factors in the range of 101-113%.  is this a data error or is there some way to explain this? I am not a nuclear engineer, just a budding data analyst.","c_root_id_A":"e8iqr5q","c_root_id_B":"e8i9io3","created_at_utc_A":1540597906,"created_at_utc_B":1540581702,"score_A":21,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Nuclear engineer here.   The capacities are typically based on nameplate ratings combined with planned generation. If you get better thermodynamics, your electrical output may exceed nameplate ratings.   One thing that should be noted is that the reactor power doesn\u2019t exceed 100%, just the turbine\/generator. The reactor is never legally allowed to exceed 100% outside of transient (uncontrollable) conditions within the plant\u2019s accident response analysis.   Reasons for the disparity include: planned downpowers not taken, improvements to condenser or steam side efficiency, equipment upgrades on the steam side of the plant, colder lakewater conditions, etc.","human_ref_B":"It's likely the same reason why the space shuttle main engines were throttled to 105% during launch. During the initial specification and certification period, a performance metric was created. Meeting this specification, thrust in the case of the SSME and uptime in the case of the reactors, means you're hiring 100%. Exceeding the requirements means going above.  In the case of the nuclear reactors, this means that it takes less time to service\/maintain\/refuel them than was originally expected.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16204.0,"score_ratio":1.4}
{"post_id":"1sk7f1","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.61,"history":"How are widespread cold fronts (such as the current one in the US) consistent with global warming? Disclaimer: I accept global warming as fact. Not trying to debate the concept itself. But as most American redditors know, our entire country is freezing its ass off right now (except Florida and Hawaii). I live in Colorado and the weather's been in the single digits (Fahrenheit) for almost a week, which is unusually cold for December. And apparently there have been record cold temperatures in some places.  I also understand that weather =\/= climate. But lately I've seen some far-right folk laugh at the pro-global warming crowd with all this cold weather we've seen lately. And to be honest I'm not totally sure how to explain this extreme cold weather in light of global warming.","c_root_id_A":"cdygcci","c_root_id_B":"cdygn4v","created_at_utc_A":1386703048,"created_at_utc_B":1386703697,"score_A":9,"score_B":23,"human_ref_A":"Weather is a *somewhat of a* zero-sum game. When it's cold where you are, it's because the airmass which has moved over you originated further north, and has moved towards the equator. This can't happen without a warmer air mass moving north somewhere else. So, if you're in a cold snap, there's another region of the world where the weather is warmer than usual. I'm using the Northern Hemisphere for clarity's sake, but the same applies in the southern hemisphere.  This is why pointing to heat waves as evidence for global warming is just plain wrong: while you're in the midst of a heat wave, another area of the globe on your latitude is experiencing unusually cool temperatures. This is complicated by the fact that a lot of the Earth is covered by ocean, so observations are hard to come by, but often you can see it quite clearly: a cold snap in Europe will accompanied by warm temperatures in North America, or vice versa.  Every winter conspiracy-mongers will point to the fact that it snows to try to prove that global warming doesn't exist, just like every summer overzealous science defenders will try to use heat waves as proof that it does exist. Each of these groups are equally wrong. You have to keep in mind that global warming, even in the worst case scenario, will only be a few degrees over the next 50 years. A few degrees warmer than your average temperatures are still going to feel pretty average, just like a few degrees warmer than the coldest weather currently possible in your area is still going to be pretty damn cold!  This isn't to say you shouldn't ask questions. Scientists should be forced to defend their conclusions. I just wish more were willing to listen to the answers.","human_ref_B":"You have to remember that \"global warming\" (climate change) does not, and does not attempt to, explain single weather events. It describes long term changes in global temperatures. There will always be extreme events, and though what we see as extreme now may become average in the future, you cannot attribute single weather events to the effects of climate change.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":649.0,"score_ratio":2.5555555556}
{"post_id":"36hagn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"How does the cell on the tip of my nose know to perform all the functions of a cell on the tip of my nose? How does it know that it isn't a cell on the side of my nose (or my liver, brain, etc.)","c_root_id_A":"cre2ojy","c_root_id_B":"cre1mnl","created_at_utc_A":1432046288,"created_at_utc_B":1432044332,"score_A":82,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Most of the responses here describe developmentally how a cell knows what kind of cell it should turn into, and they're excellent responses.  I will add one thing - all somatic cells in your body have the exact same genes, so cellular identity is determined epigenetically by chemical modifications to the chromatin that turn certain genes on and other genes off.  So extracellular signal gradients tell the cell what it should be, and it then establishes its identity via epigenetic mechanisms.","human_ref_B":"Another thought: stem cells undergo unique methylation patterns that 'code' them to be used in different areas throughout the body. This is one of the major problems with a pure DNA view. Methylation of DNA as well as methylation and acetylation of histones can affect gene expression. I know this is maybe a little off topic, but I hope it helps!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1956.0,"score_ratio":5.125}
{"post_id":"36hagn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"How does the cell on the tip of my nose know to perform all the functions of a cell on the tip of my nose? How does it know that it isn't a cell on the side of my nose (or my liver, brain, etc.)","c_root_id_A":"cre518d","c_root_id_B":"cre1mnl","created_at_utc_A":1432050257,"created_at_utc_B":1432044332,"score_A":34,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"After development, which a lot of the really good answers are focused on, your cells know to *stay* the correct type of cell by modifying their genomes to only express the right subset of genes in the right dosage at the right time. This is possible because the genome is more than just its constituent DNA - it's wrapped up in proteins called histones, which can be chemically modified to control which DNA can be accessed and when. Your DNA itself can also be modified - methylation of certain sequences of DNA (CpG dinucleotides most prominently) is known to suppress gene expression.  So it turns out the way your chromatin (the DNA + histones) is wrapped up and 3-dimensionally organized dictates which genes are expressed when and in what cell types.  An important point to add is that epigenetics\/epigenomics and chromatin biology are VERY active fields of study. Beyond what I've stated here, there's not a whole lot accepted as absolute fact; for example, how the histones are modified (by what proteins, under what conditions, etc) and why that serves to open up DNA is still under investigation. As is why certain cells are more or less amenable to being \"reprogrammed\" as different cell types, or how it even happens. Every answer in biology generates 3 more questions!","human_ref_B":"Another thought: stem cells undergo unique methylation patterns that 'code' them to be used in different areas throughout the body. This is one of the major problems with a pure DNA view. Methylation of DNA as well as methylation and acetylation of histones can affect gene expression. I know this is maybe a little off topic, but I hope it helps!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5925.0,"score_ratio":2.125}
{"post_id":"z0an2u","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why does Moana Kea have so many cinder cones? Just came back from a trip to Hawaii, and we drove over the Saddle Road, and I was really surprised by how many cinder cones are scattered all over the south side of Moana Kea. By contrast, there are comparatively few on the north side of Moana Loa.   I've spent a lot of time around volcanoes in the PNW, from Mt. Baker to Shasta, and never seen that quantity of cinder cones on any of them (although Adams does have a very distinctive cinder cone on the north side.)  I assume at least some of them would be erased by glacial activity, but apparently Moana Kea used to have glaciers.","c_root_id_A":"ix517v4","c_root_id_B":"ix4z0lb","created_at_utc_A":1668975697,"created_at_utc_B":1668974830,"score_A":65,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea are both shield volcanoes formed by the Hawaiian Plume, but they are in different phases of life for volcanoes of this type. Mauna Loa is in active shield building, where you have large volumes of silica-poor lavas with low viscosity with frequent eruptions. The eruptions occur both from the central, summit vent, and from fissures along the flanks of the mountain. Mauna Kea is currently dormant and has entered the post-shield phase. During this phase lavas become more silica rich, with higher viscosity, and usually have a higher concentration of water, CO2, and SO4 in the magma. Higher viscosity lavas with higher volatile contents are more explosive, gases the exsolve from lava as it rises cannot escape like bubbles in a pot of boiling water. They grow in the lava, becoming bigger as lava rises to the surface. This makes the lavas less dense, making them ascend faster, and eventually when lava hits the atmosphere, they explode, creating cinders.  You can also get cinder cones during active shield building, but it isn\u2019t as common, and since there are so many lava flows happening all the time, the landscape is constantly being covered by new flows and any surface record of cinder cones are lost. Mauna Kea has not been active since 4000 years ago, though it is likely to become active again at some point in the post-shield stage.  An interesting detail about Hawaii is that there are actually two trends of volcanoes, called the Kea and Loa trends, that can be identified by rock chemistry. On the big island Kohala, Mauna Kea, and Kilauea make up the Kea trend, and Hualalai, Mauna Loa, and Loihi make up the Loa trend.  Edited to add some nots that were lost.","human_ref_B":"There are at least 30 cinder cones that have come out of vents in my lifetime there in Hawaii. The volcanic system is very active and over geologic time you would expect to see lots of them. The ones you see at the saddle road area have not experienced ocean erosion and so once they pop up they stay for a long time. You're watching a mountain being formed.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":867.0,"score_ratio":5.4166666667}
{"post_id":"z0an2u","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Why does Moana Kea have so many cinder cones? Just came back from a trip to Hawaii, and we drove over the Saddle Road, and I was really surprised by how many cinder cones are scattered all over the south side of Moana Kea. By contrast, there are comparatively few on the north side of Moana Loa.   I've spent a lot of time around volcanoes in the PNW, from Mt. Baker to Shasta, and never seen that quantity of cinder cones on any of them (although Adams does have a very distinctive cinder cone on the north side.)  I assume at least some of them would be erased by glacial activity, but apparently Moana Kea used to have glaciers.","c_root_id_A":"ix517v4","c_root_id_B":"ix500aw","created_at_utc_A":1668975697,"created_at_utc_B":1668975218,"score_A":65,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea are both shield volcanoes formed by the Hawaiian Plume, but they are in different phases of life for volcanoes of this type. Mauna Loa is in active shield building, where you have large volumes of silica-poor lavas with low viscosity with frequent eruptions. The eruptions occur both from the central, summit vent, and from fissures along the flanks of the mountain. Mauna Kea is currently dormant and has entered the post-shield phase. During this phase lavas become more silica rich, with higher viscosity, and usually have a higher concentration of water, CO2, and SO4 in the magma. Higher viscosity lavas with higher volatile contents are more explosive, gases the exsolve from lava as it rises cannot escape like bubbles in a pot of boiling water. They grow in the lava, becoming bigger as lava rises to the surface. This makes the lavas less dense, making them ascend faster, and eventually when lava hits the atmosphere, they explode, creating cinders.  You can also get cinder cones during active shield building, but it isn\u2019t as common, and since there are so many lava flows happening all the time, the landscape is constantly being covered by new flows and any surface record of cinder cones are lost. Mauna Kea has not been active since 4000 years ago, though it is likely to become active again at some point in the post-shield stage.  An interesting detail about Hawaii is that there are actually two trends of volcanoes, called the Kea and Loa trends, that can be identified by rock chemistry. On the big island Kohala, Mauna Kea, and Kilauea make up the Kea trend, and Hualalai, Mauna Loa, and Loihi make up the Loa trend.  Edited to add some nots that were lost.","human_ref_B":"Because it\u2019s an old volcano, but not so old as to have been eroded. Hawaiian volcanoes go through stages. Kilauea is very active and young. Mauna Loa is also active but not so young. Mauna Kea is much older and went though a late stage resurgence of activity that precedes dormancy. This is the source of the small cinder cones. Kohala is ancient and has been eroded away. Eventually Mauna Loa is go through the same process and make its own small cinder cones.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":479.0,"score_ratio":7.2222222222}
{"post_id":"x3negu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.74,"history":"Why does metal sometimes look so rough and \"powdery\" on the inside when it breaks? I noticed this most recently on this corkscrew\/bottle opener that snapped.  I would have expected it to be smoother and more shiny, even if not quite as much so as the polished surface.  https:\/\/imgur.com\/a\/r7u1WND","c_root_id_A":"imrg21i","c_root_id_B":"imrg1h9","created_at_utc_A":1662096969,"created_at_utc_B":1662096957,"score_A":54,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Metals are crystalline, but the metals we work with typically are not in the form of nice chunky crystals but are composed of many many small crystal grains. When a metal piece breaks, the exact surface of separation will propagate randomly between these grains which results in the rough surface.","human_ref_B":"A metalugusit will have a better answer I just beat and weld on the stuff occasionally. Cast metals have a granular crytaline structure as it's a one and done process where molten metal is poured into a form or mould. Processes steel goes through a series of processes involving  heat and pressure to refine the crystalline structure to a degree where it's practicaly invisible to the naked eye.   Sort of like building a sandcastle out of damp course sand vs very fine plaster sand. The fine sand will hold its shape much better and be stronger than the course sand castle.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12.0,"score_ratio":3.8571428571}
{"post_id":"x3negu","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.74,"history":"Why does metal sometimes look so rough and \"powdery\" on the inside when it breaks? I noticed this most recently on this corkscrew\/bottle opener that snapped.  I would have expected it to be smoother and more shiny, even if not quite as much so as the polished surface.  https:\/\/imgur.com\/a\/r7u1WND","c_root_id_A":"imrkpr6","c_root_id_B":"imsksfj","created_at_utc_A":1662100327,"created_at_utc_B":1662124900,"score_A":6,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"could be a sintered part. where fine metal powder gets pressed into the shape of the part and then heated so far to soften the grains but not melt them. retains the powdery texture of the metal and is easier to do than casting.","human_ref_B":"The surface texture that you are describing is due to a phenomena called \"Microvoid Coalescence\".  When certain materials reach their breaking point, tiny voids that were present in the material beforehand, combine with one another, making larger voids, and ultimately giving this texture.  Do a google search for microvoid coalescence to learn more, this is just a quick answer.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":24573.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"h52xs","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"A question for mathematicians\/statisticians, from a science noob, concerning the \"miracle\" of how large samples can average so precisely... I am a commercial translator.  It so happens that source texts in one of the languages I translate from (Czech) will always be one third shorter as the target text in the other language (in this case German).    What freaks me out is that this holds true across the field - all sorts of texts, all sorts of translators, it matters not - the character count of the German version is ALWAYS higher by a factor of 1.3. (and astonishingly precisely so).  I have no clue how statistics work, but I am intrigued enough by this (to me) \"miracle\" that I wanted to ask: is THIS a (typical example for a) statistical phenomenon where, given a large enough sample (of a couple of paragraphs, say - I have not verified the 1.3x rule for isolated words or sentences), \"average word lengths\" in each language bob to the surface and determine the contraction\/expansion in the character count, even though I could off the top of my head name dozens of examples of word pairs where the German is SHORTER than the Czech?  I am not expressing myself very well here - my apologies.  And thank you for your time.","c_root_id_A":"c1snmp0","c_root_id_B":"c1sn2mx","created_at_utc_A":1304633512,"created_at_utc_B":1304628268,"score_A":12,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I think this is a case of the Law of Large Numbers and it is exactly as you state.  It might not hold for a line or two, but the longer the text the more likely you will get to the factor of 1.3","human_ref_B":"There is a mathematical distribution called the Poisson Distribution that governs probabilities for independent events that have a small probability of occurring.  I'm not a mathematician, but I think your example fits into this category.  One example of hos this applies is radioactive decay.  At a given point in time, each nucleus in a large sample has a tiny tiny chance of decaying, but the Poisson distribution governs how a large sample behaves as one.  The takeaway here is that, in general, we take several measurements of something to try to determine an underlying quantity.  For you, it is the ratio of the lengths of the two samples of writing.  For me it might be the number of decays in a given amount of time.  For a Poisson distribution, the uncertainty in the measurement *decreases* as the amount of data collected gets larger.  This is the phenomenon you describe, that for large samples the averages get better.    Specifically, the uncertainty shrinks in proportion to the square of the amount of data collected.  So if you take 4 times as much data, your uncertainty shrinks by a factor of 2.  This is a bit rambling because I just drank a bunch of coffee, but hopefully it answers your question.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5244.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"pvrdqw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Are Neutrinos not faster than light? Scientists keep proving that neutrinos do not travel faster than the speed of light. Well if that is the case, in case of a cosmic event like a supernova, why do neutrinos reach us before light does? What is obstructing light from getting to us the same time?","c_root_id_A":"hedejhf","c_root_id_B":"hedrtis","created_at_utc_A":1632678541,"created_at_utc_B":1632683819,"score_A":23,"score_B":60,"human_ref_A":"The neutrinos which are indicators of an impending supernova are created and leave the star before the star visibly goes supernova. It's a bit like the tremors we measure on seismographs which are imperceptible to humans, and come before we can feel the ground shaking.  As others have said, the speed of neutrinos is so close to the speed of light, that you'd need to be incredibly far away from the supernova for the supernova-illustrating photons to overtake the neutrinos.  tl;dr: the neutrinos have enough of a head start that they arrive at our location, and bombard our sensors, before we can see the visible photons which show us the actual supernova.  Edit:  > Due to their weakly interacting nature, neutrinos emerge promptly after the collapse. In contrast, there may be a delay of hours or days before the photon signal emerges from the stellar envelope. Therefore, a supernova will be observed first in neutrino observatories.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supernova_neutrinos#Detection_Significance","human_ref_B":"A pre-supernova star is huge, really huge, a 9 solar mass star size can reach 8 million km (4 million km from the core to the surface). And before the huge explosion happens the core will start collapsing under its own gravity, this collapse happens in less than a second (simulation says less than 250ms) generating an immense amount of Neutrinos which will take a few seconds to get out of the whole star into the space. But the shockwave wall take a few hours to reach the star surface where the star will explode then and then be able to be seen, how many hours depends on the star size, so for neutrinos, this can be just 13.4-13.5 seconds (13.3 at c).  So the neutrinos will have a few hours advantages to the visible explosion, and depending on the star size (how many hours between the core collapse and the actual explosion) the advantage the neutrinos have will vary as eventually light will surpass the neutrinos which travel very close to the speed of light.  To add to that, some supernovas can take few months to get to their peak brightness.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5278.0,"score_ratio":2.6086956522}
{"post_id":"dpq3zn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":1.0,"history":"How do engineers determine whether a major fault occurred when dealing with destroyed mechanics? If an engine, for example, is completely destroyed, what's the process to determine if it suffered a fault?","c_root_id_A":"f5ziop6","c_root_id_B":"f5zun5c","created_at_utc_A":1572577887,"created_at_utc_B":1572588811,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I myself Mechanical Engineer and one of my internships during school was working for a manufacturer that makes the system used by cargo planes to secure cargo. I worked in the test department. I tested items for a few different reasons (does it meet design loading, what was the cause of an item failing).  I had a few tests that were to disprove an item had failed and needed to be replaced due to warranty. (Through testing i proved it had been improperly reinstalled causing the item to fail with less loading than than if the item was subjected to a point load installed properly.   In the case of any engine failure there are different signs you can look at if youre familiar with how an engine operates. Its putting a puzzle together, making a few educated guesses, and sometimes replicating the failure at a specific point.","human_ref_B":"The behavior of most common materials is well understood; as is the thermodynamics\/electrodynamics that goes on in all subsystems in an engine.  Figuring out the failure mechanism is really a process of looking at the wreckage and working backwards.  What shape did different components break or bend in?  Is there any fuel or ash in places where it shouldnt be?  Then use your brain to theorize what could have caused those to happen.  For each possible cause you identify; work backwards again to determine what could have caused it to take place.  Repeat over and over until you identify one or more possible chains of events that could have lead the previously working machine to become you are presented with.  Once you have identified possible root causes and the chains of events that result from them; the next step (if you want to be very complete) is validating them.  Try to recreate the original event (in a controlled lab if possible) and see if you end up with damage similar to the original damaged engine.  Ill give you an example I worked on a while back; albiet not related to engines.  A beverage company noticed that one out of every 20 or so pallets of canned beverage they ship would cause a puncture in one can; which would ruin the whole pallet (the can would spill everywhere.  They wanted to figure out what caused that can to fail; and ultimately redesign the pallets to avoid the failure.    The failure obviously came from the bumps in the road; so they took a pallet in a lab and mounted it on a machine that can recreate vibration in one direction; they bounced it up and down in a manner similar to that of a truck driving.  This sort of test is common and there are a ton of vibration standards to test to.  But there was no failure.  So then they decided it must come from motion in *more than one direction*.  They wanted to test that theory out; but there were no standards for it so they had to go out and put sensors on trucks to measure the vibration in many directions at the same time.  They played that back on a multi-axis vibration system; and Boom.  Got a can to fail within minutes.  Once they could reproduce the failure in the lab, it was easy to analyze the dynamics and design a new pallet that would not cause that failure.  This is a very simple example; if you want to see some more advanced examples Id suggest watching the show \"Air Crash Investigation\" there are a lot of episodes on Youtube.  The more interesting ones show the entire process of failure analysis; by analyzing an air crash site they are able to pinpoint exactly what caused the crash; down to (for example) which wire got shorted and started a fire which ultimately made an engine burst into flames.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10924.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbdxt80","c_root_id_B":"dbe8cnk","created_at_utc_A":1482168483,"created_at_utc_B":1482180913,"score_A":61,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"Reindeer & caribou are the same species (Rangifer tarandus), but reindeer are (semi-)domesticated and cozy w\/humans, while caribou are wild.","human_ref_B":"I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. Reindeer meat is quite common here. We also have a Reindeer Farm on campus here at UAF. They're quite docile with humans!  I've had reindeer sausage many times. Reindeer steaks once or twice. Reindeer jerkey. I made Hamburger Helper with Reindeer Sausage once. Incredible.  Try it if you get the chance to. If anyone wants to try it, I can ship some to you! Just pay for the product and the shipping and I'll be glad to help. Just PM me if interested.   EDIT: I had a lot of people ask me about shipping them reindeer steaks and fillets and stuff. I can't and **WON'T do that** for safety reasons. It will spoil before it gets to you. I can only ship cured meats (sausages, jerky, etc) because it can sit out and not spoil. If you want to get some legit fresh meat from up here, please contact Delta Meats and place an order with them directly. They can ship next-business day in chilled freight, from what I understand. Expect that to be VERY pricey though.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12430.0,"score_ratio":1.0491803279}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbdxs9i","c_root_id_B":"dbe8cnk","created_at_utc_A":1482168452,"created_at_utc_B":1482180913,"score_A":24,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"How does the cost of reindeer compare to cattle, both in terms of the upkeep expense from the herder and from the return on investment (dollar per pound of meat?)  Most broadly, is reindeer more economical, at least in certain environments? And perhaps even more broadly, are reindeer more environmentally friendly in the context of climate change?","human_ref_B":"I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. Reindeer meat is quite common here. We also have a Reindeer Farm on campus here at UAF. They're quite docile with humans!  I've had reindeer sausage many times. Reindeer steaks once or twice. Reindeer jerkey. I made Hamburger Helper with Reindeer Sausage once. Incredible.  Try it if you get the chance to. If anyone wants to try it, I can ship some to you! Just pay for the product and the shipping and I'll be glad to help. Just PM me if interested.   EDIT: I had a lot of people ask me about shipping them reindeer steaks and fillets and stuff. I can't and **WON'T do that** for safety reasons. It will spoil before it gets to you. I can only ship cured meats (sausages, jerky, etc) because it can sit out and not spoil. If you want to get some legit fresh meat from up here, please contact Delta Meats and place an order with them directly. They can ship next-business day in chilled freight, from what I understand. Expect that to be VERY pricey though.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12461.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe8cnk","c_root_id_B":"dbe0o01","created_at_utc_A":1482180913,"created_at_utc_B":1482171947,"score_A":64,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. Reindeer meat is quite common here. We also have a Reindeer Farm on campus here at UAF. They're quite docile with humans!  I've had reindeer sausage many times. Reindeer steaks once or twice. Reindeer jerkey. I made Hamburger Helper with Reindeer Sausage once. Incredible.  Try it if you get the chance to. If anyone wants to try it, I can ship some to you! Just pay for the product and the shipping and I'll be glad to help. Just PM me if interested.   EDIT: I had a lot of people ask me about shipping them reindeer steaks and fillets and stuff. I can't and **WON'T do that** for safety reasons. It will spoil before it gets to you. I can only ship cured meats (sausages, jerky, etc) because it can sit out and not spoil. If you want to get some legit fresh meat from up here, please contact Delta Meats and place an order with them directly. They can ship next-business day in chilled freight, from what I understand. Expect that to be VERY pricey though.","human_ref_B":"In Europe and Russia, where the word \"reindeer\" originated (via Old Norse http:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/reindeer), wild reindeer are called \"wild reindeer,\u201d but in North America, wild reindeer are called \u201ccaribou,\" from the Native American Mi'kmaq language (http:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/caribou). Languages other than English have yet other names for reindeer, wild reindeer, and caribou.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8966.0,"score_ratio":3.3684210526}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe8cnk","c_root_id_B":"dbdxtdx","created_at_utc_A":1482180913,"created_at_utc_B":1482168488,"score_A":64,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. Reindeer meat is quite common here. We also have a Reindeer Farm on campus here at UAF. They're quite docile with humans!  I've had reindeer sausage many times. Reindeer steaks once or twice. Reindeer jerkey. I made Hamburger Helper with Reindeer Sausage once. Incredible.  Try it if you get the chance to. If anyone wants to try it, I can ship some to you! Just pay for the product and the shipping and I'll be glad to help. Just PM me if interested.   EDIT: I had a lot of people ask me about shipping them reindeer steaks and fillets and stuff. I can't and **WON'T do that** for safety reasons. It will spoil before it gets to you. I can only ship cured meats (sausages, jerky, etc) because it can sit out and not spoil. If you want to get some legit fresh meat from up here, please contact Delta Meats and place an order with them directly. They can ship next-business day in chilled freight, from what I understand. Expect that to be VERY pricey though.","human_ref_B":"So what is one the preferred methods of serving reindeer? I'm assuming it is gamier than beef or venison for that matter... I've heard it being made into sausage, but not sure how lean it is compared to other red meat. Any hints for the inexperienced plausible Rudolph consumer?   Edit: Is it more like Elk? I've eaten Elk burgers, and they were pretty good, not  super gamey.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12425.0,"score_ratio":7.1111111111}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbdzfsp","c_root_id_B":"dbe8cnk","created_at_utc_A":1482170450,"created_at_utc_B":1482180913,"score_A":7,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"When you look at this map of reindeer herding throughout the world, the lack of operations in North America really stand out: http:\/\/reindeerherding.org\/. Every other area near the Arctic Circle - from Greenland to Iceland to Sweden to Russia - seems to have a lot more going on.","human_ref_B":"I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. Reindeer meat is quite common here. We also have a Reindeer Farm on campus here at UAF. They're quite docile with humans!  I've had reindeer sausage many times. Reindeer steaks once or twice. Reindeer jerkey. I made Hamburger Helper with Reindeer Sausage once. Incredible.  Try it if you get the chance to. If anyone wants to try it, I can ship some to you! Just pay for the product and the shipping and I'll be glad to help. Just PM me if interested.   EDIT: I had a lot of people ask me about shipping them reindeer steaks and fillets and stuff. I can't and **WON'T do that** for safety reasons. It will spoil before it gets to you. I can only ship cured meats (sausages, jerky, etc) because it can sit out and not spoil. If you want to get some legit fresh meat from up here, please contact Delta Meats and place an order with them directly. They can ship next-business day in chilled freight, from what I understand. Expect that to be VERY pricey though.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10463.0,"score_ratio":9.1428571429}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe8cnk","c_root_id_B":"dbe3jnv","created_at_utc_A":1482180913,"created_at_utc_B":1482175374,"score_A":64,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. Reindeer meat is quite common here. We also have a Reindeer Farm on campus here at UAF. They're quite docile with humans!  I've had reindeer sausage many times. Reindeer steaks once or twice. Reindeer jerkey. I made Hamburger Helper with Reindeer Sausage once. Incredible.  Try it if you get the chance to. If anyone wants to try it, I can ship some to you! Just pay for the product and the shipping and I'll be glad to help. Just PM me if interested.   EDIT: I had a lot of people ask me about shipping them reindeer steaks and fillets and stuff. I can't and **WON'T do that** for safety reasons. It will spoil before it gets to you. I can only ship cured meats (sausages, jerky, etc) because it can sit out and not spoil. If you want to get some legit fresh meat from up here, please contact Delta Meats and place an order with them directly. They can ship next-business day in chilled freight, from what I understand. Expect that to be VERY pricey though.","human_ref_B":"Are there people who have wished to change the common name away from reindeer, dropping the 'deer' part, shortening it to rein, ren, or some other spelling? It annoys me that their common name is longer in english than in eurasian languages. It's slightly annoying as well to not be able to mention reindeer without the rudolph story copming up, but nothing can be done about that.   As for it's meat, it is very lean and all the fat is on the outside. I know of a group of people who tried to eat exclusively reindeer meat, and they soon started to prioritize the fat simply because the meat was too lean. I personally think reindeer meat is very high quality, a delicious meat that tastes best with only salt and butter.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5539.0,"score_ratio":16.0}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe1ao5","c_root_id_B":"dbe8cnk","created_at_utc_A":1482172702,"created_at_utc_B":1482180913,"score_A":2,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"Which country\/area has enjoyed the biggest success in reindeer herding?","human_ref_B":"I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. Reindeer meat is quite common here. We also have a Reindeer Farm on campus here at UAF. They're quite docile with humans!  I've had reindeer sausage many times. Reindeer steaks once or twice. Reindeer jerkey. I made Hamburger Helper with Reindeer Sausage once. Incredible.  Try it if you get the chance to. If anyone wants to try it, I can ship some to you! Just pay for the product and the shipping and I'll be glad to help. Just PM me if interested.   EDIT: I had a lot of people ask me about shipping them reindeer steaks and fillets and stuff. I can't and **WON'T do that** for safety reasons. It will spoil before it gets to you. I can only ship cured meats (sausages, jerky, etc) because it can sit out and not spoil. If you want to get some legit fresh meat from up here, please contact Delta Meats and place an order with them directly. They can ship next-business day in chilled freight, from what I understand. Expect that to be VERY pricey though.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8211.0,"score_ratio":32.0}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe29ed","c_root_id_B":"dbe8cnk","created_at_utc_A":1482173844,"created_at_utc_B":1482180913,"score_A":2,"score_B":64,"human_ref_A":"Is there any significant difference between reindeer meat and venison?  Here in northern Vermont, US, we do have deer farms and also across the US hunters regularly harvest and eat deer.","human_ref_B":"I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. Reindeer meat is quite common here. We also have a Reindeer Farm on campus here at UAF. They're quite docile with humans!  I've had reindeer sausage many times. Reindeer steaks once or twice. Reindeer jerkey. I made Hamburger Helper with Reindeer Sausage once. Incredible.  Try it if you get the chance to. If anyone wants to try it, I can ship some to you! Just pay for the product and the shipping and I'll be glad to help. Just PM me if interested.   EDIT: I had a lot of people ask me about shipping them reindeer steaks and fillets and stuff. I can't and **WON'T do that** for safety reasons. It will spoil before it gets to you. I can only ship cured meats (sausages, jerky, etc) because it can sit out and not spoil. If you want to get some legit fresh meat from up here, please contact Delta Meats and place an order with them directly. They can ship next-business day in chilled freight, from what I understand. Expect that to be VERY pricey though.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7069.0,"score_ratio":32.0}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbdxt80","c_root_id_B":"dbdxs9i","created_at_utc_A":1482168483,"created_at_utc_B":1482168452,"score_A":61,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"Reindeer & caribou are the same species (Rangifer tarandus), but reindeer are (semi-)domesticated and cozy w\/humans, while caribou are wild.","human_ref_B":"How does the cost of reindeer compare to cattle, both in terms of the upkeep expense from the herder and from the return on investment (dollar per pound of meat?)  Most broadly, is reindeer more economical, at least in certain environments? And perhaps even more broadly, are reindeer more environmentally friendly in the context of climate change?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":31.0,"score_ratio":2.5416666667}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbedu4z","c_root_id_B":"dbdxs9i","created_at_utc_A":1482187176,"created_at_utc_B":1482168452,"score_A":45,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"I live in northern Sweden and here we got raindeer meat in every supermarket, hamburger and pizza restaurant.   The native people in Scandinavia, the sami people have lived off herding raindeers for thousands of years. Nowdays they a sort of have a monopoly on the herding since its kinda the only thing they got left since the swedes took control over the area.  The Swedish word for raindeer is 'ren', I suspect that's the orgin of the English word.","human_ref_B":"How does the cost of reindeer compare to cattle, both in terms of the upkeep expense from the herder and from the return on investment (dollar per pound of meat?)  Most broadly, is reindeer more economical, at least in certain environments? And perhaps even more broadly, are reindeer more environmentally friendly in the context of climate change?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18724.0,"score_ratio":1.875}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbedu4z","c_root_id_B":"dbe0o01","created_at_utc_A":1482187176,"created_at_utc_B":1482171947,"score_A":45,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"I live in northern Sweden and here we got raindeer meat in every supermarket, hamburger and pizza restaurant.   The native people in Scandinavia, the sami people have lived off herding raindeers for thousands of years. Nowdays they a sort of have a monopoly on the herding since its kinda the only thing they got left since the swedes took control over the area.  The Swedish word for raindeer is 'ren', I suspect that's the orgin of the English word.","human_ref_B":"In Europe and Russia, where the word \"reindeer\" originated (via Old Norse http:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/reindeer), wild reindeer are called \"wild reindeer,\u201d but in North America, wild reindeer are called \u201ccaribou,\" from the Native American Mi'kmaq language (http:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/caribou). Languages other than English have yet other names for reindeer, wild reindeer, and caribou.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15229.0,"score_ratio":2.3684210526}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbdxtdx","c_root_id_B":"dbedu4z","created_at_utc_A":1482168488,"created_at_utc_B":1482187176,"score_A":9,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"So what is one the preferred methods of serving reindeer? I'm assuming it is gamier than beef or venison for that matter... I've heard it being made into sausage, but not sure how lean it is compared to other red meat. Any hints for the inexperienced plausible Rudolph consumer?   Edit: Is it more like Elk? I've eaten Elk burgers, and they were pretty good, not  super gamey.","human_ref_B":"I live in northern Sweden and here we got raindeer meat in every supermarket, hamburger and pizza restaurant.   The native people in Scandinavia, the sami people have lived off herding raindeers for thousands of years. Nowdays they a sort of have a monopoly on the herding since its kinda the only thing they got left since the swedes took control over the area.  The Swedish word for raindeer is 'ren', I suspect that's the orgin of the English word.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18688.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbdzfsp","c_root_id_B":"dbedu4z","created_at_utc_A":1482170450,"created_at_utc_B":1482187176,"score_A":7,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"When you look at this map of reindeer herding throughout the world, the lack of operations in North America really stand out: http:\/\/reindeerherding.org\/. Every other area near the Arctic Circle - from Greenland to Iceland to Sweden to Russia - seems to have a lot more going on.","human_ref_B":"I live in northern Sweden and here we got raindeer meat in every supermarket, hamburger and pizza restaurant.   The native people in Scandinavia, the sami people have lived off herding raindeers for thousands of years. Nowdays they a sort of have a monopoly on the herding since its kinda the only thing they got left since the swedes took control over the area.  The Swedish word for raindeer is 'ren', I suspect that's the orgin of the English word.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":16726.0,"score_ratio":6.4285714286}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbedu4z","c_root_id_B":"dbe3jnv","created_at_utc_A":1482187176,"created_at_utc_B":1482175374,"score_A":45,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I live in northern Sweden and here we got raindeer meat in every supermarket, hamburger and pizza restaurant.   The native people in Scandinavia, the sami people have lived off herding raindeers for thousands of years. Nowdays they a sort of have a monopoly on the herding since its kinda the only thing they got left since the swedes took control over the area.  The Swedish word for raindeer is 'ren', I suspect that's the orgin of the English word.","human_ref_B":"Are there people who have wished to change the common name away from reindeer, dropping the 'deer' part, shortening it to rein, ren, or some other spelling? It annoys me that their common name is longer in english than in eurasian languages. It's slightly annoying as well to not be able to mention reindeer without the rudolph story copming up, but nothing can be done about that.   As for it's meat, it is very lean and all the fat is on the outside. I know of a group of people who tried to eat exclusively reindeer meat, and they soon started to prioritize the fat simply because the meat was too lean. I personally think reindeer meat is very high quality, a delicious meat that tastes best with only salt and butter.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11802.0,"score_ratio":11.25}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe1ao5","c_root_id_B":"dbedu4z","created_at_utc_A":1482172702,"created_at_utc_B":1482187176,"score_A":2,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"Which country\/area has enjoyed the biggest success in reindeer herding?","human_ref_B":"I live in northern Sweden and here we got raindeer meat in every supermarket, hamburger and pizza restaurant.   The native people in Scandinavia, the sami people have lived off herding raindeers for thousands of years. Nowdays they a sort of have a monopoly on the herding since its kinda the only thing they got left since the swedes took control over the area.  The Swedish word for raindeer is 'ren', I suspect that's the orgin of the English word.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14474.0,"score_ratio":22.5}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe29ed","c_root_id_B":"dbedu4z","created_at_utc_A":1482173844,"created_at_utc_B":1482187176,"score_A":2,"score_B":45,"human_ref_A":"Is there any significant difference between reindeer meat and venison?  Here in northern Vermont, US, we do have deer farms and also across the US hunters regularly harvest and eat deer.","human_ref_B":"I live in northern Sweden and here we got raindeer meat in every supermarket, hamburger and pizza restaurant.   The native people in Scandinavia, the sami people have lived off herding raindeers for thousands of years. Nowdays they a sort of have a monopoly on the herding since its kinda the only thing they got left since the swedes took control over the area.  The Swedish word for raindeer is 'ren', I suspect that's the orgin of the English word.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13332.0,"score_ratio":22.5}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbdxtdx","c_root_id_B":"dbe0o01","created_at_utc_A":1482168488,"created_at_utc_B":1482171947,"score_A":9,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"So what is one the preferred methods of serving reindeer? I'm assuming it is gamier than beef or venison for that matter... I've heard it being made into sausage, but not sure how lean it is compared to other red meat. Any hints for the inexperienced plausible Rudolph consumer?   Edit: Is it more like Elk? I've eaten Elk burgers, and they were pretty good, not  super gamey.","human_ref_B":"In Europe and Russia, where the word \"reindeer\" originated (via Old Norse http:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/reindeer), wild reindeer are called \"wild reindeer,\u201d but in North America, wild reindeer are called \u201ccaribou,\" from the Native American Mi'kmaq language (http:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/caribou). Languages other than English have yet other names for reindeer, wild reindeer, and caribou.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3459.0,"score_ratio":2.1111111111}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe0o01","c_root_id_B":"dbdzfsp","created_at_utc_A":1482171947,"created_at_utc_B":1482170450,"score_A":19,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"In Europe and Russia, where the word \"reindeer\" originated (via Old Norse http:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/reindeer), wild reindeer are called \"wild reindeer,\u201d but in North America, wild reindeer are called \u201ccaribou,\" from the Native American Mi'kmaq language (http:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/caribou). Languages other than English have yet other names for reindeer, wild reindeer, and caribou.","human_ref_B":"When you look at this map of reindeer herding throughout the world, the lack of operations in North America really stand out: http:\/\/reindeerherding.org\/. Every other area near the Arctic Circle - from Greenland to Iceland to Sweden to Russia - seems to have a lot more going on.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1497.0,"score_ratio":2.7142857143}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe1ao5","c_root_id_B":"dbenvg2","created_at_utc_A":1482172702,"created_at_utc_B":1482200662,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Which country\/area has enjoyed the biggest success in reindeer herding?","human_ref_B":"I'm afraid this might be too off topic - if it is, I apologize.  The failed plan to introduce reindeer meat as an American staple brought to mind a similar plan to introduce hippos to the US as meat and as a solution to invasive water plants.  https:\/\/magazine.atavist.com\/american-hippopotamus","labels":0,"seconds_difference":27960.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe29ed","c_root_id_B":"dbenvg2","created_at_utc_A":1482173844,"created_at_utc_B":1482200662,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Is there any significant difference between reindeer meat and venison?  Here in northern Vermont, US, we do have deer farms and also across the US hunters regularly harvest and eat deer.","human_ref_B":"I'm afraid this might be too off topic - if it is, I apologize.  The failed plan to introduce reindeer meat as an American staple brought to mind a similar plan to introduce hippos to the US as meat and as a solution to invasive water plants.  https:\/\/magazine.atavist.com\/american-hippopotamus","labels":0,"seconds_difference":26818.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe3jnv","c_root_id_B":"dbe1ao5","created_at_utc_A":1482175374,"created_at_utc_B":1482172702,"score_A":4,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Are there people who have wished to change the common name away from reindeer, dropping the 'deer' part, shortening it to rein, ren, or some other spelling? It annoys me that their common name is longer in english than in eurasian languages. It's slightly annoying as well to not be able to mention reindeer without the rudolph story copming up, but nothing can be done about that.   As for it's meat, it is very lean and all the fat is on the outside. I know of a group of people who tried to eat exclusively reindeer meat, and they soon started to prioritize the fat simply because the meat was too lean. I personally think reindeer meat is very high quality, a delicious meat that tastes best with only salt and butter.","human_ref_B":"Which country\/area has enjoyed the biggest success in reindeer herding?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2672.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"5j7ip9","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Discussion: MinuteEarth's newest YouTube video on reindeer Meat! Reindeer meat could\u2019ve entered North American cuisine and culture, but our turn of the century efforts to develop a reindeer industry were stymied by nature, the beef lobby, and the Great Depression. Check out MinuteEarth's new video on the topic to learn more!  We're joined in this thread by David (\/u\/goldenbergdavid) from MinuteEarth, as well as Alex Reich (\/u\/reichale). Alex has an MS in Natural Resources Science & Management from the University of Minnesota, and has spent time with reindeer herders in Scandinavia and Russia, with caribou hunters in Greenland and Canada, and with many a Rangifer-related paper on his computer.","c_root_id_A":"dbe29ed","c_root_id_B":"dbe3jnv","created_at_utc_A":1482173844,"created_at_utc_B":1482175374,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Is there any significant difference between reindeer meat and venison?  Here in northern Vermont, US, we do have deer farms and also across the US hunters regularly harvest and eat deer.","human_ref_B":"Are there people who have wished to change the common name away from reindeer, dropping the 'deer' part, shortening it to rein, ren, or some other spelling? It annoys me that their common name is longer in english than in eurasian languages. It's slightly annoying as well to not be able to mention reindeer without the rudolph story copming up, but nothing can be done about that.   As for it's meat, it is very lean and all the fat is on the outside. I know of a group of people who tried to eat exclusively reindeer meat, and they soon started to prioritize the fat simply because the meat was too lean. I personally think reindeer meat is very high quality, a delicious meat that tastes best with only salt and butter.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1530.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"y66y5r","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Hashem Al-Ghaili, a science communicator with around 20 billion video views. AMA about bringing complex ideas to a wide audience! I'm a filmmaker from Yemen most well known for my Facebook page and my YouTube channel, where I share videos like MIT's interface of the future and the most expensive element on Earth.  My goal is to communicate scientific discoveries and breakthroughs to a wide audience through fun and visually engaging videos. During the pandemic, I used my communication channels to help try to stop the spread of misinformation, sending out daily infographics and updates to followers. I have delivered 4 TEDx talks where I discussed how to cure cancer using embryonic therapy, how can we change education now, how to make science fascinating to the general public, and how science-based decision can change the world.  In June and October 2022 my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication has helped organize this AMA session. I'll be available between 1 and 6 PM (Berlin time, 7-12 ET, 12-17 UT), AMA!  TEDx Videos:  + How to cure cancer using embryonic therapy: https:\/\/youtu.be\/bT-0oGDJqyo + How can we change education now: https:\/\/youtu.be\/COsVj2zb6s0 + How to make science fascinating: https:\/\/youtu.be\/ULKQiARO6y4 + Science-Based Decision-Making: https:\/\/youtu.be\/Z5H9uGSZTyk   Username: \/u\/IntEngineering","c_root_id_A":"isns7au","c_root_id_B":"isnqkog","created_at_utc_A":1666004937,"created_at_utc_B":1666003781,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Hi! How do you deal with issues like the reproducibility crisis and the growth of citation farms?","human_ref_B":"Hi, what kind of teams do you have working making the amazing videos?  * What platform do you use? How do you decide what topic to make content on?  * Where do you get the news from about the new discoveries?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1156.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"qcw2k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why is it that human beings require such a diverse diet to be healthy, but other animals do not? In particular I'm thinking of purely carnivorous animals like some fish, and herbivores like cows.","c_root_id_A":"c3wli6l","c_root_id_B":"c3wmfzd","created_at_utc_A":1330615468,"created_at_utc_B":1330620669,"score_A":2,"score_B":168,"human_ref_A":"Have you read anything about omnivory before? The strategy of eating both plant and animal-based foods is far from unique to humans. Omnivory can be seen as an evolutionary advantage because it allows for a flexible, adaptable diet. Perhaps an evolutionary biologist can speak more about why omnivores require a diverse diet, but in general it would act like a feedback loop: if over many generations your species evolves to eat a diverse diet, it's likely that they will continue to require to eat a diverse diet for health, as their other bodily functions will evolve under that set of diet criteria.","human_ref_B":"There are a few facets to your question and I'll try to get to them all. Animals are uniquely adapted to their environment, and as such different animals need different things to survive. What one animal eats another may not even need.  **What factors determine what you need to eat to survive?**  One of the most important factors is if your body can synthesize a compound on its own, or if it needs to ingest it. We call nutrients that you can make on your own 'non-essential' nutrients. Nutrients that you need to get from your diet are called 'essential' nutrients.  Different animals synthesize different nutrients, thus each species has its own set of 'essential nutrients'. For instance here is a list of essential amino acids for humans. Meaning we have to eat foodstuffs that contain these amnio acids because we cannot make them on our own.   Another example are cats, they (unlike us) cannot synthesize taurine, an amino acid. They must get taurine in their diet. We make it in our bodies. Another example: we do not make vitamin C, we must ingest it. This is because of our phylogenetic history (who our ancestors were), many primates do not synthesize vitamin C and must get it in their diet lie in fruits and vegetables.   Also, the physical structure of the gut and the enzymes we produce also influence what we can \/ cannot eat and what we need \/ do not need to eat. \"Carnivores have comparatively short digestive systems, as they are not required to break down tough cellulose found in plants.\" Herbivores have in comparison have very complex elongated guts, sometimes four chambered stomachs like the ruminants (cows). This is because plant material is very hard to digest, compared to meat. Enzymes required to break down the two diets differ as well, in both type and quantity (although there is a lot of overlap).  Our gut is adapted to an omnivore type diet composed of both meat and plant material. For more details about the history of our diet see below. We have a 'jack-of-all-trades' gut, we can eat pretty much anything, but we are not specialized for any particular food type in the way carnivores or herbivores are.  **What about Carnivores?**  There are very few true obligate carnivores Most carnivores eat some plant material in their diet but probably for other reasons then actual dietary needs. However, felids (the cats) are true obligate carnivores meaning they require meat in their diet. They still do sometimes consume plants. They get all the nutrients they need from animals - many nutrients are found in meat, bones, and bone marrow. Anything that is not found in meat, they can make on their own.  **What do we know about the history of human diet?**   First we can do a comparative analysis and look at what extant chimps and bonobos eat. We find modern day chimps hunt for raw meat and it makes up a small part of their diet. The rest is fruit and plants. Thus we assume that our last common ancestor with chimpanzees, what would become us, and what would become them, have always eaten and hunted for raw meat, but again this made up a small part of their diet.   The first humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) speciated some 200,000 years ago. Evidence for fire and cooked food precedes this date, thus it was discovered\/ invented somewhere in our Homo lineage. Physical evidence for fire dates back many hundreds of thousands of years, morphological evidence (changes within ourselves) go back further.  *Physical Evidence*: \"In Montreal, Canada in March 2004 stated that there is evidence for controlled fires in excavations in northern Israel from about 690,000 to 790,000 years ago. A site called Terra Amata, seems to have been occupied by H. erectus; it contains the earliest evidence of controlled fire, dated at around 300,000 years BC. Excavations dating from approximately 790,000 years ago in Israel suggest that H. erectus not only controlled fire but could light fires. Despite these examples, some scholars continue to assert that the controlled use of fire was not typical of H. erectus, but only of later species of Homo, such as H. heidelbergensis, H. sapiens neanderthalensis, and H. sapiens sapiens).\"  *Morphological Evidence*: The Homo lineage appeared about 2.4 mya with Homo habilis. Before the control of fire - we weren't humans (homo sapiens sapiens), we were another Homo species. Some scientists argue that even the earliest members of the Homo lineage used controlled fire to cook food, Homo erectus at around 1.8 mya. They justify this with changes in morphology resulting from this cooked diet - shorter guts and changes in dentition to name a few. Thus, anotomically modern humans have always had the ability to control fire, and cook food. As we progress through the Homo line - fire and cooking developed to be more complex\/widespread leading to an even greater varied foraging and extracting diet. Its unclear if every Homo species used fire (there were lots of them) or how often it was used, or what all the types of food that were cooked. We just don't have enough fossil evidence, yet. We do know that the diet was mostly cooked plants (tubers, fruits...) and that a smaller portion of the diet was made up of cooked meat. But that as hunting techniques and tools became more refined, meat increased in proportion. Thus fire having been used to modify our food also in turn effected our internal gut morphology.  We are uniquely adapted to a cooked food diet and what we ate changed slowly over time - from our common ancestor with chimps to Homo sapiens sapiens. What is known is that the control of fire and cooked food precedes our arrival. Our lineage (the Homo genus) has always been omnivorous, we are adapted to a cooked food diet made up of mostly plants and some meat. Which means - humans have never had raw meat as part of our natural diet, it has always been cooked.   **Sources for human diet**  Human Adaptation to the Control of Fire by RICHARD WRANGHAM AND RACHEL CARMODY.Evolutionary Anthropology 19:187\u2013199 (2010)  The raw and the stolen: cooking and the ecology of human origins. Wrangam et al. 1999. Current anthropology. 40(5):567-594  TL;DR - Hunting for meat with tools probable (6 MYA), Hunting for meat with tools (evidence - 4 mya), control of fire and cooking evidence: morphological (~ 1.8 mya), Controlling fire and cooking evidence: physical (400,000-700,000 years ago), arrival of humans (200,000 years ago).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5201.0,"score_ratio":84.0}
{"post_id":"qcw2k","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"Why is it that human beings require such a diverse diet to be healthy, but other animals do not? In particular I'm thinking of purely carnivorous animals like some fish, and herbivores like cows.","c_root_id_A":"c3wli6l","c_root_id_B":"c3wmpwr","created_at_utc_A":1330615468,"created_at_utc_B":1330622274,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Have you read anything about omnivory before? The strategy of eating both plant and animal-based foods is far from unique to humans. Omnivory can be seen as an evolutionary advantage because it allows for a flexible, adaptable diet. Perhaps an evolutionary biologist can speak more about why omnivores require a diverse diet, but in general it would act like a feedback loop: if over many generations your species evolves to eat a diverse diet, it's likely that they will continue to require to eat a diverse diet for health, as their other bodily functions will evolve under that set of diet criteria.","human_ref_B":"We don't, actually. It depends entirely on what foods are available. The Irish lived on milk, oats and potatoes in the 1800s. Some foods are more complete than others. In general, meat is very nutritious, but was more difficult to acquire before the domestication of farm animals. It can't supply all of your dietary needs, but it can supply most of them.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6806.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"yhpuyq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"How is nuclear fission controlled in atomic weapons? What\u2019s stopping the fission process from ongoing and continuously creating the reaction indefinitely?","c_root_id_A":"iug6037","c_root_id_B":"iugryof","created_at_utc_A":1667181040,"created_at_utc_B":1667193492,"score_A":5,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"There\u2019s already been some good responses, basically the fissile material needs to be super critical to sustain the reaction. Well so much energy is being released by so many atoms in such a short time the core of the weapon separates and the reaction terminates. They\u2019re all a little different and it\u2019s mostly classified, but assume about 50 generations of reactions with each being about 10 nanoseconds. Boosting and various other weapon designs to maintain criticality for longer periods will increase yield. Which means more of the fissile material is actually fissioned instead of just blown apart.","human_ref_B":"The point of a nuclear weapon is to have an uncontrolled chain reaction of the fissile material.  To get as much of it to spilt as fast as possible.  So why are nuke not randomly exploding in their silos?   I\u2019m sure you\u2019ve all heard of the term \u201ccritical mass\u201d.  In simple terms there are 2 things that go into it, the density of fissile material & amount of \u201ctriggers\u201d present.  So U-235 & Neutrons.  A modern warhead when it\u2019s time to go off does two things, it implodes the fissile material with explosives, making it denser; and floods it with neutrons to kick start the chain reaction.  Think of critical mass as a gymnasium with dominos on the floor, and you get to shoot a marble.  Hit a domino, get to shoot 3 more times\u2026 gotta knock enough down in X time to win.  If you have critical mass, no problem. Edit: Typo","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12452.0,"score_ratio":2.4}
{"post_id":"yhpuyq","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.79,"history":"How is nuclear fission controlled in atomic weapons? What\u2019s stopping the fission process from ongoing and continuously creating the reaction indefinitely?","c_root_id_A":"iug6037","c_root_id_B":"iuhtew0","created_at_utc_A":1667181040,"created_at_utc_B":1667222404,"score_A":5,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"There\u2019s already been some good responses, basically the fissile material needs to be super critical to sustain the reaction. Well so much energy is being released by so many atoms in such a short time the core of the weapon separates and the reaction terminates. They\u2019re all a little different and it\u2019s mostly classified, but assume about 50 generations of reactions with each being about 10 nanoseconds. Boosting and various other weapon designs to maintain criticality for longer periods will increase yield. Which means more of the fissile material is actually fissioned instead of just blown apart.","human_ref_B":"The major issue with nuclear weapons is that it is really difficult to keep the reaction going long enough. Both fusion and fission weapons start with a conventional explosion; which forces a fission reaction to happen; that in turn ignites the fusion fuel causing fusion reaction. The only way this is achieved is by using a lot of explosives which compress the material enough the create the pressure required that the fission fuel can start undergoing fission reaction, you need to keep that going for long enough so that once the fusion fuel is compressed and heated it starts to undergo fusion. If the temperature or pressure drops - which go hand in hand in matter - both reactions will stop.  So what stops and infinite chain reaction? The fact that the explosion expands so much leading to drop in pressure. Drop in  pressure also leads to drop in temperature, since those two are tied. Temperature of something being just the amount of there is in a volume of space, if you compress something it \"heats up\" if you decompress something it \"cools down\" - in reality there is just same amount of energy but just in differ volume, temperature just being \"collisions\" against a boundary of this real or imaginary cube\u00b4.   So the problem with nuclear weapons is not the fission or fusion, but something more practical and which Americans were able to solve first and soviet's struggled with, namely using conventional explosives and timing those explosives in a way that the fission happens. The first nuclear weapons were \"gun type\" which as a term is more decriptive that you'd imagine. You shoot a ring of uranium to a uranium slug, with heavy carbide plates on both sides and really big explosions forcing it all together so the force is enough to keep the uranium in contact long enough to cause an explosion.  THis is incredibly inefficient process all things considered: Little boy managed to only burn 1,5% of it's fissile fuel; the most efficient fissile weapons raech only about 15% theoretical limiting being at best 25% - this is why they leave such massive fallouts; if these weapons were more efficient the fallout would be a less of an issue. Thermonuclear weapons however can reach efficiency of 50% in pratice and 80% in theory. The bigger the bomb is, the more efficient it is. However bigger the bomb is, the less practical it is as a weapon. Nuclear weapons being the least practical weapons in existence - you really can't use them without making everyone your enemy.  So the reaction stops when the reaction expands enough to cooldown so it stops; or when all the fuel is consumed.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":41364.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l21a7","c_root_id_B":"c3l28sj","created_at_utc_A":1327630434,"created_at_utc_B":1327631581,"score_A":6,"score_B":221,"human_ref_A":"I would say this question is practically unanswerable because there is no 'first' homo sapiens.  We use those words to draw a clear black\/white through the flowing grey of evolution, but it is only to make it easier for us to understand.  In modern society some folks can learn more than others right now, and so can some chimpanzees.  So, it would stand to reason that there is a scale of learning abilities in our early protoselves, and well as in any other species.  Since we're only 1% greater than chimps, DNA wise, we can say that we haven't changed all that much.  So, for the first few dozen generations of homo sapiens, I doubt it would be wrong to say that their smartest could learn at least as much as our current dumbest, if not more.","human_ref_B":"This question is sort of confusing, but I'll give it a shot:  First of all, we would need to define what we mean by Homo sapiens. Some researchers consider Homo to have only one species (e.g. Milford Wolpoff, Alan Mann), because they don't see any evidence for any speciation events in the fossil record. A more mainstream view is that Homo sapiens arose about 200k years ago, but this is mostly based on the Omo skull, which looks basically (but not quite) modern and has been dated to 195k. Genetic coalescence times suggest that this time range could be accurate (however, there are good reasons to suppose that these data don't actually tell us what many researchers think they do).   Cladistically, the origin of a species is defined by an event in which a species branches into two. There is a great amount of disagreement regarding what our sister species was. Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, and Homo neanderthalensis all have supporters. So, maybe there was a split from one of these 200k years ago (of course, we now know that humans later mated with neandertals after maybe a couple hundred thousand years of reproductive isolation from each other).  So, the question is whether the cognitive capabilities of those folks 200ka would have been similar to our own. That's a question that doesn't really have a great answer, but there's not necessarily any reason to suppose that their abilities would have been significantly different from our own. Their brains were similar in size, and near as we can tell, were similar in structure.  20 to 30 thousand years ago, it is basically certain that they were just as smart; note, however, that IQ is very fluid, and is very much something that can be improved through use. They didn't have written language back then, so it's unlikely they would have been \"smart\" in the same way today's humans can be; they only would have been perfectly capable given the same cultural environment.  Hopefully that helps. Also note that \"sapiens\" is both singular and plural. \"sapien\" is improper.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1147.0,"score_ratio":36.8333333333}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l30eb","c_root_id_B":"c3l3g0d","created_at_utc_A":1327635875,"created_at_utc_B":1327638385,"score_A":30,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"The Man from Earth is an interesting sci-fi about a man who claims to be an immortal from the Cro-Magnon age. It was a little corny in the first 20 minutes but really pulled me in by the end. I would definitely check it out if you're interested in this question as it is one of the central discussions in the movie. Of course, it's just a movie but I found it to contain some very logical discussion on the topic.","human_ref_B":"Species don't discretely jump from one to another. They slowly evolve. There is no such thing as the \"first\" Homo Sapien because that would imply that his or her parents were of a different species. It's kind of like a probability density function. The probability of any fixed number is invariably zero.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2510.0,"score_ratio":1.3}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l21a7","c_root_id_B":"c3l3g0d","created_at_utc_A":1327630434,"created_at_utc_B":1327638385,"score_A":6,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"I would say this question is practically unanswerable because there is no 'first' homo sapiens.  We use those words to draw a clear black\/white through the flowing grey of evolution, but it is only to make it easier for us to understand.  In modern society some folks can learn more than others right now, and so can some chimpanzees.  So, it would stand to reason that there is a scale of learning abilities in our early protoselves, and well as in any other species.  Since we're only 1% greater than chimps, DNA wise, we can say that we haven't changed all that much.  So, for the first few dozen generations of homo sapiens, I doubt it would be wrong to say that their smartest could learn at least as much as our current dumbest, if not more.","human_ref_B":"Species don't discretely jump from one to another. They slowly evolve. There is no such thing as the \"first\" Homo Sapien because that would imply that his or her parents were of a different species. It's kind of like a probability density function. The probability of any fixed number is invariably zero.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7951.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l3g0d","c_root_id_B":"c3l2cdv","created_at_utc_A":1327638385,"created_at_utc_B":1327632134,"score_A":39,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Species don't discretely jump from one to another. They slowly evolve. There is no such thing as the \"first\" Homo Sapien because that would imply that his or her parents were of a different species. It's kind of like a probability density function. The probability of any fixed number is invariably zero.","human_ref_B":"The nature of adaptive radiation produces patterns whereby a powerful novel trait spreads rapidly as the new population expands to dominate its niche. Rather than a slow gradual change, we find more often that species evolve rapidly towards equilibrium with their environment. I believe that many would agree that agricultural society was the turning point in Homo Sapien evolution, and if you believe that we radiated outwards from there (and the archaeological evidence would agree) then its possible that humans stayed relatively similar past this point.  However, one might question whether the industrial and technological revolutions had any effect on selecting for intelligence in a subpopulation of humans.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6251.0,"score_ratio":9.75}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l2knl","c_root_id_B":"c3l3g0d","created_at_utc_A":1327633395,"created_at_utc_B":1327638385,"score_A":6,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Homo sapiens is singular. (The plural, if Latin species names were ever pluralized [which they're not], would be Homines sapientes.) There is no such thing as a Homo sapien.","human_ref_B":"Species don't discretely jump from one to another. They slowly evolve. There is no such thing as the \"first\" Homo Sapien because that would imply that his or her parents were of a different species. It's kind of like a probability density function. The probability of any fixed number is invariably zero.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4990.0,"score_ratio":6.5}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l30eb","c_root_id_B":"c3l21a7","created_at_utc_A":1327635875,"created_at_utc_B":1327630434,"score_A":30,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"The Man from Earth is an interesting sci-fi about a man who claims to be an immortal from the Cro-Magnon age. It was a little corny in the first 20 minutes but really pulled me in by the end. I would definitely check it out if you're interested in this question as it is one of the central discussions in the movie. Of course, it's just a movie but I found it to contain some very logical discussion on the topic.","human_ref_B":"I would say this question is practically unanswerable because there is no 'first' homo sapiens.  We use those words to draw a clear black\/white through the flowing grey of evolution, but it is only to make it easier for us to understand.  In modern society some folks can learn more than others right now, and so can some chimpanzees.  So, it would stand to reason that there is a scale of learning abilities in our early protoselves, and well as in any other species.  Since we're only 1% greater than chimps, DNA wise, we can say that we haven't changed all that much.  So, for the first few dozen generations of homo sapiens, I doubt it would be wrong to say that their smartest could learn at least as much as our current dumbest, if not more.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5441.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l30eb","c_root_id_B":"c3l2cdv","created_at_utc_A":1327635875,"created_at_utc_B":1327632134,"score_A":30,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"The Man from Earth is an interesting sci-fi about a man who claims to be an immortal from the Cro-Magnon age. It was a little corny in the first 20 minutes but really pulled me in by the end. I would definitely check it out if you're interested in this question as it is one of the central discussions in the movie. Of course, it's just a movie but I found it to contain some very logical discussion on the topic.","human_ref_B":"The nature of adaptive radiation produces patterns whereby a powerful novel trait spreads rapidly as the new population expands to dominate its niche. Rather than a slow gradual change, we find more often that species evolve rapidly towards equilibrium with their environment. I believe that many would agree that agricultural society was the turning point in Homo Sapien evolution, and if you believe that we radiated outwards from there (and the archaeological evidence would agree) then its possible that humans stayed relatively similar past this point.  However, one might question whether the industrial and technological revolutions had any effect on selecting for intelligence in a subpopulation of humans.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3741.0,"score_ratio":7.5}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l2knl","c_root_id_B":"c3l30eb","created_at_utc_A":1327633395,"created_at_utc_B":1327635875,"score_A":6,"score_B":30,"human_ref_A":"Homo sapiens is singular. (The plural, if Latin species names were ever pluralized [which they're not], would be Homines sapientes.) There is no such thing as a Homo sapien.","human_ref_B":"The Man from Earth is an interesting sci-fi about a man who claims to be an immortal from the Cro-Magnon age. It was a little corny in the first 20 minutes but really pulled me in by the end. I would definitely check it out if you're interested in this question as it is one of the central discussions in the movie. Of course, it's just a movie but I found it to contain some very logical discussion on the topic.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2480.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l3rpt","c_root_id_B":"c3l21a7","created_at_utc_A":1327640339,"created_at_utc_B":1327630434,"score_A":8,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I am going to go against the grain and say no. There have been considerable evolutionary pressures on the various human populations over the last couple hundred millennia that have honed our analytical, language and other cognitive skills. Read Sagan's \"Broca's Brain\" and similar works that argue for parallel development of different areas within the brain as a result of each other (language skill development as a result of our manual dexterity and opposable thumbs, for example).   In particular, the evolutionary pressures we endured though multiple ice ages are a good example of how our intelligence has likely been honed even within the last 25-50,000 years.","human_ref_B":"I would say this question is practically unanswerable because there is no 'first' homo sapiens.  We use those words to draw a clear black\/white through the flowing grey of evolution, but it is only to make it easier for us to understand.  In modern society some folks can learn more than others right now, and so can some chimpanzees.  So, it would stand to reason that there is a scale of learning abilities in our early protoselves, and well as in any other species.  Since we're only 1% greater than chimps, DNA wise, we can say that we haven't changed all that much.  So, for the first few dozen generations of homo sapiens, I doubt it would be wrong to say that their smartest could learn at least as much as our current dumbest, if not more.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9905.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l3rpt","c_root_id_B":"c3l2cdv","created_at_utc_A":1327640339,"created_at_utc_B":1327632134,"score_A":8,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I am going to go against the grain and say no. There have been considerable evolutionary pressures on the various human populations over the last couple hundred millennia that have honed our analytical, language and other cognitive skills. Read Sagan's \"Broca's Brain\" and similar works that argue for parallel development of different areas within the brain as a result of each other (language skill development as a result of our manual dexterity and opposable thumbs, for example).   In particular, the evolutionary pressures we endured though multiple ice ages are a good example of how our intelligence has likely been honed even within the last 25-50,000 years.","human_ref_B":"The nature of adaptive radiation produces patterns whereby a powerful novel trait spreads rapidly as the new population expands to dominate its niche. Rather than a slow gradual change, we find more often that species evolve rapidly towards equilibrium with their environment. I believe that many would agree that agricultural society was the turning point in Homo Sapien evolution, and if you believe that we radiated outwards from there (and the archaeological evidence would agree) then its possible that humans stayed relatively similar past this point.  However, one might question whether the industrial and technological revolutions had any effect on selecting for intelligence in a subpopulation of humans.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8205.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l3rpt","c_root_id_B":"c3l2knl","created_at_utc_A":1327640339,"created_at_utc_B":1327633395,"score_A":8,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I am going to go against the grain and say no. There have been considerable evolutionary pressures on the various human populations over the last couple hundred millennia that have honed our analytical, language and other cognitive skills. Read Sagan's \"Broca's Brain\" and similar works that argue for parallel development of different areas within the brain as a result of each other (language skill development as a result of our manual dexterity and opposable thumbs, for example).   In particular, the evolutionary pressures we endured though multiple ice ages are a good example of how our intelligence has likely been honed even within the last 25-50,000 years.","human_ref_B":"Homo sapiens is singular. (The plural, if Latin species names were ever pluralized [which they're not], would be Homines sapientes.) There is no such thing as a Homo sapien.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6944.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l21a7","c_root_id_B":"c3l4ha4","created_at_utc_A":1327630434,"created_at_utc_B":1327645104,"score_A":6,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"I would say this question is practically unanswerable because there is no 'first' homo sapiens.  We use those words to draw a clear black\/white through the flowing grey of evolution, but it is only to make it easier for us to understand.  In modern society some folks can learn more than others right now, and so can some chimpanzees.  So, it would stand to reason that there is a scale of learning abilities in our early protoselves, and well as in any other species.  Since we're only 1% greater than chimps, DNA wise, we can say that we haven't changed all that much.  So, for the first few dozen generations of homo sapiens, I doubt it would be wrong to say that their smartest could learn at least as much as our current dumbest, if not more.","human_ref_B":"Easier than us, since they were likely more intelligent, talking about Cro Magnons at least.  Plenty of sources, here's a relaxing read:  http:\/\/www.physorg.com\/news187877156.html  However:  > Although previous studies have found a very small relationship between brain size and intelligence, many other factors affect brain intelligence.  Then again...yeah, right... ;) We're talking 15-20% size difference here. That's a notable difference on the encephalisation scale, which I wouldn't start criticising here, since were talking about a purely human comparison.   The trick in refuting the citation is that scientists generally say Australopithecus and other ancestors were less intelligent because of smaller brain sizes, and that as brain size increased so did their general intelligence. The same must hold true for Cro Magnon and us then.  There is no doubt in my mind that, individual vs individual, Cro Magnons were mentally and physically superior to us, and on top of that, probably better looking as well.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14670.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l2cdv","c_root_id_B":"c3l4ha4","created_at_utc_A":1327632134,"created_at_utc_B":1327645104,"score_A":4,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"The nature of adaptive radiation produces patterns whereby a powerful novel trait spreads rapidly as the new population expands to dominate its niche. Rather than a slow gradual change, we find more often that species evolve rapidly towards equilibrium with their environment. I believe that many would agree that agricultural society was the turning point in Homo Sapien evolution, and if you believe that we radiated outwards from there (and the archaeological evidence would agree) then its possible that humans stayed relatively similar past this point.  However, one might question whether the industrial and technological revolutions had any effect on selecting for intelligence in a subpopulation of humans.","human_ref_B":"Easier than us, since they were likely more intelligent, talking about Cro Magnons at least.  Plenty of sources, here's a relaxing read:  http:\/\/www.physorg.com\/news187877156.html  However:  > Although previous studies have found a very small relationship between brain size and intelligence, many other factors affect brain intelligence.  Then again...yeah, right... ;) We're talking 15-20% size difference here. That's a notable difference on the encephalisation scale, which I wouldn't start criticising here, since were talking about a purely human comparison.   The trick in refuting the citation is that scientists generally say Australopithecus and other ancestors were less intelligent because of smaller brain sizes, and that as brain size increased so did their general intelligence. The same must hold true for Cro Magnon and us then.  There is no doubt in my mind that, individual vs individual, Cro Magnons were mentally and physically superior to us, and on top of that, probably better looking as well.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12970.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l4ha4","c_root_id_B":"c3l2knl","created_at_utc_A":1327645104,"created_at_utc_B":1327633395,"score_A":7,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Easier than us, since they were likely more intelligent, talking about Cro Magnons at least.  Plenty of sources, here's a relaxing read:  http:\/\/www.physorg.com\/news187877156.html  However:  > Although previous studies have found a very small relationship between brain size and intelligence, many other factors affect brain intelligence.  Then again...yeah, right... ;) We're talking 15-20% size difference here. That's a notable difference on the encephalisation scale, which I wouldn't start criticising here, since were talking about a purely human comparison.   The trick in refuting the citation is that scientists generally say Australopithecus and other ancestors were less intelligent because of smaller brain sizes, and that as brain size increased so did their general intelligence. The same must hold true for Cro Magnon and us then.  There is no doubt in my mind that, individual vs individual, Cro Magnons were mentally and physically superior to us, and on top of that, probably better looking as well.","human_ref_B":"Homo sapiens is singular. (The plural, if Latin species names were ever pluralized [which they're not], would be Homines sapientes.) There is no such thing as a Homo sapien.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11709.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"oyff2","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.85,"history":"Could one of the first ever Homo Sapiens learn the same amount and same quality of information as a modern Homo sapien?  Does one of the first Homo sapiens have the same cognitive ability of modern Homo sapiens? Is what we know now simply collective knowledge that has been added on to each other or have we as a species gained the ability to learn more than our Homo sapien ancestors from 20 to 30 thousand years ago?","c_root_id_A":"c3l2knl","c_root_id_B":"c3l2cdv","created_at_utc_A":1327633395,"created_at_utc_B":1327632134,"score_A":6,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Homo sapiens is singular. (The plural, if Latin species names were ever pluralized [which they're not], would be Homines sapientes.) There is no such thing as a Homo sapien.","human_ref_B":"The nature of adaptive radiation produces patterns whereby a powerful novel trait spreads rapidly as the new population expands to dominate its niche. Rather than a slow gradual change, we find more often that species evolve rapidly towards equilibrium with their environment. I believe that many would agree that agricultural society was the turning point in Homo Sapien evolution, and if you believe that we radiated outwards from there (and the archaeological evidence would agree) then its possible that humans stayed relatively similar past this point.  However, one might question whether the industrial and technological revolutions had any effect on selecting for intelligence in a subpopulation of humans.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1261.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"3c9h39","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How does the air inside the tire of a moving car behave? For example does it \"spin\" at a similar rpm to the tire? Also what effect does centripetal force have on the air if any at all?","c_root_id_A":"cstooi1","c_root_id_B":"cstrz9i","created_at_utc_A":1436178997,"created_at_utc_B":1436189665,"score_A":68,"score_B":307,"human_ref_A":"Yes, it does spin at the same rate as the tire (at steady state). When you increase our decrease speed, the air will slosh around a little as it adjusts.   Centripetal force will make the air towards the outer side of the tire a slightly higher pressure than the air towards the axle.","human_ref_B":"Tire engineer here,  The air does move, and it will be lagged behind the carcass (which is lagged behind the wheel a bit, kind of).  The air will lag, but not very much, and the effects are minimal.  Currently even the most advanced tire models (F1 or aircraft) do not even model the effect you are talking about.  There just isn't enough mass of air to make a difference compared to all the other things going on when tires are in use.  As for the centripetal force, this is negligible, again, because the air has so little mass.  Tires also rotate a lot slower than most people think.  Even NASCAR tires at 200 mph are only turning about 2400 rpm (2.22m rollout), which is really slow as far as centripetal forces on air are concerned.  Still about 2300g though (V\u00b2\/r)\/9.81  The volume of one of those tires is about 0.4m\u00b3 which means at 1.2kg\/m\u00b3 and say, 5 atm (70 psi is realistically the highest pressure a right side tire will use at Charlotte) the air in the tire will have a mass of about 0.5kg.  Even if we consider all of this to be at the loaded radius, the total centripetal force at 2300g is about 10kn (2500lb).    This may seem like a lot, but distributed around the circumference of the tire it means this is about the same as 2 psi more pressure.    Compare that to the centrifugal force of the actual tire, which is more like 10kg, and it looks pretty insignificant (230kn and 45psi effective).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10668.0,"score_ratio":4.5147058824}
{"post_id":"3c9h39","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How does the air inside the tire of a moving car behave? For example does it \"spin\" at a similar rpm to the tire? Also what effect does centripetal force have on the air if any at all?","c_root_id_A":"cstopib","c_root_id_B":"cstrz9i","created_at_utc_A":1436179124,"created_at_utc_B":1436189665,"score_A":11,"score_B":307,"human_ref_A":"Try spinning a glass full of ice water on a table next time you are at a restaurant, and you will get some idea of how liquids and gasses inside solid containers behave. I would imagine there is very little friction so the air takes a bit of time to get up to speed, but eventually it will rotate at the speed of the tire.","human_ref_B":"Tire engineer here,  The air does move, and it will be lagged behind the carcass (which is lagged behind the wheel a bit, kind of).  The air will lag, but not very much, and the effects are minimal.  Currently even the most advanced tire models (F1 or aircraft) do not even model the effect you are talking about.  There just isn't enough mass of air to make a difference compared to all the other things going on when tires are in use.  As for the centripetal force, this is negligible, again, because the air has so little mass.  Tires also rotate a lot slower than most people think.  Even NASCAR tires at 200 mph are only turning about 2400 rpm (2.22m rollout), which is really slow as far as centripetal forces on air are concerned.  Still about 2300g though (V\u00b2\/r)\/9.81  The volume of one of those tires is about 0.4m\u00b3 which means at 1.2kg\/m\u00b3 and say, 5 atm (70 psi is realistically the highest pressure a right side tire will use at Charlotte) the air in the tire will have a mass of about 0.5kg.  Even if we consider all of this to be at the loaded radius, the total centripetal force at 2300g is about 10kn (2500lb).    This may seem like a lot, but distributed around the circumference of the tire it means this is about the same as 2 psi more pressure.    Compare that to the centrifugal force of the actual tire, which is more like 10kg, and it looks pretty insignificant (230kn and 45psi effective).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10541.0,"score_ratio":27.9090909091}
{"post_id":"qdeupe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If you catch a cold, is there an easy way to know or guess which virus is causing it?","c_root_id_A":"hhm9g5t","c_root_id_B":"hhn24y2","created_at_utc_A":1634909673,"created_at_utc_B":1634921390,"score_A":58,"score_B":535,"human_ref_A":"Like iayork said it can be difficult to find 1 specific virus given the many many options. An additional problem is the upper respiratory tract isn\u2019t exactly sterile. At any given time you can find lots of viruses and bacteria who are not causing an infection. Some species are obviously \u201cbad\u201d or \u201charmless\u201d, but often they can be both depending on circumstances.","human_ref_B":"You can get a PCR analysis of a nasopharyngeal swab that will detect over 20 typical viral respiratory pathogens. This includes rhinoviruses, parainfluenza viruses, RSV, and non-COVID coronaviruses, which are typically the most common cause of 'cold.'  This is not a difficult test to do. It costs several hundred dollars.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11717.0,"score_ratio":9.224137931}
{"post_id":"qdeupe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If you catch a cold, is there an easy way to know or guess which virus is causing it?","c_root_id_A":"hhml82l","c_root_id_B":"hhn24y2","created_at_utc_A":1634914556,"created_at_utc_B":1634921390,"score_A":53,"score_B":535,"human_ref_A":"Hospitals can hypothetically run a  \"respiratory panel\" that can test for a few dozen viruses.  However, the test costs thousands of dollars, and the primary clinical use is to \"rule in\" certain viruses as a means of \"ruling out\" other Illness.  The treatment for basically any individual virus on the panel is identical, and the greatest benefit is primarily for the curiosity of the medical staff administering the test, and the entertainment value of providing emergency care to someone who presented to the ER with a rhinovirus infection.","human_ref_B":"You can get a PCR analysis of a nasopharyngeal swab that will detect over 20 typical viral respiratory pathogens. This includes rhinoviruses, parainfluenza viruses, RSV, and non-COVID coronaviruses, which are typically the most common cause of 'cold.'  This is not a difficult test to do. It costs several hundred dollars.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6834.0,"score_ratio":10.0943396226}
{"post_id":"qdeupe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"If you catch a cold, is there an easy way to know or guess which virus is causing it?","c_root_id_A":"hhn4dku","c_root_id_B":"hhn90am","created_at_utc_A":1634922304,"created_at_utc_B":1634924207,"score_A":7,"score_B":15,"human_ref_A":"Viral discovery starting from zero is difficult. Usually we sequence for random hexameric DNA to see what it binds in a given human or animal sample (usually blood). If we see binding taking place, we know which of the virus families bind to these hexamers and then we drill down in a certain family, virus, variant, etc. Eventually we would like to get to a point where specific viral family microarrays are made that can screen for the kind of virus and then drill down to exactly which virus and\/or variant of a given virus **but the real problem is that no insurance company is willing to reimburse for this kind of fishing expedition work.  W\/o reimbursement, there can be no science...**","human_ref_B":"HCoV-OC43 can also cause a loss of Taste and Smell like SARS-CoV-2 i.e. if you test negative for  Sars-CoV-2 and have loss of Taste and Smell, it might be HCoV-OC43.  The 1898-91 Russian \"Flu\" pandemic involved a virus with symptoms very similar to Covid-19, including a loss of taste and smell, genetic analysis indicates that the HCoV-OC43 jumped species from cattle 130 years ago, so it might be responsible for the Russian flu.  >Another British report reinforced the resemblance of the 1889\u20131892 epidemic with COVID-19 when noting that\u2018the most common sequelae found have been nerve depression, neuralgia, headaches, and ***loss of taste and smell*** and describing pulmonary, intestinal and rheumatic forms, frequently mixed. The physicians also observed a\u2018peculiar immunity of young children\u2019untypical for influenza (Anonymous,1892). A combination of respiratory, gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms were also reported in Australia for residents of a mental disease asylum, where\u2018tedious convalescence was almost general during the pandemic wave (Hay, 1892).  Br\u00fcssow, H. and Br\u00fcssow, L., 2021. Clinical evidence that the pandemic from 1889 to 1891 commonly called the Russian flu might have been an earlier coronavirus pandemic. Microbial Biotechnology, 14(5), pp.1860-1870.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1903.0,"score_ratio":2.1428571429}
{"post_id":"11if5b","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Why do doctors, EMTs, and other medical professionals ask patients to try to keep their eyes open and stay awake.  Is a patients resolve actually able to improve their chances of survival?   I've heard its bad to fall asleep with a concussion, but is this the reason?  Can someone \"hold on\" a little longer with just willpower?","c_root_id_A":"c6mujo2","c_root_id_B":"c6mqv7h","created_at_utc_A":1350326124,"created_at_utc_B":1350312199,"score_A":29,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"In regard to the falling asleep with a concussion, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center addresses  whether or not \"A Person with a Serious Head Injury or Concussion Should be Kept Awake.\"  Their Health Myths Center actually has some interesting information in it.  As for your question about eyes open, there are really a lot of aspects to it.  I've worked in EMS for a while and it isn't really that black and white (as I'm sure you assumed).  Probably the main reason I ask patients to do this is because if my patient has their eyes open I know that they are conscious (assuming they are blinking, eyes are reacting to stimulus, etc.) and this gives me one less thing to worry about.  In medicine we use the Glasgow Coma Scale on many patients, this is a scoring of eye opening, verbal response, and motor response that is widely accepted as a measure of a patient's level of consciousness (scoring is 3 - 15, each category has a lowest score of 1).  In scoring \"Eye Opening,\" spontaneous opening = 4, in response to voice = 3, in response to pain = 2, and none = 1.  Many jurisdictions\/provides use the GCS score to classify brain injuries (e.g., GCS 13-15 is a mild traumatic brain injury, 8-12 is a moderate traumatic brain injury, 3-8 is a severe traumatic brain injury).  When I was in training I was taught that the GCS score was a fairly reliable predictor of patient outcome in traumatic brain injuries, but continued research has brought this claim into question (Balestreri et al., (2004). Predictive value of glasgow coma scale after brain trauma: change in trend over the past ten years. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 75(1), 161-162).  As another commenter said, we also monitor the patient's pupils for size, equality, and reactivity.  This is because the nerves that control the pupils are sensitive to an increase in pressure the skull (intracranial pressure) which can be a a secondary effect from head injuries.  This is normally caused by bleeding or swelling of the brain.  Now, after answering your direct question about eyes (obviously there is a whole lot more, message me if you're curious).  On your question of improving chances of survival, that is a *much* more complicated question.  There is evidence that a patient's expectations impact their outcomes (Mondloch, M., Cole, D., & Frank, J. (2001). Does how you do depend on how you think you\u2019ll do? a systematic review of the evidence for a relation between patients\u2019 recovery expectations and health outcomes. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 165(2), 174-179).  Also, the placebo effect \/ nocebo effect are interesting examples of this.  But, when it comes to the will to survive improving survival rates, I am not aware of any solid evidence on the matter but I would be very interested in some!","human_ref_B":"Not a doctor, just first aid certified. The explanation I got was that if the patient is conscious, you don't have to monitor their pulse, which frees you to treat other patients or treat secondary conditions such as splinting broken bones.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13925.0,"score_ratio":1.0740740741}
{"post_id":"11if5b","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Why do doctors, EMTs, and other medical professionals ask patients to try to keep their eyes open and stay awake.  Is a patients resolve actually able to improve their chances of survival?   I've heard its bad to fall asleep with a concussion, but is this the reason?  Can someone \"hold on\" a little longer with just willpower?","c_root_id_A":"c6mujo2","c_root_id_B":"c6ms29h","created_at_utc_A":1350326124,"created_at_utc_B":1350317189,"score_A":29,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"In regard to the falling asleep with a concussion, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center addresses  whether or not \"A Person with a Serious Head Injury or Concussion Should be Kept Awake.\"  Their Health Myths Center actually has some interesting information in it.  As for your question about eyes open, there are really a lot of aspects to it.  I've worked in EMS for a while and it isn't really that black and white (as I'm sure you assumed).  Probably the main reason I ask patients to do this is because if my patient has their eyes open I know that they are conscious (assuming they are blinking, eyes are reacting to stimulus, etc.) and this gives me one less thing to worry about.  In medicine we use the Glasgow Coma Scale on many patients, this is a scoring of eye opening, verbal response, and motor response that is widely accepted as a measure of a patient's level of consciousness (scoring is 3 - 15, each category has a lowest score of 1).  In scoring \"Eye Opening,\" spontaneous opening = 4, in response to voice = 3, in response to pain = 2, and none = 1.  Many jurisdictions\/provides use the GCS score to classify brain injuries (e.g., GCS 13-15 is a mild traumatic brain injury, 8-12 is a moderate traumatic brain injury, 3-8 is a severe traumatic brain injury).  When I was in training I was taught that the GCS score was a fairly reliable predictor of patient outcome in traumatic brain injuries, but continued research has brought this claim into question (Balestreri et al., (2004). Predictive value of glasgow coma scale after brain trauma: change in trend over the past ten years. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 75(1), 161-162).  As another commenter said, we also monitor the patient's pupils for size, equality, and reactivity.  This is because the nerves that control the pupils are sensitive to an increase in pressure the skull (intracranial pressure) which can be a a secondary effect from head injuries.  This is normally caused by bleeding or swelling of the brain.  Now, after answering your direct question about eyes (obviously there is a whole lot more, message me if you're curious).  On your question of improving chances of survival, that is a *much* more complicated question.  There is evidence that a patient's expectations impact their outcomes (Mondloch, M., Cole, D., & Frank, J. (2001). Does how you do depend on how you think you\u2019ll do? a systematic review of the evidence for a relation between patients\u2019 recovery expectations and health outcomes. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 165(2), 174-179).  Also, the placebo effect \/ nocebo effect are interesting examples of this.  But, when it comes to the will to survive improving survival rates, I am not aware of any solid evidence on the matter but I would be very interested in some!","human_ref_B":"As a current medical first responder student, from what I understand, it provides the medical professionals with a variety of information by just observing the pupils. They can conclude whether the individual has any drugs in their system, suffered any head injury, stroke, having a seizure, or if they are in shock. By making sure the patient is awake they can maintain a clear form of communication, assess sensations of pain or discomfort, determine whether the patient has a pacemaker or any other implants, and to inspect breathing patterns, especially after the patient has been through a a serious traumatic scenario. Additionally, when they notice the patient \"fading away\" they know when to administer certain anti-shock therapy or make use of breathing apparatus to prevent from slipping into a coma, which would then indicate bleeding in the brain and requires immediate surgery.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8935.0,"score_ratio":3.625}
{"post_id":"11if5b","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Why do doctors, EMTs, and other medical professionals ask patients to try to keep their eyes open and stay awake.  Is a patients resolve actually able to improve their chances of survival?   I've heard its bad to fall asleep with a concussion, but is this the reason?  Can someone \"hold on\" a little longer with just willpower?","c_root_id_A":"c6mvgli","c_root_id_B":"c6n0ljm","created_at_utc_A":1350329129,"created_at_utc_B":1350347445,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Paramedic here. There are a lot of reasons behind wanting to keep the patients awake during an emergency situation, many of those have already been listed in some of the comments, but the main reason has to do with Level Of Consciousness (LOC). The patients LOC can tell you a great deal about the severity, and sometimes the nature, of a patients condition. As was already stated, we know that conscious patients at the very least have a pulse. Also, a patient who is able to respond to verbal instruction like \"Keep your eyes open\", or \"Stay awake\", is a patient with at least enough neurological function that they haven't, yet, started to decompensate to a very dangerous point in their illness. Conscious patients are also a valuable source of information about medical history, allergies, what happened to them, etc.","human_ref_B":"The simple answer is No - keeping someone awake is not a manoeuvre or therapy that increases the odds of survival. It is true to say that someone who is unconscious is more likely to die as a result of their injuries that someone who is not, but that is because it is an indicator of a more severe injury. In fact we will often deliberately make people unconscious with an anaesthetic when they are badly injured as this makes things like positioning them for CT scans and clinical examination much easier.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":18316.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"olwew0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are male animals that possess extremely ornate feathers or other decorations compared to the more down to earth and dour females of the species considerably more likely to suffer from predation than females due to their lack of camouflage? Thinking about an animal as basic as a mallard duck and how the male is considerably more eye catching with its bright green head, white neck ring and contrasting white and dark areas on the rest of the body. In contrast the female has a dull but prudent coloration that lends itself well to blending into reeds and other vegetation.  There's lots of other animals like this, Peafowl males notoriously have to lug around their cumbersome display feathers in addition to the bright coloration for example, while the female Sage-Grouse seem to be able to blend into the prairie much more comfortably than their partners.  Does this have real world repercussions for the survivability for either sex broadly speaking? Because I'd imagine that females have better luck when males almost seem to be advertising their presence to anything with eyes.","c_root_id_A":"h5kbuhd","c_root_id_B":"h5kgp7d","created_at_utc_A":1626561632,"created_at_utc_B":1626564223,"score_A":2,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Yep, there are detrimental factors involved in decorative plumage, that being said, the cleaner and more colourful typically the more successful the male is at reproducing. The best book on this topic is *The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature* which, interestingly touches on this topic.","human_ref_B":"It absolutely can happen.           The peacock is an example that is often proposed. The feathers of the male's tail keeps him from taking of quickly and makes him an easier prey.         The male has it because females choose males with the most extravagant tails. It's called sexual selection.          When sexual selection goes against classic Darwinian selection, an equilibrium is found between the two.          That said, colorful ornaments are not necessarily a disadvantage against predators. The peacock's feathers may help him scare predators...         All in all, evolutive success is a really complex mix up of fragile and intricate equilibriums.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2591.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"aryzc4","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Do men and women have different wrinkle patterns due to genetic or facial expression dimorphisms?","c_root_id_A":"egqmexp","c_root_id_B":"egqodri","created_at_utc_A":1550509559,"created_at_utc_B":1550510986,"score_A":47,"score_B":1386,"human_ref_A":"I have nothing to add but I want to ask a clarifying question: are you talking about crows feet vs smile lines and all that?","human_ref_B":"According to Tsukahara et al. (2013) yes! (For Japanese people, but OP is Japanese, right?)  >In all age groups, men showed increased forehead wrinkles compared with women. In contrast, no gender\u2010dependent differences were found in upper eyelid wrinkles. Other facial wrinkles were greater in men than in women in all except the oldest group (age, 65\u201375\u00a0years), in which wrinkles in women were greater than or equal to those in men.  The reasons aren't explored here but in your question you seem to differentiate genetic factors from facial expression differences across sex while the latter is caused by the former.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1427.0,"score_ratio":29.4893617021}
{"post_id":"aryzc4","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Do men and women have different wrinkle patterns due to genetic or facial expression dimorphisms?","c_root_id_A":"egqmexp","c_root_id_B":"egqp2oo","created_at_utc_A":1550509559,"created_at_utc_B":1550511485,"score_A":47,"score_B":134,"human_ref_A":"I have nothing to add but I want to ask a clarifying question: are you talking about crows feet vs smile lines and all that?","human_ref_B":"There are several differences in men\u2019s and women\u2019s skin as they age, in part due to sex and part due to genetics. Decreases in cellularity and vascularity, mast cells, and fibroblasts which are responsible for collagen synthesis, collagen crosslinking and bundling also become disrupted at varied rates. Elasticity decreases faster in women than men as well. Aging contributes the most to wrinkle patterns overall in the way that keratinocytes change shape (becoming shorter and fatter) while corneocytes enlarge, All these defections are what lead to wrinkling dimorphism","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1926.0,"score_ratio":2.8510638298}
{"post_id":"aryzc4","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Do men and women have different wrinkle patterns due to genetic or facial expression dimorphisms?","c_root_id_A":"egr09af","c_root_id_B":"egqmexp","created_at_utc_A":1550519487,"created_at_utc_B":1550509559,"score_A":53,"score_B":47,"human_ref_A":"It seems that men and women express and perceive emotional expressions in the same way in terms of muscles involved (Ekman 1971: https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/1971-07999-001), but both babies (i.e. genetic differences) and older children (i.e. societally influenced) show differences in facial expression recognition (McClure 2000: https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/2000-15386-006) where differences mirror social stereotypes with males being better at recognizing anger, and females being better at recognizing everything else. Males also report experiencing more anger while females report experiencing more happiness, sadness, fear, etc. which are then expressed facially (since these patterns are supported by social display rules), which \\**could\\** certainly lead to increased wrinkling in the forehead for men (anger) and around the eyes for women (happiness and to a lesser extent sadness) (Brody & Hall 2008: https:\/\/lafetedubienetre.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/02\/brodyhall2008.pdf).  Forgive me for nerding out. I spent my summer reading about this stuff..","human_ref_B":"I have nothing to add but I want to ask a clarifying question: are you talking about crows feet vs smile lines and all that?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9928.0,"score_ratio":1.1276595745}
{"post_id":"aryzc4","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Do men and women have different wrinkle patterns due to genetic or facial expression dimorphisms?","c_root_id_A":"egqqsq2","c_root_id_B":"egr09af","created_at_utc_A":1550512716,"created_at_utc_B":1550519487,"score_A":19,"score_B":53,"human_ref_A":"While I'm sure the reasons you mentioned have some variability of effect, I don't enough to comment. However, I do know wrinkle patterns as well as skin 'sag' (that is often attributed to gravity\/age) can be heavily impacted by maintaining skin elastin. Overall, men tend to maintain better skin elastin compared to women. Generally, Caucasians and people with less natural oil produced in their skin tend to have less elastin as well. Elastin can especially be affected by things like smoking and skin exposure to sun. I'm sure there's many answers to your question, I've only made a small contribution.","human_ref_B":"It seems that men and women express and perceive emotional expressions in the same way in terms of muscles involved (Ekman 1971: https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/1971-07999-001), but both babies (i.e. genetic differences) and older children (i.e. societally influenced) show differences in facial expression recognition (McClure 2000: https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/2000-15386-006) where differences mirror social stereotypes with males being better at recognizing anger, and females being better at recognizing everything else. Males also report experiencing more anger while females report experiencing more happiness, sadness, fear, etc. which are then expressed facially (since these patterns are supported by social display rules), which \\**could\\** certainly lead to increased wrinkling in the forehead for men (anger) and around the eyes for women (happiness and to a lesser extent sadness) (Brody & Hall 2008: https:\/\/lafetedubienetre.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/02\/brodyhall2008.pdf).  Forgive me for nerding out. I spent my summer reading about this stuff..","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6771.0,"score_ratio":2.7894736842}
{"post_id":"1bc23o","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"If the amyloid beta protein in existing Alzheimer's patients was destroyed, would they recover their memories or are their memories already permanently gone?","c_root_id_A":"c95ji9a","c_root_id_B":"c95lnut","created_at_utc_A":1364700222,"created_at_utc_B":1364708579,"score_A":6,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"I'm tell you what I've found but I hope someone with more experience in the field will answer this very interesting question!   I've done a little bit of reading and the general consensus is that the memories are still being created and stored, it is just the retrieval that is the problem. Prof Li-Huei Tsai from MIT did a study in mice, I believe, and found that it they could regain memory. How similar this would work in a human brain I don't know!  However, the longer a person has Alzheimer's and the more serious it become may lead to specific parts of the brain being destroyed too much and memories no longer being able to be created.","human_ref_B":"Several drugs have targeted Abeta, and some have even been very successful in removing the plaques.  Unfortunately, the plaques do not correlate well with disease progression or severity, and no drug using the Abeta removal approach has been successful in phased clinical trials.  Further, drugs that have targeted decreased production of Abeta have been universally unsuccessful.  Based on this information and other research, the current thinking is that plaques are a stable storage form of a harmful protein produced as the result of a pathological process.  Thus, simply removing them would not remedy the problem as the disease process would remain.  Evidence also exists that disrupting the plaques may even be harmful, as it might release this harmful protein back into the brain.  In AD, the initial problem is impairment in the formation of new declarative memory as the hippocampus loses synaptic connections.  Eventually, when the disease progresses to other parts of the cortex, existing memories are lost, but it's unclear if retrieval is blocked or if the memory storage itself is disrupted.  To confound the issue, how memories are stored is an open question in neuroscience - but we do know they're not stored like on a computer hard drive.  I hate to be pessimistic, but by the time AD shows up clinically, it's already a fairly advanced disease process, so the ability to regain completely normal function may never be possible.  The best we might be able to do is halt the process.  On the bright side, there's great work being done identifying early biomarkers of AD that might help us to intervene before so much damage has already been done.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8357.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"1bc23o","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"If the amyloid beta protein in existing Alzheimer's patients was destroyed, would they recover their memories or are their memories already permanently gone?","c_root_id_A":"c95lnut","c_root_id_B":"c95jq5v","created_at_utc_A":1364708579,"created_at_utc_B":1364701004,"score_A":16,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Several drugs have targeted Abeta, and some have even been very successful in removing the plaques.  Unfortunately, the plaques do not correlate well with disease progression or severity, and no drug using the Abeta removal approach has been successful in phased clinical trials.  Further, drugs that have targeted decreased production of Abeta have been universally unsuccessful.  Based on this information and other research, the current thinking is that plaques are a stable storage form of a harmful protein produced as the result of a pathological process.  Thus, simply removing them would not remedy the problem as the disease process would remain.  Evidence also exists that disrupting the plaques may even be harmful, as it might release this harmful protein back into the brain.  In AD, the initial problem is impairment in the formation of new declarative memory as the hippocampus loses synaptic connections.  Eventually, when the disease progresses to other parts of the cortex, existing memories are lost, but it's unclear if retrieval is blocked or if the memory storage itself is disrupted.  To confound the issue, how memories are stored is an open question in neuroscience - but we do know they're not stored like on a computer hard drive.  I hate to be pessimistic, but by the time AD shows up clinically, it's already a fairly advanced disease process, so the ability to regain completely normal function may never be possible.  The best we might be able to do is halt the process.  On the bright side, there's great work being done identifying early biomarkers of AD that might help us to intervene before so much damage has already been done.","human_ref_B":"So amyloid impairs memory by destroying hippocampal neurons and (recent discoveries have shown) by inhibiting how neurons store information through synaptic plasticity. If you removed amyloid its inhibition of synaptic plasticity would be removed but the damage caused by neuronal death would be largely irreparable. That being said it would halt further deterioration and if a treatment existed that removed amyloid it could theoretcially mean the differance between independance and being largely your normal self to being in permanent care with severely altered personality and memory.   Again that being said that's assuming amyloid beta is the cause of damage in AD which is still under some debate due to the presence of plaques in unaffected individuals and other evidence suggesting its role is overstated including the many failures of anti-amyloid drugs to show any effect in clinical trials.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7575.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"1bc23o","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.87,"history":"If the amyloid beta protein in existing Alzheimer's patients was destroyed, would they recover their memories or are their memories already permanently gone?","c_root_id_A":"c95lnut","c_root_id_B":"c95k90u","created_at_utc_A":1364708579,"created_at_utc_B":1364702933,"score_A":16,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Several drugs have targeted Abeta, and some have even been very successful in removing the plaques.  Unfortunately, the plaques do not correlate well with disease progression or severity, and no drug using the Abeta removal approach has been successful in phased clinical trials.  Further, drugs that have targeted decreased production of Abeta have been universally unsuccessful.  Based on this information and other research, the current thinking is that plaques are a stable storage form of a harmful protein produced as the result of a pathological process.  Thus, simply removing them would not remedy the problem as the disease process would remain.  Evidence also exists that disrupting the plaques may even be harmful, as it might release this harmful protein back into the brain.  In AD, the initial problem is impairment in the formation of new declarative memory as the hippocampus loses synaptic connections.  Eventually, when the disease progresses to other parts of the cortex, existing memories are lost, but it's unclear if retrieval is blocked or if the memory storage itself is disrupted.  To confound the issue, how memories are stored is an open question in neuroscience - but we do know they're not stored like on a computer hard drive.  I hate to be pessimistic, but by the time AD shows up clinically, it's already a fairly advanced disease process, so the ability to regain completely normal function may never be possible.  The best we might be able to do is halt the process.  On the bright side, there's great work being done identifying early biomarkers of AD that might help us to intervene before so much damage has already been done.","human_ref_B":"Neuroscience student here. As far as we have learned, the damage caused in line with the amyloid hypothesis would be irreparable if amyloid were halted. In a lay description of the hypothesis, proteins integral in holding together microtubules do not function properly (microtubules are essential for many things and esp for transport of materials in neurons), causing the microtubule debris to just clump up in the cell (sometimes called \"gravestones\"). Again, if amyloid were halted, there's no real way we might expect the diseased\/dead neurons to become revived, unless another treatment was also used.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5646.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"5jkwtx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Megathread: Anti-hydrogen\/anti-matter Hi everyone,  We're getting a lot of questions related to the recent discovery of the anti-hydrogen spectrum. There's already an AskScience thread but we thought we'd open up the floor and collect all additional questions here for further discussion.  * BBC News * Nature, with the paper * ScienceAlert","c_root_id_A":"dbh611y","c_root_id_B":"dbh5ut4","created_at_utc_A":1482350211,"created_at_utc_B":1482350007,"score_A":321,"score_B":190,"human_ref_A":"How does someone get anti-matter? Is there a process to create it\/change matter\/energy into anti-matter, or is it about finding anti-matter and successfully trapping it?","human_ref_B":"Is it possible that life could form from antimatter if put under the same conditions that induced life from matter on this planet?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":204.0,"score_ratio":1.6894736842}
{"post_id":"5jkwtx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Megathread: Anti-hydrogen\/anti-matter Hi everyone,  We're getting a lot of questions related to the recent discovery of the anti-hydrogen spectrum. There's already an AskScience thread but we thought we'd open up the floor and collect all additional questions here for further discussion.  * BBC News * Nature, with the paper * ScienceAlert","c_root_id_A":"dbh7oj8","c_root_id_B":"dbhbpok","created_at_utc_A":1482352182,"created_at_utc_B":1482357078,"score_A":63,"score_B":73,"human_ref_A":"Why is there such a disparity of antimatter and matter in our observable universe?  I realize this is difficult to answer with our current knowledge, so allow me to inspire other indirect answers. Is it a problem with our observation? Are the properties of a purely anti-matter systems different than purely matter systems? Do we know of any places in the universe that may resemble our matter-composed systems but in anti-matter systems, considering that annihilation would wipe out any somewhat homoginous regions?  Also, big thanks to the mods for this thread. This news is really eye-opening to me, as I had traditionally thought of anti-matter as particularly exotic in occurrence and behavior. Seems the latter isn't so true.","human_ref_B":"I read the BBC article, and I have a question. I apologize in advance for any ignorance.  They note, in particular, that Anti-Hydrogen reacts to the laser in the same way that Hydrogen would, and that, had it not done so, it would've \"broken\" the Standard Model.  How are we certain what we have a hold of is, in fact, Anti-Hydrogen and not just Hydrogen? If \"a difference between Anti-Hydrogen and Hydrogen\" is what they're looking for (and can't find), how do they know what they have is Hydrogen and not Anti-Hydrogen?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4896.0,"score_ratio":1.1587301587}
{"post_id":"5jkwtx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Megathread: Anti-hydrogen\/anti-matter Hi everyone,  We're getting a lot of questions related to the recent discovery of the anti-hydrogen spectrum. There's already an AskScience thread but we thought we'd open up the floor and collect all additional questions here for further discussion.  * BBC News * Nature, with the paper * ScienceAlert","c_root_id_A":"dbh7rvp","c_root_id_B":"dbhbpok","created_at_utc_A":1482352293,"created_at_utc_B":1482357078,"score_A":32,"score_B":73,"human_ref_A":"The paper says that this is experiment was a test of CPT symmetry. If the only thing changing between hydrogen and antihydrogen is the charge of its constituents, would this not just be a test of C symmetry? Where does the PT come in?","human_ref_B":"I read the BBC article, and I have a question. I apologize in advance for any ignorance.  They note, in particular, that Anti-Hydrogen reacts to the laser in the same way that Hydrogen would, and that, had it not done so, it would've \"broken\" the Standard Model.  How are we certain what we have a hold of is, in fact, Anti-Hydrogen and not just Hydrogen? If \"a difference between Anti-Hydrogen and Hydrogen\" is what they're looking for (and can't find), how do they know what they have is Hydrogen and not Anti-Hydrogen?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4785.0,"score_ratio":2.28125}
{"post_id":"5jkwtx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Megathread: Anti-hydrogen\/anti-matter Hi everyone,  We're getting a lot of questions related to the recent discovery of the anti-hydrogen spectrum. There's already an AskScience thread but we thought we'd open up the floor and collect all additional questions here for further discussion.  * BBC News * Nature, with the paper * ScienceAlert","c_root_id_A":"dbhbpok","c_root_id_B":"dbh8kay","created_at_utc_A":1482357078,"created_at_utc_B":1482353247,"score_A":73,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"I read the BBC article, and I have a question. I apologize in advance for any ignorance.  They note, in particular, that Anti-Hydrogen reacts to the laser in the same way that Hydrogen would, and that, had it not done so, it would've \"broken\" the Standard Model.  How are we certain what we have a hold of is, in fact, Anti-Hydrogen and not just Hydrogen? If \"a difference between Anti-Hydrogen and Hydrogen\" is what they're looking for (and can't find), how do they know what they have is Hydrogen and not Anti-Hydrogen?","human_ref_B":"Observation here, no real question...  SO MUCH of Science is extending the bounds of knowledge, pushing the frontier, modelling the unknown.  We have a model -- a Standard Model, if you will -- that explains many things, and predicts others.  And now, with this experiment, we've confirmed a prediction.  We demonstrated that antiparticles have exactly the properties that they were expected to have.  Yes, it's better to Know than to Not Know, but is this a Really Big Deal, or is it more along the lines of \"Nothing to see here folks, move along now\"?  &nbsp;  ^(Would have been far more \"interesting\" if the results were NOT as expected, yes?)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3831.0,"score_ratio":3.65}
{"post_id":"326rzw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.65,"history":"Say you had a massively long stick in outer space and you started to rotate it like a pencil on a turntable. If the stick was long enough, could the far end of it ever exceed the speed of light? Ever since I was a kid and learned that the edges of a record move faster than the centre I've wondered about whether rotating a sufficiently long object could break the speed of light. I look forward to hearing how stupid this is.","c_root_id_A":"cq8iekt","c_root_id_B":"cq8ivna","created_at_utc_A":1428723446,"created_at_utc_B":1428724512,"score_A":5,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"No. The stick would break even if it were made of a perfect material. If you wanted to construct a stick that wouldn't break under those conditions, you would have to violate special relativity for such a material to exist.","human_ref_B":"I think you're hitting two limits here: one is where you could not build a stick strong enough to resist the forces acting upon it as it reached certain velocities. You'd be asking insane properties of a material to withstand the torque on the stick.  Second problem is that you still have to get the stick moving. Even if you could find a geometry that could withstand the forces you would then have to add more energy to that stick than you could deliver to make the edges rotate at speeds approaching, let alone exceeding, c.  This is a great thought experiment. Einstein used them all the time to figure out how these interactions with moving bodies [he used trains] would work.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1066.0,"score_ratio":1.8}
{"post_id":"5llkzn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Do mosquitoes share blood with each other? Also, do they \"steal\" blood from other mosquitoes, like from a dead one for example?","c_root_id_A":"dbwxmgo","c_root_id_B":"dbwwnqh","created_at_utc_A":1483387538,"created_at_utc_B":1483386319,"score_A":72,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"Mosquitos don't scavenge or share blood from experience from working with colonies of several species in a lab environment. Mosquitos don't use blood for sustenance but to gather the material necessary to reproduce. So likely it would be less than useful to them with many of the nutrients already absorbed by the previous holder. Mosquitos don't work cooperatively or share anything to my knowledge instead focusing like most creatures on their own reproduction. Mosquitos use sugar for true nutrition and to maintain themselves rather than using blood for it. Usually a blood meal is followed by reproduction and then death fairly quickly seemingly between 24-48hrs in my experience.","human_ref_B":"I don't know about mosquitos but there's a bat species that I think is called False Vampire that sucks blood from horses and cows etc. and they are known to regurgitate blood for other ones that didn't get enough blood that night. It's exceptionally social behavior among animals:) (Full disclosure: I'm only a bat enthusiast so I may have gotten something wrong but I'm 99% sure it's true)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1219.0,"score_ratio":3.6}
{"post_id":"5llkzn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"Do mosquitoes share blood with each other? Also, do they \"steal\" blood from other mosquitoes, like from a dead one for example?","c_root_id_A":"dbwwnqh","c_root_id_B":"dbwz5z5","created_at_utc_A":1483386319,"created_at_utc_B":1483389459,"score_A":20,"score_B":23,"human_ref_A":"I don't know about mosquitos but there's a bat species that I think is called False Vampire that sucks blood from horses and cows etc. and they are known to regurgitate blood for other ones that didn't get enough blood that night. It's exceptionally social behavior among animals:) (Full disclosure: I'm only a bat enthusiast so I may have gotten something wrong but I'm 99% sure it's true)","human_ref_B":"While I haven't seen anything about mosquitoes and this, there have been documented cases with ticks.  This is called \"hyperparasitism,\" and may be more important with species that feed for long durations and digest for long periods of time.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3140.0,"score_ratio":1.15}
{"post_id":"llm7gd","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why cannot countries mass produce their own vaccines by \u201ccopying the formulae\u201d of the already approved Moderna and Pfizer vaccines? I\u2019m a Canadian and we are dependent on the EU to ship out the remaining vials of the vaccine as contractually obligated to do so however I\u2019m wondering what\u2019s stopping us from creating the vaccines on our home soil when we already have the moderna and Pfizer vaccines that we are currently slowly vaccinating the people with.  Wouldn\u2019t it be beneficial for all countries around the world to do the same to expedite the vaccination process?   Is there a patent that prevents anyone from copying moderna\/Pfizer vaccines?","c_root_id_A":"gnrk4gk","c_root_id_B":"gnr6uqd","created_at_utc_A":1613570914,"created_at_utc_B":1613561640,"score_A":703,"score_B":94,"human_ref_A":"Canada asked every one of its vaccine suppliers to set up production lines in Canada and every one of them said no, because by the time we built the necessary specialized manufacturing facilities, everyone would already have been vaccinated months ago.","human_ref_B":"I would suggest two things:  First, Canada would need the ready-to-roll manufacturing capability to produce the BioNTech\/Pfizer or Moderna vaccine (which uses new mRNA technology). Being able to produce one type of vaccine doesn't automatically mean you can produce them all.  Vox has a good explainer on YouTube, and I believe only three facilities (one in Belgium and two in the US) are technically capable of mRNA manufacture right now. There's discussion in countries like Australia whether investment to add tooling to manufacture current and future mRNA vaccines needs to be made (and how to do it).  Second, a local vaccine manufacturer\/government could manufacture under licence. In the case of the University of Oxford\/AstraZeneca vaccine it's already being done (for example, Australia's CSL or South Korea's SK Bioscience).  Equitable supply is the major issue. Pricing is relevant but less immediate (we know the EU paid less than South Africa for the AstraZeneca vaccine for example).  Edit: An opinion article on the specific situation in Canada may be helpful. Looks like your domestic issue is both (1) and (2).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9274.0,"score_ratio":7.4787234043}
{"post_id":"llm7gd","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why cannot countries mass produce their own vaccines by \u201ccopying the formulae\u201d of the already approved Moderna and Pfizer vaccines? I\u2019m a Canadian and we are dependent on the EU to ship out the remaining vials of the vaccine as contractually obligated to do so however I\u2019m wondering what\u2019s stopping us from creating the vaccines on our home soil when we already have the moderna and Pfizer vaccines that we are currently slowly vaccinating the people with.  Wouldn\u2019t it be beneficial for all countries around the world to do the same to expedite the vaccination process?   Is there a patent that prevents anyone from copying moderna\/Pfizer vaccines?","c_root_id_A":"gnrk4gk","c_root_id_B":"gnra25o","created_at_utc_A":1613570914,"created_at_utc_B":1613564367,"score_A":703,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"Canada asked every one of its vaccine suppliers to set up production lines in Canada and every one of them said no, because by the time we built the necessary specialized manufacturing facilities, everyone would already have been vaccinated months ago.","human_ref_B":"mRNA vaccine for SARS-COV-2 is the world's first approved for mass production. It will take one to two years more for companies in other countries to start mass producing. The mRNA Covid-19 vaccines are attacking the same spike protein but the production process is the real selling point. For instance, we're seeing Thailand paying AstraZeneca for the production process and Thailand will produce Covid-19 using AstraZeneca's method. There's no stopping any company paying Moderna, Pfizer, AstraZeneca or even Sinopharm (China) to get the production process up to the accepted standards.  The vaccine easiest for copy is in fact from China's Sinopharm which is produced using conventional method and can be transported at room's temperature. It's already $1 or less per dose (wholesale price), so I don't think any copycats can compete with that price, and apparently, Chinese government is handing out Sinopharm vaccines for free to all third-world countries by millions and millions of doses.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6547.0,"score_ratio":26.037037037}
{"post_id":"llm7gd","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why cannot countries mass produce their own vaccines by \u201ccopying the formulae\u201d of the already approved Moderna and Pfizer vaccines? I\u2019m a Canadian and we are dependent on the EU to ship out the remaining vials of the vaccine as contractually obligated to do so however I\u2019m wondering what\u2019s stopping us from creating the vaccines on our home soil when we already have the moderna and Pfizer vaccines that we are currently slowly vaccinating the people with.  Wouldn\u2019t it be beneficial for all countries around the world to do the same to expedite the vaccination process?   Is there a patent that prevents anyone from copying moderna\/Pfizer vaccines?","c_root_id_A":"gnr6uqd","c_root_id_B":"gnrk80s","created_at_utc_A":1613561640,"created_at_utc_B":1613570968,"score_A":94,"score_B":116,"human_ref_A":"I would suggest two things:  First, Canada would need the ready-to-roll manufacturing capability to produce the BioNTech\/Pfizer or Moderna vaccine (which uses new mRNA technology). Being able to produce one type of vaccine doesn't automatically mean you can produce them all.  Vox has a good explainer on YouTube, and I believe only three facilities (one in Belgium and two in the US) are technically capable of mRNA manufacture right now. There's discussion in countries like Australia whether investment to add tooling to manufacture current and future mRNA vaccines needs to be made (and how to do it).  Second, a local vaccine manufacturer\/government could manufacture under licence. In the case of the University of Oxford\/AstraZeneca vaccine it's already being done (for example, Australia's CSL or South Korea's SK Bioscience).  Equitable supply is the major issue. Pricing is relevant but less immediate (we know the EU paid less than South Africa for the AstraZeneca vaccine for example).  Edit: An opinion article on the specific situation in Canada may be helpful. Looks like your domestic issue is both (1) and (2).","human_ref_B":"There's no facilities in Canada which can produce mRNA vaccines on a commercial\/mass scale now. One is being built in Montr\u00e9al but it won't be ready to produce until next year. It will produce Novavax under license.  Pfizer actually licensed Sanofi to make a hundred million doses of its vaccine to speed up distribution.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9328.0,"score_ratio":1.2340425532}
{"post_id":"llm7gd","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why cannot countries mass produce their own vaccines by \u201ccopying the formulae\u201d of the already approved Moderna and Pfizer vaccines? I\u2019m a Canadian and we are dependent on the EU to ship out the remaining vials of the vaccine as contractually obligated to do so however I\u2019m wondering what\u2019s stopping us from creating the vaccines on our home soil when we already have the moderna and Pfizer vaccines that we are currently slowly vaccinating the people with.  Wouldn\u2019t it be beneficial for all countries around the world to do the same to expedite the vaccination process?   Is there a patent that prevents anyone from copying moderna\/Pfizer vaccines?","c_root_id_A":"gnra25o","c_root_id_B":"gnrk80s","created_at_utc_A":1613564367,"created_at_utc_B":1613570968,"score_A":27,"score_B":116,"human_ref_A":"mRNA vaccine for SARS-COV-2 is the world's first approved for mass production. It will take one to two years more for companies in other countries to start mass producing. The mRNA Covid-19 vaccines are attacking the same spike protein but the production process is the real selling point. For instance, we're seeing Thailand paying AstraZeneca for the production process and Thailand will produce Covid-19 using AstraZeneca's method. There's no stopping any company paying Moderna, Pfizer, AstraZeneca or even Sinopharm (China) to get the production process up to the accepted standards.  The vaccine easiest for copy is in fact from China's Sinopharm which is produced using conventional method and can be transported at room's temperature. It's already $1 or less per dose (wholesale price), so I don't think any copycats can compete with that price, and apparently, Chinese government is handing out Sinopharm vaccines for free to all third-world countries by millions and millions of doses.","human_ref_B":"There's no facilities in Canada which can produce mRNA vaccines on a commercial\/mass scale now. One is being built in Montr\u00e9al but it won't be ready to produce until next year. It will produce Novavax under license.  Pfizer actually licensed Sanofi to make a hundred million doses of its vaccine to speed up distribution.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6601.0,"score_ratio":4.2962962963}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65t73","c_root_id_B":"es63i2e","created_at_utc_A":1561641276,"created_at_utc_B":1561639357,"score_A":183,"score_B":135,"human_ref_A":"How do you select people as poop donors? My daughter, a molecular biologist made reference to \"the man with the golden poop\", indicating most of the positive results from fecal transplants came from the donations of a single individual.  When I donate blood, my blood is classified by type, rhesus factor, CMV negative, etc.  Are there objective factors that make one persons gut biome more or less desirable for treating specific conditions in others?","human_ref_B":"What are the most common causes for the need of fecal transplant?   Also, can someone's body reject feces as it could with an organ transplant?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1919.0,"score_ratio":1.3555555556}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es62krq","c_root_id_B":"es65t73","created_at_utc_A":1561638528,"created_at_utc_B":1561641276,"score_A":91,"score_B":183,"human_ref_A":"Hello thanks for this AMA I have a couple of questions:  How close are we to be able to prepare the cocktails of healthy gut flora in a lab instead of sourcing the material from fecal matter?  &#x200B;  Do you also offer auto fecal transplants? In other words can someone \"save\" few good poops so they can be used as personal medicine when problems arise later?","human_ref_B":"How do you select people as poop donors? My daughter, a molecular biologist made reference to \"the man with the golden poop\", indicating most of the positive results from fecal transplants came from the donations of a single individual.  When I donate blood, my blood is classified by type, rhesus factor, CMV negative, etc.  Are there objective factors that make one persons gut biome more or less desirable for treating specific conditions in others?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2748.0,"score_ratio":2.010989011}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es63vx2","c_root_id_B":"es65t73","created_at_utc_A":1561639689,"created_at_utc_B":1561641276,"score_A":80,"score_B":183,"human_ref_A":"How does one go through years and years of med school and then come to the decision to get into the fecal transplant field? Not knocking you, just very curious. Also, is it a smelly job?","human_ref_B":"How do you select people as poop donors? My daughter, a molecular biologist made reference to \"the man with the golden poop\", indicating most of the positive results from fecal transplants came from the donations of a single individual.  When I donate blood, my blood is classified by type, rhesus factor, CMV negative, etc.  Are there objective factors that make one persons gut biome more or less desirable for treating specific conditions in others?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1587.0,"score_ratio":2.2875}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65t73","c_root_id_B":"es622bk","created_at_utc_A":1561641276,"created_at_utc_B":1561638060,"score_A":183,"score_B":58,"human_ref_A":"How do you select people as poop donors? My daughter, a molecular biologist made reference to \"the man with the golden poop\", indicating most of the positive results from fecal transplants came from the donations of a single individual.  When I donate blood, my blood is classified by type, rhesus factor, CMV negative, etc.  Are there objective factors that make one persons gut biome more or less desirable for treating specific conditions in others?","human_ref_B":"How safe are fecal transplants? Apparently someone died recently after the procedure. Was this a fluke, or is it a risky procedure. Here a link for those interested: https:\/\/www.google.nl\/amp\/s\/amp.interestingengineering.com\/patient-dies-after-fecal-matter-transplant-trial","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3216.0,"score_ratio":3.1551724138}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65dht","c_root_id_B":"es65t73","created_at_utc_A":1561640927,"created_at_utc_B":1561641276,"score_A":35,"score_B":183,"human_ref_A":"Any evidence for it being helpful in IBS?  Also when do you think fecal transplants will be more widely used?","human_ref_B":"How do you select people as poop donors? My daughter, a molecular biologist made reference to \"the man with the golden poop\", indicating most of the positive results from fecal transplants came from the donations of a single individual.  When I donate blood, my blood is classified by type, rhesus factor, CMV negative, etc.  Are there objective factors that make one persons gut biome more or less desirable for treating specific conditions in others?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":349.0,"score_ratio":5.2285714286}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es656n7","c_root_id_B":"es65t73","created_at_utc_A":1561640769,"created_at_utc_B":1561641276,"score_A":33,"score_B":183,"human_ref_A":"Can you please comment on the association between obesity in the donor potentially translating into weight problems in the recipient post transplantation. Thank you.  A case report I read recently.","human_ref_B":"How do you select people as poop donors? My daughter, a molecular biologist made reference to \"the man with the golden poop\", indicating most of the positive results from fecal transplants came from the donations of a single individual.  When I donate blood, my blood is classified by type, rhesus factor, CMV negative, etc.  Are there objective factors that make one persons gut biome more or less desirable for treating specific conditions in others?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":507.0,"score_ratio":5.5454545455}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es61hzx","c_root_id_B":"es65t73","created_at_utc_A":1561637522,"created_at_utc_B":1561641276,"score_A":13,"score_B":183,"human_ref_A":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","human_ref_B":"How do you select people as poop donors? My daughter, a molecular biologist made reference to \"the man with the golden poop\", indicating most of the positive results from fecal transplants came from the donations of a single individual.  When I donate blood, my blood is classified by type, rhesus factor, CMV negative, etc.  Are there objective factors that make one persons gut biome more or less desirable for treating specific conditions in others?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3754.0,"score_ratio":14.0769230769}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es643p2","c_root_id_B":"es65t73","created_at_utc_A":1561639872,"created_at_utc_B":1561641276,"score_A":12,"score_B":183,"human_ref_A":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","human_ref_B":"How do you select people as poop donors? My daughter, a molecular biologist made reference to \"the man with the golden poop\", indicating most of the positive results from fecal transplants came from the donations of a single individual.  When I donate blood, my blood is classified by type, rhesus factor, CMV negative, etc.  Are there objective factors that make one persons gut biome more or less desirable for treating specific conditions in others?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1404.0,"score_ratio":15.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es63i2e","c_root_id_B":"es62krq","created_at_utc_A":1561639357,"created_at_utc_B":1561638528,"score_A":135,"score_B":91,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common causes for the need of fecal transplant?   Also, can someone's body reject feces as it could with an organ transplant?","human_ref_B":"Hello thanks for this AMA I have a couple of questions:  How close are we to be able to prepare the cocktails of healthy gut flora in a lab instead of sourcing the material from fecal matter?  &#x200B;  Do you also offer auto fecal transplants? In other words can someone \"save\" few good poops so they can be used as personal medicine when problems arise later?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":829.0,"score_ratio":1.4835164835}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es63i2e","c_root_id_B":"es622bk","created_at_utc_A":1561639357,"created_at_utc_B":1561638060,"score_A":135,"score_B":58,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common causes for the need of fecal transplant?   Also, can someone's body reject feces as it could with an organ transplant?","human_ref_B":"How safe are fecal transplants? Apparently someone died recently after the procedure. Was this a fluke, or is it a risky procedure. Here a link for those interested: https:\/\/www.google.nl\/amp\/s\/amp.interestingengineering.com\/patient-dies-after-fecal-matter-transplant-trial","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1297.0,"score_ratio":2.3275862069}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es63i2e","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561639357,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":135,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"What are the most common causes for the need of fecal transplant?   Also, can someone's body reject feces as it could with an organ transplant?","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1835.0,"score_ratio":10.3846153846}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es62krq","c_root_id_B":"es622bk","created_at_utc_A":1561638528,"created_at_utc_B":1561638060,"score_A":91,"score_B":58,"human_ref_A":"Hello thanks for this AMA I have a couple of questions:  How close are we to be able to prepare the cocktails of healthy gut flora in a lab instead of sourcing the material from fecal matter?  &#x200B;  Do you also offer auto fecal transplants? In other words can someone \"save\" few good poops so they can be used as personal medicine when problems arise later?","human_ref_B":"How safe are fecal transplants? Apparently someone died recently after the procedure. Was this a fluke, or is it a risky procedure. Here a link for those interested: https:\/\/www.google.nl\/amp\/s\/amp.interestingengineering.com\/patient-dies-after-fecal-matter-transplant-trial","labels":1,"seconds_difference":468.0,"score_ratio":1.5689655172}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es61hzx","c_root_id_B":"es62krq","created_at_utc_A":1561637522,"created_at_utc_B":1561638528,"score_A":13,"score_B":91,"human_ref_A":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","human_ref_B":"Hello thanks for this AMA I have a couple of questions:  How close are we to be able to prepare the cocktails of healthy gut flora in a lab instead of sourcing the material from fecal matter?  &#x200B;  Do you also offer auto fecal transplants? In other words can someone \"save\" few good poops so they can be used as personal medicine when problems arise later?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1006.0,"score_ratio":7.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es622bk","c_root_id_B":"es63vx2","created_at_utc_A":1561638060,"created_at_utc_B":1561639689,"score_A":58,"score_B":80,"human_ref_A":"How safe are fecal transplants? Apparently someone died recently after the procedure. Was this a fluke, or is it a risky procedure. Here a link for those interested: https:\/\/www.google.nl\/amp\/s\/amp.interestingengineering.com\/patient-dies-after-fecal-matter-transplant-trial","human_ref_B":"How does one go through years and years of med school and then come to the decision to get into the fecal transplant field? Not knocking you, just very curious. Also, is it a smelly job?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1629.0,"score_ratio":1.3793103448}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es63vx2","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561639689,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":80,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"How does one go through years and years of med school and then come to the decision to get into the fecal transplant field? Not knocking you, just very curious. Also, is it a smelly job?","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2167.0,"score_ratio":6.1538461538}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es622bk","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561638060,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":58,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"How safe are fecal transplants? Apparently someone died recently after the procedure. Was this a fluke, or is it a risky procedure. Here a link for those interested: https:\/\/www.google.nl\/amp\/s\/amp.interestingengineering.com\/patient-dies-after-fecal-matter-transplant-trial","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":538.0,"score_ratio":4.4615384615}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65dht","c_root_id_B":"es676f2","created_at_utc_A":1561640927,"created_at_utc_B":1561642326,"score_A":35,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Any evidence for it being helpful in IBS?  Also when do you think fecal transplants will be more widely used?","human_ref_B":"Hi! How do you feel about the recent research\/studies done into the microbiome\/bacterial flora population of people with fibromyalgia\/M.E.? The two conditions are so horribly underfunded I was surprised to see any progress being made on it at all- have you found it difficult to get people involved because of this, or are people generally more enthusiastic about the studies than finances have allowed?   Another cheeky one- how do you feel about the increase in popularity in kefir as a way to help regulate gut health? My brothers and mother all say it's helped them a lot with some of their issues (I can't quite get over the texture of it...) and was curious as to whether you're excited to see it being more accessible in shops and supermarkets rather than specialist stores?  &#x200B;  Thanks for doing this AMA! Sorry my question isn't more interesting\/focused, but I'm just so pleasantly surprised to see discussion on such a fascinating topic!! (I have M.E. myself and have IBS related symptoms because of it!)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1399.0,"score_ratio":1.1142857143}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es656n7","c_root_id_B":"es676f2","created_at_utc_A":1561640769,"created_at_utc_B":1561642326,"score_A":33,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Can you please comment on the association between obesity in the donor potentially translating into weight problems in the recipient post transplantation. Thank you.  A case report I read recently.","human_ref_B":"Hi! How do you feel about the recent research\/studies done into the microbiome\/bacterial flora population of people with fibromyalgia\/M.E.? The two conditions are so horribly underfunded I was surprised to see any progress being made on it at all- have you found it difficult to get people involved because of this, or are people generally more enthusiastic about the studies than finances have allowed?   Another cheeky one- how do you feel about the increase in popularity in kefir as a way to help regulate gut health? My brothers and mother all say it's helped them a lot with some of their issues (I can't quite get over the texture of it...) and was curious as to whether you're excited to see it being more accessible in shops and supermarkets rather than specialist stores?  &#x200B;  Thanks for doing this AMA! Sorry my question isn't more interesting\/focused, but I'm just so pleasantly surprised to see discussion on such a fascinating topic!! (I have M.E. myself and have IBS related symptoms because of it!)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1557.0,"score_ratio":1.1818181818}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es66fav","c_root_id_B":"es676f2","created_at_utc_A":1561641752,"created_at_utc_B":1561642326,"score_A":27,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Are there other applications for this procedure besides helping treat C. Diff? If so, why this over supplementation of probiotics? are probiotics merely snake oil (talking about the pill form)?","human_ref_B":"Hi! How do you feel about the recent research\/studies done into the microbiome\/bacterial flora population of people with fibromyalgia\/M.E.? The two conditions are so horribly underfunded I was surprised to see any progress being made on it at all- have you found it difficult to get people involved because of this, or are people generally more enthusiastic about the studies than finances have allowed?   Another cheeky one- how do you feel about the increase in popularity in kefir as a way to help regulate gut health? My brothers and mother all say it's helped them a lot with some of their issues (I can't quite get over the texture of it...) and was curious as to whether you're excited to see it being more accessible in shops and supermarkets rather than specialist stores?  &#x200B;  Thanks for doing this AMA! Sorry my question isn't more interesting\/focused, but I'm just so pleasantly surprised to see discussion on such a fascinating topic!! (I have M.E. myself and have IBS related symptoms because of it!)","labels":0,"seconds_difference":574.0,"score_ratio":1.4444444444}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es676f2","c_root_id_B":"es65w32","created_at_utc_A":1561642326,"created_at_utc_B":1561641339,"score_A":39,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Hi! How do you feel about the recent research\/studies done into the microbiome\/bacterial flora population of people with fibromyalgia\/M.E.? The two conditions are so horribly underfunded I was surprised to see any progress being made on it at all- have you found it difficult to get people involved because of this, or are people generally more enthusiastic about the studies than finances have allowed?   Another cheeky one- how do you feel about the increase in popularity in kefir as a way to help regulate gut health? My brothers and mother all say it's helped them a lot with some of their issues (I can't quite get over the texture of it...) and was curious as to whether you're excited to see it being more accessible in shops and supermarkets rather than specialist stores?  &#x200B;  Thanks for doing this AMA! Sorry my question isn't more interesting\/focused, but I'm just so pleasantly surprised to see discussion on such a fascinating topic!! (I have M.E. myself and have IBS related symptoms because of it!)","human_ref_B":"It is common for people that have had brain injuries have alot of problems with their bowels. Could it be from all the medication killing our microbiome?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":987.0,"score_ratio":2.7857142857}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es676f2","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561642326,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":39,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Hi! How do you feel about the recent research\/studies done into the microbiome\/bacterial flora population of people with fibromyalgia\/M.E.? The two conditions are so horribly underfunded I was surprised to see any progress being made on it at all- have you found it difficult to get people involved because of this, or are people generally more enthusiastic about the studies than finances have allowed?   Another cheeky one- how do you feel about the increase in popularity in kefir as a way to help regulate gut health? My brothers and mother all say it's helped them a lot with some of their issues (I can't quite get over the texture of it...) and was curious as to whether you're excited to see it being more accessible in shops and supermarkets rather than specialist stores?  &#x200B;  Thanks for doing this AMA! Sorry my question isn't more interesting\/focused, but I'm just so pleasantly surprised to see discussion on such a fascinating topic!! (I have M.E. myself and have IBS related symptoms because of it!)","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4804.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es676f2","c_root_id_B":"es643p2","created_at_utc_A":1561642326,"created_at_utc_B":1561639872,"score_A":39,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Hi! How do you feel about the recent research\/studies done into the microbiome\/bacterial flora population of people with fibromyalgia\/M.E.? The two conditions are so horribly underfunded I was surprised to see any progress being made on it at all- have you found it difficult to get people involved because of this, or are people generally more enthusiastic about the studies than finances have allowed?   Another cheeky one- how do you feel about the increase in popularity in kefir as a way to help regulate gut health? My brothers and mother all say it's helped them a lot with some of their issues (I can't quite get over the texture of it...) and was curious as to whether you're excited to see it being more accessible in shops and supermarkets rather than specialist stores?  &#x200B;  Thanks for doing this AMA! Sorry my question isn't more interesting\/focused, but I'm just so pleasantly surprised to see discussion on such a fascinating topic!! (I have M.E. myself and have IBS related symptoms because of it!)","human_ref_B":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2454.0,"score_ratio":3.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es676f2","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561642326,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":39,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Hi! How do you feel about the recent research\/studies done into the microbiome\/bacterial flora population of people with fibromyalgia\/M.E.? The two conditions are so horribly underfunded I was surprised to see any progress being made on it at all- have you found it difficult to get people involved because of this, or are people generally more enthusiastic about the studies than finances have allowed?   Another cheeky one- how do you feel about the increase in popularity in kefir as a way to help regulate gut health? My brothers and mother all say it's helped them a lot with some of their issues (I can't quite get over the texture of it...) and was curious as to whether you're excited to see it being more accessible in shops and supermarkets rather than specialist stores?  &#x200B;  Thanks for doing this AMA! Sorry my question isn't more interesting\/focused, but I'm just so pleasantly surprised to see discussion on such a fascinating topic!! (I have M.E. myself and have IBS related symptoms because of it!)","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1039.0,"score_ratio":9.75}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65dht","c_root_id_B":"es656n7","created_at_utc_A":1561640927,"created_at_utc_B":1561640769,"score_A":35,"score_B":33,"human_ref_A":"Any evidence for it being helpful in IBS?  Also when do you think fecal transplants will be more widely used?","human_ref_B":"Can you please comment on the association between obesity in the donor potentially translating into weight problems in the recipient post transplantation. Thank you.  A case report I read recently.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":158.0,"score_ratio":1.0606060606}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65dht","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561640927,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":35,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Any evidence for it being helpful in IBS?  Also when do you think fecal transplants will be more widely used?","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3405.0,"score_ratio":2.6923076923}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65dht","c_root_id_B":"es643p2","created_at_utc_A":1561640927,"created_at_utc_B":1561639872,"score_A":35,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Any evidence for it being helpful in IBS?  Also when do you think fecal transplants will be more widely used?","human_ref_B":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1055.0,"score_ratio":2.9166666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es61hzx","c_root_id_B":"es656n7","created_at_utc_A":1561637522,"created_at_utc_B":1561640769,"score_A":13,"score_B":33,"human_ref_A":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","human_ref_B":"Can you please comment on the association between obesity in the donor potentially translating into weight problems in the recipient post transplantation. Thank you.  A case report I read recently.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3247.0,"score_ratio":2.5384615385}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es643p2","c_root_id_B":"es656n7","created_at_utc_A":1561639872,"created_at_utc_B":1561640769,"score_A":12,"score_B":33,"human_ref_A":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","human_ref_B":"Can you please comment on the association between obesity in the donor potentially translating into weight problems in the recipient post transplantation. Thank you.  A case report I read recently.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":897.0,"score_ratio":2.75}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es68ywq","c_root_id_B":"es66fav","created_at_utc_A":1561643657,"created_at_utc_B":1561641752,"score_A":28,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"Who thought up the idea of a fecal transplant?  Did it start out as a home remedy? And what kind of home was that?","human_ref_B":"Are there other applications for this procedure besides helping treat C. Diff? If so, why this over supplementation of probiotics? are probiotics merely snake oil (talking about the pill form)?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1905.0,"score_ratio":1.037037037}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es68gwh","c_root_id_B":"es68ywq","created_at_utc_A":1561643294,"created_at_utc_B":1561643657,"score_A":18,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"There are recent studies looking into fecal transplants as a way to treat autism and tourettes. What can you share about your knowledge of this area?","human_ref_B":"Who thought up the idea of a fecal transplant?  Did it start out as a home remedy? And what kind of home was that?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":363.0,"score_ratio":1.5555555556}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65w32","c_root_id_B":"es68ywq","created_at_utc_A":1561641339,"created_at_utc_B":1561643657,"score_A":14,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"It is common for people that have had brain injuries have alot of problems with their bowels. Could it be from all the medication killing our microbiome?","human_ref_B":"Who thought up the idea of a fecal transplant?  Did it start out as a home remedy? And what kind of home was that?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2318.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es68ywq","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561643657,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":28,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Who thought up the idea of a fecal transplant?  Did it start out as a home remedy? And what kind of home was that?","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6135.0,"score_ratio":2.1538461538}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es643p2","c_root_id_B":"es68ywq","created_at_utc_A":1561639872,"created_at_utc_B":1561643657,"score_A":12,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","human_ref_B":"Who thought up the idea of a fecal transplant?  Did it start out as a home remedy? And what kind of home was that?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3785.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es68ywq","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561643657,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":28,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Who thought up the idea of a fecal transplant?  Did it start out as a home remedy? And what kind of home was that?","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2370.0,"score_ratio":7.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es67lv0","c_root_id_B":"es68ywq","created_at_utc_A":1561642650,"created_at_utc_B":1561643657,"score_A":3,"score_B":28,"human_ref_A":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","human_ref_B":"Who thought up the idea of a fecal transplant?  Did it start out as a home remedy? And what kind of home was that?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1007.0,"score_ratio":9.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es66fav","c_root_id_B":"es65w32","created_at_utc_A":1561641752,"created_at_utc_B":1561641339,"score_A":27,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Are there other applications for this procedure besides helping treat C. Diff? If so, why this over supplementation of probiotics? are probiotics merely snake oil (talking about the pill form)?","human_ref_B":"It is common for people that have had brain injuries have alot of problems with their bowels. Could it be from all the medication killing our microbiome?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":413.0,"score_ratio":1.9285714286}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es66fav","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561641752,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":27,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Are there other applications for this procedure besides helping treat C. Diff? If so, why this over supplementation of probiotics? are probiotics merely snake oil (talking about the pill form)?","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4230.0,"score_ratio":2.0769230769}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es66fav","c_root_id_B":"es643p2","created_at_utc_A":1561641752,"created_at_utc_B":1561639872,"score_A":27,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Are there other applications for this procedure besides helping treat C. Diff? If so, why this over supplementation of probiotics? are probiotics merely snake oil (talking about the pill form)?","human_ref_B":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1880.0,"score_ratio":2.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65tp4","c_root_id_B":"es66fav","created_at_utc_A":1561641287,"created_at_utc_B":1561641752,"score_A":4,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","human_ref_B":"Are there other applications for this procedure besides helping treat C. Diff? If so, why this over supplementation of probiotics? are probiotics merely snake oil (talking about the pill form)?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":465.0,"score_ratio":6.75}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es68gwh","c_root_id_B":"es65w32","created_at_utc_A":1561643294,"created_at_utc_B":1561641339,"score_A":18,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"There are recent studies looking into fecal transplants as a way to treat autism and tourettes. What can you share about your knowledge of this area?","human_ref_B":"It is common for people that have had brain injuries have alot of problems with their bowels. Could it be from all the medication killing our microbiome?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1955.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es68gwh","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561643294,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":18,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"There are recent studies looking into fecal transplants as a way to treat autism and tourettes. What can you share about your knowledge of this area?","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5772.0,"score_ratio":1.3846153846}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es68gwh","c_root_id_B":"es643p2","created_at_utc_A":1561643294,"created_at_utc_B":1561639872,"score_A":18,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"There are recent studies looking into fecal transplants as a way to treat autism and tourettes. What can you share about your knowledge of this area?","human_ref_B":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3422.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65tp4","c_root_id_B":"es68gwh","created_at_utc_A":1561641287,"created_at_utc_B":1561643294,"score_A":4,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","human_ref_B":"There are recent studies looking into fecal transplants as a way to treat autism and tourettes. What can you share about your knowledge of this area?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2007.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es68gwh","c_root_id_B":"es67lv0","created_at_utc_A":1561643294,"created_at_utc_B":1561642650,"score_A":18,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"There are recent studies looking into fecal transplants as a way to treat autism and tourettes. What can you share about your knowledge of this area?","human_ref_B":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":644.0,"score_ratio":6.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65w32","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561641339,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":14,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"It is common for people that have had brain injuries have alot of problems with their bowels. Could it be from all the medication killing our microbiome?","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3817.0,"score_ratio":1.0769230769}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65w32","c_root_id_B":"es643p2","created_at_utc_A":1561641339,"created_at_utc_B":1561639872,"score_A":14,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"It is common for people that have had brain injuries have alot of problems with their bowels. Could it be from all the medication killing our microbiome?","human_ref_B":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1467.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65w32","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561641339,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":14,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"It is common for people that have had brain injuries have alot of problems with their bowels. Could it be from all the medication killing our microbiome?","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":52.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6boo4","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561645560,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":14,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Why don't you transfer only the microflora instead of the full package of feces? Can't you put it in some kind of probiotic? Can the bacteria really not survive on anything other than actual feces?","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8038.0,"score_ratio":1.0769230769}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es643p2","c_root_id_B":"es6boo4","created_at_utc_A":1561639872,"created_at_utc_B":1561645560,"score_A":12,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","human_ref_B":"Why don't you transfer only the microflora instead of the full package of feces? Can't you put it in some kind of probiotic? Can the bacteria really not survive on anything other than actual feces?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5688.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65tp4","c_root_id_B":"es6boo4","created_at_utc_A":1561641287,"created_at_utc_B":1561645560,"score_A":4,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","human_ref_B":"Why don't you transfer only the microflora instead of the full package of feces? Can't you put it in some kind of probiotic? Can the bacteria really not survive on anything other than actual feces?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4273.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6boo4","c_root_id_B":"es67lv0","created_at_utc_A":1561645560,"created_at_utc_B":1561642650,"score_A":14,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Why don't you transfer only the microflora instead of the full package of feces? Can't you put it in some kind of probiotic? Can the bacteria really not survive on anything other than actual feces?","human_ref_B":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2910.0,"score_ratio":4.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es69fel","c_root_id_B":"es61hzx","created_at_utc_A":1561643991,"created_at_utc_B":1561637522,"score_A":14,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Are probiotics really that helpful? Is there a specific brand you recommend? Or any we should avoid?  There are so many probiotic products out there that seem unregulated but I believe in the power of bacteria.  I feel uneducated about what is out there and available to us and I feel many of us out there probably feel the same.","human_ref_B":"What do we currently know of the microbiome\u2019s role in supporting the human immune system?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6469.0,"score_ratio":1.0769230769}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es69fel","c_root_id_B":"es643p2","created_at_utc_A":1561643991,"created_at_utc_B":1561639872,"score_A":14,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Are probiotics really that helpful? Is there a specific brand you recommend? Or any we should avoid?  There are so many probiotic products out there that seem unregulated but I believe in the power of bacteria.  I feel uneducated about what is out there and available to us and I feel many of us out there probably feel the same.","human_ref_B":"I've heard a bit about this and its really interesting, thank you so much for doing an AMA!   As of now, what does the future for this science look like? Are new conditions being tested for the effects of these treatments and if so, are there any promising ones of note?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4119.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65tp4","c_root_id_B":"es69fel","created_at_utc_A":1561641287,"created_at_utc_B":1561643991,"score_A":4,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","human_ref_B":"Are probiotics really that helpful? Is there a specific brand you recommend? Or any we should avoid?  There are so many probiotic products out there that seem unregulated but I believe in the power of bacteria.  I feel uneducated about what is out there and available to us and I feel many of us out there probably feel the same.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2704.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es69fel","c_root_id_B":"es67lv0","created_at_utc_A":1561643991,"created_at_utc_B":1561642650,"score_A":14,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Are probiotics really that helpful? Is there a specific brand you recommend? Or any we should avoid?  There are so many probiotic products out there that seem unregulated but I believe in the power of bacteria.  I feel uneducated about what is out there and available to us and I feel many of us out there probably feel the same.","human_ref_B":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1341.0,"score_ratio":4.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6e1dw","c_root_id_B":"es6c0ad","created_at_utc_A":1561647144,"created_at_utc_B":1561645781,"score_A":12,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"I'm a participant in a research program where I send in stool samples every 6 months to somewhere in North Carolina. I got I to it because of my UC. I never hear anything about the research. I know the study is ongoing, but what's some of the latest research on fecal transplants and uc\/crohns?  Also I'm a nurse and man I can't wait for C. Diff to be brought more under control Omg.","human_ref_B":"In what ways does the microbiome change as we age and why do those changes happen?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1363.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6c81g","c_root_id_B":"es6e1dw","created_at_utc_A":1561645926,"created_at_utc_B":1561647144,"score_A":7,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"What kind of screening (if any) do you perform- particularly in regard to donors that may be asymptomatic\/colonised with resistant organisms- a problem that led the FDA to halt trials involving faecal transplants.","human_ref_B":"I'm a participant in a research program where I send in stool samples every 6 months to somewhere in North Carolina. I got I to it because of my UC. I never hear anything about the research. I know the study is ongoing, but what's some of the latest research on fecal transplants and uc\/crohns?  Also I'm a nurse and man I can't wait for C. Diff to be brought more under control Omg.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1218.0,"score_ratio":1.7142857143}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6e1dw","c_root_id_B":"es6cx2y","created_at_utc_A":1561647144,"created_at_utc_B":1561646395,"score_A":12,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"I'm a participant in a research program where I send in stool samples every 6 months to somewhere in North Carolina. I got I to it because of my UC. I never hear anything about the research. I know the study is ongoing, but what's some of the latest research on fecal transplants and uc\/crohns?  Also I'm a nurse and man I can't wait for C. Diff to be brought more under control Omg.","human_ref_B":"Are FMTs safe for immunocompromised individuals?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":749.0,"score_ratio":2.4}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6d1ac","c_root_id_B":"es6e1dw","created_at_utc_A":1561646472,"created_at_utc_B":1561647144,"score_A":6,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"How can I found it if a doctor in my state would do this?   Is it done on people with Crohn's disease?   Would it be done if a person had fistulas from Crohn's?","human_ref_B":"I'm a participant in a research program where I send in stool samples every 6 months to somewhere in North Carolina. I got I to it because of my UC. I never hear anything about the research. I know the study is ongoing, but what's some of the latest research on fecal transplants and uc\/crohns?  Also I'm a nurse and man I can't wait for C. Diff to be brought more under control Omg.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":672.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6e1dw","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561647144,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":12,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"I'm a participant in a research program where I send in stool samples every 6 months to somewhere in North Carolina. I got I to it because of my UC. I never hear anything about the research. I know the study is ongoing, but what's some of the latest research on fecal transplants and uc\/crohns?  Also I'm a nurse and man I can't wait for C. Diff to be brought more under control Omg.","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5857.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6e1dw","c_root_id_B":"es67lv0","created_at_utc_A":1561647144,"created_at_utc_B":1561642650,"score_A":12,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I'm a participant in a research program where I send in stool samples every 6 months to somewhere in North Carolina. I got I to it because of my UC. I never hear anything about the research. I know the study is ongoing, but what's some of the latest research on fecal transplants and uc\/crohns?  Also I'm a nurse and man I can't wait for C. Diff to be brought more under control Omg.","human_ref_B":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4494.0,"score_ratio":4.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6c0ad","c_root_id_B":"es6l2ig","created_at_utc_A":1561645781,"created_at_utc_B":1561651719,"score_A":6,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"In what ways does the microbiome change as we age and why do those changes happen?","human_ref_B":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5938.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6l2ig","c_root_id_B":"es6c81g","created_at_utc_A":1561651719,"created_at_utc_B":1561645926,"score_A":8,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","human_ref_B":"What kind of screening (if any) do you perform- particularly in regard to donors that may be asymptomatic\/colonised with resistant organisms- a problem that led the FDA to halt trials involving faecal transplants.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5793.0,"score_ratio":1.1428571429}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6cx2y","c_root_id_B":"es6l2ig","created_at_utc_A":1561646395,"created_at_utc_B":1561651719,"score_A":5,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Are FMTs safe for immunocompromised individuals?","human_ref_B":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5324.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6d1ac","c_root_id_B":"es6l2ig","created_at_utc_A":1561646472,"created_at_utc_B":1561651719,"score_A":6,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"How can I found it if a doctor in my state would do this?   Is it done on people with Crohn's disease?   Would it be done if a person had fistulas from Crohn's?","human_ref_B":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5247.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6l2ig","c_root_id_B":"es6i0ju","created_at_utc_A":1561651719,"created_at_utc_B":1561649755,"score_A":8,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","human_ref_B":"hi there,   I'm a type 1 diabetic. Right before i got sick with it i had a really bad tooth. I've heard with other diseases that it *might* be possible that tooth decay can travel to the gut and from there mess up the gut bacteria and manifest in auto immune diseases. Is it possible that's what happened to me? And also just curious, would a fecal transplant do anything to reset my immune system and affect this pesky diabetes?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1964.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6l2ig","c_root_id_B":"es6g9u2","created_at_utc_A":1561651719,"created_at_utc_B":1561648634,"score_A":8,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","human_ref_B":"Is there any significant clinical research on the affects of fecal transplantation with regards to depression, anxiety and\/or IBS?   Considering they seem to go hand in hand for a lot of people - and the gut\/brain connection is a well established thing in medical science (although not fully understood).   Also, what hurdles do we have to overcome for Fecal Transplants to become a more common treatment for poor gut health, outside of C Diff?  Thanks!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3085.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6l2ig","c_root_id_B":"es6iwa1","created_at_utc_A":1561651719,"created_at_utc_B":1561650319,"score_A":8,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","human_ref_B":"Can fecal transplants help some obese people lose weight? In my microbio class I read an article theorizing (not asserting\/proving) that gut biomes may play a role in weight gain\/loss","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1400.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65tp4","c_root_id_B":"es6l2ig","created_at_utc_A":1561641287,"created_at_utc_B":1561651719,"score_A":4,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","human_ref_B":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","labels":0,"seconds_difference":10432.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es67lv0","c_root_id_B":"es6l2ig","created_at_utc_A":1561642650,"created_at_utc_B":1561651719,"score_A":3,"score_B":8,"human_ref_A":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","human_ref_B":"**EDIT: 12:05 PM ET - I have to run to a meeting, so I'm signing off for the moment, but I'll try to pop back into this thread to answer a few more questions later today. Thank you for the great questions on our first AMA, everyone!**  &#x200B;  **EDIT 2:**   **3 PM ET - Thanks everyone for your thoughtful questions and a great discussion, and for joining me today on my first AMA!**  **You can keep an eye on what we\u2019re up to at OpenBiome on Twitter (@OpenBiome) or on Facebook. Happy World Microbiome Day!**","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9069.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6c81g","c_root_id_B":"es6c0ad","created_at_utc_A":1561645926,"created_at_utc_B":1561645781,"score_A":7,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"What kind of screening (if any) do you perform- particularly in regard to donors that may be asymptomatic\/colonised with resistant organisms- a problem that led the FDA to halt trials involving faecal transplants.","human_ref_B":"In what ways does the microbiome change as we age and why do those changes happen?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":145.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6c0ad","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561645781,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":6,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"In what ways does the microbiome change as we age and why do those changes happen?","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4494.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es67lv0","c_root_id_B":"es6c0ad","created_at_utc_A":1561642650,"created_at_utc_B":1561645781,"score_A":3,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","human_ref_B":"In what ways does the microbiome change as we age and why do those changes happen?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3131.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6c81g","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561645926,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":7,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"What kind of screening (if any) do you perform- particularly in regard to donors that may be asymptomatic\/colonised with resistant organisms- a problem that led the FDA to halt trials involving faecal transplants.","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4639.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6c81g","c_root_id_B":"es67lv0","created_at_utc_A":1561645926,"created_at_utc_B":1561642650,"score_A":7,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"What kind of screening (if any) do you perform- particularly in regard to donors that may be asymptomatic\/colonised with resistant organisms- a problem that led the FDA to halt trials involving faecal transplants.","human_ref_B":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3276.0,"score_ratio":2.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6d1ac","c_root_id_B":"es6cx2y","created_at_utc_A":1561646472,"created_at_utc_B":1561646395,"score_A":6,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"How can I found it if a doctor in my state would do this?   Is it done on people with Crohn's disease?   Would it be done if a person had fistulas from Crohn's?","human_ref_B":"Are FMTs safe for immunocompromised individuals?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":77.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6cx2y","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561646395,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Are FMTs safe for immunocompromised individuals?","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5108.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es67lv0","c_root_id_B":"es6cx2y","created_at_utc_A":1561642650,"created_at_utc_B":1561646395,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","human_ref_B":"Are FMTs safe for immunocompromised individuals?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3745.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6d1ac","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561646472,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":6,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"How can I found it if a doctor in my state would do this?   Is it done on people with Crohn's disease?   Would it be done if a person had fistulas from Crohn's?","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5185.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6d1ac","c_root_id_B":"es67lv0","created_at_utc_A":1561646472,"created_at_utc_B":1561642650,"score_A":6,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"How can I found it if a doctor in my state would do this?   Is it done on people with Crohn's disease?   Would it be done if a person had fistulas from Crohn's?","human_ref_B":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3822.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6i0ju","c_root_id_B":"es6g9u2","created_at_utc_A":1561649755,"created_at_utc_B":1561648634,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"hi there,   I'm a type 1 diabetic. Right before i got sick with it i had a really bad tooth. I've heard with other diseases that it *might* be possible that tooth decay can travel to the gut and from there mess up the gut bacteria and manifest in auto immune diseases. Is it possible that's what happened to me? And also just curious, would a fecal transplant do anything to reset my immune system and affect this pesky diabetes?","human_ref_B":"Is there any significant clinical research on the affects of fecal transplantation with regards to depression, anxiety and\/or IBS?   Considering they seem to go hand in hand for a lot of people - and the gut\/brain connection is a well established thing in medical science (although not fully understood).   Also, what hurdles do we have to overcome for Fecal Transplants to become a more common treatment for poor gut health, outside of C Diff?  Thanks!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1121.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es65tp4","c_root_id_B":"es6i0ju","created_at_utc_A":1561641287,"created_at_utc_B":1561649755,"score_A":4,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","human_ref_B":"hi there,   I'm a type 1 diabetic. Right before i got sick with it i had a really bad tooth. I've heard with other diseases that it *might* be possible that tooth decay can travel to the gut and from there mess up the gut bacteria and manifest in auto immune diseases. Is it possible that's what happened to me? And also just curious, would a fecal transplant do anything to reset my immune system and affect this pesky diabetes?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8468.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es67lv0","c_root_id_B":"es6i0ju","created_at_utc_A":1561642650,"created_at_utc_B":1561649755,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","human_ref_B":"hi there,   I'm a type 1 diabetic. Right before i got sick with it i had a really bad tooth. I've heard with other diseases that it *might* be possible that tooth decay can travel to the gut and from there mess up the gut bacteria and manifest in auto immune diseases. Is it possible that's what happened to me? And also just curious, would a fecal transplant do anything to reset my immune system and affect this pesky diabetes?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7105.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6g9u2","c_root_id_B":"es6iwa1","created_at_utc_A":1561648634,"created_at_utc_B":1561650319,"score_A":4,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Is there any significant clinical research on the affects of fecal transplantation with regards to depression, anxiety and\/or IBS?   Considering they seem to go hand in hand for a lot of people - and the gut\/brain connection is a well established thing in medical science (although not fully understood).   Also, what hurdles do we have to overcome for Fecal Transplants to become a more common treatment for poor gut health, outside of C Diff?  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"Can fecal transplants help some obese people lose weight? In my microbio class I read an article theorizing (not asserting\/proving) that gut biomes may play a role in weight gain\/loss","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1685.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6g9u2","c_root_id_B":"es6pak1","created_at_utc_A":1561648634,"created_at_utc_B":1561654369,"score_A":4,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Is there any significant clinical research on the affects of fecal transplantation with regards to depression, anxiety and\/or IBS?   Considering they seem to go hand in hand for a lot of people - and the gut\/brain connection is a well established thing in medical science (although not fully understood).   Also, what hurdles do we have to overcome for Fecal Transplants to become a more common treatment for poor gut health, outside of C Diff?  Thanks!","human_ref_B":"Not a question but just want to say thanks. Used your service, I had two FMT for a C-diff infection.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5735.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es67lv0","c_root_id_B":"es6g9u2","created_at_utc_A":1561642650,"created_at_utc_B":1561648634,"score_A":3,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","human_ref_B":"Is there any significant clinical research on the affects of fecal transplantation with regards to depression, anxiety and\/or IBS?   Considering they seem to go hand in hand for a lot of people - and the gut\/brain connection is a well established thing in medical science (although not fully understood).   Also, what hurdles do we have to overcome for Fecal Transplants to become a more common treatment for poor gut health, outside of C Diff?  Thanks!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5984.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6iwa1","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561650319,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Can fecal transplants help some obese people lose weight? In my microbio class I read an article theorizing (not asserting\/proving) that gut biomes may play a role in weight gain\/loss","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9032.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es67lv0","c_root_id_B":"es6iwa1","created_at_utc_A":1561642650,"created_at_utc_B":1561650319,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","human_ref_B":"Can fecal transplants help some obese people lose weight? In my microbio class I read an article theorizing (not asserting\/proving) that gut biomes may play a role in weight gain\/loss","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7669.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es6pak1","c_root_id_B":"es65tp4","created_at_utc_A":1561654369,"created_at_utc_B":1561641287,"score_A":5,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Not a question but just want to say thanks. Used your service, I had two FMT for a C-diff infection.","human_ref_B":"Have you heard of the company Viome (or others offering similar services)? Any thoughts?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13082.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"c644xe","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Majdi Osman, an infectious diseases physician and Clinical Program Director at OpenBiome - a nonprofit stool bank that provides material for fecal transplants. Ask me anything! Today is World Microbiome Day! I'm here to talk about fecal transplants and microbiome research. Fecal transplants are exactly what they sound like - taking stool from a healthy donor, carefully screening it, and transplanting it into a patient.   At OpenBiome, we provide material for fecal transplants to clinicians treating patients with an infection called C. difficile, and we collaborate with researchers around the world investigating the potential of fecal transplants in other conditions, like inflammatory bowel disease, malnutrition, typhoid, food allergies and multiple sclerosis.   Our Executive Director Carolyn Edelstein joined a panel at the Aspen Ideas Festival this weekend on \"The Power of Poop\" - you can watch it here. You can also check out our work on our website, Facebook, and Twitter. AMA!  I'll be on at 11am ET (15 UT). Ask me anything!","c_root_id_A":"es67lv0","c_root_id_B":"es6pak1","created_at_utc_A":1561642650,"created_at_utc_B":1561654369,"score_A":3,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Would a fecal transplant help with a babesia infection?","human_ref_B":"Not a question but just want to say thanks. Used your service, I had two FMT for a C-diff infection.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11719.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"wmx442","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If you got a Polio vaccine as a child, would you need to get re-vaccinated to be protected? Polio was one of my childhood vaccinations in the 1970s. I have the vaccination card my parents got for me as a child. Would I need to get vaccinated again to be safe?   Can you get a polio vaccine in the US these days? Where would you get it?","c_root_id_A":"ik3fk8w","c_root_id_B":"ik3jn48","created_at_utc_A":1660368463,"created_at_utc_B":1660371261,"score_A":32,"score_B":770,"human_ref_A":"Polio outbreaks are happening globally. Children and adults should be up-to-date with polio and other routine immunizations before travelling. Adults who received polio vaccine as children should receive a one-time lifetime booster if traveling to an area where there is a poliovirus transmission.   https:\/\/www.health.ny.gov\/press\/releases\/2022\/2022-08-12_nys_nyc_wastewater_polio.htm  Edit. I just looked at cvs and they have the injectable vaccine there. I assume Walmart, and every other vaccine providing pharmacy in the nation would also provide. We all had ours at our regular pediatric doctor visits","human_ref_B":"* You probably don't need a polio vaccine booster. However, it's unclear how long the vaccines last. Partly because polio is nearly eradicated, so people in the US aren't often exposed to it. And partly because 95% of polio cases are like a flu or cold and only 0.5% result in paralysis, so they're hard to detect. * Polio vaccine boosters are recommended for people who might be exposed to polio through healthcare work or travel. If you live in Rockland County, NY, you might ask your doctor if you should get a booster. * Yes, you can get a polio vaccine in the US. Polio vaccines are required for children to attend school, and they are given to almost all babies and children in the US as a series of 4 shots from age 6 months to 6 years. Your doctor can give you a booster. * There are 3 types of wild polio: type 1, 2, and 3. Types 2 and 3 were eradicated 10-20 years ago. Type 1 is only endemic in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Last year, there were 2 cases. This year so far there were 14 in Pakistan, 1 in Afghanistan, and 4 in Mozambique. * There are two types of vaccine: the oral vaccine contains a live, weakened virus. The shot contains an inactivated virus. You received the oral vaccine, which is no longer given in the US or most developed countries. If you get a booster, you'll get the shot (called the IPV, or inactivated polio vaccine.) * The oral vaccine is being phased out across the world. In fact, there is a new type of vaccine that's replacing both the oral and the IPV vaccines. However, the oral vaccine is still used in some developing countries because it's easier to train people to administer an oral vaccine than a shot, and because the oral vaccine has some useful features (which I'll explain below.) * Polio is transmitted through the oral-fecal route. The virus is shed in a person's feces and ingested by mouth. The polio virus can only live outside of humans for about two weeks, but during that time people can ingest it from contaminated water or soil. No other animal spreads polio, only humans. * The oral vaccine contains a live, weakened virus, which is shed in the vaccinated person's feces. In communities where it's hard to vaccinate everyone \\*and\\* there's poor sanitation, unvaccinated people can catch the weakened virus from vaccinated people. This is actually a feature, because the virus is too weak to make them sick but strong enough to vaccinate them. * The problem arises when fewer than 80% of the population remains unvaccinated for 18 months or more. That gives the weakened virus time to mutate to something stronger (although still not as strong as wild polio) that can cause paralysis in a small percentage of people. This is called \"vaccine-derived\" polio. * The name is a little misleading, because people don't get polio from taking the oral vaccine. Only *unvaccinated* people can get vaccine-derived polio \u2014 but they get it from ingesting food or water that contains the virus that's shed in the feces of people who took the oral vaccine. Even then, they will only get sick if the virus has had at least 18 months to circulate and get stronger. * The people in New York got \"vaccine-derived\" type 2 polio. They got it from traveling to Israel, where the oral vaccine is still used. In New York, the unvaccinated people spread the virus within their own unvaccinated community, and now it's in soil and water. * Health workers make every effort to vaccinate at least 80% of each community within 12 months in order to prevent vaccine-derived polio outbreaks. Whenever there is a \"vaccine-derived\" polio outbreak someplace in the world, health workers launch an intensive effort to get everyone vaccinated as quickly as possible. * There are only a few hundred cases of vaccine-derived polio worldwide each year. * It's unclear to me whether or not the Rockland County community will consent to being vaccinated. If not, they're at risk for continuing to spread polio. However, if they get vaccinated, the outbreak can potentially be contained within a few weeks since the virus can't live outside a human host for longer than two weeks. * I haven't checked into what Israel's doing, but I believe they're working really hard to contain their outbreak. I think their outbreak is type 3, not type 2, though. The vaccine contains all 3 types of polio, so all 3 types might be circulating in Rockland County right now.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2798.0,"score_ratio":24.0625}
{"post_id":"wmx442","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"If you got a Polio vaccine as a child, would you need to get re-vaccinated to be protected? Polio was one of my childhood vaccinations in the 1970s. I have the vaccination card my parents got for me as a child. Would I need to get vaccinated again to be safe?   Can you get a polio vaccine in the US these days? Where would you get it?","c_root_id_A":"ik3zwbm","c_root_id_B":"ik4ovp0","created_at_utc_A":1660384303,"created_at_utc_B":1660399954,"score_A":9,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"You can get a blood test to check for antibodies from any and all vaccines you\u2019ve ever had. Polio is one that is supposed to give you lifelong coverage so it\u2019s not one you should need again, however in some *extremely rare* cases the body can reject a vaccine\/not form the antibodies so it never hurts to get it checked.","human_ref_B":"There are vaccines that you should get boosters for every 10 years but I think this hasn\u2019t been pushed because these diseases were basically eradicated. But now that we\u2019ve seen a resurgence you\u2019ll see more people getting those boosters. After getting my stem cell transplant a couple of years ago I had to get everything done again as my whole immune system was wiped out. It was like being a baby again","labels":0,"seconds_difference":15651.0,"score_ratio":1.5555555556}
{"post_id":"45ym5r","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.88,"history":"I am allergic to cats. Would I also be allergic to tigers, lions and the like? I am quite allergic to domesticated cats. For obvious reasons, I haven't had the chance to cuddle with a big cat like a lion, tiger, etc. Would I experience the same reaction or none? Is the same true for dogs (i.e. allergic to domesticated dogs, also allergic to wolves)?","c_root_id_A":"d012xq9","c_root_id_B":"d01kh4x","created_at_utc_A":1455570466,"created_at_utc_B":1455598172,"score_A":11,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"Maybe. It is not the feline aspect that makes you allergic, rather it is their dander. It would depend entirely on your body and your reaction to it. Some people with cat allergies would have no reaction to lion dander, others would. Are you more likely to be allergic to a lion if you're already allergic to (most) cats? If I had to hazard a guess I would say yes.","human_ref_B":"*Evidence for a Fel d I-like molecule in the \"big cats\" (Felidae species)* from The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology seems to be the only journal article I could find on the subject.  11 cat allergic patients were exposed to dander from an ocelot, puma, serval, siberian tiger, lion, jaguar, snow leopard, and caracal.  Those patients had a less severe reaction when exposed to big cat dander than domesticated cat dander.  This article does a good job explaining the above paper.  Take note of its conclusion:  >Just about the only conclusive journal article I could find that tackles this issue head on comes from the July 1990 issue of The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In this article, the researchers investigated if the main house cat protein known to cause allergies in humans (Fel d I) is found in big cats as well by examining Fel d I-specific IgE response (as well as the more general IgG response) to big cat dander. Their results were mixed. Although they found the IgE reacted with the proteins found in the big cat dander, the amount of reaction was nowhere near that of Fel d I itself. The tiger dander specifically was found closely in line with the other big cats. Based on that data and the authors\u2019 conclusions, it appears that tigers can prompt an IgE response in house cat-allergic people, however not with the same vigor. In other words, being allergic to house cats means you\u2019ll likely feel something if you come in contact with big cat dander, but the severity will likely differ from the original allergy.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":27706.0,"score_ratio":1.5454545455}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0tcyu","c_root_id_B":"fr0wke8","created_at_utc_A":1589806250,"created_at_utc_B":1589808404,"score_A":75,"score_B":238,"human_ref_A":"Are any current volcanoes behaving in a similar fashion to Mt St Helens *viz* growing lava domes, increased tectonic activity etc?  Are any of them likely to erupt in such a catastrophic way?  Edit:  I think I meant seismic, not tectonic.","human_ref_B":"What is the current trajectory for the Yellowstone supervolcano? How much warning would we get for an eruption of that size?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2154.0,"score_ratio":3.1733333333}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0t9x0","c_root_id_B":"fr0wke8","created_at_utc_A":1589806188,"created_at_utc_B":1589808404,"score_A":45,"score_B":238,"human_ref_A":"Not really Mount St. Helens related, but I see a lot of people arguing that volcanos release more green house gasses every year than humans do. Is there any truth to that? Obviously, an explosion like Mount St. Helens releases a lot into the atmosphere, but what about the more run of the mill volcanic activity?","human_ref_B":"What is the current trajectory for the Yellowstone supervolcano? How much warning would we get for an eruption of that size?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2216.0,"score_ratio":5.2888888889}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0wke8","c_root_id_B":"fr0whu6","created_at_utc_A":1589808404,"created_at_utc_B":1589808360,"score_A":238,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"What is the current trajectory for the Yellowstone supervolcano? How much warning would we get for an eruption of that size?","human_ref_B":"What are some new developments of geology\/ volcanology that y'all are excited about and why?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":44.0,"score_ratio":7.4375}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0t9x0","c_root_id_B":"fr0tcyu","created_at_utc_A":1589806188,"created_at_utc_B":1589806250,"score_A":45,"score_B":75,"human_ref_A":"Not really Mount St. Helens related, but I see a lot of people arguing that volcanos release more green house gasses every year than humans do. Is there any truth to that? Obviously, an explosion like Mount St. Helens releases a lot into the atmosphere, but what about the more run of the mill volcanic activity?","human_ref_B":"Are any current volcanoes behaving in a similar fashion to Mt St Helens *viz* growing lava domes, increased tectonic activity etc?  Are any of them likely to erupt in such a catastrophic way?  Edit:  I think I meant seismic, not tectonic.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":62.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0t9x0","c_root_id_B":"fr0yuti","created_at_utc_A":1589806188,"created_at_utc_B":1589809849,"score_A":45,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"Not really Mount St. Helens related, but I see a lot of people arguing that volcanos release more green house gasses every year than humans do. Is there any truth to that? Obviously, an explosion like Mount St. Helens releases a lot into the atmosphere, but what about the more run of the mill volcanic activity?","human_ref_B":"What keeps you up at night? What\u2019s your favourite part of your job?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3661.0,"score_ratio":1.3555555556}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0wwh1","c_root_id_B":"fr0yuti","created_at_utc_A":1589808622,"created_at_utc_B":1589809849,"score_A":46,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"Growing up I was fascinated with volcanoes and noticed they appeared a lot in illustrations depicting dinosaurs. Were volcanic eruptions significantly more frequent back then or pretty much the same as today?","human_ref_B":"What keeps you up at night? What\u2019s your favourite part of your job?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1227.0,"score_ratio":1.3260869565}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0yuti","c_root_id_B":"fr0whu6","created_at_utc_A":1589809849,"created_at_utc_B":1589808360,"score_A":61,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"What keeps you up at night? What\u2019s your favourite part of your job?","human_ref_B":"What are some new developments of geology\/ volcanology that y'all are excited about and why?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1489.0,"score_ratio":1.90625}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0yuti","c_root_id_B":"fr0xkff","created_at_utc_A":1589809849,"created_at_utc_B":1589809059,"score_A":61,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"What keeps you up at night? What\u2019s your favourite part of your job?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for joining us here on AskScience! I have a more meta question. Already within this thread, there have been multiple Yellowstone related questions (and I'm sure there will be many many more by the time you start answering). Why do you think people are particularly fixated on Yellowstone? I understand the general idea of being worried\/curious about a supervolcano eruption, but why Yellowstone specifically? Why not Campi Fieri? or Taupo? or Long Valley? I've never understood the specific fixation on Yellowstone...","labels":1,"seconds_difference":790.0,"score_ratio":3.05}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0xvcd","c_root_id_B":"fr0yuti","created_at_utc_A":1589809247,"created_at_utc_B":1589809849,"score_A":19,"score_B":61,"human_ref_A":"This might be a dumb question. How does flora\/fauna return to an area that's been covered by an eruption? Does the eruption not essentially sterilize any chance of life returning?","human_ref_B":"What keeps you up at night? What\u2019s your favourite part of your job?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":602.0,"score_ratio":3.2105263158}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0t9x0","c_root_id_B":"fr0wwh1","created_at_utc_A":1589806188,"created_at_utc_B":1589808622,"score_A":45,"score_B":46,"human_ref_A":"Not really Mount St. Helens related, but I see a lot of people arguing that volcanos release more green house gasses every year than humans do. Is there any truth to that? Obviously, an explosion like Mount St. Helens releases a lot into the atmosphere, but what about the more run of the mill volcanic activity?","human_ref_B":"Growing up I was fascinated with volcanoes and noticed they appeared a lot in illustrations depicting dinosaurs. Were volcanic eruptions significantly more frequent back then or pretty much the same as today?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2434.0,"score_ratio":1.0222222222}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0wwh1","c_root_id_B":"fr0whu6","created_at_utc_A":1589808622,"created_at_utc_B":1589808360,"score_A":46,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"Growing up I was fascinated with volcanoes and noticed they appeared a lot in illustrations depicting dinosaurs. Were volcanic eruptions significantly more frequent back then or pretty much the same as today?","human_ref_B":"What are some new developments of geology\/ volcanology that y'all are excited about and why?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":262.0,"score_ratio":1.4375}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13tlb","c_root_id_B":"fr15yta","created_at_utc_A":1589812717,"created_at_utc_B":1589813888,"score_A":37,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","human_ref_B":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1171.0,"score_ratio":1.0540540541}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15yta","c_root_id_B":"fr0whu6","created_at_utc_A":1589813888,"created_at_utc_B":1589808360,"score_A":39,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","human_ref_B":"What are some new developments of geology\/ volcanology that y'all are excited about and why?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5528.0,"score_ratio":1.21875}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr10upu","c_root_id_B":"fr15yta","created_at_utc_A":1589811034,"created_at_utc_B":1589813888,"score_A":29,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"I just started reading about pyroclastic flows and how dangerous they are. When reading about Mt. St. Helens one of the photographers who was about 6 miles away didn't even bother trying to escape knowing he had no chance.  How far are pyroclastic flows deadly for? I know they move really fast, but isn't there some chance of escape if you have a car? If not, what should I do to best increase my odds of survival (go to the basement)? I'm sure the answers vary on the kind of volcano, but feel free to  use Mt. St. Helen as the example. Thanks!","human_ref_B":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2854.0,"score_ratio":1.3448275862}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15yta","c_root_id_B":"fr12g3r","created_at_utc_A":1589813888,"created_at_utc_B":1589811945,"score_A":39,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","human_ref_B":"From my kid: what\u2019s your favorite igneous rock?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1943.0,"score_ratio":1.8571428571}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15yta","c_root_id_B":"fr0xkff","created_at_utc_A":1589813888,"created_at_utc_B":1589809059,"score_A":39,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for joining us here on AskScience! I have a more meta question. Already within this thread, there have been multiple Yellowstone related questions (and I'm sure there will be many many more by the time you start answering). Why do you think people are particularly fixated on Yellowstone? I understand the general idea of being worried\/curious about a supervolcano eruption, but why Yellowstone specifically? Why not Campi Fieri? or Taupo? or Long Valley? I've never understood the specific fixation on Yellowstone...","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4829.0,"score_ratio":1.95}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15yta","c_root_id_B":"fr0xvcd","created_at_utc_A":1589813888,"created_at_utc_B":1589809247,"score_A":39,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","human_ref_B":"This might be a dumb question. How does flora\/fauna return to an area that's been covered by an eruption? Does the eruption not essentially sterilize any chance of life returning?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4641.0,"score_ratio":2.0526315789}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr10nek","c_root_id_B":"fr15yta","created_at_utc_A":1589810916,"created_at_utc_B":1589813888,"score_A":16,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"There are a number of hot springs in England, often utilised for Roman Baths, such as the most famous one in the city of Bath.  As the UK is based relatively far from any major fault likes, are these baths\/hot springs the result of volcanic activity?","human_ref_B":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2972.0,"score_ratio":2.4375}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15ya2","c_root_id_B":"fr15yta","created_at_utc_A":1589813881,"created_at_utc_B":1589813888,"score_A":14,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"If you (internet people) have not visited, I strongly recommend you do. It is a fascinating landscape and a very well done visitor center.","human_ref_B":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7.0,"score_ratio":2.7857142857}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15yta","c_root_id_B":"fr0zdm4","created_at_utc_A":1589813888,"created_at_utc_B":1589810161,"score_A":39,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","human_ref_B":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3727.0,"score_ratio":3.25}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12a2n","c_root_id_B":"fr15yta","created_at_utc_A":1589811852,"created_at_utc_B":1589813888,"score_A":12,"score_B":39,"human_ref_A":"Is remote sensing the future for monitoring potential eruptions? The story of David Johnston always makes me sad and I would like to see professionals such as yourself as far from the risk areas as possible","human_ref_B":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2036.0,"score_ratio":3.25}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15yta","c_root_id_B":"fr13nvp","created_at_utc_A":1589813888,"created_at_utc_B":1589812631,"score_A":39,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","human_ref_B":"I would imagine that water quality is severely impacted by volcanic eruptions. Have there ever been studies on groundwater and surface water quality that document pre and post eruption parameters?  If so, are there any water quality indicators that provide early warning signals?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1257.0,"score_ratio":3.5454545455}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15yta","c_root_id_B":"fr140d9","created_at_utc_A":1589813888,"created_at_utc_B":1589812823,"score_A":39,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Growing up in the PNW, we kept hearing about the next big one, either the big earthquake or the next big eruption like Mount St. Helens. We'd study it every year up through middle school, do field trips to caves and Mount St. Helens and learn how to prepare for a disaster and what to do if it happens. Just how likely will any of that be of use in my lifetime? I currently live about 30 miles from Mt. Hood and it seems insane it might blow but I'm sure the people who lived around Mount. St. Helens thought the same. Would I get enough warning to get safely away if it blows? How far away would I have to go?","human_ref_B":"I've been reading a fair bit about the Toba supervolcano recently, and the eruption that (allegedly) made humans nearly go extinct. I would love to hear any insight that you have into that eruption and where an eruption of that scale is most likely to occur next.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1065.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13tlb","c_root_id_B":"fr0whu6","created_at_utc_A":1589812717,"created_at_utc_B":1589808360,"score_A":37,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","human_ref_B":"What are some new developments of geology\/ volcanology that y'all are excited about and why?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4357.0,"score_ratio":1.15625}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13tlb","c_root_id_B":"fr10upu","created_at_utc_A":1589812717,"created_at_utc_B":1589811034,"score_A":37,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","human_ref_B":"I just started reading about pyroclastic flows and how dangerous they are. When reading about Mt. St. Helens one of the photographers who was about 6 miles away didn't even bother trying to escape knowing he had no chance.  How far are pyroclastic flows deadly for? I know they move really fast, but isn't there some chance of escape if you have a car? If not, what should I do to best increase my odds of survival (go to the basement)? I'm sure the answers vary on the kind of volcano, but feel free to  use Mt. St. Helen as the example. Thanks!","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1683.0,"score_ratio":1.275862069}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13tlb","c_root_id_B":"fr12g3r","created_at_utc_A":1589812717,"created_at_utc_B":1589811945,"score_A":37,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","human_ref_B":"From my kid: what\u2019s your favorite igneous rock?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":772.0,"score_ratio":1.7619047619}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13tlb","c_root_id_B":"fr0xkff","created_at_utc_A":1589812717,"created_at_utc_B":1589809059,"score_A":37,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","human_ref_B":"Thanks for joining us here on AskScience! I have a more meta question. Already within this thread, there have been multiple Yellowstone related questions (and I'm sure there will be many many more by the time you start answering). Why do you think people are particularly fixated on Yellowstone? I understand the general idea of being worried\/curious about a supervolcano eruption, but why Yellowstone specifically? Why not Campi Fieri? or Taupo? or Long Valley? I've never understood the specific fixation on Yellowstone...","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3658.0,"score_ratio":1.85}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13tlb","c_root_id_B":"fr0xvcd","created_at_utc_A":1589812717,"created_at_utc_B":1589809247,"score_A":37,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","human_ref_B":"This might be a dumb question. How does flora\/fauna return to an area that's been covered by an eruption? Does the eruption not essentially sterilize any chance of life returning?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3470.0,"score_ratio":1.9473684211}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13tlb","c_root_id_B":"fr10nek","created_at_utc_A":1589812717,"created_at_utc_B":1589810916,"score_A":37,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","human_ref_B":"There are a number of hot springs in England, often utilised for Roman Baths, such as the most famous one in the city of Bath.  As the UK is based relatively far from any major fault likes, are these baths\/hot springs the result of volcanic activity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1801.0,"score_ratio":2.3125}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0zdm4","c_root_id_B":"fr13tlb","created_at_utc_A":1589810161,"created_at_utc_B":1589812717,"score_A":12,"score_B":37,"human_ref_A":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","human_ref_B":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2556.0,"score_ratio":3.0833333333}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13tlb","c_root_id_B":"fr12a2n","created_at_utc_A":1589812717,"created_at_utc_B":1589811852,"score_A":37,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","human_ref_B":"Is remote sensing the future for monitoring potential eruptions? The story of David Johnston always makes me sad and I would like to see professionals such as yourself as far from the risk areas as possible","labels":1,"seconds_difference":865.0,"score_ratio":3.0833333333}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13nvp","c_root_id_B":"fr13tlb","created_at_utc_A":1589812631,"created_at_utc_B":1589812717,"score_A":11,"score_B":37,"human_ref_A":"I would imagine that water quality is severely impacted by volcanic eruptions. Have there ever been studies on groundwater and surface water quality that document pre and post eruption parameters?  If so, are there any water quality indicators that provide early warning signals?","human_ref_B":"Hello, I might not be awake when the AMA starts so I'm posting my comment now.  Nice to meet you! I'm a geologist from the Philippines. I'm currently studying igneous petrology and geochemistry, but I'm deeply interested in volcanoes as well. I've been to some famous volcanoes in the Philippines which you might have heard of: Pinatubo, Mayon and Taal.  The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 paved the way for the deposition of classic debris avalanche deposits (DADs) as well as carving up a well-developed amphitheater along the flanks of Mt. St. Helens. Did the same eruption also deposit ignimbrite? Considering the volume of displaced material along with pyroclastic density currents, were you also able to see different layers depicting an ignimbrite deposit (e.g. thinly bedded layer, surge, massive base)?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":86.0,"score_ratio":3.3636363636}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr10upu","c_root_id_B":"fr19qnh","created_at_utc_A":1589811034,"created_at_utc_B":1589815892,"score_A":29,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"I just started reading about pyroclastic flows and how dangerous they are. When reading about Mt. St. Helens one of the photographers who was about 6 miles away didn't even bother trying to escape knowing he had no chance.  How far are pyroclastic flows deadly for? I know they move really fast, but isn't there some chance of escape if you have a car? If not, what should I do to best increase my odds of survival (go to the basement)? I'm sure the answers vary on the kind of volcano, but feel free to  use Mt. St. Helen as the example. Thanks!","human_ref_B":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4858.0,"score_ratio":1.1034482759}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12g3r","c_root_id_B":"fr19qnh","created_at_utc_A":1589811945,"created_at_utc_B":1589815892,"score_A":21,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"From my kid: what\u2019s your favorite igneous rock?","human_ref_B":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3947.0,"score_ratio":1.5238095238}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0xkff","c_root_id_B":"fr19qnh","created_at_utc_A":1589809059,"created_at_utc_B":1589815892,"score_A":20,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for joining us here on AskScience! I have a more meta question. Already within this thread, there have been multiple Yellowstone related questions (and I'm sure there will be many many more by the time you start answering). Why do you think people are particularly fixated on Yellowstone? I understand the general idea of being worried\/curious about a supervolcano eruption, but why Yellowstone specifically? Why not Campi Fieri? or Taupo? or Long Valley? I've never understood the specific fixation on Yellowstone...","human_ref_B":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6833.0,"score_ratio":1.6}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr19qnh","c_root_id_B":"fr0xvcd","created_at_utc_A":1589815892,"created_at_utc_B":1589809247,"score_A":32,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","human_ref_B":"This might be a dumb question. How does flora\/fauna return to an area that's been covered by an eruption? Does the eruption not essentially sterilize any chance of life returning?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6645.0,"score_ratio":1.6842105263}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr19qnh","c_root_id_B":"fr10nek","created_at_utc_A":1589815892,"created_at_utc_B":1589810916,"score_A":32,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","human_ref_B":"There are a number of hot springs in England, often utilised for Roman Baths, such as the most famous one in the city of Bath.  As the UK is based relatively far from any major fault likes, are these baths\/hot springs the result of volcanic activity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":4976.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr15ya2","c_root_id_B":"fr19qnh","created_at_utc_A":1589813881,"created_at_utc_B":1589815892,"score_A":14,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"If you (internet people) have not visited, I strongly recommend you do. It is a fascinating landscape and a very well done visitor center.","human_ref_B":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2011.0,"score_ratio":2.2857142857}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr19qnh","c_root_id_B":"fr16kgg","created_at_utc_A":1589815892,"created_at_utc_B":1589814212,"score_A":32,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","human_ref_B":"Hi! I remember at my grandparents\u2019 house in Olympia I played in the ash and even put some in my mouth because I was a silly kid. How dangerous was that stuff and what kinds of things did I expose myself to? How bad is it to live downwind of an eruption in the short term?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1680.0,"score_ratio":2.2857142857}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr19qnh","c_root_id_B":"fr0zdm4","created_at_utc_A":1589815892,"created_at_utc_B":1589810161,"score_A":32,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","human_ref_B":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5731.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12a2n","c_root_id_B":"fr19qnh","created_at_utc_A":1589811852,"created_at_utc_B":1589815892,"score_A":12,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"Is remote sensing the future for monitoring potential eruptions? The story of David Johnston always makes me sad and I would like to see professionals such as yourself as far from the risk areas as possible","human_ref_B":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4040.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr19qnh","c_root_id_B":"fr13nvp","created_at_utc_A":1589815892,"created_at_utc_B":1589812631,"score_A":32,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","human_ref_B":"I would imagine that water quality is severely impacted by volcanic eruptions. Have there ever been studies on groundwater and surface water quality that document pre and post eruption parameters?  If so, are there any water quality indicators that provide early warning signals?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3261.0,"score_ratio":2.9090909091}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr19qnh","c_root_id_B":"fr140d9","created_at_utc_A":1589815892,"created_at_utc_B":1589812823,"score_A":32,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","human_ref_B":"I've been reading a fair bit about the Toba supervolcano recently, and the eruption that (allegedly) made humans nearly go extinct. I would love to hear any insight that you have into that eruption and where an eruption of that scale is most likely to occur next.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3069.0,"score_ratio":2.4615384615}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr176kk","c_root_id_B":"fr19qnh","created_at_utc_A":1589814540,"created_at_utc_B":1589815892,"score_A":12,"score_B":32,"human_ref_A":"Has there been any progress in the monitoring of Glacier Peak? I grew up in northern King\/southern Snohomish counties, and my family still lives there. About the time I moved across the state, they were saying it was the most dangerous volcano in the Cascade Arc due to its history of violent eruptions and lack of monitoring stations. Is there more than one monitoring station on it yet?","human_ref_B":"Is the sound of an eruption consistent across different types of eruptions?  I was living in Redmond, WA on the day of the eruption, and it sounded to me like a door slamming downstairs. A sharp, hard, BANG.  I expected the eruption to be more of a sustained roar (and I expect it was, closer to the volcano itself).  As it is the only eruption I have experienced, I am curious about the SOUND of eruptions? Are they sharp BANGs like I heard? Or are they more usually sustained roars? Or did some sort of attenuation over distance cause the sound to be a BANG at my location, but a roar at the mountain itself?  Thanks for the AMA!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1352.0,"score_ratio":2.6666666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr10upu","c_root_id_B":"fr0xkff","created_at_utc_A":1589811034,"created_at_utc_B":1589809059,"score_A":29,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"I just started reading about pyroclastic flows and how dangerous they are. When reading about Mt. St. Helens one of the photographers who was about 6 miles away didn't even bother trying to escape knowing he had no chance.  How far are pyroclastic flows deadly for? I know they move really fast, but isn't there some chance of escape if you have a car? If not, what should I do to best increase my odds of survival (go to the basement)? I'm sure the answers vary on the kind of volcano, but feel free to  use Mt. St. Helen as the example. Thanks!","human_ref_B":"Thanks for joining us here on AskScience! I have a more meta question. Already within this thread, there have been multiple Yellowstone related questions (and I'm sure there will be many many more by the time you start answering). Why do you think people are particularly fixated on Yellowstone? I understand the general idea of being worried\/curious about a supervolcano eruption, but why Yellowstone specifically? Why not Campi Fieri? or Taupo? or Long Valley? I've never understood the specific fixation on Yellowstone...","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1975.0,"score_ratio":1.45}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr10upu","c_root_id_B":"fr0xvcd","created_at_utc_A":1589811034,"created_at_utc_B":1589809247,"score_A":29,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"I just started reading about pyroclastic flows and how dangerous they are. When reading about Mt. St. Helens one of the photographers who was about 6 miles away didn't even bother trying to escape knowing he had no chance.  How far are pyroclastic flows deadly for? I know they move really fast, but isn't there some chance of escape if you have a car? If not, what should I do to best increase my odds of survival (go to the basement)? I'm sure the answers vary on the kind of volcano, but feel free to  use Mt. St. Helen as the example. Thanks!","human_ref_B":"This might be a dumb question. How does flora\/fauna return to an area that's been covered by an eruption? Does the eruption not essentially sterilize any chance of life returning?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1787.0,"score_ratio":1.5263157895}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr10upu","c_root_id_B":"fr10nek","created_at_utc_A":1589811034,"created_at_utc_B":1589810916,"score_A":29,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"I just started reading about pyroclastic flows and how dangerous they are. When reading about Mt. St. Helens one of the photographers who was about 6 miles away didn't even bother trying to escape knowing he had no chance.  How far are pyroclastic flows deadly for? I know they move really fast, but isn't there some chance of escape if you have a car? If not, what should I do to best increase my odds of survival (go to the basement)? I'm sure the answers vary on the kind of volcano, but feel free to  use Mt. St. Helen as the example. Thanks!","human_ref_B":"There are a number of hot springs in England, often utilised for Roman Baths, such as the most famous one in the city of Bath.  As the UK is based relatively far from any major fault likes, are these baths\/hot springs the result of volcanic activity?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":118.0,"score_ratio":1.8125}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0zdm4","c_root_id_B":"fr10upu","created_at_utc_A":1589810161,"created_at_utc_B":1589811034,"score_A":12,"score_B":29,"human_ref_A":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","human_ref_B":"I just started reading about pyroclastic flows and how dangerous they are. When reading about Mt. St. Helens one of the photographers who was about 6 miles away didn't even bother trying to escape knowing he had no chance.  How far are pyroclastic flows deadly for? I know they move really fast, but isn't there some chance of escape if you have a car? If not, what should I do to best increase my odds of survival (go to the basement)? I'm sure the answers vary on the kind of volcano, but feel free to  use Mt. St. Helen as the example. Thanks!","labels":0,"seconds_difference":873.0,"score_ratio":2.4166666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0xkff","c_root_id_B":"fr12g3r","created_at_utc_A":1589809059,"created_at_utc_B":1589811945,"score_A":20,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Thanks for joining us here on AskScience! I have a more meta question. Already within this thread, there have been multiple Yellowstone related questions (and I'm sure there will be many many more by the time you start answering). Why do you think people are particularly fixated on Yellowstone? I understand the general idea of being worried\/curious about a supervolcano eruption, but why Yellowstone specifically? Why not Campi Fieri? or Taupo? or Long Valley? I've never understood the specific fixation on Yellowstone...","human_ref_B":"From my kid: what\u2019s your favorite igneous rock?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2886.0,"score_ratio":1.05}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12g3r","c_root_id_B":"fr0xvcd","created_at_utc_A":1589811945,"created_at_utc_B":1589809247,"score_A":21,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"From my kid: what\u2019s your favorite igneous rock?","human_ref_B":"This might be a dumb question. How does flora\/fauna return to an area that's been covered by an eruption? Does the eruption not essentially sterilize any chance of life returning?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2698.0,"score_ratio":1.1052631579}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr10nek","c_root_id_B":"fr12g3r","created_at_utc_A":1589810916,"created_at_utc_B":1589811945,"score_A":16,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"There are a number of hot springs in England, often utilised for Roman Baths, such as the most famous one in the city of Bath.  As the UK is based relatively far from any major fault likes, are these baths\/hot springs the result of volcanic activity?","human_ref_B":"From my kid: what\u2019s your favorite igneous rock?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1029.0,"score_ratio":1.3125}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12g3r","c_root_id_B":"fr0zdm4","created_at_utc_A":1589811945,"created_at_utc_B":1589810161,"score_A":21,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"From my kid: what\u2019s your favorite igneous rock?","human_ref_B":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1784.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12g3r","c_root_id_B":"fr12a2n","created_at_utc_A":1589811945,"created_at_utc_B":1589811852,"score_A":21,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"From my kid: what\u2019s your favorite igneous rock?","human_ref_B":"Is remote sensing the future for monitoring potential eruptions? The story of David Johnston always makes me sad and I would like to see professionals such as yourself as far from the risk areas as possible","labels":1,"seconds_difference":93.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr10nek","c_root_id_B":"fr1ag1n","created_at_utc_A":1589810916,"created_at_utc_B":1589816256,"score_A":16,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"There are a number of hot springs in England, often utilised for Roman Baths, such as the most famous one in the city of Bath.  As the UK is based relatively far from any major fault likes, are these baths\/hot springs the result of volcanic activity?","human_ref_B":"In the 80's movie about Mt St Helens, volcanologists desperately try to warn the small group of 'volcano-skeptics' that it's gonna blow.   As volcanologists, what ethical responsibility do you, and we as a society have to people who just refuse to believe anything you say?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":5340.0,"score_ratio":1.125}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr1ag1n","c_root_id_B":"fr15ya2","created_at_utc_A":1589816256,"created_at_utc_B":1589813881,"score_A":18,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"In the 80's movie about Mt St Helens, volcanologists desperately try to warn the small group of 'volcano-skeptics' that it's gonna blow.   As volcanologists, what ethical responsibility do you, and we as a society have to people who just refuse to believe anything you say?","human_ref_B":"If you (internet people) have not visited, I strongly recommend you do. It is a fascinating landscape and a very well done visitor center.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2375.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr16kgg","c_root_id_B":"fr1ag1n","created_at_utc_A":1589814212,"created_at_utc_B":1589816256,"score_A":14,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Hi! I remember at my grandparents\u2019 house in Olympia I played in the ash and even put some in my mouth because I was a silly kid. How dangerous was that stuff and what kinds of things did I expose myself to? How bad is it to live downwind of an eruption in the short term?","human_ref_B":"In the 80's movie about Mt St Helens, volcanologists desperately try to warn the small group of 'volcano-skeptics' that it's gonna blow.   As volcanologists, what ethical responsibility do you, and we as a society have to people who just refuse to believe anything you say?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2044.0,"score_ratio":1.2857142857}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0zdm4","c_root_id_B":"fr1ag1n","created_at_utc_A":1589810161,"created_at_utc_B":1589816256,"score_A":12,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","human_ref_B":"In the 80's movie about Mt St Helens, volcanologists desperately try to warn the small group of 'volcano-skeptics' that it's gonna blow.   As volcanologists, what ethical responsibility do you, and we as a society have to people who just refuse to believe anything you say?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6095.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12a2n","c_root_id_B":"fr1ag1n","created_at_utc_A":1589811852,"created_at_utc_B":1589816256,"score_A":12,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"Is remote sensing the future for monitoring potential eruptions? The story of David Johnston always makes me sad and I would like to see professionals such as yourself as far from the risk areas as possible","human_ref_B":"In the 80's movie about Mt St Helens, volcanologists desperately try to warn the small group of 'volcano-skeptics' that it's gonna blow.   As volcanologists, what ethical responsibility do you, and we as a society have to people who just refuse to believe anything you say?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4404.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr1ag1n","c_root_id_B":"fr13nvp","created_at_utc_A":1589816256,"created_at_utc_B":1589812631,"score_A":18,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"In the 80's movie about Mt St Helens, volcanologists desperately try to warn the small group of 'volcano-skeptics' that it's gonna blow.   As volcanologists, what ethical responsibility do you, and we as a society have to people who just refuse to believe anything you say?","human_ref_B":"I would imagine that water quality is severely impacted by volcanic eruptions. Have there ever been studies on groundwater and surface water quality that document pre and post eruption parameters?  If so, are there any water quality indicators that provide early warning signals?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3625.0,"score_ratio":1.6363636364}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr1ag1n","c_root_id_B":"fr140d9","created_at_utc_A":1589816256,"created_at_utc_B":1589812823,"score_A":18,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"In the 80's movie about Mt St Helens, volcanologists desperately try to warn the small group of 'volcano-skeptics' that it's gonna blow.   As volcanologists, what ethical responsibility do you, and we as a society have to people who just refuse to believe anything you say?","human_ref_B":"I've been reading a fair bit about the Toba supervolcano recently, and the eruption that (allegedly) made humans nearly go extinct. I would love to hear any insight that you have into that eruption and where an eruption of that scale is most likely to occur next.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3433.0,"score_ratio":1.3846153846}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr1ag1n","c_root_id_B":"fr176kk","created_at_utc_A":1589816256,"created_at_utc_B":1589814540,"score_A":18,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"In the 80's movie about Mt St Helens, volcanologists desperately try to warn the small group of 'volcano-skeptics' that it's gonna blow.   As volcanologists, what ethical responsibility do you, and we as a society have to people who just refuse to believe anything you say?","human_ref_B":"Has there been any progress in the monitoring of Glacier Peak? I grew up in northern King\/southern Snohomish counties, and my family still lives there. About the time I moved across the state, they were saying it was the most dangerous volcano in the Cascade Arc due to its history of violent eruptions and lack of monitoring stations. Is there more than one monitoring station on it yet?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1716.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0zdm4","c_root_id_B":"fr10nek","created_at_utc_A":1589810161,"created_at_utc_B":1589810916,"score_A":12,"score_B":16,"human_ref_A":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","human_ref_B":"There are a number of hot springs in England, often utilised for Roman Baths, such as the most famous one in the city of Bath.  As the UK is based relatively far from any major fault likes, are these baths\/hot springs the result of volcanic activity?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":755.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0zdm4","c_root_id_B":"fr15ya2","created_at_utc_A":1589810161,"created_at_utc_B":1589813881,"score_A":12,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","human_ref_B":"If you (internet people) have not visited, I strongly recommend you do. It is a fascinating landscape and a very well done visitor center.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3720.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12a2n","c_root_id_B":"fr15ya2","created_at_utc_A":1589811852,"created_at_utc_B":1589813881,"score_A":12,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Is remote sensing the future for monitoring potential eruptions? The story of David Johnston always makes me sad and I would like to see professionals such as yourself as far from the risk areas as possible","human_ref_B":"If you (internet people) have not visited, I strongly recommend you do. It is a fascinating landscape and a very well done visitor center.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2029.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13nvp","c_root_id_B":"fr15ya2","created_at_utc_A":1589812631,"created_at_utc_B":1589813881,"score_A":11,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"I would imagine that water quality is severely impacted by volcanic eruptions. Have there ever been studies on groundwater and surface water quality that document pre and post eruption parameters?  If so, are there any water quality indicators that provide early warning signals?","human_ref_B":"If you (internet people) have not visited, I strongly recommend you do. It is a fascinating landscape and a very well done visitor center.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1250.0,"score_ratio":1.2727272727}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr140d9","c_root_id_B":"fr15ya2","created_at_utc_A":1589812823,"created_at_utc_B":1589813881,"score_A":13,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"I've been reading a fair bit about the Toba supervolcano recently, and the eruption that (allegedly) made humans nearly go extinct. I would love to hear any insight that you have into that eruption and where an eruption of that scale is most likely to occur next.","human_ref_B":"If you (internet people) have not visited, I strongly recommend you do. It is a fascinating landscape and a very well done visitor center.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1058.0,"score_ratio":1.0769230769}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0zdm4","c_root_id_B":"fr16kgg","created_at_utc_A":1589810161,"created_at_utc_B":1589814212,"score_A":12,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","human_ref_B":"Hi! I remember at my grandparents\u2019 house in Olympia I played in the ash and even put some in my mouth because I was a silly kid. How dangerous was that stuff and what kinds of things did I expose myself to? How bad is it to live downwind of an eruption in the short term?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4051.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr12a2n","c_root_id_B":"fr16kgg","created_at_utc_A":1589811852,"created_at_utc_B":1589814212,"score_A":12,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"Is remote sensing the future for monitoring potential eruptions? The story of David Johnston always makes me sad and I would like to see professionals such as yourself as far from the risk areas as possible","human_ref_B":"Hi! I remember at my grandparents\u2019 house in Olympia I played in the ash and even put some in my mouth because I was a silly kid. How dangerous was that stuff and what kinds of things did I expose myself to? How bad is it to live downwind of an eruption in the short term?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2360.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr16kgg","c_root_id_B":"fr13nvp","created_at_utc_A":1589814212,"created_at_utc_B":1589812631,"score_A":14,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"Hi! I remember at my grandparents\u2019 house in Olympia I played in the ash and even put some in my mouth because I was a silly kid. How dangerous was that stuff and what kinds of things did I expose myself to? How bad is it to live downwind of an eruption in the short term?","human_ref_B":"I would imagine that water quality is severely impacted by volcanic eruptions. Have there ever been studies on groundwater and surface water quality that document pre and post eruption parameters?  If so, are there any water quality indicators that provide early warning signals?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1581.0,"score_ratio":1.2727272727}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr140d9","c_root_id_B":"fr16kgg","created_at_utc_A":1589812823,"created_at_utc_B":1589814212,"score_A":13,"score_B":14,"human_ref_A":"I've been reading a fair bit about the Toba supervolcano recently, and the eruption that (allegedly) made humans nearly go extinct. I would love to hear any insight that you have into that eruption and where an eruption of that scale is most likely to occur next.","human_ref_B":"Hi! I remember at my grandparents\u2019 house in Olympia I played in the ash and even put some in my mouth because I was a silly kid. How dangerous was that stuff and what kinds of things did I expose myself to? How bad is it to live downwind of an eruption in the short term?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1389.0,"score_ratio":1.0769230769}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr0zdm4","c_root_id_B":"fr140d9","created_at_utc_A":1589810161,"created_at_utc_B":1589812823,"score_A":12,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"If we want to convert the Mount St. Helens eruption to D&D stats: What dice should I use to calculate damage? What DC should the saving throw be? Dex or Con save?","human_ref_B":"I've been reading a fair bit about the Toba supervolcano recently, and the eruption that (allegedly) made humans nearly go extinct. I would love to hear any insight that you have into that eruption and where an eruption of that scale is most likely to occur next.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":2662.0,"score_ratio":1.0833333333}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr140d9","c_root_id_B":"fr12a2n","created_at_utc_A":1589812823,"created_at_utc_B":1589811852,"score_A":13,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"I've been reading a fair bit about the Toba supervolcano recently, and the eruption that (allegedly) made humans nearly go extinct. I would love to hear any insight that you have into that eruption and where an eruption of that scale is most likely to occur next.","human_ref_B":"Is remote sensing the future for monitoring potential eruptions? The story of David Johnston always makes me sad and I would like to see professionals such as yourself as far from the risk areas as possible","labels":1,"seconds_difference":971.0,"score_ratio":1.0833333333}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr140d9","c_root_id_B":"fr13nvp","created_at_utc_A":1589812823,"created_at_utc_B":1589812631,"score_A":13,"score_B":11,"human_ref_A":"I've been reading a fair bit about the Toba supervolcano recently, and the eruption that (allegedly) made humans nearly go extinct. I would love to hear any insight that you have into that eruption and where an eruption of that scale is most likely to occur next.","human_ref_B":"I would imagine that water quality is severely impacted by volcanic eruptions. Have there ever been studies on groundwater and surface water quality that document pre and post eruption parameters?  If so, are there any water quality indicators that provide early warning signals?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":192.0,"score_ratio":1.1818181818}
{"post_id":"glzd6q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"AskScience AMA Series: We're volcanologists with the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. 40 years ago today, Mount St. Helens erupted in a very big way. We are here to talk about St. Helens and volcanic eruptions. Ask us anything! In March 1980, new magma began to intrude beneath Mount St. Helens. Over the next 2 months, the north flank of the mountain began to bulge up to 450 feet (~150 m) outward. At 0832 am, Sunday May 18th, 15-20 seconds after a M5.1 earthquake, the north flank collapsed in the largest recorded landslide, allowing the pressurized magma to explode outward in a lateral blast and pyroclastic density current that levelled ~230 square miles of forest. Over the next ~9 hours, about 0.3 cubic miles of ash and pumice erupted explosively. That ash was distributed locally as highly destructive pyroclastic flows and hundreds of miles away as ash fall. The eruption had profound impacts on the science of volcanology, volcano monitoring, hazard communication, and hazard mitigation.  The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (volcano.si.edu) is here to answer your questions about Mount St. Helens (volcano.si.edu\/projects\/sthelens40\/) and volcanoes in general. We'll be on at 7 pm ET (23 UT), ask us anything!  Username: GlobalVolcanism","c_root_id_A":"fr13nvp","c_root_id_B":"fr176kk","created_at_utc_A":1589812631,"created_at_utc_B":1589814540,"score_A":11,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"I would imagine that water quality is severely impacted by volcanic eruptions. Have there ever been studies on groundwater and surface water quality that document pre and post eruption parameters?  If so, are there any water quality indicators that provide early warning signals?","human_ref_B":"Has there been any progress in the monitoring of Glacier Peak? I grew up in northern King\/southern Snohomish counties, and my family still lives there. About the time I moved across the state, they were saying it was the most dangerous volcano in the Cascade Arc due to its history of violent eruptions and lack of monitoring stations. Is there more than one monitoring station on it yet?","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1909.0,"score_ratio":1.0909090909}
{"post_id":"4mwwin","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"We don't feel the earth spinning because it is constant. Yet it is fastest at the equator and gets slower as you move away from it. My question is how come no one ever notices the increase or decrease when traveling towards the equator or away from the equator?","c_root_id_A":"d3z9nzg","c_root_id_B":"d3z9w0s","created_at_utc_A":1465294095,"created_at_utc_B":1465294878,"score_A":3,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"Even using our fastest (survivable) method of ground transport, the change would be far too gradual to notice.  Now, let's think of a teleportation device. In one second, it takes us from the equator, to absolute north.  You stumble for a second, but adjust *very* quickly.  At the end of the day, the change is too gradual, and far too minute to really notice with your body.","human_ref_B":"It is noticeable by scientific instruments.  There was a gold shipment traveling from northern Alaska to the contiguous US that was under weight  when it reached its destination.  After considerable investigation it was concluded that the shipment had not been tampered with.  The centrifugal force caused by the Earth's rotation had the effect of reducing the weight of the shipment without reducing its mass.  They use a system that compensates for this now.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":783.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"4mwwin","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"We don't feel the earth spinning because it is constant. Yet it is fastest at the equator and gets slower as you move away from it. My question is how come no one ever notices the increase or decrease when traveling towards the equator or away from the equator?","c_root_id_A":"d3z822d","c_root_id_B":"d3z9w0s","created_at_utc_A":1465288264,"created_at_utc_B":1465294878,"score_A":2,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"What you are talking about is called the coriolis force and it is certainly detectable. When moving at slow speeds it's just very weak so you don't feel it. When you're travelling in a plane though, it can be quite significant and has to be taken into account. Imagine you start at the north pole and want to go to the equator in 12 hours. During that time the earth turns 180\u00b0 so you would end up exactly opposite of the point you were aming for at the start (neglecting air resistance).","human_ref_B":"It is noticeable by scientific instruments.  There was a gold shipment traveling from northern Alaska to the contiguous US that was under weight  when it reached its destination.  After considerable investigation it was concluded that the shipment had not been tampered with.  The centrifugal force caused by the Earth's rotation had the effect of reducing the weight of the shipment without reducing its mass.  They use a system that compensates for this now.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":6614.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"4mwwin","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"We don't feel the earth spinning because it is constant. Yet it is fastest at the equator and gets slower as you move away from it. My question is how come no one ever notices the increase or decrease when traveling towards the equator or away from the equator?","c_root_id_A":"d3z9nzg","c_root_id_B":"d3z822d","created_at_utc_A":1465294095,"created_at_utc_B":1465288264,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Even using our fastest (survivable) method of ground transport, the change would be far too gradual to notice.  Now, let's think of a teleportation device. In one second, it takes us from the equator, to absolute north.  You stumble for a second, but adjust *very* quickly.  At the end of the day, the change is too gradual, and far too minute to really notice with your body.","human_ref_B":"What you are talking about is called the coriolis force and it is certainly detectable. When moving at slow speeds it's just very weak so you don't feel it. When you're travelling in a plane though, it can be quite significant and has to be taken into account. Imagine you start at the north pole and want to go to the equator in 12 hours. During that time the earth turns 180\u00b0 so you would end up exactly opposite of the point you were aming for at the start (neglecting air resistance).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":5831.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"4mwwin","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"We don't feel the earth spinning because it is constant. Yet it is fastest at the equator and gets slower as you move away from it. My question is how come no one ever notices the increase or decrease when traveling towards the equator or away from the equator?","c_root_id_A":"d3za0ax","c_root_id_B":"d3z822d","created_at_utc_A":1465295291,"created_at_utc_B":1465288264,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Air (and water, but I won't discuss that here) notices the speed difference. The Coriolis force is a significant factor in the creation of hurricanes and cyclones. It's also the reason that hurricanes (Northern Hemisphere) spin counterclockwise and cyclones (Southern Hemisphere) spin clockwise.  Source  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tropical_cyclone and https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coriolis_force#Meteorology","human_ref_B":"What you are talking about is called the coriolis force and it is certainly detectable. When moving at slow speeds it's just very weak so you don't feel it. When you're travelling in a plane though, it can be quite significant and has to be taken into account. Imagine you start at the north pole and want to go to the equator in 12 hours. During that time the earth turns 180\u00b0 so you would end up exactly opposite of the point you were aming for at the start (neglecting air resistance).","labels":1,"seconds_difference":7027.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfckin","c_root_id_B":"crfdglp","created_at_utc_A":1432139656,"created_at_utc_B":1432141034,"score_A":20,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Speaking as an engineer who works with both kinds of systems:  Orbital mechanics, dynamics, and control are described using Ordinary Differential Equations.  (relatively) simple equations like F = ma, I = C*dV\/dt, etc.  We model the various bodies as either point masses with inertia or rigid bodies with some moments of inertia, and these tend to be extremely accurate approximations.  A spacecraft may have as few as half a dozen state variables, depending on what is being analyzed.  Weather modeling uses Partial Differential Equations.  PDE's describe how the properties of something (stresses, velocity, temperature etc) vary across either a fluid or continuum of a solid body.  Even \"simple\" systems will have thousands of state variables, and global weather modeling has billions.  Even then, we are basically limited by available computing power to make even reasonable approximations.","human_ref_B":"The actual equations used in Numerical Weather Prediction models aren't a huge deal more complicated than those from orbital mechanics (note the NWP equations are approximated and solved numerically).   The complexity arises because you need to solve those equations for each time step in your model (which may be say 3 hours), and for each cell in your model (which may have 30-50 vertical layers and upwards of a million grid points) - ie. billions of times for each model run. This is many, many orders of magnitude more calculations than is required for putting man on the moon.  Some of the original concepts of weather forecasting involved putting thousands of people with slide rules in a room to run models. Fortunately we now have computers.  There's also some other mathematics involved in data assimilation (taking all of the weather observations and turning them into the initial conditions of weather models.   Furthermore these equations could potentially be more complex (for example rather than use the Hydrostatic equation, some experimental models use a full equation of motion in the vertical direction) by taking into account more explicitly various microphysics.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1378.0,"score_ratio":1.25}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfdglp","c_root_id_B":"crf9li6","created_at_utc_A":1432141034,"created_at_utc_B":1432134894,"score_A":25,"score_B":13,"human_ref_A":"The actual equations used in Numerical Weather Prediction models aren't a huge deal more complicated than those from orbital mechanics (note the NWP equations are approximated and solved numerically).   The complexity arises because you need to solve those equations for each time step in your model (which may be say 3 hours), and for each cell in your model (which may have 30-50 vertical layers and upwards of a million grid points) - ie. billions of times for each model run. This is many, many orders of magnitude more calculations than is required for putting man on the moon.  Some of the original concepts of weather forecasting involved putting thousands of people with slide rules in a room to run models. Fortunately we now have computers.  There's also some other mathematics involved in data assimilation (taking all of the weather observations and turning them into the initial conditions of weather models.   Furthermore these equations could potentially be more complex (for example rather than use the Hydrostatic equation, some experimental models use a full equation of motion in the vertical direction) by taking into account more explicitly various microphysics.","human_ref_B":"Absolutely. The atmosphere is an EXTREMELY chaotic system. In order to fully predict the weather with 100% accuracy you would have to know the position, mass, and velocity of EVERY atom and molecule in the atmosphere. This is why meteorologists work with probabilities of some weather event happening. Until someone comes up with some crazy new advances in mathematics or statistical mechanics rough probabilities are the best we can do.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6140.0,"score_ratio":1.9230769231}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfau3t","c_root_id_B":"crfdglp","created_at_utc_A":1432136896,"created_at_utc_B":1432141034,"score_A":2,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Definitely. You can put a man on the moon using Physics 101 and 102. As an example of the knowledge requred for weather prediction...I only a BS in Meteorology, but had to take 5 Calculus classes, two dynamics classes, two thermodynamics classes, and a few other very math heavy classes. Just to get a BS...meaning I'm qualified to only sort of predict the weather.   If you want to see the kinds of equations used, this is kind of the base starting point equation which describes weather:  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quasi-geostrophic_equations  As you can see the math involved there is much more difficult than freshman level physics, and that's only the start. Q-G height tendency is like, 200 level stuff.","human_ref_B":"The actual equations used in Numerical Weather Prediction models aren't a huge deal more complicated than those from orbital mechanics (note the NWP equations are approximated and solved numerically).   The complexity arises because you need to solve those equations for each time step in your model (which may be say 3 hours), and for each cell in your model (which may have 30-50 vertical layers and upwards of a million grid points) - ie. billions of times for each model run. This is many, many orders of magnitude more calculations than is required for putting man on the moon.  Some of the original concepts of weather forecasting involved putting thousands of people with slide rules in a room to run models. Fortunately we now have computers.  There's also some other mathematics involved in data assimilation (taking all of the weather observations and turning them into the initial conditions of weather models.   Furthermore these equations could potentially be more complex (for example rather than use the Hydrostatic equation, some experimental models use a full equation of motion in the vertical direction) by taking into account more explicitly various microphysics.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4138.0,"score_ratio":12.5}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crf9li6","c_root_id_B":"crfckin","created_at_utc_A":1432134894,"created_at_utc_B":1432139656,"score_A":13,"score_B":20,"human_ref_A":"Absolutely. The atmosphere is an EXTREMELY chaotic system. In order to fully predict the weather with 100% accuracy you would have to know the position, mass, and velocity of EVERY atom and molecule in the atmosphere. This is why meteorologists work with probabilities of some weather event happening. Until someone comes up with some crazy new advances in mathematics or statistical mechanics rough probabilities are the best we can do.","human_ref_B":"Speaking as an engineer who works with both kinds of systems:  Orbital mechanics, dynamics, and control are described using Ordinary Differential Equations.  (relatively) simple equations like F = ma, I = C*dV\/dt, etc.  We model the various bodies as either point masses with inertia or rigid bodies with some moments of inertia, and these tend to be extremely accurate approximations.  A spacecraft may have as few as half a dozen state variables, depending on what is being analyzed.  Weather modeling uses Partial Differential Equations.  PDE's describe how the properties of something (stresses, velocity, temperature etc) vary across either a fluid or continuum of a solid body.  Even \"simple\" systems will have thousands of state variables, and global weather modeling has billions.  Even then, we are basically limited by available computing power to make even reasonable approximations.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4762.0,"score_ratio":1.5384615385}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfckin","c_root_id_B":"crfau3t","created_at_utc_A":1432139656,"created_at_utc_B":1432136896,"score_A":20,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Speaking as an engineer who works with both kinds of systems:  Orbital mechanics, dynamics, and control are described using Ordinary Differential Equations.  (relatively) simple equations like F = ma, I = C*dV\/dt, etc.  We model the various bodies as either point masses with inertia or rigid bodies with some moments of inertia, and these tend to be extremely accurate approximations.  A spacecraft may have as few as half a dozen state variables, depending on what is being analyzed.  Weather modeling uses Partial Differential Equations.  PDE's describe how the properties of something (stresses, velocity, temperature etc) vary across either a fluid or continuum of a solid body.  Even \"simple\" systems will have thousands of state variables, and global weather modeling has billions.  Even then, we are basically limited by available computing power to make even reasonable approximations.","human_ref_B":"Definitely. You can put a man on the moon using Physics 101 and 102. As an example of the knowledge requred for weather prediction...I only a BS in Meteorology, but had to take 5 Calculus classes, two dynamics classes, two thermodynamics classes, and a few other very math heavy classes. Just to get a BS...meaning I'm qualified to only sort of predict the weather.   If you want to see the kinds of equations used, this is kind of the base starting point equation which describes weather:  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quasi-geostrophic_equations  As you can see the math involved there is much more difficult than freshman level physics, and that's only the start. Q-G height tendency is like, 200 level stuff.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2760.0,"score_ratio":10.0}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfpf6m","c_root_id_B":"crfeja7","created_at_utc_A":1432159651,"created_at_utc_B":1432142719,"score_A":9,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Putting a man on the moon is a question of solving Ordinary Differential Equations, while predicting the weather depends on Partial Differential Equations.  The difference is this, ODEs depend on **one** variable, while PDEs depend on **several** variables that can change simultaneously.  For sure, predicting the weather is several orders of magnitude more difficult than sending people to the moon.","human_ref_B":"You probably don't know this, but weather models are built on Chaos Theory. The grid of stations is far too coarse to know ground conditions with any degree of accuracy, so weather models work with that by treating each model run as a probability. The ultimate result is not a single model run, but a large number of model runs evaluated collectively.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16932.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfgpzm","c_root_id_B":"crfpf6m","created_at_utc_A":1432146080,"created_at_utc_B":1432159651,"score_A":2,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Opinionated layman, here, weighing in....  Isn't that kind of a matter of semantics?  If a weatherman says there's a 70% chance of rain so I don't paint my deck that day.  It doesn't rain.  I missed a chance to paint.  But 7 times out of 10 if I had tried to paint, the paint job would have been ruined.  Just a matter of risk\/ reward.  That's still kind of a successful prediction; it was up to me to calculate the risk\/ reward.  But what about landing a man on the moon? If the lunar module got to the right landing spot at the right moment but came in a few dozen mph too fast and crashed, then everything may have been done 99.99999% correctly, but the mission was still a failure.  Comparing \"complexity\" and \"margin of error\" can be misleading.  Walking is complex; I have to fire dozens of muscles and calculate hundreds of factors of terrain and gravity. Driving a car is relatively simple. Steering wheel, gas, brake.  Yet tripping and skinning my knee has less dire consequences than crossing the median and hitting a truck head on.","human_ref_B":"Putting a man on the moon is a question of solving Ordinary Differential Equations, while predicting the weather depends on Partial Differential Equations.  The difference is this, ODEs depend on **one** variable, while PDEs depend on **several** variables that can change simultaneously.  For sure, predicting the weather is several orders of magnitude more difficult than sending people to the moon.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13571.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfpf6m","c_root_id_B":"crfo7ep","created_at_utc_A":1432159651,"created_at_utc_B":1432157585,"score_A":9,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Putting a man on the moon is a question of solving Ordinary Differential Equations, while predicting the weather depends on Partial Differential Equations.  The difference is this, ODEs depend on **one** variable, while PDEs depend on **several** variables that can change simultaneously.  For sure, predicting the weather is several orders of magnitude more difficult than sending people to the moon.","human_ref_B":"What I learned in weather school in the Air Force was that it was more of an art to predict the weather than it was an exact science.  The more educated I became the more I realized that was true. That was 15 years ago and I don't think it's improved much.   Computers can only give you so much with collected data that isn't terribly accurate to begin with. And the severe lack of computing power to produce such forecasts makes giving something remotely accurate for a lengthy period of time is really nothing short of a roll of the dice.  *Edit a word*","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2066.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfau3t","c_root_id_B":"crfpf6m","created_at_utc_A":1432136896,"created_at_utc_B":1432159651,"score_A":2,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"Definitely. You can put a man on the moon using Physics 101 and 102. As an example of the knowledge requred for weather prediction...I only a BS in Meteorology, but had to take 5 Calculus classes, two dynamics classes, two thermodynamics classes, and a few other very math heavy classes. Just to get a BS...meaning I'm qualified to only sort of predict the weather.   If you want to see the kinds of equations used, this is kind of the base starting point equation which describes weather:  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quasi-geostrophic_equations  As you can see the math involved there is much more difficult than freshman level physics, and that's only the start. Q-G height tendency is like, 200 level stuff.","human_ref_B":"Putting a man on the moon is a question of solving Ordinary Differential Equations, while predicting the weather depends on Partial Differential Equations.  The difference is this, ODEs depend on **one** variable, while PDEs depend on **several** variables that can change simultaneously.  For sure, predicting the weather is several orders of magnitude more difficult than sending people to the moon.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":22755.0,"score_ratio":4.5}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfeja7","c_root_id_B":"crfo7ep","created_at_utc_A":1432142719,"created_at_utc_B":1432157585,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"You probably don't know this, but weather models are built on Chaos Theory. The grid of stations is far too coarse to know ground conditions with any degree of accuracy, so weather models work with that by treating each model run as a probability. The ultimate result is not a single model run, but a large number of model runs evaluated collectively.","human_ref_B":"What I learned in weather school in the Air Force was that it was more of an art to predict the weather than it was an exact science.  The more educated I became the more I realized that was true. That was 15 years ago and I don't think it's improved much.   Computers can only give you so much with collected data that isn't terribly accurate to begin with. And the severe lack of computing power to produce such forecasts makes giving something remotely accurate for a lengthy period of time is really nothing short of a roll of the dice.  *Edit a word*","labels":0,"seconds_difference":14866.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfgpzm","c_root_id_B":"crfo7ep","created_at_utc_A":1432146080,"created_at_utc_B":1432157585,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Opinionated layman, here, weighing in....  Isn't that kind of a matter of semantics?  If a weatherman says there's a 70% chance of rain so I don't paint my deck that day.  It doesn't rain.  I missed a chance to paint.  But 7 times out of 10 if I had tried to paint, the paint job would have been ruined.  Just a matter of risk\/ reward.  That's still kind of a successful prediction; it was up to me to calculate the risk\/ reward.  But what about landing a man on the moon? If the lunar module got to the right landing spot at the right moment but came in a few dozen mph too fast and crashed, then everything may have been done 99.99999% correctly, but the mission was still a failure.  Comparing \"complexity\" and \"margin of error\" can be misleading.  Walking is complex; I have to fire dozens of muscles and calculate hundreds of factors of terrain and gravity. Driving a car is relatively simple. Steering wheel, gas, brake.  Yet tripping and skinning my knee has less dire consequences than crossing the median and hitting a truck head on.","human_ref_B":"What I learned in weather school in the Air Force was that it was more of an art to predict the weather than it was an exact science.  The more educated I became the more I realized that was true. That was 15 years ago and I don't think it's improved much.   Computers can only give you so much with collected data that isn't terribly accurate to begin with. And the severe lack of computing power to produce such forecasts makes giving something remotely accurate for a lengthy period of time is really nothing short of a roll of the dice.  *Edit a word*","labels":0,"seconds_difference":11505.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"36ly5j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"I'm watching Bill Nye on Netflix. He just said that the math it takes to predict weather is more complex than the math that put Man on the Moon. Is this true? Seems possible, since weatherman are wrong so much, but figured I'd asked the true professionals~  edit: sorry if I tagged it incorrectly, there's quite a few categories I could see this question fitting into.","c_root_id_A":"crfau3t","c_root_id_B":"crfo7ep","created_at_utc_A":1432136896,"created_at_utc_B":1432157585,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Definitely. You can put a man on the moon using Physics 101 and 102. As an example of the knowledge requred for weather prediction...I only a BS in Meteorology, but had to take 5 Calculus classes, two dynamics classes, two thermodynamics classes, and a few other very math heavy classes. Just to get a BS...meaning I'm qualified to only sort of predict the weather.   If you want to see the kinds of equations used, this is kind of the base starting point equation which describes weather:  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quasi-geostrophic_equations  As you can see the math involved there is much more difficult than freshman level physics, and that's only the start. Q-G height tendency is like, 200 level stuff.","human_ref_B":"What I learned in weather school in the Air Force was that it was more of an art to predict the weather than it was an exact science.  The more educated I became the more I realized that was true. That was 15 years ago and I don't think it's improved much.   Computers can only give you so much with collected data that isn't terribly accurate to begin with. And the severe lack of computing power to produce such forecasts makes giving something remotely accurate for a lengthy period of time is really nothing short of a roll of the dice.  *Edit a word*","labels":0,"seconds_difference":20689.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"xqeg2q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Is diarrhea caused by an influx of fluid into the digestive tract, or the inability of the large intestine to absorb water ?","c_root_id_A":"iqavc1h","c_root_id_B":"iqa99fa","created_at_utc_A":1664408031,"created_at_utc_B":1664398356,"score_A":45,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Uhh, \"yes\" is the answer.  Could be that your body is dumping water into the guts due to an infection, which also tends to dump a lot of mucus goo into them; or alternatively because you've got a bunch of indigestible stuff (especially undigested lactose) in there and it's physically PULLING the water into your guts and making the poop extra-liquidy. It can also be because the guts are spasming so hard that it basically light-speed shoots your poop through themselves and they don't actually have time to absorb water, which means they just kinda stop absorbing it.   Different things cause different issues. Lactose intolerance poops are the \"my poop is sucking the water out of me and into itself\" kind (osmotic diarrhoea), while spicy food poops can be the \"my gut is lightspeeding this stuff through me\" kind (motility diarrhoea). If you have a gastrointestinal infection, then it's usually the \"my body is dumping goo into my poop\" kind (secretory diarrhoea).","human_ref_B":"It can be multiple reasons but I had colitis when I was 20, colitis is the inflammation of the large intestine. Less surface area meant less water absorption, so in my case it was inability to absorb the water specifically.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9675.0,"score_ratio":2.1428571429}
{"post_id":"xqeg2q","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Is diarrhea caused by an influx of fluid into the digestive tract, or the inability of the large intestine to absorb water ?","c_root_id_A":"iqb9eny","c_root_id_B":"iqa99fa","created_at_utc_A":1664414436,"created_at_utc_B":1664398356,"score_A":23,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/12281645\/  Yes and more.  It can be excess fluid, it can be poor absorption by the intestine, and it can be due to an infection, autoimmune disease, antacids, and even some medications that alter neurotransmitter levels (some neurotransmitters are even produced in the gut).  * Diarrhea is supposed to happen to purge toxins.  Infection, autoimmune disease, and irritating foods (due to an allergy or eating food that says hello and goodbye) can all trigger diarrhea for largely the same reasons - inflammation in all cases releases toxins which the body has to clear. * Anything that disrupts your gut bacteria can also mess up the process and cause diarrhea such as taking an antibiotic. * Parasites are massively disruptive influences on the gut as well, both inhibiting the immune system and altering gut bacteria and some even have specific mechanisms for diarrhea because it makes it easier for them to spread. * Drugs that alter the mechanisms for digestion such as SSRI's make it exciting in that they can cause constipation *and* diarrhea because we can't have nice things (but really just because serotonin has a major role in digestive function).  There are no one-trick-ponies with the hormones and chemicals your body uses so altering one can disrupt several different biological systems. * Antacids, such as magnesium oxide or citrate (and a few others), can be a cause of excess fluid in the gut and too much can cause diarrhea. * Other medications can cause diarrhea but not because they're supposed to, but rather because they are causing a toxic reaction in an individual (inflammation again!)","human_ref_B":"It can be multiple reasons but I had colitis when I was 20, colitis is the inflammation of the large intestine. Less surface area meant less water absorption, so in my case it was inability to absorb the water specifically.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":16080.0,"score_ratio":1.0952380952}
{"post_id":"q9aqnn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Is the human immune system basically the same as other mammals, or does it have any adaptations unique to us?","c_root_id_A":"hgv9cjn","c_root_id_B":"hgv4vo9","created_at_utc_A":1634397388,"created_at_utc_B":1634395248,"score_A":1417,"score_B":170,"human_ref_A":"All metabolic organisms on earth share the common innate immune system.  The exact compounds and mechanisms can vary a lot, such as antifungal peptides, antibiotics, membrane disrupting compounds, and DNA targeting enzymes.  Many organisms either share these, or can reasonably be shown to have evolved their own variants from a common ancestor.  It is believed this evolved in the first organism(s) and, therefore, all innate immunity derives from a single or small group of common ancestors.  All vertebrates have what's called an adaptive immune system.  There are specialized cells that perform specialized immune functions that can adapt to specific pathogens, and even create long term templates for antibodies that can attack that pathogen at a future time. Many vertebrates likely share this through descent from a common ancestor, though, as another comment pointed out, some vertebrates generate unique types of small antibodies, but the underlying mechanisms of the immune system are still ultimately the same.  Those organisms also produce what can be thought of as conventional antibodies, and have specialized cells that derive from stem cell lines and perform the same basic functions as analogous immune cells in other vertebrates.  It's pretty clear that these unique smaller antibodies are derived from the more conventional antibodies as they are made of exactly the same building blocks, but only use one type of building block, what's known as \"heavy chains,\" where conventional antibodies are made of a combination of heavy and light chains. The main advantage of these smaller antibodies is they can fit into tighter pockets in target molecules.  Humans have a pretty run of the mill vertebrate immune system.  Of course, all species have variation in the specifics of immune function, but overall there's not really anything unique about human immunity when compared to other vertebrates.  In fact, because vertebrate immune systems are so similar, it's a common medical practice to use other vertebrates, typically mammals, to produce antibodies which are then harvested and used in treatments, though the most modern techniques attempt to produce antibodies using immortalized cell lines rather than relying on harvesting from animals.   Antibodies are still commonly produced this way for biotech and research needs. That said, there are large variations in specific details even between individual humans because the immune system is so mind-bogglingly complex and relies on very specific \"lock and key\" mechanisms. Genetic variation plays a huge role here.  TLDR: Overall, the human immune system is very similar to that of other mammals and even to other vertebrates in general, but it's notable that there can be large variations even between humans, and some vertebrates produce unique types of antibodies derived from the more ubiquitous type of antibodies.","human_ref_B":"Every species has germline variation, but Camelids (llamas, alpacas, camels) are probably the farthest out there I'm aware of. VhH antibody isotypes are quite different structurally and so have the potential to reach epitopes normal IgG can't. We buy commercial camelid antibodies from time to time. The R&D systems page gets into the advantages without diving too far into the weeds. They've also been looked at for use as monoclonal antibody drugs.  The VhH antibody class is an interesting example of convergent evolution, as Sharks have developed the same immune structure through unrelated evolutionary lineage.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2140.0,"score_ratio":8.3352941176}
{"post_id":"q9aqnn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Is the human immune system basically the same as other mammals, or does it have any adaptations unique to us?","c_root_id_A":"hgvbhmq","c_root_id_B":"hgv4vo9","created_at_utc_A":1634398390,"created_at_utc_B":1634395248,"score_A":171,"score_B":170,"human_ref_A":"I think it might be easier to think about more unique branches of mammals, like bats. Bats comprise about 20% of the species diversity of mammals and are the only flying mammal. That last point is really what makes them and their physiology quite unique.  People often ask why so many deadly diseases come from bats. It's largely down to their unique immune system. Flights muscles tend to undergo a ton of wear and tear through just basic use so the bat inflammatory system has to be toned down quite a bit or else the constant tissue damage would just lead to deadly inflammation. With this relatively toned down inflammatory response, bats' antiviral immunity is basically always on. Ours only kicks into high gear when our immune system gets the infection signal.  So when we get a bat disease spillover into humans, the virus that has evolved in the presence of a relatively quiet inflammatory response but heightened antiviral wreaks total havoc in a relatively slow antiviral system and significantly higher inflammatory response thus we get hemorrhagic fevers.  Immune systems are general are shaped by evolution in a niche environment. Europeans and Africans have quite different intra-species immunity and similarly for inter-species immunity macaques and chimps have basically the same immune system but it's better tailored for their environment. Say an overall better immunity towards a disease like HIV versus humans.  Maybe not exactly what you're asking about but our immune systems are very unique to us in one regard: we use vaccinations to drive herd immunity to deadly diseases instead of just bottlenecking our populations to overcome the disease.","human_ref_B":"Every species has germline variation, but Camelids (llamas, alpacas, camels) are probably the farthest out there I'm aware of. VhH antibody isotypes are quite different structurally and so have the potential to reach epitopes normal IgG can't. We buy commercial camelid antibodies from time to time. The R&D systems page gets into the advantages without diving too far into the weeds. They've also been looked at for use as monoclonal antibody drugs.  The VhH antibody class is an interesting example of convergent evolution, as Sharks have developed the same immune structure through unrelated evolutionary lineage.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3142.0,"score_ratio":1.0058823529}
{"post_id":"q9aqnn","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.95,"history":"Is the human immune system basically the same as other mammals, or does it have any adaptations unique to us?","c_root_id_A":"hgvbhmq","c_root_id_B":"hgv9ny4","created_at_utc_A":1634398390,"created_at_utc_B":1634397538,"score_A":171,"score_B":27,"human_ref_A":"I think it might be easier to think about more unique branches of mammals, like bats. Bats comprise about 20% of the species diversity of mammals and are the only flying mammal. That last point is really what makes them and their physiology quite unique.  People often ask why so many deadly diseases come from bats. It's largely down to their unique immune system. Flights muscles tend to undergo a ton of wear and tear through just basic use so the bat inflammatory system has to be toned down quite a bit or else the constant tissue damage would just lead to deadly inflammation. With this relatively toned down inflammatory response, bats' antiviral immunity is basically always on. Ours only kicks into high gear when our immune system gets the infection signal.  So when we get a bat disease spillover into humans, the virus that has evolved in the presence of a relatively quiet inflammatory response but heightened antiviral wreaks total havoc in a relatively slow antiviral system and significantly higher inflammatory response thus we get hemorrhagic fevers.  Immune systems are general are shaped by evolution in a niche environment. Europeans and Africans have quite different intra-species immunity and similarly for inter-species immunity macaques and chimps have basically the same immune system but it's better tailored for their environment. Say an overall better immunity towards a disease like HIV versus humans.  Maybe not exactly what you're asking about but our immune systems are very unique to us in one regard: we use vaccinations to drive herd immunity to deadly diseases instead of just bottlenecking our populations to overcome the disease.","human_ref_B":"~~Not directly caused by the immune system but is involved: ~~unlike most other mammals, humans can become allergic to red meat if bitten by a tick, due to a sugar molecule that most mammals have except humans, Neu5Gc. This is due to a mutation in the CMAH gene that makes it unable to convert Neu5Ac to Neu5Gc.   If ingested (such as when eating beef or pork) it causes no problems, but when injected into the bloodstream (in most cases via a Lone star tick bite) the person develops an allergy to red meat. This does not affect avian meat (even if some like ostrich is commonly called a red meat) or fish, since they don't have the specific molecule.  Edit: crossed out something wrong","labels":1,"seconds_difference":852.0,"score_ratio":6.3333333333}
{"post_id":"ncg40j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are there any good examples of species who hit an evolutionary \u201cfork\u201d and further evolved separately into both predator and prey?   That\u2019s about it really. I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.","c_root_id_A":"gy56ym7","c_root_id_B":"gy50h74","created_at_utc_A":1621025379,"created_at_utc_B":1621022434,"score_A":78,"score_B":35,"human_ref_A":">I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.  No,  definitely not.  It wouldn't be meaningful to say that.   .  For example,  here's  the  family tree of the placental mammals.  \\- https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolution_of_mammals#Molecular_phylogenetics-based_family_tree_of_placental_mammals   You can see that the order Perissodactyla (horses, rhinos, tapirs)  is closely related  to the  order Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears, seals, etc)  -    and those  groups are more closely related than  other  groups  -    e.g   the  Perissodactyls (horses, rhinos, tapirs) (herbivores)  are more closely related to wolves and lions (carnivores)  than they are to goats or cows or camels or elephants (less-closely-related herbivores).  .  Another example might be  theropod dinosaurs.  Most  of them were carnivorous  -  everybody knows  *Tyrannosaurus*   and the  \"raptor\" dinosaurs,    but their cousins the therizinosaurs are thought  to have been herbivorous  ( e.g.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Therizinosaurus ).  Family tree  -  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ornithomimosauria#Phylogeny  The \"tyrannosaurs\"  are  4th from the top,  the  therizinosaurs are 3rd  up from the bottom.  .","human_ref_B":"You can pick any two species and they \"forked\" at some point. So in the technical sense, any predator\/prey species you pick is an example. I don't think that's what you mean, I think you mean that the split was somewhat proximate. I have no idea what the most related a predator\/prey species is, on the scale of things I'm sure there's some predator and prey animal that split \"recently\", but I'm not sure how close they would have to be for it to count for you.  And no, nothing in evolution is \"set in stone\", though of course, some evolutionary paths are going to be much more likely than others.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2945.0,"score_ratio":2.2285714286}
{"post_id":"ncg40j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are there any good examples of species who hit an evolutionary \u201cfork\u201d and further evolved separately into both predator and prey?   That\u2019s about it really. I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.","c_root_id_A":"gy5306n","c_root_id_B":"gy56ym7","created_at_utc_A":1621023579,"created_at_utc_B":1621025379,"score_A":4,"score_B":78,"human_ref_A":"Arctoidea include polar bears as well as seals, and they \u201conly\u201d split about 30-50 million years ago.","human_ref_B":">I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.  No,  definitely not.  It wouldn't be meaningful to say that.   .  For example,  here's  the  family tree of the placental mammals.  \\- https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolution_of_mammals#Molecular_phylogenetics-based_family_tree_of_placental_mammals   You can see that the order Perissodactyla (horses, rhinos, tapirs)  is closely related  to the  order Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears, seals, etc)  -    and those  groups are more closely related than  other  groups  -    e.g   the  Perissodactyls (horses, rhinos, tapirs) (herbivores)  are more closely related to wolves and lions (carnivores)  than they are to goats or cows or camels or elephants (less-closely-related herbivores).  .  Another example might be  theropod dinosaurs.  Most  of them were carnivorous  -  everybody knows  *Tyrannosaurus*   and the  \"raptor\" dinosaurs,    but their cousins the therizinosaurs are thought  to have been herbivorous  ( e.g.  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Therizinosaurus ).  Family tree  -  https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ornithomimosauria#Phylogeny  The \"tyrannosaurs\"  are  4th from the top,  the  therizinosaurs are 3rd  up from the bottom.  .","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1800.0,"score_ratio":19.5}
{"post_id":"ncg40j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are there any good examples of species who hit an evolutionary \u201cfork\u201d and further evolved separately into both predator and prey?   That\u2019s about it really. I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.","c_root_id_A":"gy5cgsd","c_root_id_B":"gy60u9j","created_at_utc_A":1621027946,"created_at_utc_B":1621040639,"score_A":19,"score_B":22,"human_ref_A":"Bees, consumers of pollen for protein diverged from wasps which are primarily consumers of prey for protein (in both groups the protein need is primarily for the larva not the adults). You probably consider bees prey and wasps predators.","human_ref_B":"For a more recent example, the cichlid fish in Lake Tanganyika all evolved from a single ancestor species over the past 10 million years. Herbivores, predators, detrivores, and more.   (Other African lakes have had similar cichlid radiations but this is the most extreme example.)   https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lake_Tanganyika","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12693.0,"score_ratio":1.1578947368}
{"post_id":"ncg40j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are there any good examples of species who hit an evolutionary \u201cfork\u201d and further evolved separately into both predator and prey?   That\u2019s about it really. I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.","c_root_id_A":"gy60u9j","c_root_id_B":"gy5306n","created_at_utc_A":1621040639,"created_at_utc_B":1621023579,"score_A":22,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"For a more recent example, the cichlid fish in Lake Tanganyika all evolved from a single ancestor species over the past 10 million years. Herbivores, predators, detrivores, and more.   (Other African lakes have had similar cichlid radiations but this is the most extreme example.)   https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lake_Tanganyika","human_ref_B":"Arctoidea include polar bears as well as seals, and they \u201conly\u201d split about 30-50 million years ago.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":17060.0,"score_ratio":5.5}
{"post_id":"ncg40j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are there any good examples of species who hit an evolutionary \u201cfork\u201d and further evolved separately into both predator and prey?   That\u2019s about it really. I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.","c_root_id_A":"gy5306n","c_root_id_B":"gy5cgsd","created_at_utc_A":1621023579,"created_at_utc_B":1621027946,"score_A":4,"score_B":19,"human_ref_A":"Arctoidea include polar bears as well as seals, and they \u201conly\u201d split about 30-50 million years ago.","human_ref_B":"Bees, consumers of pollen for protein diverged from wasps which are primarily consumers of prey for protein (in both groups the protein need is primarily for the larva not the adults). You probably consider bees prey and wasps predators.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4367.0,"score_ratio":4.75}
{"post_id":"ncg40j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are there any good examples of species who hit an evolutionary \u201cfork\u201d and further evolved separately into both predator and prey?   That\u2019s about it really. I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.","c_root_id_A":"gy5306n","c_root_id_B":"gy69ius","created_at_utc_A":1621023579,"created_at_utc_B":1621045669,"score_A":4,"score_B":12,"human_ref_A":"Arctoidea include polar bears as well as seals, and they \u201conly\u201d split about 30-50 million years ago.","human_ref_B":"You don't even need to have a species split - African clawed fogs, for instance, are cannibals.  Their tadpoles are filter feeders, but the adults eat... the tadpoles.  This behavior inspired a fascinating scifi book.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":22090.0,"score_ratio":3.0}
{"post_id":"ncg40j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Are there any good examples of species who hit an evolutionary \u201cfork\u201d and further evolved separately into both predator and prey?   That\u2019s about it really. I\u2019m asking if the evolutionary trend towards either predator or prey is set in stone.","c_root_id_A":"gy5306n","c_root_id_B":"gy6rlly","created_at_utc_A":1621023579,"created_at_utc_B":1621058102,"score_A":4,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"Arctoidea include polar bears as well as seals, and they \u201conly\u201d split about 30-50 million years ago.","human_ref_B":"\"Predator\" and \"prey\" aren't really equivalent categories. \"Predator\" describes the relationship of an organism to its food, whereas \"prey\" describes the extent to which the organism is *someone else's* food.  What I'm guessing you meant was \"**is there is a preferred evolutionary direction toward eating meat versus eating plants?**\" The answer to this is no (in the long term), but also yes (in the short term). Diet is a fairly *evolutionarily labile* trait, meaning it's fairly likely to change states over the generations. It's not as labile as body size, for example, but it's more labile than the number of eyes. A good example would be whales, which are all predators, whereas their closest living relatives on land (hoofed animals like cows and pigs) are all herbivores. Their diet evolved one way in one group and another way in the other.  However, yes, in the short term there is a kind of \"evolutionary inertia\" in diet, just as there is in most traits. This is pretty intuitive: natural selection can only work with what's already there, and so if a herbivorous species splits in two, both descendants are likely to stay herbivores, as both have inherited their ancestors' teeth, digestive tracts, etc. suited for eating plants. If its original food source goes away, more new types of mutations need to occur for the species to switch over to eating mainly meat, than for the species to switch over to a different plant food source. So \"staying the course\" is on average more likely, which leads to stuff like huge, diverse animal groups that are nonetheless all predators (like squid and octopuses) or large trends with few exceptions (like how there's only one known spider that eats plant matter).  But another way of interpreting your question would be **\"are there are species that share a common ancestry but where one eats the other?**\" The answer is that yes, this is not uncommon. A classic example would be the huge diversity of cichlid fish in the lakes of East Africa; many of these cichlid species eat other cichlid species.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":34523.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"4m2mda","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Can long-term use of serotonergic antidepressants increase the likelihood of chronic depression through neuroplastic processes? I read a couple of review papers suggesting that serotonergic antidepressants can lead to increased propensity to depression in the long run due to neuronal damage, but it seems to have received relatively little research attention. Can anyone comment? http:\/\/journal.frontiersin.org\/article\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2012.00117\/full http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0306987711000223","c_root_id_A":"d3st2e4","c_root_id_B":"d3sgr3r","created_at_utc_A":1464849762,"created_at_utc_B":1464826681,"score_A":5,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"I know this is merely a semantic contribution and in volunteering it I must also emphasise that I'm *not* a doctor but... I think it's helpful, and hopefully a little reassuring, to remember that the very idea of 'treatment resistance' is *defined by the limitations of currently available treatment*.   As such, there's some consolation to be found in the fact that new drugs (for example, the glutamatergic agents) are under development, and less conventional treatments (ECT or, dare I say it, psychedelic therapy) are still available as reasonably well understood interventions of last resort.   EDIT:   For what it's worth, I think there's also an important (if not cursorily supplied) observation in the introduction of the second paper posted by OP:   > \"...[F]ragmentation of nuclear and extended families, economic or life style stressors, or even changes in dietary habits may be conspiring to increase the prevalence of depression and its resistance to somatic treatment. Additionally, the biological course of major depression itself > may be changing due to a multitude of biologic and genetic factors, > as may be occurring in bipolar illness.\"   This is the thorny context in which researchers conduct their studies of antidepressant efficacy (or lack thereof). After all, any one of the confounding factors listed above could be responsible for treatment failure or the emergence or chronic symptoms. I'm not defending antidepressants. It's wise to be cautious and questioning. However, I also think that any study which argues for an iatrogenic model of chronic depression should be treated with the same healthy scepticism as the (far more numerous) studies linking antidepressants to suspiciously positive results.","human_ref_B":"Let's break it down. Do SSRIs cause \"neuroplastic effects\"? Yes. Are all plastic effects good? No, not necessarily. For example, there can be both hyper- and hypoplasticity - too much or not enough. These are examples of \"malplasticity\".  First, the journal Medical Hypotheses is well-known as a fringe journal with varying contents. The most radical ideas - in the absence of fool-proof evidence - appear in this journal. Hence, I will ignore commenting on that paper.  The **Review** article from 2012 mentions the word \"could\" 33 times. I am thus surprised it was not published as an **Opinion** instead. The statement of the authors does not appear firmly unshakeable, which prompts caution of drawing preemptive conclusions.  Did this paper have an impact? Yes. It has been cited.  Is there a consensus in the scientific community that SSRIs lead to malplastic changes? No.  In the case SSRIs lead to malplasticity, could this be explained by neuronal damage? Possibly. However, there is at least one counter-example: the antidepressant lithium used in bipolar depression, has been found to protect against neuronal cell death source.  Because antidepressants vary widely in effects, it is very difficult to draw a bold conclusion that generalizes well. For example, in addition to SSRI there is SNRI and NDRI. Furthermore the affinity and molecular properties vary between SSRIs.  Perhaps an important point is the dosage. Hyper- and hypoplasticity are two extremes of plasticity. Optimal plasticity can be achieved by taking a \"middle road\" approach. In the case of dopamine, which has an inverted U-shaped dose-response function this becomes very clear. More preclinical and clinical work is needed to elucidate the long-term effects of antidepressants.  (The studies above were arbitrarily chosen after searching general databases. I am not a doctor and pharmacology is not my field of study.)","labels":1,"seconds_difference":23081.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"4m2mda","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"Can long-term use of serotonergic antidepressants increase the likelihood of chronic depression through neuroplastic processes? I read a couple of review papers suggesting that serotonergic antidepressants can lead to increased propensity to depression in the long run due to neuronal damage, but it seems to have received relatively little research attention. Can anyone comment? http:\/\/journal.frontiersin.org\/article\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2012.00117\/full http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0306987711000223","c_root_id_A":"d3sow1j","c_root_id_B":"d3st2e4","created_at_utc_A":1464839940,"created_at_utc_B":1464849762,"score_A":2,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Ahh I can't find the source, but some observational study showed that people who continued their SSRIs for 6 months after their depression symptoms stopped were less likely to have reoccurring depression later in life as compared to those who stopped taking meds once their symptoms went away.","human_ref_B":"I know this is merely a semantic contribution and in volunteering it I must also emphasise that I'm *not* a doctor but... I think it's helpful, and hopefully a little reassuring, to remember that the very idea of 'treatment resistance' is *defined by the limitations of currently available treatment*.   As such, there's some consolation to be found in the fact that new drugs (for example, the glutamatergic agents) are under development, and less conventional treatments (ECT or, dare I say it, psychedelic therapy) are still available as reasonably well understood interventions of last resort.   EDIT:   For what it's worth, I think there's also an important (if not cursorily supplied) observation in the introduction of the second paper posted by OP:   > \"...[F]ragmentation of nuclear and extended families, economic or life style stressors, or even changes in dietary habits may be conspiring to increase the prevalence of depression and its resistance to somatic treatment. Additionally, the biological course of major depression itself > may be changing due to a multitude of biologic and genetic factors, > as may be occurring in bipolar illness.\"   This is the thorny context in which researchers conduct their studies of antidepressant efficacy (or lack thereof). After all, any one of the confounding factors listed above could be responsible for treatment failure or the emergence or chronic symptoms. I'm not defending antidepressants. It's wise to be cautious and questioning. However, I also think that any study which argues for an iatrogenic model of chronic depression should be treated with the same healthy scepticism as the (far more numerous) studies linking antidepressants to suspiciously positive results.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":9822.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"qgbx7b","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Since spacecraft are electrically floating ground, are there any issues with docking spacecraft that are a different voltage potential? And since near-earth space is filled with a very thin electrically charged plasma, does this cause a charge to accumulate?","c_root_id_A":"hia1i0c","c_root_id_B":"hi9zj6p","created_at_utc_A":1635359297,"created_at_utc_B":1635358543,"score_A":5,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"The ISS is able to adjust its own charge via a device know as a plasma contactor. This fires charged ions off into space to reduce its own charge. This is in particular used during space walks to stop the station charging up while astronauts are working.","human_ref_B":"Good question and very interesting responses! I'll just add to the context by mentioning that things definitely do get charged up in space. If it's something made of metal and exposed to the sun, it reliably charges to a few volts positive due to the photoelectric effect (energetic uv photons knock electrons out of the metal). If it's shaded from the sun (perhaps it's orbiting earth and currently on the night side) it generally charges negatively because free electrons in the diffuse plasma fly around at higher velocities than free protons, and so more electrons physically run into and build up on the skin of the spacecraft. The level of this negative charging can be quite variable and is sensitive to the current space weather (how active is the sun? Any coronal mass ejections nearby?) As well as the space microclimate (are you hanging out in one of the van Allen belts where magnetic fields trap an abundance of electrons?). Modeling can get quite complicated, see for example: https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/1350582","labels":1,"seconds_difference":754.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"gg159v","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.84,"history":"Did dinosaurs shed their skins in big patches like modern lizards and snakes?","c_root_id_A":"fpwy0cq","c_root_id_B":"fpwvdvx","created_at_utc_A":1588972038,"created_at_utc_B":1588970671,"score_A":20,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/askscience\/comments\/71qz7l\/did_dinosaurs_like_reptiles_of_today_molt_or_shed\/","human_ref_B":"Or molt like other raptors?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1367.0,"score_ratio":3.3333333333}
{"post_id":"qb92a0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the seatbelts on cars, buses, and airplanes different? More specifically, why does a bus use the fiddly two point seatbelt that takes forever to adjust? It\u2019s not as secure as the three point car seatbelt, and it\u2019s not as easily adjustable and removable as a airplane seatbelt.","c_root_id_A":"hha2unj","c_root_id_B":"hh9aj7e","created_at_utc_A":1634676387,"created_at_utc_B":1634665252,"score_A":1315,"score_B":81,"human_ref_A":"Airliner seatbelts are different because airliners are vastly different from buses and cars.  Airliner seatbelts are there primarily to move your body down as the plane goes down. If there's a patch of turbulence which causes a rapid descent, your body continues moving the way it's been going, and the airliner smacks into it, hitting you on the head and killing you.  Airline seatbelts are designed to be easily removable via a clawing motion, because people are panicked and instinctive when there's an airplane crash, and the occupants likely only have minutes if not seconds to evacuate before the whole plane catches on fire. On the other hand, airliners are so comparatively safe that the airline industry has effectively lobbied the FAA to not have to install 3-point seatbelts, because the fuel\/retrofit cost isn't worth it for the handful of people who might be saved per year (zero people died from an accident on an airliner in 2017, for instance, and only two people have died from an accident in the last decade on a plane operated by an American airline).   Airliner crashes are essentially binary events: either everyone dies on an airliner, or nobody does. A three-point seatbelt wasn't going to save anyone in the 737 Max crashes, or UIA flight 752, or Malaysian Air 370.","human_ref_B":"There\u2019s a set of factors behind this.  First, because of the larger mass of those vehicles. If a car hits a bus, the larger body of the bus will disperse more kinetic energy than the one of the car, meaning that the passengers in the bus won\u2019t feel the same hit as the the ones in the car. For an airplane, there is usually enough time for the pilot to reduce the speed and adjust the angle of impact, also reducing the amount of deceleration that the passengers will take.  They are also easier to take of, the buckle is on the front and it\u2019s usually a big button or a lever, that can be taken off in one simple motion by the person wearing it or someone else. Making it easier for people to evacuate the vehicle. In some cases (buses mainly), it\u2019s also because it\u2019s cheaper or easier to implement. Granted, it wouldn\u2019t be allowed if they didn\u2019t do the job well enough. In both cases the main thing is that trained drivers\/pilots are responsible and are trained. They \u201cknow how to crash\u201d meaning that they can handle emergency situations to ensure the wellbeing of their passengers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":11135.0,"score_ratio":16.2345679012}
{"post_id":"qb92a0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the seatbelts on cars, buses, and airplanes different? More specifically, why does a bus use the fiddly two point seatbelt that takes forever to adjust? It\u2019s not as secure as the three point car seatbelt, and it\u2019s not as easily adjustable and removable as a airplane seatbelt.","c_root_id_A":"hha205h","c_root_id_B":"hha2unj","created_at_utc_A":1634676053,"created_at_utc_B":1634676387,"score_A":33,"score_B":1315,"human_ref_A":"As an additional point: A 3 point seatbelt requires a 3rd anchor point. In vehicle front seats, this is usually at the bottom of the B-pillar, with an adjuster high up on the B-pillar. On rear seats, this is either built into the seat back or the side of the vehicle (in some cases the centre seat can have an anchor in the roof)  These anchor points have to be strong, as they take the restraining loads in a crash.   Aircraft seats (specifically in economy) are built to be as lightweight (and as thin) as possible - I suspect they don't have the strength to take the loads of a 3rd anchor high up in the seat.","human_ref_B":"Airliner seatbelts are different because airliners are vastly different from buses and cars.  Airliner seatbelts are there primarily to move your body down as the plane goes down. If there's a patch of turbulence which causes a rapid descent, your body continues moving the way it's been going, and the airliner smacks into it, hitting you on the head and killing you.  Airline seatbelts are designed to be easily removable via a clawing motion, because people are panicked and instinctive when there's an airplane crash, and the occupants likely only have minutes if not seconds to evacuate before the whole plane catches on fire. On the other hand, airliners are so comparatively safe that the airline industry has effectively lobbied the FAA to not have to install 3-point seatbelts, because the fuel\/retrofit cost isn't worth it for the handful of people who might be saved per year (zero people died from an accident on an airliner in 2017, for instance, and only two people have died from an accident in the last decade on a plane operated by an American airline).   Airliner crashes are essentially binary events: either everyone dies on an airliner, or nobody does. A three-point seatbelt wasn't going to save anyone in the 737 Max crashes, or UIA flight 752, or Malaysian Air 370.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":334.0,"score_ratio":39.8484848485}
{"post_id":"qb92a0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the seatbelts on cars, buses, and airplanes different? More specifically, why does a bus use the fiddly two point seatbelt that takes forever to adjust? It\u2019s not as secure as the three point car seatbelt, and it\u2019s not as easily adjustable and removable as a airplane seatbelt.","c_root_id_A":"hhabya4","c_root_id_B":"hha6xpo","created_at_utc_A":1634680193,"created_at_utc_B":1634678059,"score_A":628,"score_B":186,"human_ref_A":"I'd like to comment on bus seatbelts since most comments have been about airline seatbelts. Bus seatbelts are lap belts, and are usually seen as optional while riding. This is because busses are bigger than most everything else on the road, and so in the event of a collision, the bus, having so much more mass, will receive much less damage than anything else it might hit.  This quora post touches on this, and many other bus-related question: https:\/\/www.quora.com\/Why-arent-seat-belts-required-in-buses  Here is a link to the Vermont DMV website backing up what I said: https:\/\/dmv.vermont.gov\/faq\/why-do-school-buses-not-require-seat-belts  > \"Large school buses are heavier and distribute crash forces differently than passenger cars and light trucks do. Because of these differences, bus passengers experience much less crash force than those in passenger cars, light trucks, and vans. >  > NHTSA decided the best way to provide crash protection to passengers of large school buses is through a concept called \u201ccompartmentalization.\u201d This requires that the interior of large buses protect children without them needing to buckle up. Through compartmentalization, children are protected from crashes by strong, closely-spaced seats that have energy-absorbing seat backs. >  > Small school buses (with a gross vehicle weight rating of 10,000 pounds or less) must be equipped with lap and\/or lap\/shoulder belts at all designated seating positions. Since the sizes and weights of small school buses are closer to those of passenger cars and trucks, seat belts in those vehicles are necessary to provide occupant protection.\u201d\"","human_ref_B":"Lot of misinformation here with respect to aircraft belts.   Aircraft passenger seatbelts are the way they are because they have been proven to work fine over time. A shoulder harness would be better, and indeed a four or five-point better than that, but the benefit just isn\u2019t there vs. the cost (added fuel burn too, every pound you lift into the air isn\u2019t free, it costs gas to lift. Gas costs money and produces emissions.)   Seats, screens and such (things your head would hit) are also designed with your head hitting it in mind as part of the seat certification. It may not look soft, and while it\u2019s not as soft as a pillow, it\u2019s designed and tested specifically to avoid serious head injury.  The seatbelt is also there to stop your body in a crash. It\u2019s not just for turbulence. It\u2019ll hold on to your body with 9-16g\u2019s of acceleration pulling you forward.   I\u2019m imagining the bus reasoning is similar for why they have two point belts, if any. NHTSA has not found the cost and complexity of a three point system to be required for an adequate level of safety.   Source: aerospace engineer.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2134.0,"score_ratio":3.376344086}
{"post_id":"qb92a0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the seatbelts on cars, buses, and airplanes different? More specifically, why does a bus use the fiddly two point seatbelt that takes forever to adjust? It\u2019s not as secure as the three point car seatbelt, and it\u2019s not as easily adjustable and removable as a airplane seatbelt.","c_root_id_A":"hhabya4","c_root_id_B":"hh9aj7e","created_at_utc_A":1634680193,"created_at_utc_B":1634665252,"score_A":628,"score_B":81,"human_ref_A":"I'd like to comment on bus seatbelts since most comments have been about airline seatbelts. Bus seatbelts are lap belts, and are usually seen as optional while riding. This is because busses are bigger than most everything else on the road, and so in the event of a collision, the bus, having so much more mass, will receive much less damage than anything else it might hit.  This quora post touches on this, and many other bus-related question: https:\/\/www.quora.com\/Why-arent-seat-belts-required-in-buses  Here is a link to the Vermont DMV website backing up what I said: https:\/\/dmv.vermont.gov\/faq\/why-do-school-buses-not-require-seat-belts  > \"Large school buses are heavier and distribute crash forces differently than passenger cars and light trucks do. Because of these differences, bus passengers experience much less crash force than those in passenger cars, light trucks, and vans. >  > NHTSA decided the best way to provide crash protection to passengers of large school buses is through a concept called \u201ccompartmentalization.\u201d This requires that the interior of large buses protect children without them needing to buckle up. Through compartmentalization, children are protected from crashes by strong, closely-spaced seats that have energy-absorbing seat backs. >  > Small school buses (with a gross vehicle weight rating of 10,000 pounds or less) must be equipped with lap and\/or lap\/shoulder belts at all designated seating positions. Since the sizes and weights of small school buses are closer to those of passenger cars and trucks, seat belts in those vehicles are necessary to provide occupant protection.\u201d\"","human_ref_B":"There\u2019s a set of factors behind this.  First, because of the larger mass of those vehicles. If a car hits a bus, the larger body of the bus will disperse more kinetic energy than the one of the car, meaning that the passengers in the bus won\u2019t feel the same hit as the the ones in the car. For an airplane, there is usually enough time for the pilot to reduce the speed and adjust the angle of impact, also reducing the amount of deceleration that the passengers will take.  They are also easier to take of, the buckle is on the front and it\u2019s usually a big button or a lever, that can be taken off in one simple motion by the person wearing it or someone else. Making it easier for people to evacuate the vehicle. In some cases (buses mainly), it\u2019s also because it\u2019s cheaper or easier to implement. Granted, it wouldn\u2019t be allowed if they didn\u2019t do the job well enough. In both cases the main thing is that trained drivers\/pilots are responsible and are trained. They \u201cknow how to crash\u201d meaning that they can handle emergency situations to ensure the wellbeing of their passengers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14941.0,"score_ratio":7.7530864198}
{"post_id":"qb92a0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the seatbelts on cars, buses, and airplanes different? More specifically, why does a bus use the fiddly two point seatbelt that takes forever to adjust? It\u2019s not as secure as the three point car seatbelt, and it\u2019s not as easily adjustable and removable as a airplane seatbelt.","c_root_id_A":"hha205h","c_root_id_B":"hhabya4","created_at_utc_A":1634676053,"created_at_utc_B":1634680193,"score_A":33,"score_B":628,"human_ref_A":"As an additional point: A 3 point seatbelt requires a 3rd anchor point. In vehicle front seats, this is usually at the bottom of the B-pillar, with an adjuster high up on the B-pillar. On rear seats, this is either built into the seat back or the side of the vehicle (in some cases the centre seat can have an anchor in the roof)  These anchor points have to be strong, as they take the restraining loads in a crash.   Aircraft seats (specifically in economy) are built to be as lightweight (and as thin) as possible - I suspect they don't have the strength to take the loads of a 3rd anchor high up in the seat.","human_ref_B":"I'd like to comment on bus seatbelts since most comments have been about airline seatbelts. Bus seatbelts are lap belts, and are usually seen as optional while riding. This is because busses are bigger than most everything else on the road, and so in the event of a collision, the bus, having so much more mass, will receive much less damage than anything else it might hit.  This quora post touches on this, and many other bus-related question: https:\/\/www.quora.com\/Why-arent-seat-belts-required-in-buses  Here is a link to the Vermont DMV website backing up what I said: https:\/\/dmv.vermont.gov\/faq\/why-do-school-buses-not-require-seat-belts  > \"Large school buses are heavier and distribute crash forces differently than passenger cars and light trucks do. Because of these differences, bus passengers experience much less crash force than those in passenger cars, light trucks, and vans. >  > NHTSA decided the best way to provide crash protection to passengers of large school buses is through a concept called \u201ccompartmentalization.\u201d This requires that the interior of large buses protect children without them needing to buckle up. Through compartmentalization, children are protected from crashes by strong, closely-spaced seats that have energy-absorbing seat backs. >  > Small school buses (with a gross vehicle weight rating of 10,000 pounds or less) must be equipped with lap and\/or lap\/shoulder belts at all designated seating positions. Since the sizes and weights of small school buses are closer to those of passenger cars and trucks, seat belts in those vehicles are necessary to provide occupant protection.\u201d\"","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4140.0,"score_ratio":19.0303030303}
{"post_id":"qb92a0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the seatbelts on cars, buses, and airplanes different? More specifically, why does a bus use the fiddly two point seatbelt that takes forever to adjust? It\u2019s not as secure as the three point car seatbelt, and it\u2019s not as easily adjustable and removable as a airplane seatbelt.","c_root_id_A":"hha6xpo","c_root_id_B":"hh9aj7e","created_at_utc_A":1634678059,"created_at_utc_B":1634665252,"score_A":186,"score_B":81,"human_ref_A":"Lot of misinformation here with respect to aircraft belts.   Aircraft passenger seatbelts are the way they are because they have been proven to work fine over time. A shoulder harness would be better, and indeed a four or five-point better than that, but the benefit just isn\u2019t there vs. the cost (added fuel burn too, every pound you lift into the air isn\u2019t free, it costs gas to lift. Gas costs money and produces emissions.)   Seats, screens and such (things your head would hit) are also designed with your head hitting it in mind as part of the seat certification. It may not look soft, and while it\u2019s not as soft as a pillow, it\u2019s designed and tested specifically to avoid serious head injury.  The seatbelt is also there to stop your body in a crash. It\u2019s not just for turbulence. It\u2019ll hold on to your body with 9-16g\u2019s of acceleration pulling you forward.   I\u2019m imagining the bus reasoning is similar for why they have two point belts, if any. NHTSA has not found the cost and complexity of a three point system to be required for an adequate level of safety.   Source: aerospace engineer.","human_ref_B":"There\u2019s a set of factors behind this.  First, because of the larger mass of those vehicles. If a car hits a bus, the larger body of the bus will disperse more kinetic energy than the one of the car, meaning that the passengers in the bus won\u2019t feel the same hit as the the ones in the car. For an airplane, there is usually enough time for the pilot to reduce the speed and adjust the angle of impact, also reducing the amount of deceleration that the passengers will take.  They are also easier to take of, the buckle is on the front and it\u2019s usually a big button or a lever, that can be taken off in one simple motion by the person wearing it or someone else. Making it easier for people to evacuate the vehicle. In some cases (buses mainly), it\u2019s also because it\u2019s cheaper or easier to implement. Granted, it wouldn\u2019t be allowed if they didn\u2019t do the job well enough. In both cases the main thing is that trained drivers\/pilots are responsible and are trained. They \u201cknow how to crash\u201d meaning that they can handle emergency situations to ensure the wellbeing of their passengers.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":12807.0,"score_ratio":2.2962962963}
{"post_id":"qb92a0","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"Why are the seatbelts on cars, buses, and airplanes different? More specifically, why does a bus use the fiddly two point seatbelt that takes forever to adjust? It\u2019s not as secure as the three point car seatbelt, and it\u2019s not as easily adjustable and removable as a airplane seatbelt.","c_root_id_A":"hha6xpo","c_root_id_B":"hha205h","created_at_utc_A":1634678059,"created_at_utc_B":1634676053,"score_A":186,"score_B":33,"human_ref_A":"Lot of misinformation here with respect to aircraft belts.   Aircraft passenger seatbelts are the way they are because they have been proven to work fine over time. A shoulder harness would be better, and indeed a four or five-point better than that, but the benefit just isn\u2019t there vs. the cost (added fuel burn too, every pound you lift into the air isn\u2019t free, it costs gas to lift. Gas costs money and produces emissions.)   Seats, screens and such (things your head would hit) are also designed with your head hitting it in mind as part of the seat certification. It may not look soft, and while it\u2019s not as soft as a pillow, it\u2019s designed and tested specifically to avoid serious head injury.  The seatbelt is also there to stop your body in a crash. It\u2019s not just for turbulence. It\u2019ll hold on to your body with 9-16g\u2019s of acceleration pulling you forward.   I\u2019m imagining the bus reasoning is similar for why they have two point belts, if any. NHTSA has not found the cost and complexity of a three point system to be required for an adequate level of safety.   Source: aerospace engineer.","human_ref_B":"As an additional point: A 3 point seatbelt requires a 3rd anchor point. In vehicle front seats, this is usually at the bottom of the B-pillar, with an adjuster high up on the B-pillar. On rear seats, this is either built into the seat back or the side of the vehicle (in some cases the centre seat can have an anchor in the roof)  These anchor points have to be strong, as they take the restraining loads in a crash.   Aircraft seats (specifically in economy) are built to be as lightweight (and as thin) as possible - I suspect they don't have the strength to take the loads of a 3rd anchor high up in the seat.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2006.0,"score_ratio":5.6363636364}
{"post_id":"wt6rr8","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Why is silver often used in topical antifungal and antimicrobial products? I imagine it's a very small amount of silver, but I've never heard of silver being used in this way. What about the metal makes it so good at being antimicrobial or antifungal?","c_root_id_A":"il2r0ww","c_root_id_B":"il2ldzh","created_at_utc_A":1661008978,"created_at_utc_B":1661006524,"score_A":46,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"all metals are antibiotic due to the metallic bonding and unfixed electron cloud around a molecule it can kill or inhibit germs and microscopic organisms' basically it sets up an electric field that bacteria can't grow in. copper is antifungal, brass keeps bathrooms fixtures germ free, but silver is special in that it can kill on contact due to its electron configuration. silver cream is the best burn cream and is most importantly, a great, cheap, low tech water purifier. It is thought we will run out of silver this century because of its usefulness.","human_ref_B":"Low concentrations of metals like copper and silver have antimicrobial properties (they are used as additives in some wound care dressings). Fungi also produce metal nanoparticles, possibly as a defensive mechanism. I don't know the mechanism(a) behind the effect, but I assume it's some local electronic field effect of the nanoparticles, or organometallic species that are formed.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2454.0,"score_ratio":11.5}
{"post_id":"wt6rr8","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Why is silver often used in topical antifungal and antimicrobial products? I imagine it's a very small amount of silver, but I've never heard of silver being used in this way. What about the metal makes it so good at being antimicrobial or antifungal?","c_root_id_A":"il2ldzh","c_root_id_B":"il2seqy","created_at_utc_A":1661006524,"created_at_utc_B":1661009562,"score_A":4,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Low concentrations of metals like copper and silver have antimicrobial properties (they are used as additives in some wound care dressings). Fungi also produce metal nanoparticles, possibly as a defensive mechanism. I don't know the mechanism(a) behind the effect, but I assume it's some local electronic field effect of the nanoparticles, or organometallic species that are formed.","human_ref_B":"It has always been used to cure things (the werewolf lore and silver bullets).  Some Metals exhibit Oligodynamic effect like silver and the old brass doorknobs that naturally disinfected themselves over a few hours.  https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oligodynamic_effect","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3038.0,"score_ratio":2.5}
{"post_id":"wt6rr8","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Why is silver often used in topical antifungal and antimicrobial products? I imagine it's a very small amount of silver, but I've never heard of silver being used in this way. What about the metal makes it so good at being antimicrobial or antifungal?","c_root_id_A":"il3m66h","c_root_id_B":"il2ldzh","created_at_utc_A":1661022151,"created_at_utc_B":1661006524,"score_A":7,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"One of the best antiperspirants\/deodorants I've ever encountered is the Nivea For Men Silver Protect roll-on.  It has silver as an ingredient.  It has very little fragrance as it doesn't need perfumes to mask odors since the silver helps get rid of the odor-causing bacteria.","human_ref_B":"Low concentrations of metals like copper and silver have antimicrobial properties (they are used as additives in some wound care dressings). Fungi also produce metal nanoparticles, possibly as a defensive mechanism. I don't know the mechanism(a) behind the effect, but I assume it's some local electronic field effect of the nanoparticles, or organometallic species that are formed.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":15627.0,"score_ratio":1.75}
{"post_id":"xe18mw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.75,"history":"Do we have a handle on the number of diseases that go undiagnosed and contagious? A Chinese doctor discover COVID 19 was circulating. However, we all get sick and go to the doctor to discover we don\u2019t have COVID or Strep and there is no attempt to figure out what is making people sick. (The two things doctors test generally).   Meanwhile lots of people are getting sick and if it progresses to something worse it is defined by what it caused, such as pneumonia or bronchitis.   I find it odd at any university in the US a dozen students in each class are out sick then the next week or two another dozen. Each absence is costly, yet even at Universities when the students go to the doctors on campus they make no attempt to study \u201cwhat is this illness\u201d and whether warning classes about what is spreading or attempt to isolate it or stop it. When it knocks these young adults out for a week it could be a terrible \u201cbug\u201d yet the doctor\u2019s reaction is \u201cit is just some sort of bug.\u201d","c_root_id_A":"ioeipx2","c_root_id_B":"ioehhlr","created_at_utc_A":1663166951,"created_at_utc_B":1663166466,"score_A":15,"score_B":9,"human_ref_A":"No, we don't. I am a continuing medical education grant writer and see the data on how many diseases are difficult to diagnose, are often first misdiagnosed, or go for years not being diagnosed as they progress. Sometimes  misdiagnosis or lack of diagnosis is on the part of the physician who is trained to look for the most common disease matching the symptoms and then decide whether a less common disease is the cause. Very many diseases have similar symptoms and so it can be challenging to drill down to identify rarer diseases.  There are batteries of tests to better pinpoint a disease --but the physician has to warrant whether such tests are necessary. This becomes particularly problematic in the age of managed healthcare in the US and cost controls--and penalties for doctors who drive up diagnostic test costs.  Also, a great many illness are stress-related, including pain syndromes. This does not mean that illness is \"all in one's head.\" It does mean that factors other than physical symptoms control need to be addressed, including examination of lifestyle, lifestyle changes, and certain rehabilitative and mental health efforts.  Lack of diagnosis is also caused by patients themselves who fail to seek out appropriate healthcare or routine screening. As for minipandemics that occur in the school or work settings--people need to be encouraged by their schools *and employers* to stay home if they are sick. There are tactics and medications that can offset or shorten certain viral and bacterial infections--but they are, by definition, infectious. People in the US are generally pressured to \"soldier on\" when ill. In the end, this results in contagion, lost productivity, and increased healthcare costs. Also, note that some people 1. do not get paid sick days and 2. do not get adequate health benefits so taking days off means lost income. Most of these people are already economically disadvantaged and victims of healthcare and socioeconomic disparities. Consider that, during the Covid pandemic, people of color in service jobs were among the most vulnerable--because they could not \"work from home\"--they had to be in the workplace interfacing with other workers and the public.   There is now a big push in continuing education and healthcare trends to address socioeconomic healthcare disparities.  Edit: I am glad for the positive response. I am going put a plug here for a new YouTube channel I just started called Your Health and Well Being. Only a few videos are up but this channel is different from most health info social media sites. No glitz, no teasers. It is mostly stuff I write for doctors rewritten and narrated for a lay person\/patient education along with some videos related to my interest in hypnosis.","human_ref_B":"Yes, we do have some ideas based on the prevalence of opportunistic infections in people who are immunocompromised due to HIV infection, cancer chemotherapy, or genetic disorders. (Note that \"opportunistic\" means that the infection does not typically elicit symptoms in healthy people. \"Immunocompromised\" means that the normal functioning of the immune system is not working to prevent infection.) The list of potential infections is enormous and many include many species of bacteria, virus, fungus, and parasites, too many to list here, but some of which can be found in the attached link:  https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7040525\/","labels":1,"seconds_difference":485.0,"score_ratio":1.6666666667}
{"post_id":"v2xq4m","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"How exactly do prion diseases work and how can they be prevented? Also, how close are we to a cure?","c_root_id_A":"iaypvvz","c_root_id_B":"iayc5qj","created_at_utc_A":1654207265,"created_at_utc_B":1654201132,"score_A":7,"score_B":6,"human_ref_A":"There are a lot of mostly truths swimming around about prions. Let me try to clarify some things.  Prions (aka PrP^sc) are a specific form of a protein called PrP (aka PrP^wt) which is most concentrated in the brain. PrP^sc can turn PrP^wt into more PrP^sc. Prions don\u2019t misfold other proteins, just PrP. And they need other cofactors to help them work like lipids and anions.  Prions are very flat and resistant to destruction. Therefore in an environment where there is a lot of PrP, like the nervous system, long chains and globs can form until brain tissue eventually dies.  Though some other diseases are beginning to be discussed n \u201cprion-like\u201d terms like alpha synuclein in Parkinson\u2019s and tau tangles or alphabeta plaques in Alzheimer\u2019s, these are not the same process. They are not PrP.  PrP is notably transmisible from the environment. So if you consume enough prion PrP from another organism and their PrP is similar enough to a human\u2019s (or if you consumed a human with prion disease), you are at risk to get prion disease. The chain reaction that eventually leads to the spongification of the brain has a long incubation period (usually several years). There are also very rare mutations in PrP that predispose it to misfold which leads to hereditary forms of prion disease.  As for a cure. The biggest issues are the long incubation period, the fact that death is imminent once most symptoms appear (too much damage by that point), and that the target is so sticky. Yes sticky. It\u2019s hard to even figure out what one single prion actually looks like because it clumps and sticks so well. This makes drig discovery especially difficult.  Source: MD with a PhD in molecular biology.","human_ref_B":"The original British \u2018Mad Cow Disease\u2019 outbreak was associated with a change in the historical  rendering process to a more environmentally friendly process to produce cattle feed supplements like bone meal & the like. The older process seems to have denatured the abnormal prion protein, whereas the newer method did not. Changing feedlot practices to prohibit feeding of ruminant animal byproducts to cattle was slow to be adopted in the USA, but was more quickly done elsewhere. There have been case reports in the biomedical literature of apparent brain infections in neurosurgery patients by certain surgical hardware that had been routinely sterilized by conventional autoclaving between patients. That process does not effectively neutralize prion infectivity.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":6133.0,"score_ratio":1.1666666667}
{"post_id":"drah3i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"How did the British keep the fact that they broke the Enigma code secret? What statistical formula's did the British and Allied forces use, if any, to decide to take action based on the German deciphered information?  This might get into game theory or statistics, but how could they be sure that the Germans would not 'get wise' and switch their code? How often could they change their behavior before it became suspicious?  &#x200B;  P.S. I'm a new redditor and got on the site for askscience, so thanks and keep up the good work!","c_root_id_A":"f6gzspu","c_root_id_B":"f6h1fiw","created_at_utc_A":1572833787,"created_at_utc_B":1572834814,"score_A":1671,"score_B":3398,"human_ref_A":"If memory serves, there was no statistical formula. They decided as a loose rule, that any action they took, based on information gained from the team at Bletchley Park (where they broke the enigma code), had to be based on information they would've been able to learn from another source. It was really up to the higher ups, such as Churchill, to decide when and where to use the information they got. As long as their actions wouldn't give away the fact that they'd broken the code they would proceed.","human_ref_B":"This is more a history of science question, but there were a few big factors:  1. The British were extremely successful at keeping the operation a secret, even within their own government. Only the highest commanders were cleared to know the source of the intelligence they received, and they kept it a closely guarded secret, even from their allies and their own officers. They were also extremely successful at both intelligence and counter-intelligence operations, and there was effectively no Axis spy network in Britian. Prominent members of the codebreaking operation were unable and unwilling to divulge their association with the codebreaking group for decades after the war ended, sometimes at great personal expense.  2. Wherever possible, conventional intelligence gathering was used to provide a plausible alternative explanation. For example, Enigma might reveal the presence of an Axis naval convoy, and then Allied reconnaissance planes were sent to independently find and report the convoy on their own. Once these searchers were observed by Axis forces, they provided a cover for the true source of the information. In addition, to go along with the point above, care was taken to prevent Allied forces from guessing that something was up. Multiple search teams would be sent out so it wouldn't appear as though they were getting luckier than they should have been. In another example the British concocted a fictitious spy and fictitious reports from that spy, who was then exposed to the Axis forces via radio traffic so as to provide a plausible explanation for enigma intelligence.   3. The Axis cryptanalyists knew that attacks against Enigma were possible in theory, but thought these attacks were too laborious to achieve in practice. They additionally conducted their own reviews of the Enigma system and found it to be secure. They even decrypted Allied communications and did not find any reason to suspect their device had been broken, because operational security was very tight. In light of that, they looked for alternative explanations of Allied successes and found scapegoats in technology like radar (of course, radar advancements themselves were also significant during the war, so they weren't off the mark so much as measuring effect strength poorly).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1027.0,"score_ratio":2.0335128665}
{"post_id":"drah3i","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.93,"history":"How did the British keep the fact that they broke the Enigma code secret? What statistical formula's did the British and Allied forces use, if any, to decide to take action based on the German deciphered information?  This might get into game theory or statistics, but how could they be sure that the Germans would not 'get wise' and switch their code? How often could they change their behavior before it became suspicious?  &#x200B;  P.S. I'm a new redditor and got on the site for askscience, so thanks and keep up the good work!","c_root_id_A":"f6h6jmp","c_root_id_B":"f6hnkpa","created_at_utc_A":1572838220,"created_at_utc_B":1572857520,"score_A":85,"score_B":243,"human_ref_A":"Not for nothing but Neal Stepenson's fictional novel, Cryptonomicon, covers a lot of this and can be helpful in understanding how complicated it could have been (fiction) to cover up the Allies breaking of Enigma.","human_ref_B":"The secrecy wasn't just kept by the British, but also by the Polish.   Alan Turing was always up front with this, that Polish mathematicians cracked the code shortly before the war broke out, and relayed that information to British Intelligence.    https:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/science\/2016\/03\/15\/polish-codebreakers-cracked-enigma-before-alan-turing\/   I've had the pleasure and honor to be allowed to not only see, but to touch and play with a genuine Enigma machine from WW2. Amazing machine, and gave me a new appreciation for the amazing work the Polish mathematicians and Alan Turing and his staff did to crack this.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19300.0,"score_ratio":2.8588235294}
{"post_id":"fec3g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What would be the day to day implications of a slow speed of light? Lets say the speed of light was actually something mundane like 700 m\/s. This is about twice the speed of sound through air. How would this effect our day to day life? I'm thinking the main difference is relativistic effects would be observable in day to day life, but if there are other interesting implications I would love to hear your thoughts on those too.  A couple of thoughts I had:   Modern planes travel at about 300 m\/s (42% the speed of light). Would frequent fliers live significantly longer than non-frequent fliers? Would planes have to travel significantly slower because of the energy requirement needed to accelerate a plane up to that 300 m\/s?  Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?   In the real world, sound waves travel through iron at  5,120 m\/s. This of course wouldn't be possible in our imaginary world. What would break down? Would the bonds between atoms be much weaker? Would life even be possible? What would restrict sound waves in iron from traveling faster than the speed of light?  What would happen to the atoms in a material as it is heated up. I would imagine it would take exponentially more and more energy to heat up that material. Reaching some maximum temperature would be relatively easy. Would sustained fusion in stars be impossible?","c_root_id_A":"c1faqem","c_root_id_B":"c1fapcs","created_at_utc_A":1296721621,"created_at_utc_B":1296720829,"score_A":30,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Well you have to specifiy whether you want the total amount of energy in the universe conserved, or the total amount of mass, because one of them has to change according to E=mc^2 . If energy stays the same, we all of a sudden have a shit ton more mass, or if mass stays the same we have a shit ton less energy.  The speed of light is also inherent in many equations that I am not remembering right now. But I am sure it would drastically change the very structure of the universe in to something altogether unrecognizable to us today.","human_ref_B":"> Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?  But you probably wouldn't notice because the neurons in your brain would be firing at a substantially slower rate, too.  The speed of sound would also be greatly reduced, given that it ultimately depends on interactions that happen at the speed of light.  So there's no possibility of a universe where the speed of sound could approach the speed of light.  As an aside, the pedantic answer is that the speed of light will *always* be ~3x10^8 m\/s given that the definition of the metre depends on the speed of light.  If light travelled \"slower\" then the metre would be \"shorter\" (although I'm not quite sure how you could make sense of the concepts of \"slower\" or \"shorter\" without reference to c).  This has me wondering: does the speed of light define the rate at which time \"flows\"?  Would there be any way for the inhabitant of a Universe with a different value of c to tell the difference?  I'm guessing that the answer is \"No\", given that other universal constants are also involved in the way the universe unfolds but I'm not really qualified to say.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":792.0,"score_ratio":1.2}
{"post_id":"fec3g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What would be the day to day implications of a slow speed of light? Lets say the speed of light was actually something mundane like 700 m\/s. This is about twice the speed of sound through air. How would this effect our day to day life? I'm thinking the main difference is relativistic effects would be observable in day to day life, but if there are other interesting implications I would love to hear your thoughts on those too.  A couple of thoughts I had:   Modern planes travel at about 300 m\/s (42% the speed of light). Would frequent fliers live significantly longer than non-frequent fliers? Would planes have to travel significantly slower because of the energy requirement needed to accelerate a plane up to that 300 m\/s?  Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?   In the real world, sound waves travel through iron at  5,120 m\/s. This of course wouldn't be possible in our imaginary world. What would break down? Would the bonds between atoms be much weaker? Would life even be possible? What would restrict sound waves in iron from traveling faster than the speed of light?  What would happen to the atoms in a material as it is heated up. I would imagine it would take exponentially more and more energy to heat up that material. Reaching some maximum temperature would be relatively easy. Would sustained fusion in stars be impossible?","c_root_id_A":"c1fao9f","c_root_id_B":"c1faqem","created_at_utc_A":1296720078,"created_at_utc_B":1296721621,"score_A":7,"score_B":30,"human_ref_A":"Remote controls would be very frustrating to use.","human_ref_B":"Well you have to specifiy whether you want the total amount of energy in the universe conserved, or the total amount of mass, because one of them has to change according to E=mc^2 . If energy stays the same, we all of a sudden have a shit ton more mass, or if mass stays the same we have a shit ton less energy.  The speed of light is also inherent in many equations that I am not remembering right now. But I am sure it would drastically change the very structure of the universe in to something altogether unrecognizable to us today.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":1543.0,"score_ratio":4.2857142857}
{"post_id":"fec3g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What would be the day to day implications of a slow speed of light? Lets say the speed of light was actually something mundane like 700 m\/s. This is about twice the speed of sound through air. How would this effect our day to day life? I'm thinking the main difference is relativistic effects would be observable in day to day life, but if there are other interesting implications I would love to hear your thoughts on those too.  A couple of thoughts I had:   Modern planes travel at about 300 m\/s (42% the speed of light). Would frequent fliers live significantly longer than non-frequent fliers? Would planes have to travel significantly slower because of the energy requirement needed to accelerate a plane up to that 300 m\/s?  Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?   In the real world, sound waves travel through iron at  5,120 m\/s. This of course wouldn't be possible in our imaginary world. What would break down? Would the bonds between atoms be much weaker? Would life even be possible? What would restrict sound waves in iron from traveling faster than the speed of light?  What would happen to the atoms in a material as it is heated up. I would imagine it would take exponentially more and more energy to heat up that material. Reaching some maximum temperature would be relatively easy. Would sustained fusion in stars be impossible?","c_root_id_A":"c1faqem","c_root_id_B":"c1fap8n","created_at_utc_A":1296721621,"created_at_utc_B":1296720760,"score_A":30,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"Well you have to specifiy whether you want the total amount of energy in the universe conserved, or the total amount of mass, because one of them has to change according to E=mc^2 . If energy stays the same, we all of a sudden have a shit ton more mass, or if mass stays the same we have a shit ton less energy.  The speed of light is also inherent in many equations that I am not remembering right now. But I am sure it would drastically change the very structure of the universe in to something altogether unrecognizable to us today.","human_ref_B":"There's a video somewhere on youtube of what different speeds of light would look like for different observers.  Can't find it but I'll keep looking.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":861.0,"score_ratio":15.0}
{"post_id":"fec3g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What would be the day to day implications of a slow speed of light? Lets say the speed of light was actually something mundane like 700 m\/s. This is about twice the speed of sound through air. How would this effect our day to day life? I'm thinking the main difference is relativistic effects would be observable in day to day life, but if there are other interesting implications I would love to hear your thoughts on those too.  A couple of thoughts I had:   Modern planes travel at about 300 m\/s (42% the speed of light). Would frequent fliers live significantly longer than non-frequent fliers? Would planes have to travel significantly slower because of the energy requirement needed to accelerate a plane up to that 300 m\/s?  Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?   In the real world, sound waves travel through iron at  5,120 m\/s. This of course wouldn't be possible in our imaginary world. What would break down? Would the bonds between atoms be much weaker? Would life even be possible? What would restrict sound waves in iron from traveling faster than the speed of light?  What would happen to the atoms in a material as it is heated up. I would imagine it would take exponentially more and more energy to heat up that material. Reaching some maximum temperature would be relatively easy. Would sustained fusion in stars be impossible?","c_root_id_A":"c1fapcs","c_root_id_B":"c1fao9f","created_at_utc_A":1296720829,"created_at_utc_B":1296720078,"score_A":25,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"> Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?  But you probably wouldn't notice because the neurons in your brain would be firing at a substantially slower rate, too.  The speed of sound would also be greatly reduced, given that it ultimately depends on interactions that happen at the speed of light.  So there's no possibility of a universe where the speed of sound could approach the speed of light.  As an aside, the pedantic answer is that the speed of light will *always* be ~3x10^8 m\/s given that the definition of the metre depends on the speed of light.  If light travelled \"slower\" then the metre would be \"shorter\" (although I'm not quite sure how you could make sense of the concepts of \"slower\" or \"shorter\" without reference to c).  This has me wondering: does the speed of light define the rate at which time \"flows\"?  Would there be any way for the inhabitant of a Universe with a different value of c to tell the difference?  I'm guessing that the answer is \"No\", given that other universal constants are also involved in the way the universe unfolds but I'm not really qualified to say.","human_ref_B":"Remote controls would be very frustrating to use.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":751.0,"score_ratio":3.5714285714}
{"post_id":"fec3g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What would be the day to day implications of a slow speed of light? Lets say the speed of light was actually something mundane like 700 m\/s. This is about twice the speed of sound through air. How would this effect our day to day life? I'm thinking the main difference is relativistic effects would be observable in day to day life, but if there are other interesting implications I would love to hear your thoughts on those too.  A couple of thoughts I had:   Modern planes travel at about 300 m\/s (42% the speed of light). Would frequent fliers live significantly longer than non-frequent fliers? Would planes have to travel significantly slower because of the energy requirement needed to accelerate a plane up to that 300 m\/s?  Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?   In the real world, sound waves travel through iron at  5,120 m\/s. This of course wouldn't be possible in our imaginary world. What would break down? Would the bonds between atoms be much weaker? Would life even be possible? What would restrict sound waves in iron from traveling faster than the speed of light?  What would happen to the atoms in a material as it is heated up. I would imagine it would take exponentially more and more energy to heat up that material. Reaching some maximum temperature would be relatively easy. Would sustained fusion in stars be impossible?","c_root_id_A":"c1fap8n","c_root_id_B":"c1fapcs","created_at_utc_A":1296720760,"created_at_utc_B":1296720829,"score_A":2,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"There's a video somewhere on youtube of what different speeds of light would look like for different observers.  Can't find it but I'll keep looking.","human_ref_B":"> Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?  But you probably wouldn't notice because the neurons in your brain would be firing at a substantially slower rate, too.  The speed of sound would also be greatly reduced, given that it ultimately depends on interactions that happen at the speed of light.  So there's no possibility of a universe where the speed of sound could approach the speed of light.  As an aside, the pedantic answer is that the speed of light will *always* be ~3x10^8 m\/s given that the definition of the metre depends on the speed of light.  If light travelled \"slower\" then the metre would be \"shorter\" (although I'm not quite sure how you could make sense of the concepts of \"slower\" or \"shorter\" without reference to c).  This has me wondering: does the speed of light define the rate at which time \"flows\"?  Would there be any way for the inhabitant of a Universe with a different value of c to tell the difference?  I'm guessing that the answer is \"No\", given that other universal constants are also involved in the way the universe unfolds but I'm not really qualified to say.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":69.0,"score_ratio":12.5}
{"post_id":"fec3g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What would be the day to day implications of a slow speed of light? Lets say the speed of light was actually something mundane like 700 m\/s. This is about twice the speed of sound through air. How would this effect our day to day life? I'm thinking the main difference is relativistic effects would be observable in day to day life, but if there are other interesting implications I would love to hear your thoughts on those too.  A couple of thoughts I had:   Modern planes travel at about 300 m\/s (42% the speed of light). Would frequent fliers live significantly longer than non-frequent fliers? Would planes have to travel significantly slower because of the energy requirement needed to accelerate a plane up to that 300 m\/s?  Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?   In the real world, sound waves travel through iron at  5,120 m\/s. This of course wouldn't be possible in our imaginary world. What would break down? Would the bonds between atoms be much weaker? Would life even be possible? What would restrict sound waves in iron from traveling faster than the speed of light?  What would happen to the atoms in a material as it is heated up. I would imagine it would take exponentially more and more energy to heat up that material. Reaching some maximum temperature would be relatively easy. Would sustained fusion in stars be impossible?","c_root_id_A":"c1fb2hc","c_root_id_B":"c1fao9f","created_at_utc_A":1296734440,"created_at_utc_B":1296720078,"score_A":24,"score_B":7,"human_ref_A":"We'd have a bit of a black hole problem.  If you changed the speed of light to 700 meters per second *without* changing the gravitational constant \u2014\u00a0and it's not at all obvious that that's possible \u2014 then Earth would become a black hole. Every large object in the solar system would collapse into a black hole \u2014\u00a0and I'm using the word \"large\" very loosely here. The sun, Jupiter, Pluto, even the *moon* \u2026\u00a0they all exceed the critical density required for a black hole to form if you limit the speed of light to 700 meters per second.  That's the bad news. The *good* news is that a few celestial bodies would survive. Ariel, the diminutive moon of Uranus? No problem. At 10^21 kilograms, its Schwarzschild radius would be about 230 miles, much less than the moon's radius of about 360 miles. So Ariel would be fine.  In principle, anyway. It wouldn't really matter much, considering our sun would be a black hole more than 600 billion miles across. That's about fifty times bigger than Pluto's orbit.  But the Oort Cloud would survive! It lies at an average distance of nearly a light-year from the sun, and wouldn't be consumed by the black hole that eats our solar system.  But it *would* be consumed by *another* black hole. The black hole formed by our *entire galaxy.*  It would be a hundred and seventy billion light-years across.  If that statement does not fill you with a deep and abiding terror, you probably haven't worked out exactly what it means yet.  Let me throw in a bit of perspective for you. The entire observable universe is about ninety billion light-years across.  If you waved your magic wand and instantly changed the speed of light to 700 meters per second *all of creation would be undone.* Nothing would exist. Not anything, not anywhere, not ever. All the stars in the sky? Gone. All the galaxies that litter creation like grains of sand on a beach? Gone.  All the hedgehogs? Gone. Forever.  Please do not mess with the speed of light.","human_ref_B":"Remote controls would be very frustrating to use.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14362.0,"score_ratio":3.4285714286}
{"post_id":"fec3g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"What would be the day to day implications of a slow speed of light? Lets say the speed of light was actually something mundane like 700 m\/s. This is about twice the speed of sound through air. How would this effect our day to day life? I'm thinking the main difference is relativistic effects would be observable in day to day life, but if there are other interesting implications I would love to hear your thoughts on those too.  A couple of thoughts I had:   Modern planes travel at about 300 m\/s (42% the speed of light). Would frequent fliers live significantly longer than non-frequent fliers? Would planes have to travel significantly slower because of the energy requirement needed to accelerate a plane up to that 300 m\/s?  Our internet speed would be severely reduced. It would take at least 8 hours to send a signal to the other side of the world... holy crap, is that right?   In the real world, sound waves travel through iron at  5,120 m\/s. This of course wouldn't be possible in our imaginary world. What would break down? Would the bonds between atoms be much weaker? Would life even be possible? What would restrict sound waves in iron from traveling faster than the speed of light?  What would happen to the atoms in a material as it is heated up. I would imagine it would take exponentially more and more energy to heat up that material. Reaching some maximum temperature would be relatively easy. Would sustained fusion in stars be impossible?","c_root_id_A":"c1fap8n","c_root_id_B":"c1fb2hc","created_at_utc_A":1296720760,"created_at_utc_B":1296734440,"score_A":2,"score_B":24,"human_ref_A":"There's a video somewhere on youtube of what different speeds of light would look like for different observers.  Can't find it but I'll keep looking.","human_ref_B":"We'd have a bit of a black hole problem.  If you changed the speed of light to 700 meters per second *without* changing the gravitational constant \u2014\u00a0and it's not at all obvious that that's possible \u2014 then Earth would become a black hole. Every large object in the solar system would collapse into a black hole \u2014\u00a0and I'm using the word \"large\" very loosely here. The sun, Jupiter, Pluto, even the *moon* \u2026\u00a0they all exceed the critical density required for a black hole to form if you limit the speed of light to 700 meters per second.  That's the bad news. The *good* news is that a few celestial bodies would survive. Ariel, the diminutive moon of Uranus? No problem. At 10^21 kilograms, its Schwarzschild radius would be about 230 miles, much less than the moon's radius of about 360 miles. So Ariel would be fine.  In principle, anyway. It wouldn't really matter much, considering our sun would be a black hole more than 600 billion miles across. That's about fifty times bigger than Pluto's orbit.  But the Oort Cloud would survive! It lies at an average distance of nearly a light-year from the sun, and wouldn't be consumed by the black hole that eats our solar system.  But it *would* be consumed by *another* black hole. The black hole formed by our *entire galaxy.*  It would be a hundred and seventy billion light-years across.  If that statement does not fill you with a deep and abiding terror, you probably haven't worked out exactly what it means yet.  Let me throw in a bit of perspective for you. The entire observable universe is about ninety billion light-years across.  If you waved your magic wand and instantly changed the speed of light to 700 meters per second *all of creation would be undone.* Nothing would exist. Not anything, not anywhere, not ever. All the stars in the sky? Gone. All the galaxies that litter creation like grains of sand on a beach? Gone.  All the hedgehogs? Gone. Forever.  Please do not mess with the speed of light.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":13680.0,"score_ratio":12.0}
{"post_id":"2fuw8c","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.8,"history":"How do neutron stars produce a magnetic field if neutrons have no charge? I learned that magnetic fields are created by moving charges, so why would neutron stars be able to produce a magnetic field? Do the magnetic properties of the neutrons change once they are under all that gravitational pressure?","c_root_id_A":"ckd4zz4","c_root_id_B":"ckdf0so","created_at_utc_A":1410234011,"created_at_utc_B":1410271760,"score_A":7,"score_B":10,"human_ref_A":"Just so you know, neutrons have a magnetic moment because they have spin. However, I doubt this is at all related to why neutron stars produce a magnetic field.","human_ref_B":"We don't know.   Both the origin and decay of magnetic fields in neutron stars is not understood and it's an active field of research. I've recently started working on this problem in my own research. As other posters stated, neutron stars aren't just pure neutrons, there's other stuff there too. The crust, for example, is a solid lattice of heavy ions, and the core is probably some sort of exotic quark-gluon plasma. The mantle is probably a very large fraction of neutrons, but the crust has a weird mess of neutrons, with some protons and electrons that are in equilibrium with the neutrons- neutrons beta decay into a proton, electron, and antineutrino, and protons and electrons merge to make neutrons at the same rate.  Anyway, even with twenty times as many neutrons as protons, the density of neutron stars are so high that the density of charged bodies is absurd. We think that the inner crust of the star may be able to host electric currents that are strong enough to create their massive magnetic fields, and we're calculating the electrical conductivity of the inner crust to see how resistive the material might be to get an idea for how big of a field this mechanism could support, and how long it would take to decay away by resistive losses to the crust.   Fun fact: newly formed neutron stars can have very very strong fields, which are called magnetars. These fields can be strong enough that the vacuum around the star becomes birefringent.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":37749.0,"score_ratio":1.4285714286}
{"post_id":"qwkx4g","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.94,"history":"Why do viruses, such as smallpox, chickenpox, and monkeypox, cause random lesions and blisters? Viruses like smallpox lead to blisters, rashes, and or lesions on the surface of the skin. How does the virus cause this an why do the 'pox' tend to appear randomly on the body. What decides the location of these marks and their density or cluster formation?","c_root_id_A":"hl4e4lq","c_root_id_B":"hl3ylsg","created_at_utc_A":1637244575,"created_at_utc_B":1637235803,"score_A":959,"score_B":472,"human_ref_A":"For chicken pox, you inhale the varicella zoster virus, and it replicates in your lungs. As your body fights back, T cells come into the tissue and become infected by the virus. These T cells then get reprogrammed by the virus to traffick to hair follicles, where they cause secondary infection, and spread in the skin layers there, causing the \"pox\". So each pox was an infected T cell that found that specific spot. Incidentally the virus then infects the nerves that innervate this region, trafficks back to the ganglia, and goes latent for years to decades. It can then come back to that same patch of skin(dermatome) when it reactivates as shingles.","human_ref_B":"To put it short and simple: lesions are caused by your body fighting back or a virus spreading.   There are mechanisms of cells detecting their own malfunction or being detected by the immune system. Viral infection is such a malfunction. Usually, a process called apoptosis kicks in, where infected cells die off without inflammation of surrounding tissue. However, there are other more violent and inflammatory forms of cell death like necroptosis and necrosis. These will usually cause tissue to become inflamed, possibly rupture and be infiltrated by inflammatory immune cells to help clear the lesion.   However, such necrotic cell deaths can also be caused by an infecting virus. Basically the virus will infect a cell, use its internal machinery to replicate, and when enough replication cycles have been completed, it will rupture its host to set free the newly produced viral particles. Forcing skin cells to rupture and spread the virus can be a mechanism to infect other organisms.   The tissues a virus attacks, in this case skin, are predetermined by surface markers target cells have. A virus will usually need specific markers to recognize a target cell and enter it. Different tissues will have different marker (receptor) patterns and like that be vulnerable to different viral strains.  Edit: cluster formation is usually caused by chance. One cell is infected, replicates the virus, ruptures, and infects surrounding cells. Rinse and repeat. This way an infection spreads to surrounding tissue. Once the human scratches a lesion and touches another place on their skin, they spread their infection. Mechanical transfer can also happen by any other way you could possibly imagine.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8772.0,"score_ratio":2.031779661}
{"post_id":"1elr8u","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.78,"history":"Why are there different types of meat? Red meat, white meat, etc.?","c_root_id_A":"ca1gibb","c_root_id_B":"ca1jsj1","created_at_utc_A":1368924206,"created_at_utc_B":1368936283,"score_A":8,"score_B":40,"human_ref_A":"This may not be the whole answer, but the amount of myoglobin in the meat is probably one of the main contributing factors.","human_ref_B":"So the color of the meat tells you what kind of movements the animal makes. Myoglobin is a protein with higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin and is found in the muscle which allows the oxygen from the blood to be passed to the muscle.   Cellular metabolism is split into 2 different flavors, non aerobic (glycolysis\/non oxidative phosphorylation) and aerobic (krebs and electron transport\/oxidative phosphorylation). The more myoglobin you have, the more you will use the aerobic pathway and this is can be sustained over a longer amount of time meaning long distance movements but may be a little slower like how buffaloes can walk for a really long time. As you may know, myoglobin is just 1\/4 of a hemoglobin so it's red when oxygenated and the more you have of it the more red the meat is.   Let's look at another example. Turkeys are white meat, they are also land birds. The white meat signifies they don't have a whole lot of myoglobin in their muscle so they can't sustain flights for very long. Not all birds have white meat, take ducks and geese for example. They have darker meat in their breast tissues which is packed full of more myoglobin which allows for aerobic respiration to be used more efficiently which allows it to sustain flight much longer than a turkey.  And if you are a bit rusty on cellular metabolism, non-aerobic respiration is much faster but is burned out more easily and through glycolysis it will only give you 2 net atp. Krebs\/ETC will give you like...34 net atp which is a whole hell of a lot more energy but is just huge pain in the ass to go through (15+ steps) compared to glycolysis (10 steps) which can also be refueled when oxygen runs low and switches over to lactic acid cycle.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":12077.0,"score_ratio":5.0}
{"post_id":"37eru3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.75,"history":"I have myopia. When I look in a mirror, objects behind me are blurry. Logically, shouldn't I be able to see these things clearly?","c_root_id_A":"crmba1o","c_root_id_B":"crmacw3","created_at_utc_A":1432716956,"created_at_utc_B":1432713038,"score_A":25,"score_B":21,"human_ref_A":"Some eye doctors literally don't have enough space in their tiny offices to accommodate the distance needed for the letter charts. When I had PRK done, the doctors office was so small, he had me look through two mirrors focused at each other on opposite sides of the room to simulate the distance needed to get the same effect.","human_ref_B":"The mirror isn't like a photo. It's not a 2D flat plane image onto which your eyes can focus like a poster. It's optically exactly like looking at reality through a window in the wall. Distances remain the same, since light rays that reach the mirror are simply redirected towards your eye, but their angles relative to other light rays are unchanged.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3918.0,"score_ratio":1.1904761905}
{"post_id":"37eru3","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.75,"history":"I have myopia. When I look in a mirror, objects behind me are blurry. Logically, shouldn't I be able to see these things clearly?","c_root_id_A":"crmajuf","c_root_id_B":"crmba1o","created_at_utc_A":1432713820,"created_at_utc_B":1432716956,"score_A":2,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"I think a good premise to this would be explaining myopia (as most of  sight defect) is actually a defect which changes of the position of the focus point of the rays coming into your eye.  The eye actually uses the same principle of the \"pinhole cinema\" where an image is recreated inside an obscure room  Edit  When the ~~crystalline (the lens our eyes use to focus the rays coming from outside)~~ the eye fails to properly focus the rays on the retina, we have problems with sight.  In myopia, the focus point is in front of the retina and therefore the rays proceed and spread rendering a blurry image on the underlying retina.  Here you can see an example with corrective lenses  Note: the reversed tree in the previous image symbolize the point where it would appear at focus.  .  That's why, as \/u\/walekj pointed out, if light rays hit a perfect mirror, they are bounced off at the same angle from the perpendicular plane and therefore they appear as they were coming exactly from inside the mirror from a distance equal to your distance from the mirror plus the distance between the mirror and the object.","human_ref_B":"Some eye doctors literally don't have enough space in their tiny offices to accommodate the distance needed for the letter charts. When I had PRK done, the doctors office was so small, he had me look through two mirrors focused at each other on opposite sides of the room to simulate the distance needed to get the same effect.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":3136.0,"score_ratio":12.5}
{"post_id":"md62n","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"How close are we to having a device allowing us to breathe the oxygen dissolved in water? Or at least tell me that someone's working on it, at least. SCUBA gear is cumbersome and strongly limits one's time underwater. I want to be able to be down there more or less indefinitely.","c_root_id_A":"c2zyoiu","c_root_id_B":"c2zyqdz","created_at_utc_A":1321373976,"created_at_utc_B":1321374319,"score_A":14,"score_B":25,"human_ref_A":"Strongly limits? Using a rebreather will allow you to stay under for over ten hours, depending on the type. Even if a functional apparatus is ever developed that lets you breathe dissolved oxygen or the oxygen released from splitting water molecules, it'll take bloody ages before it's smaller than a rebreather*.  * Note: rebreathers are *way* more dangerous to dive with than regular scuba outfits. Never say that I encouraged you to use one.","human_ref_B":"It takes energy to extract oxygen from water.  Such devices exist and are used on submarines.  However, the equipment is far too big to go diving with.  Instead of a SCUBA tank strapped to your back you'd have a machine and a big battery strapped to your back which probably is not an improvement.  Actually this company is working on such a system and claim various breakthroughs to a workable model.  Have to wait and see I guess.  EDIT:  Also, for that system to work well for a diver the oxygen extracted will need to be compressed which means a compressor and another thing that uses power.  If you do not do this you won't be able to dive very deep at all (a few feet).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":343.0,"score_ratio":1.7857142857}
{"post_id":"md62n","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"How close are we to having a device allowing us to breathe the oxygen dissolved in water? Or at least tell me that someone's working on it, at least. SCUBA gear is cumbersome and strongly limits one's time underwater. I want to be able to be down there more or less indefinitely.","c_root_id_A":"c3025px","c_root_id_B":"c300lef","created_at_utc_A":1321395599,"created_at_utc_B":1321385937,"score_A":4,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Interestingly down the lines of your question, there is a company in Pittsburgh developing a lung-less breathing apparatus. Its sort of like Dialysis in that blood goes out of the body, gets oxygenated rather than filtered, and comes then back in to the body.  More here.    So it does utilize the ability to breath without lungs, although not with the oxygen from water.    The original design of the system (I believe from interviewing there once) had the goal of doing this all within a small catheter, but I think the design got taken out of the body in order to simplify design and attach the design to a particular market (lung transplants).","human_ref_B":"Why just the oxygen that is dissolved in water?  Why not chemically extract the oxygen from water and use that?","labels":1,"seconds_difference":9662.0,"score_ratio":1.3333333333}
{"post_id":"md62n","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.91,"history":"How close are we to having a device allowing us to breathe the oxygen dissolved in water? Or at least tell me that someone's working on it, at least. SCUBA gear is cumbersome and strongly limits one's time underwater. I want to be able to be down there more or less indefinitely.","c_root_id_A":"c300po5","c_root_id_B":"c3025px","created_at_utc_A":1321386685,"created_at_utc_B":1321395599,"score_A":2,"score_B":4,"human_ref_A":"Well then, how do gills in fish work?","human_ref_B":"Interestingly down the lines of your question, there is a company in Pittsburgh developing a lung-less breathing apparatus. Its sort of like Dialysis in that blood goes out of the body, gets oxygenated rather than filtered, and comes then back in to the body.  More here.    So it does utilize the ability to breath without lungs, although not with the oxygen from water.    The original design of the system (I believe from interviewing there once) had the goal of doing this all within a small catheter, but I think the design got taken out of the body in order to simplify design and attach the design to a particular market (lung transplants).","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8914.0,"score_ratio":2.0}
{"post_id":"y8ciiw","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.82,"history":"Why don't wireless signals interfere with each other? If I understand things correctly, basically all wireless communicatiom happens via electromagnetic waves outside of the visual spectrum. But I was taught that waves (of the same type) interfere with each other when they meet. Seeing as light is also just an electromagnetic wave, it should also interefere with any wireless signal, thus altering the signal, making it impossible to decode correctly. This should, as I understand it, happen with literally every single wireless signal in a given area, creating a giant jumbled mess that would end up giving noone any of the things they were using their wireless signal for. Am I fundamentally misunderstanding something here? I am genuinely confused.","c_root_id_A":"it00plm","c_root_id_B":"it15brv","created_at_utc_A":1666220452,"created_at_utc_B":1666239830,"score_A":5,"score_B":23,"human_ref_A":"The important thing mathematically is that interference is a *linear* process. Two waves interfering gives one wave where the amplitude is simply the sum of the individual waves' amplitudes.  On top of that, many circuit elements and signal processing techniques are *also* linear, in the sense that they respect this relationship. What that means is that the element affects each component of the sum individually.  So to calculate what a given circuit will do to a complicated signal, you can just break that signal down into the individual waves, apply the circuit to each individual wave (which is often very easy), and then assemble the result back together.  Now if you have a circuit that basically decreases all waves to zero except those with a particular frequency, then no matter how complicated the input signal is, only the one given frequency will survive.","human_ref_B":"They do interfere that's why all wireless transmitters are certified and most of spectrum for high bandwidth wide area communications is licensed exclusively to a single user. To support competition all spectrum that is allocated for a similar use like cellular communication is split between multiple carriers. Each carrier has an exclusive range or ranges of frequencies across wide geographical areas. Adjacent cellular towers of the same carrier do use the same frequencies so spectral efficiency (bits\/Hz) suffers greatly if you are right in the middle between two towers. The alternative is to allocate non-overlapping frequencies to each tower but then you are losing total network spectrum efficiency as each tower would use only a fraction of all available frequencies. It turned out that it's better to lose efficiency between towers than use a fraction of all spectrum at each tower. Another non-intuitive thing you might be missing is that the capacity of a channel in which the noise has the same strength as the useful signal is not zero. See the formula. When S = N, capacity C is B x log2(1+1) or C = B. To maximize capacity wireless protocols use adaptive modulation and error correction coding. They change transmission bitrate depending on noise.  In case of shared spectrum like wi-fi, devices use listen-before-talk strategy. Each device finds the most quiet channel to minimize interference and while transmitting it pauses so that other devices on the same channel have equal opportunity to transmit.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":19378.0,"score_ratio":4.6}
{"post_id":"r3v19","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.66,"history":"If evolution occurs at a faster rate in species with a greater reproductive rate, why haven't things like bacteria, parasites, and insects super-evolved and wiped out everything else on Earth? Or, why haven't other species evolved to have greater reproductive rates?  Scientists often use flies to conduct their evolutionary experiments, *Drosphila sp.* in particular, because they can go through hundreds of generations in a short time.","c_root_id_A":"c42q2w9","c_root_id_B":"c42pen0","created_at_utc_A":1332191715,"created_at_utc_B":1332188125,"score_A":7,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"That's not how evolution works. There is no reason for bacteria to try to \"wipe out\" any other life because bacteria life is mostly independent. If other life lives, then bacteria has food, if other life dies, bacteria still have food. It is not beneficial for parasites to kill their hosts, which is why they don't. And for insects, it's quite the same as bacteria, whether or not there are other forms of life, they still have food.","human_ref_B":"Competition is more complicated than just reproduction rates. reproduction is energy intensive and risky; your mom was an easy target for wolves when she was pregnant with you (consider yourself lucky).   On the topic of parasitism and evolution rates a paper on this subject was published this week in nature, the authors suggest that whilst the parasite species can evolve rapidly \"victims need to overcome their exploiters at only one trait if they are to escape, whereas exploiters must overcome their victims at all traits if they are to succeed\". So you have a lot more options as a victim.      Doi:10.1038\/nature10853.    Rapidly reproducing species have low survival rates in the wild ( rapid reproduction is an evolutionary response to low survival), but under unnatural conditions they can take over, like sewer rats for example.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3590.0,"score_ratio":3.5}
{"post_id":"r3v19","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.66,"history":"If evolution occurs at a faster rate in species with a greater reproductive rate, why haven't things like bacteria, parasites, and insects super-evolved and wiped out everything else on Earth? Or, why haven't other species evolved to have greater reproductive rates?  Scientists often use flies to conduct their evolutionary experiments, *Drosphila sp.* in particular, because they can go through hundreds of generations in a short time.","c_root_id_A":"c42pen0","c_root_id_B":"c42qvr2","created_at_utc_A":1332188125,"created_at_utc_B":1332196117,"score_A":2,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Competition is more complicated than just reproduction rates. reproduction is energy intensive and risky; your mom was an easy target for wolves when she was pregnant with you (consider yourself lucky).   On the topic of parasitism and evolution rates a paper on this subject was published this week in nature, the authors suggest that whilst the parasite species can evolve rapidly \"victims need to overcome their exploiters at only one trait if they are to escape, whereas exploiters must overcome their victims at all traits if they are to succeed\". So you have a lot more options as a victim.      Doi:10.1038\/nature10853.    Rapidly reproducing species have low survival rates in the wild ( rapid reproduction is an evolutionary response to low survival), but under unnatural conditions they can take over, like sewer rats for example.","human_ref_B":"The human gut carries more bacteria than there are cells in the entire body. These bacteria thrive on the food we eat but also aid us in digestion and protect us from invasion by less benign bacteria.  http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_microbiome#Gut_flora > The average human body, consisting of about 10^13 (10,000,000,000,000 or about ten trillion) cells, has about ten times that number of microorganisms in the gut.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":7992.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"55uilo","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Every winter my city alone dumps millions of pounds of salt onto the roadways. What is the environmental impact of using salt to de-ice roadways? I assume that most of this salt ends up in the waterways, and I also see plants dying near heavily salted walkways.  What are some of the larger impacts of seasonal salt dumping?","c_root_id_A":"d8dz4qj","c_root_id_B":"d8e2jyf","created_at_utc_A":1475610364,"created_at_utc_B":1475614528,"score_A":279,"score_B":851,"human_ref_A":"Well one of the impacts is your car which eventually impacts the environment.  The salt causes rust.  This leads to more maintenance and repairs, and can lead to the car having a shorter lifespan.  What that all adds up to is you needing to wash your car more so thats more soaps and chemicals getting into the environment.  When you have a rusted part replaced they either toss or recycle it, both of which take energy and pollute.  And god forbid something like your oil pan rusts through and you're leaking oil everywhere.  Finally if your car ends up in the junk yard sooner thats just more waste and trash.  Edit: Damn, all I did was point out one of the indirect environmental impacts of using salt on roads that most people wouldn't think about.  In the end salting roads results in environmental contamination from leaking car fluids and more waste in the landfill from having to replace parts.","human_ref_B":"I did some research with a professor on the impacts of road salt on amphibians. They are especially sensitive because of their skin. Turns out high enough concentrations of calcium chloride can potentially affect muscle function and can temporarily paralyze frogs, i forget whuch species of frog it was though. My coworker running the lab trials was horrified when she thought she killed a frog but he was just paralyzed. The frog was fine once we put him back in the tank.   With wood frogs, it looks like the tadpoles are the ones most affected, while the adults are not. So the adults are laying eggs in vernal pools that aren't habitable for the offspring. http:\/\/njwrri.rutgers.edu\/research_pastfaculty.htm#salinization  Edit- a letter","labels":0,"seconds_difference":4164.0,"score_ratio":3.0501792115}
{"post_id":"55uilo","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Every winter my city alone dumps millions of pounds of salt onto the roadways. What is the environmental impact of using salt to de-ice roadways? I assume that most of this salt ends up in the waterways, and I also see plants dying near heavily salted walkways.  What are some of the larger impacts of seasonal salt dumping?","c_root_id_A":"d8eprct","c_root_id_B":"d8eh76m","created_at_utc_A":1475648864,"created_at_utc_B":1475634230,"score_A":48,"score_B":34,"human_ref_A":"At this point I'm surprised I didn't see groundwater contamination as a response yet.  I've worked at several Department of Public Works sites that, while not knowing the impact of spreading the salt, the storage of the salt at several locations impacted the groundwater with very high salt concentrations.  At times in the past, salt sheds didn't have concrete\/impervious floors.  The salt would be stored directly on the ground and then over time the salt would leach through the ground and impact the groundwater.","human_ref_B":"There have been some great really EPA studies done on road salting and the insane effects it has on both the environment and human infrastructure.  This was one of the first case studies we covered in my Environmental Law course and it was shocking to me that the EPA has been talking about this issue since the 70's and nothing has really changed.  Road icing continues to cause more and more damage every year but it's the cheapest solution for the authorities that are in charge of the roads so they pass on the external costs to everyone else.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":14634.0,"score_ratio":1.4117647059}
{"post_id":"55uilo","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.92,"history":"Every winter my city alone dumps millions of pounds of salt onto the roadways. What is the environmental impact of using salt to de-ice roadways? I assume that most of this salt ends up in the waterways, and I also see plants dying near heavily salted walkways.  What are some of the larger impacts of seasonal salt dumping?","c_root_id_A":"d8ew3n9","c_root_id_B":"d8eqaev","created_at_utc_A":1475669189,"created_at_utc_B":1475650343,"score_A":19,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"My background is groundwater engineering, particularly research into thermal remediation of contaminants and contaminant transport.  Salt used for de-icing typically enters the groundwater quite quickly.  Then, depending on the concentration, it remains in the subsurface as a contaminant.  One of the interesting things about salt is that it readily affects the density of groundwater, leading to density-dependent flow.  This means that the denser salt water will flow downwards into deep aquifers.    Generally we don't care about cleaning this up as salt is not a dangerous contaminant, it is what is known as an aesthetic contaminant.  \"The solution to polution is dilution.\"","human_ref_B":"Up here in Alaska we switched from using the non-chloride deicing \"salt\" to natural salt last winter and the most surprising environmental impact for most of the people in my town was that salt-deprived moose would come down and lay on the highway and lick it up.  They also wouldn't move for vehicle traffic.  Previously we used a product in the Potassium Acetate (KAc) family because it melted the ice even at much lower temperatures, down to about -15 F.  With the milder winters we've been having that wasn't necessary last year, at least in South Central Alaska.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":18846.0,"score_ratio":1.1176470588}
{"post_id":"29nqpx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How strong\/quick could a robot with human dimensions be compared to a human? Is it limited by hydraulics? I'm picturing things humans do well, and how a human sized robot could do it. How strong can a robot with human dimensions be in theory?","c_root_id_A":"cin0rop","c_root_id_B":"cimts64","created_at_utc_A":1404339797,"created_at_utc_B":1404325988,"score_A":34,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Side note: When it comes to the bio-engineering of the human limbs, just remember that you're sacrificing raw force\/speed for a system with a great deal of other trade-offs which would be difficult for modern science to replicate.  1. Supports a very large number of individual movements and articulations 2. Meets certain weight-restrictions (overall system must be near-buoyant in water) 3. Supports a wide variety of automatic self-repair techniques, many of which can occur without ceasing operation 4. Is entirely produced and usually maintained by unskilled (unconscious?) labor from common raw materials 5. Contains a comprehensive suite of sensors 6. Not too brittle, flexes to store and release mechanical energy from certain impacts 7. Selectively reinforces itself when strain is detected 8. Has areas for the storage of long-term energy reserves, which double as an impact cushion 9. Houses small fabricators to replenish some of its own operating fluids 10. Subsystems for thermal management (evaporative cooling, automatic micro-activation)  I'm sure other folks can tack on a bunch more, but even with some massive cuts to the list, it'll be a long time before inorganic prosthetics can approach your original equipment specs.","human_ref_B":"\"how strong\" would be based on our strongest available construction materials. Hydraulic presses can lift incredibly enormous amounts of weight, but if you only have a framework of steel or carbon fiber that's the general length\/thickness of human limbs, that's your limitation.   If your comparison was asking about let's say... A human sized robot trying to do a deadlift, it would primarily depend on the limitations of how thick you made its \"skeleton\" before it would buckle under the weight.   Look at a forklift for example, the 2 tongs could be compared with large human arms, and hydraulics make it incredibly powerful.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":13809.0,"score_ratio":11.3333333333}
{"post_id":"29nqpx","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.86,"history":"How strong\/quick could a robot with human dimensions be compared to a human? Is it limited by hydraulics? I'm picturing things humans do well, and how a human sized robot could do it. How strong can a robot with human dimensions be in theory?","c_root_id_A":"cin0rop","c_root_id_B":"cimzjjc","created_at_utc_A":1404339797,"created_at_utc_B":1404337234,"score_A":34,"score_B":3,"human_ref_A":"Side note: When it comes to the bio-engineering of the human limbs, just remember that you're sacrificing raw force\/speed for a system with a great deal of other trade-offs which would be difficult for modern science to replicate.  1. Supports a very large number of individual movements and articulations 2. Meets certain weight-restrictions (overall system must be near-buoyant in water) 3. Supports a wide variety of automatic self-repair techniques, many of which can occur without ceasing operation 4. Is entirely produced and usually maintained by unskilled (unconscious?) labor from common raw materials 5. Contains a comprehensive suite of sensors 6. Not too brittle, flexes to store and release mechanical energy from certain impacts 7. Selectively reinforces itself when strain is detected 8. Has areas for the storage of long-term energy reserves, which double as an impact cushion 9. Houses small fabricators to replenish some of its own operating fluids 10. Subsystems for thermal management (evaporative cooling, automatic micro-activation)  I'm sure other folks can tack on a bunch more, but even with some massive cuts to the list, it'll be a long time before inorganic prosthetics can approach your original equipment specs.","human_ref_B":"Electric motors are able to produce fantastic power\/weight ratios. This can be seen for example in Tesla's cars which use a motor the size of a large watermelon to drive the entire vehicle. However batteries are still not great. With present day technology an untethered robot with size and strength characteristics comparable to a human would need a significant fraction of its mass to be batteries, and even then it would only have a battery life of minutes, not even hours. A human on the other hand can go a day without food and still do push-ups or whatever just fine.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":2563.0,"score_ratio":11.3333333333}
{"post_id":"ldsimi","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.81,"history":"Why do some vaccines require a second\/booster shot while others are single dose? Had a thought while reading about the covid vaccines coming out - why do some shots require a booster while others don't? I know the booster shot helps the immune system commit the antibodies to it's longer term memory (at least I think that's what's happening). So do single dose shots have a time release function to do this? are the single shots just suped up from the beginning? Do the single shots act on a different mechanism that the body creates more meaningful and longer lasting antibodies? Is it comparing apples to oranges?","c_root_id_A":"gmarwgj","c_root_id_B":"gmai83g","created_at_utc_A":1612655551,"created_at_utc_B":1612652064,"score_A":3,"score_B":2,"human_ref_A":"There is no requirement really except to be able to safely provide meaningful protection to a reasonable timeframe. 1 dose vaccines would most likely became more efficacious in a 2 dose regime and the very efficacious 2 dose ones would most likely work in a single dose regime. However, they get approval according certain clinical trial protocols that evaluate safety and efficacy, so a single dose vaccine would go back into clinical development before it is approved as a 2 dose one. The same goes for a 2 dose been given formally as a single dose, though in this case it would be easier since they don't need to worry about *more* adverse reactions as a single dose than it had as a two dose.","human_ref_B":"It is dependent on the type of vaccine. Some vaccines are \"live\" or attenuated vaccines and some vaccines are \"inactivated\".  I believe most vaccines are not \"single-shot\" other than Tdap and MenACWY but they also require boosters. It's not a time-release function. The timing between doses has to do with how long it takes your body to respond to the vaccine.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":3487.0,"score_ratio":1.5}
{"post_id":"qt69w7","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.89,"history":"Do quadrapedal animals experience hand-dominance? I was just playing with my cats, and realized that since they use they're front paws a lot like humans use their hands, that they might experience hand-dominance vs natural ambidexterity.  Does hand-dominance exist on quadrapeds?  Also, sorry, there wasn't a flair for Zoology, so if this is the wrong sub let me know.","c_root_id_A":"hkj9awm","c_root_id_B":"hkiqhq7","created_at_utc_A":1636856319,"created_at_utc_B":1636847839,"score_A":34,"score_B":18,"human_ref_A":"In chimpanzee populations, about 65-70 percent are right-handed.   Gorillas are about 75 percent righty. On the other hand (ahem), about 66 percent of orangutans are lefties.","human_ref_B":"I see the question is answered. Just sharing my experiences.  We have a pet goat. She absolutely favours her left. When she is reaching up to pull down a branch, she always reaches up with her left leg. Like how we pick fruit off a tree.  Our pet chicken (we have layers but one we are fond of that likes to be picked up and scratched) always turns her head left and looks at us with her right eye.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":8480.0,"score_ratio":1.8888888889}
{"post_id":"ihm6j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.72,"history":"Are most penises in the animal kingdom related, or did many of them evolve independently? The penis seems like a rather handy organ, but it seems many animals lack it.  If I'm not mistaken, some birds have penises and others don't.  Did the duck penis originate from the same penis as the human's?  Have penises gone away and come back?","c_root_id_A":"c23ts0q","c_root_id_B":"c23unia","created_at_utc_A":1309910385,"created_at_utc_B":1309919057,"score_A":14,"score_B":17,"human_ref_A":"Oh man, if you want some penis knowledge to blow your mind: check out these little bastards. Not only are they in that weird \"I'M A MAMMAL AND I FUCKING LAY EGGS\" category, but they \"sweat\" milk from all pours, have four-headed penises (dudes) and 2-tracked vaginas (ladies).  I firmly believe evolution likes to make practical jokes. The Monotremes just happen to be one of them.","human_ref_B":"Intromittent organs (penises) have convergently evolved (independently) in many groups including fish, mammals, birds, turtles and theres even a frog that has one. A colleague of mine, who literally goes by the nickname of the Penis Lady, has made a career of studying the biomechanics of these fascinating structures.","labels":0,"seconds_difference":8672.0,"score_ratio":1.2142857143}
{"post_id":"ihm6j","domain":"askscience_validation","upvote_ratio":0.72,"history":"Are most penises in the animal kingdom related, or did many of them evolve independently? The penis seems like a rather handy organ, but it seems many animals lack it.  If I'm not mistaken, some birds have penises and others don't.  Did the duck penis originate from the same penis as the human's?  Have penises gone away and come back?","c_root_id_A":"c23unia","c_root_id_B":"c23ugoe","created_at_utc_A":1309919057,"created_at_utc_B":1309917150,"score_A":17,"score_B":5,"human_ref_A":"Intromittent organs (penises) have convergently evolved (independently) in many groups including fish, mammals, birds, turtles and theres even a frog that has one. A colleague of mine, who literally goes by the nickname of the Penis Lady, has made a career of studying the biomechanics of these fascinating structures.","human_ref_B":"I don't know for a fact whether duck penises are related to mammalian penises. However, you should consider other trait, such as wings and color vision. There are insects and birds with color vision, and primates have it too. Likewise, insects, birds and bats all evolved winged flight independently. The mechanisms behind these similar features are different, yet the end result is similar. They are all examples of convergent evolution. I doubt that duck penises are phylogenetically related to mammal penises.","labels":1,"seconds_difference":1907.0,"score_ratio":3.4}