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[ "C_3ec948f8130247c1bf56a8c9372f27b7_1_q#0", "C_3ec948f8130247c1bf56a8c9372f27b7_1_q#1", "C_3ec948f8130247c1bf56a8c9372f27b7_1_q#2", "C_3ec948f8130247c1bf56a8c9372f27b7_1_q#3" ]

[ "When did the band form?", "Who initially formed the band?", "What were albums or songs they released?", "What performances did they have?" ]

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[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 519 ], [ 123 ], [ 1400 ], [ 566 ] ], "texts": [ [ "They played their first gig as \"Talking Heads\" opening for the Ramones at CBGB on June 5, 1975." ], [ "There, Byrne and Frantz formed a band called \"The Artistics\" in 1973." ], [ "The album received considerable acclaim and spawned what became the group's first charted single, \"Psycho Killer\"." ], [ "opening for the Ramones at CBGB on June 5, 1975." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 519, 123, 1400, 566 ], "texts": [ "They played their first gig as \"Talking Heads\" opening for the Ramones at CBGB on June 5, 1975.", "There, Byrne and Frantz formed a band called \"The Artistics\" in 1973.", "The album received considerable acclaim and spawned what became the group's first charted single, \"Psycho Killer\".", "opening for the Ramones at CBGB on June 5, 1975." ] }

[ { "text": "The following list includes notable dance-rock artists.\n\nArtists\n\n!!!\nABC\nAnd Then There Were None\nThe B-52's\nBelouis Some\nBig Audio Dynamite\nThe Big Pink\nBodyRockers\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Charlatans\nDepeche Mode\nDevo\nDuran Duran\nElectronic\nEMF\nEurythmics\nThe Farm\nFine Young Cannibals\nFrankie Goes to Hollywood\nFranz Ferdinand\nFriendly Fires\nGang of Four\nGarbage\nHall & Oates\nHappy Mondays\nHot Chelle Rae\nHot Chip\nBilly Idol\nINXS\nMick Jagger\nJesus Jones\nThe Killers\nLCD Soundsystem\nLiquid Liquid\nThe New Cities\nNew Order\nNo Doubt\nOingo Boingo\nRobert Palmer\nPet Shop Boys\nPrimal Scream\nThe Prodigy\nPseudo Echo\nPublic Image Ltd\nRogue Traders\nScissor Sisters\nThe Shamen\nSimple Minds\nThe Stone Roses\nTalking Heads\nTom Tom Club\nU2\nWalk the Moon\nWas (Not Was)\nThe White Tie Affair\nRobbie Williams\n\nReferences\n\n \nDance-rock\nDance-rock", "title": "List of dance-rock artists" }, { "text": "The following is a list of post-punk bands. Post-punk is a musical movement that began at the end of the 1970s, following on the heels of the initial punk rock movement. The essential period that is most commonly cited as post-punk falls between 1978 and 1984.\n\nNote: ≠ indicates a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\n\n0–9\n23 Skidoo\n\nA\n\nAdam and the Ants\nThe Alarm\n...And the Native Hipsters\nThe Art Attacks\nArtery\nAssociates\nAu Pairs\nAztec Camera\n\nB\n\nThe B-52's\nThe Batfish Boys\nBauhaus\nBhopal Stiffs\nBig Black\nThe Birthday Party\nThe Blackouts\nBlam Blam Blam\nBlue Orchids\nBlyth Power\nBuerak\nBush Tetras\n\nC\n\nCabaret Voltaire\nCapital Inicial\nCardiacs\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Chameleons\nJames Chance and the Contortions\nThe Chills\nCircus Mort\n≠The Clash \nThe Clean\nClock DVA\nCocteau Twins\nThe Comsat Angels\nThe Cult\n≠The Cure\n\nD\n\nDA!\nDalek I Love You\nDamien Done\nDead Can Dance\nThe Deep Freeze Mice\nThe Del-Byzanteens\nDelta 5\n≠Depeche Mode\nDesperate Bicycles\nDeutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft (D.A.F.)\nDevo\nDinosaur Jr.\nDo-Re-Mi\nThe Dream Syndicate\nThe Durutti Column\n\nE\n\nEcho & the Bunnymen\nESG\nEssential Logic\nEurogliders\nThe Ex\nEyeless in Gaza\n\nF\n\nFactrix\nFaith No More (as Faith No Man)\nThe Fall\nFamily Fodder\nThe Feelies\nFelt\nThe Fire Engines\nFlipper\nThe Flying Lizards\nFor Against\nFra Lippo Lippi (early work)\n\nG\n\nGang of Four\nGene Loves Jezebel\nGirls at Our Best!\nGlaxo Babies\nGreen River\nThe Gun Club\n\nH\n\nHalf Man Half Biscuit\nHeaven 17\nThe Higsons\nThe Human League\nHüsker Dü\n\nI\n\nI'm So Hollow\nIn Camera\n\nJ\n\nThe Jam\nJapan\nThe Jesus Lizard\nThe Jesus and Mary Chain\nJosef K\nJoy Division\n\nK\n\nKilling Joke\nKino\n\nL\n\nLaughing Clowns\nLiLiPUT\nThe Lords of the New Church\nLove and Rockets\nLowlife\nLudus\n\nM\n\nMolchat Doma\nMagazine\nMaximum Joy\nMeat Puppets\nThe Mekons\nMelvins\nThe Membranes\nThe Method Actors\nMidnight Oil (early work)\nMinimal Compact\nMinny Pops\nMission of Burma\nMo-dettes\nModels\nModern English\nModern Eon\nThe Monochrome Set\n\nN\n\nNaked Raygun\nThe Names\nNew Model Army\nNew Order\nNick Cave and the Bad Seeds\nThe Nightingales\n\nO\n\nThe Opposition\nOrange Juice\n\nP\n\nPalais Schaumburg\nThe Passage\nThe Passions\nPel Mel\nPere Ubu\nPhantom Tollbooth\nPigbag\nPink Military\nPloho\nThe Pogues\n≠The Police\nThe Pop Group\nPrimitive Calculators\nThe Proclaimers\nThe Psychedelic Furs\nPublic Image Ltd\nPylon\n\nR\n\nThe Raincoats\nRank and File\nRed Lorry Yellow Lorry\nRema-Rema\n≠R.E.M.\nThe Residents\nRip Rig + Panic\nRomeo Void\n\nS\n\nSad Lovers & Giants\nSavage Republic\nThe Scientists\nScratch Acid\nScritti Politti\nSection 25\nSex Gang Children\nSielun Veljet\nSimple Minds\nSiouxsie and the Banshees\nThe Sisters of Mercy\nThe Sleepers\nThe Slits\nThe Smiths\nThe Soft Boys\nThe Sound\nSouthern Death Cult\nSqueeze\nStreet eaters\nSubway Sect\nSunnyboys\nSwell Maps\n\nT\n\n≠Talking Heads\nThe Teardrop Explodes\nTelevision\nTelevision Personalities\nThe The\nTheatre of Hate\nThis Heat\nThompson Twins (early work)\nThe Three Johns\nThrobbing Gristle\nTin Huey\nTones on Tail\nTransvision Vamp\nTuxedomoon\n\nU\n\n≠U2\nUK Decay\nUltravox\n\nV\n\nThe Veils\nViolent Femmes\nVoigt/465\nVolcano Suns\n\nW\n\nThe Wake\nWall of Voodoo\nThe Wedding Present\nWhirlywirld\nWire\n\nX\n\nXero\nXTC\n\nY\nYoung Marble Giants\n\nZ\nZounds\n\nPost-punk revival bands\n\nSee also\nList of gothic rock artists\nList of new wave artists and bands\nList of punk rock bands, 0–K\nList of punk rock bands, L–Z\nList of post-hardcore bands\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n \nPost-punk\nPost punk", "title": "List of post-punk bands" } ]

[ "The band was formed in 1973.", "David Byrne and Chris Frantz initially formed the band.", "They released their first single \"Love - Building on Fire\". The group's first album was \"Talking Heads: 77\", and it spawned the group's first charted single, \"Psycho Killer\".", "They played their first gig as \"Talking Heads\" opening for the Ramones at CBGB on June 5, 1975." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_0_q#0", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_0_q#1", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_0_q#2", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_0_q#3", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_0_q#4", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_0_q#5" ]

[ "What was the report on social insurance?", "Was this report helpful?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "did he help bring about change?", "what struggles did he face?", "did they listen to him?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 684 ], [ 1392 ], [ 871 ], [ 1194 ], [ 1392 ], [ 1348 ] ], "texts": [ [ "It proposed that all people of working age should pay a weekly national insurance contribution. In return, benefits would be paid" ], [ "He appealed to conservatives and other sceptics by arguing that welfare institutions would increase the competitiveness of British industry in the post-war period," ], [ "Beveridge argued that this system would provide a minimum standard of living \"below which no one should be allowed to fall\"." ], [ "fundamental assumptions the fact that there would be a National Health Service of some sort, a policy already being worked on in the Ministry of Health." ], [ "He appealed to conservatives and other sceptics by arguing that welfare institutions would increase the competitiveness of British industry" ], [ "Beveridge's arguments were widely accepted." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 684, 1392, 871, 1194, 1392, 1348 ], "texts": [ "It proposed that all people of working age should pay a weekly national insurance contribution. In return, benefits would be paid", "He appealed to conservatives and other sceptics by arguing that welfare institutions would increase the competitiveness of British industry in the post-war period,", "Beveridge argued that this system would provide a minimum standard of living \"below which no one should be allowed to fall\".", "fundamental assumptions the fact that there would be a National Health Service of some sort, a policy already being worked on in the Ministry of Health.", "He appealed to conservatives and other sceptics by arguing that welfare institutions would increase the competitiveness of British industry", "Beveridge's arguments were widely accepted." ] }

[ { "text": "Individual contributors to classical liberalism and political liberalism are associated with philosophers of the Enlightenment. Liberalism as a specifically named ideology begins in the late 18th century as a movement towards self-government and away from aristocracy. It included the ideas of self-determination, the primacy of the individual and the nation as opposed to the state and religion as being the fundamental units of law, politics and economy.\n\nSince then liberalism has broadened to include a wide range of approaches from Americans Ronald Dworkin, Richard Rorty, John Rawls and Francis Fukuyama as well as the Indian Amartya Sen and the Peruvian Hernando de Soto. Some of these people moved away from liberalism while others espoused other ideologies before turning to liberalism. There are many different views of what constitutes liberalism, and some liberals would feel that some of the people on this list were not true liberals. It is intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive. Theorists whose ideas were mainly typical for one country should be listed in that country's section of liberalism worldwide. Generally only thinkers are listed whereas politicians are only listed when they also made substantial contributions to liberal theory beside their active political work.\n\nClassical contributors to liberalism\n\nAristotle\n\nAristotle (Athens, 384–322 BC) is revered among political theorists for his seminal work Politics. He made invaluable contributions to liberal theory through his observations on different forms of government and the nature of man.\n\nHe begins with the idea that the best government provides an active and \"happy\" life for its people. Aristotle then considers six forms of government: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Polity on one side as 'good' forms of government, and Tyranny, Oligarchy, and Democracy as 'bad' forms. Considering each in turn, Aristotle rejects Monarchy as infantilizing of citizens, Oligarchy as too profit-motivated, Tyranny as against the will of the people, Democracy as serving only to the poor, and Aristocracy (known today as Meritocracy) as ideal but ultimately impossible. Aristotle finally concludes that a polity—a combination between democracy and oligarchy, where most can vote but must choose among the rich and virtuous for governors—is the best compromise between idealism and realism.\n\nIn addition, Aristotle was a firm supporter of private property. He refuted Plato's argument for a collectivist society in which family and property are held in common: Aristotle makes the argument that when one's own son or land is rightfully one's own, one puts much more effort into cultivating that item, to the ultimate betterment of society. He references barbarian tribes of his time in which property was held in common, and the laziest of the bunch would always take away large amounts of food grown by the most diligent.\n\nLaozi \n\nLaozi was a Chinese philosopher and writer, considered the founder of Taoism. Arguing that Laozi is a libertarian, James A. Dorn wrote that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, \"argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony.\"\n\nHumanism\n\nNiccolò Machiavelli\n\nNiccolò Machiavelli (Florence, 1469–1527), best known for his Il Principe was the founder of realist political philosophy, advocated republican government, citizen armies, protection of personal property, and restraint of government expenditure as being necessary to the liberties of a republic. He wrote extensively on the need for individual initiative—virtu—as an essential characteristic of stable government. He argued that liberty was the central good which government should protect, and that \"good people\" would make good laws, whereas people who had lost their virtue could maintain their liberties only with difficulty. His Discourses on Livy outlined realism as the central idea of political study and favored \"Republics\" over \"Principalities\".\n\nMachiavelli differed from true liberal thinking however, in that he still noted the benefits of princely governance. He states that republican leaders need to \"act alone\" if they want to reform a republic, and offers the example of Romulus, who killed his brother and co-ruler to found a great city. Republics need to refer to arbitrary and violent measures if it is necessary to maintain the structure of the government, as Machiavelli says that they have to ignore thoughts of justice and fairness.\n\nAnti-statist liberals consider Machiavelli's distrust as his main message, noting his call for a strong state under a strong leader, who should use any means to establish his position, whereas liberalism is an ideology of individual freedom and voluntary choices.\n Contributing literature:\n Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, 1512–1517 (Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius)\n\nDesiderius Erasmus\n\nDesiderius Erasmus (Netherlands, 1466–1536) was an advocate of humanism, critic of entrenched interests, irrationality and superstition. Erasmusian societies formed across Europe, to some extent in response to the turbulence of the Reformation.\nIn his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (1524), he analyzes the Lutheran exaggeration of the obvious limitations on human freedom.\n Contributing literature\n Stultitiae Laus, 1509 (The Praise of Folly, Internet History Sourcebooks)\n De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio, 1524\n\nÉtienne de La Boétie \nÉtienne de La Boétie (France, 1530–1563) was a French writer, magistrate and political theorist. According to Etienne the chief question of political philosophy was the question of how people come to accept the will of tyrants.\n Contributing literature\n Discourse on Voluntary Servitude, 1577\n\nHugo Grotius \nHugo Grotius (Netherlands 1583–1645)\n Contributing literature\n Mare Liberum, 1606\n De jure belli ac pacis, 1625\n\nThomas Hobbes\n\nThomas Hobbes (England, 1588–1679) theorized that government is the result of individual actions and human traits, and that it was motivated primarily by \"interest\", a term which would become crucial in the development of a liberal theory of government and political economy, since it is the foundation of the idea that individuals can be self-governing and self-regulating. His work Leviathan, did not advocate this viewpoint, but instead that only a strong government could restrain unchecked interest: it did, however, advance a proto-liberal position in arguing for an inalienable \"right of nature,\" the right to defend oneself, even against the state. Though his own ideological position is open to debate, his work influenced Locke, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison and many other liberals.\n Contributing literature: \n Leviathan, 1651 (Theologico-Political Treatise)\n\nBaruch Spinoza\nBaruch Spinoza (Netherlands, 1632–1677) is in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus and Tractatus Politicus a proto-liberal defending the value of separation of church and state as well as forms of democracy. In the first mentioned book, Spinoza expresses an early criticism of religious intolerance and a defense of secular government. Spinoza was a thoroughgoing determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of necessity. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say \"no\" to what happens to us but the possibility to say \"yes\" and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way.\n Contributing literature:\n Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, 1670 (Theologico-Political Treatise, Theologico-Political Treatise – Part 1)\n Tractatus Politicus, 1677 (Political Treatise)\n\nFrom Locke to Mill\n\nJohn Locke\n\nJohn Locke's (England, 1632–1704) notion that a \"government with the consent of the governed\" and man's natural rights—life, liberty, and estate (property) as well on tolerance, as laid down in A letter concerning toleration and Two treatises of government—had an enormous influence on the development of liberalism. Developed a theory of property resting on the actions of individuals, rather than on descent or nobility.\n Some literature:\n A Letter Concerning Toleration, 1689 \n The Second Treatise of Civil Government, 1689 FB88 - Link Vào Nhà Cái FB88 Mới Nhất 2022 | Gutenberg\n\nJohn Trenchard\nJohn Trenchard (United Kingdom, 1662–1723) was co-author, with Thomas Gordon of Cato's Letters. These newspaper essays condemned tyranny and advanced principles of freedom of conscience and freedom of speech and were a main vehicle for spreading the concepts that had been developed by John Locke.\n Some literature:\n Cato's Letters / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720–1723\n\nCharles de Montesquieu\n\nCharles de Montesquieu (France, 1689–1755)\n\nIn The Spirit of Law, Montesquieu expounded the separation of powers in government and society. In government, Montesquieu encouraged division into the now standard legislative, judicial and executive branches; in society, he perceived a natural organization into king, the people and the aristocracy, with the latter playing a mediating role. \"I do not write to censor that which is established in any country whatsoever,\" Montesquieu disclaimed in the Laws; however, he did pay special attention to what he felt was the positive example of the constitutional system in England, which in spite of its evolution toward a fusion of powers, had moderated the power of the monarch, and divided Parliament along class lines.\n\nMontesquieu's work had a seminal impact on the American and French revolutionaries. Ironically, the least liberal element of his thought—his privileging of the aristocracy—was belied by both revolutions. Montesquieu's system came to fruition in America, a country with no aristocracy; in France, political maneuvering by the aristocracy led to the convocation of the 1789 Estates-General and popular revolt.\n\n Some literature:\n De l'esprit des lois, 1748 (The Spirit of Law) )\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n\nThomas Gordon\nThomas Gordon (United Kingdom, 169?–1750) was co-author, with John Trenchard of Cato's Letters. These newspaper essays condemned tyranny and advanced principles of freedom of conscience and freedom of speech and were a main vehicle for spreading the concepts that had been developed by John Locke.\n Some literature:\n Cato's Letters / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720–1723\n\nFrançois Quesnay\nFrançois Quesnay (France, 1694–1774)\n Some literature:\n Tableau économique, 1758\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n\nVoltaire\n\nVoltaire (France, 1694–1778)\n Some literature:\n Lettres Philosophiques sur les Anglais, 1734 (Philosophical Letters on the English)\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n Essai sur l'histoire génerale et sur les moeurs et l'espirit des nations, 1756 (Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations and on the Principal Occurrences in History)\n Traité sur la Tolérance à l'occasion de la mort de Jean Calas, 1763 (Treatise on Toleration In Connection with the Death of Jean Calas)\n Dictionnaire Philosophique, 1764 (Philosophical Dictionary)\n\nJean-Jacques Rousseau\nJean-Jacques Rousseau (Switzerland, 1712–1778)\n Some literature:\n Discourse on Inequality, 1755\n On the Social Contract, 1762\n\nDenis Diderot\nDenis Diderot (France, 1713–1784)\n Some literature:\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n\nJean le Rond d'Alembert\nJean le Rond d'Alembert (France, 1717–1783)\n Some literature:\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n\nRichard Price\nRichard Price (United Kingdom, 1723–1791)\n Some literature:\n Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt, 1771\n Observations on Reversionary Payments, 1771\n Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America, 1776\n\nAnders Chydenius\n\nAnders Chydenius (Finland (then a part of the Swedish realm), 1729–1803)\nHis book Den Nationale Winsten (engl. The National Gain) proposed roughly same the ideas as Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, a decade earlier, including foundations of liberalism and capitalism and (roughly) the invisible hand. He demanded complete economic and individual freedom, including the freedom of religion (although he was a priest), worker's rights to freely move and choose their professions and employers, the freedom of speech and trade and abolitions of all privileges and price and wage controls.\n\nHe was also a member of the Swedish four-estates parliament, elected three times as representative of the clergy in the northern and western parts of Finland. In his first parliamentary session, 1765–1766, he was very successful as a member of the subcommittee that wrote Sweden's famous Constitutional Law of the Freedom of Printing, Tryckfrihetsförordningen, of 1766. In this law Chydenius combined freedom of the press, and abolishment of the political censorship, with free access for the citizens to most government documents. Chydenius liberal system, where transparency reinforces press freedom, and the right for everyone to print the public document reinforces transparency, has been a fundamental constitutional principle in Sweden ever since, except for the years of royal autocracy 1772–1809. Chydenius model for press freedom and freedom of information was reestablished and strengthened in the Swedish Constitution 1809. It is now the foundation of the present Tryckfrihetsförordningen of 1949, which is one of the fundamental laws of Sweden.\n\nIn diluted form, and without the strong constitutional protection of the Swedish free press model, the principle of free access to public documents that originated in Chydenius law of 1766, has in recent decades been spread from Sweden to the Freedom of Information Acts of many countries. This way, Anders Chydenius, has become one of the older liberal thinkers that has most practical influence on politics and public administration of modern western societies.\n\nAn edition of Anders Chydenius Complete Works, in Finnish, Swedish and English, is under preparation by the Chydenius Foundation in Finland.\n Some literature:\n Americanska Näfwerbåtar, 1753 (American birchbark canoes)\n Källan Til Rikets Wan-Magt, 1765 (The cause of the weakness of the Kingdom)\n Den Nationnale Winsten, 1765 (The National Gain) Anders Chydenius-säätiö)\n\nAdam Smith\n\nAdam Smith (Great Britain, 1723–1790), often considered the founder of modern economics, was a key figure in formulating and advancing economic doctrine of free trade and competition. In his Wealth of Nations Adam Smith outlined the key idea that if the economy is basically left to its own devices, limited and finite resources will be put to ultimately their most efficient use through people acting purely in their self-interest. This concept has been quoted out of context by later economists as the invisible hand of the market.\n\nSmith also advanced property rights and personal civil liberties, including stopping slavery, which today partly form the basic liberal ideology. He was also opposed to stock-holding companies, what today is called a \"corporation\", because he predicated the self-policing of the free market upon the free association of moral individuals.\n Some literature:\n An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776 Wealth of Nations: Table of Contents.\n The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1759\n\nImmanuel Kant\n\nImmanuel Kant (Germany, 1724–1804)\n Some literature:\n Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, 1785 (Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals )\n Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788 (Critique of Practical Reason )\n Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis, 1793 (On the common saying: this may be true in theory but it does not apply in practice)\n Zum ewigen Frieden, 1795 (Perpetual Peace Kant Zum ewigen Frieden)\n Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797 (Metaphysics of Morals )\n\nAnne Robert Jacques Turgot\nAnne Robert Jacques Turgot (France, 1727–1781)\n Some literature:\n Le Conciliateur, 1754\n Lettre sur la tolérance civile, 1754\n Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses, 1766\n Lettres sur la liberté du commerce des grains, 1770\n\nJoseph Priestley\nJoseph Priestley (United Kingdom/United States, 1733–1804)\n Some literature:\n Essay on the First Principles of Government, 1768\n The Present State of Liberty in Great Britain and her Colonies, 1769\n Remarks on Dr Blackstone's Commentaries, 1769\n Observations on Civil Liberty and the Nature and Justice of the War with America, 1772\n\nAugust Ludwig von Schlözer\nAugust Ludwig von Schlözer (Germany, 1735–1809)\n\nPatrick Henry\nPatrick Henry (United States, 1736–1799)\n Some literature:\n Liberty or Death, 1775 Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death\n\nThomas Paine\n\nThomas Paine (United Kingdom/United States, 1737–1809)\n Some literature:\n Rights of Man, 1791–92 The Rights of Man from Project Gutenberg\n Agrarian Justice, 1797\n\nThomas Jefferson\n\nThomas Jefferson (United States, 1743–1826) was the third President of the United States and author of the Declaration of Independence. He also wrote Notes on the State of Virginia and the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. He was a champion of inalienable individual rights and the separation of church and state. His ideas were repeated in many other liberal revolutions around the world, including the (early) French Revolution.\n\nMarquis de Condorcet\nMarquis de Condorcet (France, 1743–1794)\n Some literature:\n Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrés de l'esprit humain, 1795 (Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind)\n\nJeremy Bentham\nJeremy Bentham (United Kingdom, 1748–1832)\nAn early advocate of utilitarianism, animal welfare and women's rights. He had many students all around the world, including John Stuart Mill and several political leaders. Bentham demanded economic and individual freedom, including the separation of the state and church, freedom of expression, completely equal rights for women, the end of slavery and colonialism, uniform democracy, the abolition of physical punishment, also on children, the right for divorce, free prices, free trade and no restrictions on interest. Bentham was not a libertarian: he supported inheritance tax, restrictions on monopoly power, pensions, health insurance and other social security, but called for prudence and careful consideration in any such governmental intervention.\n\nAdamantios Korais\nAdamantios Korais (Smyrna, 1748–1833) A major figure of the Greek Enlightenment, Korais helped shape the modern Greek state with his theories on classical education, language, religion, secular law and constitutional government, with passionate views on the necessity of democracy. He corresponded with leading figures of the American republic, especially with Thomas Jefferson.\n Some literature:\n Report on the Present State of Civilization in Greece, 1803\n What Should We Greeks Do in the Present Circumstances?, 1805\n The Library of Greek Literature, 1805–1826\n Parerga, 1809–1827\n\nEmmanuel Sieyès\nEmmanuel Joseph Sieyès '(France, 1748–1836) played an important role in the opening years of the French Revolution, drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, expanding on the theory of national sovereignty, popular sovereignty, and representation implied in his pamphlet What is the Third Estate?.\n\nCharles James Fox\n\nCharles James Fox (United Kingdom, 1749–1806) a Whig politician and member of parliament who spent most of his career in opposition. He opposed tyranny of any sort or the threat of it. For this reason he was a staunch critic of King George III whom he regarded as an aspiring tyrant. He was an abolitionist and supporter of American Patriots and of the French Revolution. He attacked Pitt's wartime legislation and defended the liberty of religious minorities and political radicals. After Pitt's death in January 1806, Fox served briefly as Foreign Secretary in the 'Ministry of All the Talents' of William Grenville.\n The Speeches of the Right Honourable Charles James Fox in the House of Commons.\n\nAntoine Destutt de Tracy\nAntoine Destutt de Tracy (1754–1836)\n\nStanisław Staszic\nStanisław Staszic (Poland-Lithuania, 1755–1826) was a Catholic priest, philosopher, geologist, writer, poet, translator and statesman. A physiocrat, monist, pan-Slavist (after 1815) and an advocate of laissez-faire, he supported many reforms in Poland. He is particularly remembered for his political writings during the \"Great (Four-Year) Sejm\" (1788–92) and for his support of the Constitution of 3 May 1791.\n\nAnne Louise Germaine de Staël\n\nAnne Louise Germaine de Staël (France, 1766–1817)\n Some literature:\n De l'influence des passions sur le bonheur des individus et des nations, 1796\n Des circonstances actuelles qui peuvent terminer la Révolution et des principes qui doivent fonder la république en France, 1798\n Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française, 1813\n Appel aux souverains réunis à Paris pour en obtenir l'abolition de la traite des nègres, 1814\n\nBenjamin Constant\n\nBenjamin Constant (France, 1767–1830) Regarded by some as one of the fathers of modern liberalism, he was initially a republican during the French Revolution, but utterly rejected The Jacobins as an instance of the tyranny of the majority.\n Some literature:\n De l'esprit de conquête et l'usurpation (On the spirit of conquest and on usurpation), 1814\n Principes de Politique (Principles of Politics), 1815\n \"The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns,\" 1819\n\nJean-Baptiste Say\nJean-Baptiste Say (France, 1767–1832)\n Some literature:\n Traité d'économie politique (Treatise on Political Economy), 1803.\n\nWilhelm von Humboldt\n\nWilhelm von Humboldt (Germany, 1767–1835)\n Some literature:\n Ideen zu einem Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen (On the Limits of State Action), 1792.\n\nAdam Czartoryski\nAdam Czartoryski (Poland-Lithuania 1770–1867) was a statesman, and international politician. He began as a foreign minister to the Russian Tsar Alexander I and built an anti-Napoleon coalition. He became a leader of the Polish government in exile, and an enemy of Russian Tsar Nicholas I. In exile he was an activist on the Polish Question across Europe, and stimulated early Balkan independence.\n Some literature:\n Essai sur la diplomatie (Marseilles, 1830);\n Life of J. U. Niemcewicz (Paris, 1860);\n Alexander I. et Czartoryski: correspondence ... et conversations (1801–1823) Memoirs of Czartoryski, with documents relating to his negotiations with Pitt, and conversations with Palmerston in 1832\n\nDavid Ricardo\nDavid Ricardo (United Kingdom, 1772–1823)\n\nJames Mill\nJames Mill (United Kingdom, 1773–1836)\n Some literature:\n Elements of Political Economy, 1821\n\nAntoine-Elisée Cherbuliez\nAntoine-Elisée Cherbuliez (Switzerland, 1797–1869)\n\nFrédéric Bastiat\nFrédéric Bastiat (France, 1801–1850)\n\nClaude Frédéric Bastiat was a French classical liberal theorist, political economist, and member of the French assembly.\n Some literature:\n La Loi (The Law), 1849\n Harmonies économiques (Economic Harmonies), 1850\n Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas (What is Seen and What is Not Seen), 1850\n\nRifa'a al-Tahtawi\nRifa'a al-Tahtawi (Egypt, 1801–1873)\n\nRifa'a al-Tahtawi (also spelt Tahtawy) was an Egyptian writer, teacher, translator, Egyptologist, renaissance intellectual and one of the early adapters to Islamic Modernism. In 1831, Tahtawi was part of the statewide effort to modernize the Egyptian infrastructure and education. Three of his published volumes were works of political and moral philosophy. They introduced his Egyptian audience to Enlightenment ideas such as secular authority and political rights and liberty; his ideas regarding how a modern civilized society ought to be and what constituted by extension a civilized or \"good Egyptian\"; and his ideas on public interest and public good. Tahtawi's work was the first effort in what became an Egyptian renaissance (nahda) that flourished in the years between 1860 and 1940.\n Works:\n A Paris Profile, written during Tahtawi's stay in France.\n The methodology of Egyptians minds with regard to the marvels of modern literature, published in 1869 crystallizing Tahtawi's opinions on modernization.\n The honest guide for education of girls and boys, published in 1873 and reflecting the main precepts of Tahtawi's educational thoughts.\n Tawfik al-Galil insights into Egypt's and Ismail descendants' history, the first part of the History Encyclopedia published in 1868 and tracing the history of ancient Egypt till the dawn of Islam.\n A thorough summary of the biography of Mohammed published after Tahtawi's death, recording a comprehensive account of the life of Prophet Mohammed and the political, legal and administrative foundations of the first Islamic state.\n Towards a simpler Arabic grammar, published in 1869.\n Grammatical sentences, published in 1863.\n Egyptian patriotic lyrics, written in praise of Khedive Said and published in 1855.\n The luminous stars in the moonlit nights of al-Aziz, a collection of congratulatory writings to some princes, published in 1872.\n\nJohan Rudolf Thorbecke\nThe Dutch statesman Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (Netherlands, 1798–1872) was the main theorist of Dutch liberalism in the nineteenth century, outlining a more democratic alternative to the absolute monarchy, the constitutional monarchy. The constitution of 1848 was mainly his work. His main theoretical article specifically labeled as 'liberal' was 'Over het hedendaagsche staatsburgerschap' (On Modern Citizenship) from 1844. He became prime minister in 1849, thus starting numerous fundamental reforms in Dutch politics.\n\nHarriet Martineau\nHarriet Martineau (United Kingdom, 1802–1876)\n Some literature:\n Illustrations of Political Economy, 1832–1834\n Theory and Practice of Society in America, 1837\n The Martyr Age of the United States, 1839\n\nRalph Waldo Emerson\nRalph Waldo Emerson (United States, 1803–1882) was an American philosopher who argued that the basic principles of government were mutable, and that government is required only insofar as people are not self-governing. Proponent of Democracy, and of the idea that a democratic people must have a democratic ethics.\n Some literature:\n Self-Reliance Circles Politics The Nominalist and the RealistAlexis de Tocqueville\nAlexis de Tocqueville (France, 1805–1859)\n Some literature:\n De La Démocratie en Amérique, 1831–1840 (Democracy in America, )\n L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, 1856\n\nWilliam Lloyd Garrison\nWilliam Lloyd Garrison (United States, 1805–1879)\n Some literature:\n Articles advocating abolition of slavery in the newspaper The Liberator, 1831–1866\n\nFriedrich Schiller\nFriedrich Schiller (Germany, 1759–1805)\n\nMill and further\n\nJohn Stuart Mill\n\nJohn Stuart Mill (United Kingdom, 1806–1873) is one of the first champions of modern \"liberalism.\" As such, his work on political economy and logic helped lay the foundation for advancements in empirical science and public policy based on verifiable improvements. Strongly influenced by Bentham's utilitarianism, he disagrees with Kant's intuitive notion of right and formulates the \"highest normative principle\" of morals as:Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.Some consider Mill as the founder of Social liberalism. Although Mill was mainly for free markets, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. Mill was also a champion of women's rights.\n Some literature:\n Considerations On Representative Government, 1862 \n On Liberty, 1868 \n Socialism, 1879 \n\nJuan Bautista Alberdi\nJuan Bautista Alberdi (Argentina, 1810–1884)\n Some literature:\n Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina (Bases and Points of Departure for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic), 1852\n Sistema económico y rentistico de la Confederación Argentina, según su Constitución de 1853 (Economic and rentistic system of the Argentine Confederation, according to its 1853 Constitution), 1854\n\nHenry David Thoreau\nHenry David Thoreau (1817–1862)\n Some literature:\n Civil Disobedience WaldenJacob Burckhardt\nJacob Burckhardt (Switzerland, 1818–1897) State as derived from cultural and economic life\n Some literature:\n The Civilization of the Renaissance in ItalyHerbert Spencer\nHerbert Spencer (United Kingdom, 1820–1903), philosopher, psychologist, and sociologist, advanced what he called the \"Law of equal liberty\" and argued against liberal theory promoting more activist government, which he dubbed \"a new form of Toryism.\" He supported a state limited in its duties to the defense of persons and their property. For Spencer, voluntary cooperation was the hallmark of the most vibrant form of society, accommodating the widest diversity of members and the greatest diversity of goals. Spencer's evolutionary approach has been characterized as an extension of Adam Smith's \"invisible hand\" explanation of economic order; his extensive work on sympathy (in psychology as well as the foundation of ethics, particularly in The Data of Ethics) explicitly carried on Smith's approach in The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Spencer is frequently characterized as a leading Social Darwinist.\n Some literature:\n Social Statics, 1851\n Principles of Ethics, 1879, 1892\n The Man versus the State, 1884\n Essays, Scientific, Political and Speculative, 1892\n\nİbrahim Şinasi\nİbrahim Şinasi (Ottoman Empire, 1826–1871), author, journalist, translator, and newspaper editor. He was the innovator of several fields: he wrote one of the earliest examples of an Ottoman play, he encouraged the trend of translating poetry from French into Turkish, he simplified the script used for writing the Ottoman Turkish language, and he was one of the first of the Ottoman writers to write specifically for the broader public. Şinasi used his newspapers, Tercüman-ı Ahvâl and Tasvîr-i Efkâr, to promote the proliferation of European Enlightenment ideals during the Tanzimat period, and he made the education of the literate Ottoman public his personal vocation. Though many of Şinasi's projects were incomplete at the time of his death, \"he was at the forefront of a number of fields and put his stamp on the development of each field so long as it contained unsolved problems.\" Şinasi, influenced by Enlightenment thought, saw freedom of expression as a fundamental right and used journalism in order to engage, communicate with, and educate the public. By speaking directly to the public about government affairs, Şinasi declared that state actions were not solely the interest of the government.\n Works:\n Tercüme-i Manzume (1859, translation of poems from the French of La Fontaine, Lamartine, Gilbert, and Racine)\n Şair Evlenmesi (1859, the first Ottoman play, \"The Wedding of a Poet\")\n Durub-i Emsal-i Osmaniye (1863, the first book of Turkish proverbs)\n Müntahabat-ı Eş'ar (1863, collection of poems)\n\nThomas Hill Green\nThomas Hill Green (United Kingdom, 1836–1882)\n\nAuberon Herbert\nAuberon Herbert (United Kingdom, 1838–1906)\n\nCarl Menger\nCarl Menger (Austria, 1840–1921)\n Some literature:\n Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre (Principles of Economics), 1871\n Untersuchungen über die Methode der Sozialwissenschaften und der Politischen Ökonomie insbesondere (Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences: with special reference to economics), 1883\n Irrthumer des Historismus in der deutschen Nationalokonomie (The Errors of Historicism in German Economics), 1884\n Zur Theorie des Kapitals (The Theory of Capital), 1888\n\nWilliam Graham Sumner\nWilliam Graham Sumner (United States, 1840–1910)\n Some literature:\n Socialism, 1878\n The Argument Against Protective Tariffs, 1881\n Protective Taxes and Wages, 1883\n The Absurd Effort to Make the World Over, 1883\n State Interference, 1887\n Protectionism: the -ism which teaches that waste makes wealth, 1887\n The Forgotten Man, and Other Essays, 1917\n\nLester Frank Ward\nLester Frank Ward (United States, 1841–1913)\nLester Ward was a botanist, paleontologist, and sociologist. He served as the first president of the American Sociological Association. Ward was a fierce and unrelenting critic of the laissez-faire policies advocated by Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner.\n Some literature:\n (1883) Dynamic Sociology: Or Applied social science as based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences.\n (1893) The Psychic Factors of Civilization, 1893.\n (1903) Pure Sociology. A Treatise on the Origin and Spontaneous Development of Society.\n (1906) Applied Sociology. A Treatise on the Conscious Improvement of Society by Society.\n\nWard's major works can be found here: \n\nLujo Brentano\n\nLudwig Joseph Brentano (Germany, 1844–1931)\n\nTomáš Masaryk\nTomáš Garrigue Masaryk (Czechoslovakia, 1850–1937)\n\nEugen von Böhm-Bawerk\nEugen von Böhm-Bawerk (Austria, 1851–1914)\n Some literature:\n Kapital und Kapitalzins (Capital and Interest), in three volumes, 1884, 1889 and 1909\n Die Positive Theorie des Kapitals (The positive theory of capital and its critics), in three volumes, 1895 and 1896\n Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems (Karl Marx and the Close of his system),1898\n\nLouis Brandeis\nLouis Brandeis (1856–1941)\n\nThorstein Veblen\nThorstein Veblen (1857–1926) is best known as the author of Theory of the Leisure Class. Veblen was influential to a generation of American liberalism searching for a rational basis for the economy beyond corporate consolidation and \"cut throat competition\". Veblen's central argument was that individuals require sufficient non-economic time to become educated citizens. He caustically attacked pure material consumption for its own sake, and the idea that utility equalled conspicuous consumption.\n\nJohn Dewey\nJohn Dewey (United States, 1859–1952)\n Some literature:\n Liberalism and Social Action, 1935\n Democracy and Education \n\nFriedrich Naumann\nFriedrich Naumann (Germany, 1860–1919)\n\nSanteri Alkio\n\nSanteri Alkio (Finland, 1862–1930)\n\nMax Weber\nMax Weber (Germany, 1864–1920) was a theorist of state power and the relationship of culture to economics. Argued that there was a moral component to capitalism rooted in \"Protestant\" values. Weber was along with Friedrich Naumann active in the National Social Union and later in the German Democratic Party.\n Some literature:\n Die protestantische Ethik und der 'Geist' des Kapitalismus, 1904 (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism )\n\nLeonard Hobhouse\nLeonard Trelawny Hobhouse (United Kingdom, 1864–1929)\n Some literature:\n Liberalism, 1911 \n\nBenedetto Croce\nBenedetto Croce (Italy, 1866–1952)\n Some literature:\n Che cosa è il liberalismo, 1943\n\nWalther Rathenau\nWalther Rathenau (Germany, 1867–1922)\n\nSir Leo Chiozza Money\nLeo Chiozza Money (Britain, 1870–1944)\nAn Italian-born economic theorist who moved to Britain in the 1890s, where he made his name as a politician, journalist and author. In the early years of the 20th century his views attracted the interest of two future Prime Ministers, David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. After a spell as Lloyd George's parliamentary private secretary, he was a Government minister in the latter stages of the First World War.\n\nAhmed Lutfi el-Sayed\nAhmed Lutfi el-Sayed Pasha (Egypt, 1872–1963)\nAn Egyptian intellectual, anti-colonial activist and the first director of Cairo University. He was an influential person in the Egyptian nationalist movement and used his position in the media to strive and gain an independent Egypt from British rule. He was also one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism as well as the architect of Egyptian secularism and liberalism. He was fondly known as the \"Professor of the Generation\". Lutfi was one of the fiercest opponents of pan-Arabism, insisting that Egyptians are Egyptians and not Arabs. He is considered one of the most influential scholars and intellectuals in the history of Egypt.\n\nWilliam Beveridge\nWilliam Beveridge (United Kingdom, 1879–1963)\n Some literature:\n Full Employment in a Free Society, 1944\n Why I am a liberal, 1945\n\nLudwig von Mises\nLudwig von Mises (Austria/United States, 1881–1973)\n Some literature:\n Socialism, 1922\n Liberalism, 1927\n Omnipotent Government, 1944\n Human Action, 1949\n\nJosé Ortega y Gasset\nJosé Ortega y Gasset (Spain, 1883–1955)\n Some literature:\n La rebelión de las masas (The Rebellion of the Masses), 1930\n\nSalvador de Madariaga\nSalvador de Madariaga (Spain, 1886–1978). One of the principal authors of the Oxford Manifesto in 1947.\n\nAdolf Berle\nAdolf Berle (United States, 1895–1971) was author of The Modern Corporation and Private Property, detailing the importance of differentiating between the management of corporations and the share holders who are the owners. Influential in the theory of New Deal policy.\n Some literature with Gardiner Means:\n The Modern Corporation and Private PropertyWilhelm Röpke\nWilhelm Röpke (Germany, 1899–1966)\n Some literature:\n International Economic Disintegration, 1942\n The Social Crisis of Our Time, 1942\n Civitas Humana, 1944\n International Order and Economic Integration, 1945\n The Solution of the German Problem, 1946\n\nBertil Ohlin\nBertil Ohlin (Sweden, 1899–1979)\n Some literature:\n Interregional and International Trade, 1933\n\nFriedrich Hayek\n\nFriedrich Hayek (Austria/United Kingdom/United States/Germany, 1899–1992) In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. Also a Nobel Prize winner in economics and predicter of the Great Depression like fellow Austrian School economist and mentor Ludwig von Mises.\n Some literature:\n The Road to Serfdom, 1944 \n The Constitution of Liberty, 1960\n Law, Legislation and Liberty, in three volumes, 1973, 1976 and 1979\n\nKarl Popper\nKarl Raimund Popper (Austria/United Kingdom, 1902–1994) developed the idea of the open society, characterized by respect for a wide variety of opinions and behaviors and a preference for audacious but piecemeal political reform over either conservative stasis or revolutionary utopianism. In his view, all simplistic and grandiose theories of history and society shared a common feature he called historicism, which he traces back to Plato, while the open society mirrors the methodological fallibilism pioneered by Popper in his earlier works on philosophy of science.\n Some literature:\n The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1945\n The Poverty of Historicism, 1961\n\nAlan Paton\nAlan Paton (South Africa, 1903–1988) contributed with his book Cry, The beloved country to a clear anti-apartheid stand of South African liberalism. His party, the Liberal Party of South Africa was banned by the apartheid government.\n Some literature:\n Cry, The Beloved Country, 1948\n Ah, but Your Land is Beautiful, 1983\n\nAyn Rand\nAyn Rand (United States, 1905–1982) was a radical and influential moral and political philosopher. Her advocacy of strong self-interest in ethics was influenced, she claimed, by the thinkers Aristotle, Aquinas, and Locke. Her advocacy of pure laissez-faire capitalism was influenced by the classical liberal economists Mises and Hayek.\n Some literature:\n The Virtue of Selfishness, 1963\n Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal, 1966\n\nRaymond Aron\nRaymond Aron (France, 1905–1983)\n Some literature:\n Essais sur les libertés, 1965\n Démocratie et totalitarisme, 1965\n\nDonald Barkly Molteno\nDonald Barkly Molteno (South Africa, 1908–1972), known as Dilizintaba (\"He who removes mountains\"), was a constitutional lawyer and a parliamentarian but above all, an academic. His work on constitutional law centered on civil rights and his fierce opposition to the segregationalist policies of Apartheid.\n\nJohn Kenneth Galbraith\n\nJohn Kenneth Galbraith (Canadian-born economist who worked in the United States, 1908–2006)\n Some literature:\n The Affluent Society, 1958\n The Liberal Hour, 1960\n\nIsaiah Berlin\nIsaiah Berlin (Latvia/United Kingdom, 1909–1997) is most famous for his attempt to distinguish 'two conceptions of liberty'. Berlin argued that what he called 'positive' and 'negative' liberty were mutually opposing concepts. Positive conceptions assumed that liberty could only be achieved when collective power (in the form of church or state) acted to 'liberate' mankind from its worst aspects. These, Berlin felt, tended towards totalitarianism. Negative conceptions, by contrast, argued that liberty was achieved when individuals were given maximal freedom from external constraints (so long as these did not infringe on the freedom of others to achieve the same condition). Berlin was also a critic of dogmatic Enlightenment rationalism on the grounds that it was unable to accommodate value pluralism.\n Some literature:\n Two Concepts of Liberty, 1958\n Four Essays on Liberty, 1969\n From Hope and Fear Set Free, 1978\n\nMilton Friedman\nMilton Friedman (United States, 1912–2006), winner of a Nobel Prize in Economics and a self-identified Classical Liberal and libertarian, was known for the Friedman rule, Friedman's k-percent rule, and the Friedman test.\n Some literature:\n Capitalism and Freedom, 1962\n A Monetary History of the United States, 1963\n Free to Choose, 1980\n\nJames Buchanan\nJames Buchanan (United States, 1919–2013) is known for his economic theories of the political process, which were among the first to take seriously the concept of politicians as rational actors that respond to incentives.\n Some literature:\n The Calculus of Consent / James Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, 1962\n The Limits of Liberty, 1975\n Democracy in Deficit / James Buchanan & Richard E. Wagner, 1977\n The Power to Tax / James Buchanan & Geoffrey Brennan, 1980\n The Reason of Rules / James Buchanan & Geoffrey Brennan, 1985\n\nMurray Newton Rothbard\nMurray Rothbard (United States, 1926–1995) was the originator of modern anarcho-capitalism and an economist and economic historian of the Austrian school. He is widely considered one of the foremost advocates of liberty and freedom in the late 20th century. He was involved with various political movements throughout his life, notably with Ayn Rand and, later, the Libertarian Party of United States. His influence is lasting in the libertarian and anarcho-capitalist movements.\n Man, Economy, and State, 1962\n For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, 1973\n Conceived in Liberty, 1975–1979\n The Ethics of Liberty, 1982\n An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought, 1995\n\nLeszek Kołakowski\nLeszek Kołakowski (Poland, 1927–2009), philosopher and historian of ideas. He was a leading inspiration behind Poland's Solidarity movement.\n Some literature:\n Jednostka i nieskończoność. Wolność i antynomie wolności w filozofii Spinozy (The Individual and the Infinite: Freedom and Antinomies of Freedom in Spinoza's Philosophy), 1958\n Rozmowy z diabłem (US title: Conversations with the Devil / UK title: Talk of the Devil; reissued with The Key to Heaven under the title The Devil and Scripture, 1973)\n Od Hume'a do Koła Wiedeńskiego (the 1st edition:The Alienation of Reason, then Positivist Philosophy from Hume to the Vienna Circle)\n\nRalf Dahrendorf\nRalf Dahrendorf (Germany/United Kingdom, 1929–2009 )\n Some literature:\n Die Chancen der Krise: über die Zukunft des Liberalismus, 1983\n Fragmente eines neuen Liberalismus, 1987\n\nKarl-Hermann Flach\nThe journalist Karl-Hermann Flach (Germany, 1929–1973) was in his book Noch eine Chance für die Liberalen one of the main theorist of the new social liberal principles of the Free Democratic Party (Germany). He places liberalism clearly as the opposite of conservatism and opened the road for a government coalition with the social democrats.\n\nJoseph Raz\nJoseph Raz (Israel/United Kingdom, 1939–2022)\n Some literature:\n The Morality of FreedomRonald Dworkin\nRonald Dworkin (United States, 1931–2013)\n Some literature:\n Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality Justice for HedgehogsRichard Rorty\nRichard Rorty (United States, 1931–2007) was one of the leading contemporary philosophers of liberalism. His fundamental claims, among others, are that liberalism is best defined as the attempt to avoid cruelty to others; that liberals need to accept the historical 'irony' that there is no metaphysical justification for their belief that not being cruel is a virtue; that literature plays a crucial role in developing the empathy necessary to promote solidarity (and therefore lack of cruelty) between humans; and that private philosophising and public political discourse are separate practices and should remain so.\n\nAmartya Sen\n\nAmartya Sen (India, 1933– ) is an economist whose early work was based on Kenneth Arrow's General Possibility Theorem, and on the impossibility of both complete pareto optimality and solely procedural based rights. He won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his work on famine, welfare economics and social choice theory. And is an advocate of rationality as the fundamental safe guard of freedom and justice.\n Some literature:\n Development as Freedom The Argumentative IndianRobert Nozick\nRobert Nozick (United States, 1938–2002) was a libertarian (or minarchist). He advocated an unapologetically reductionist political philosophy characterized by meticulous analysis of the moral aspects of each social interaction, and did not shy away from addressing hard philosophical issues such as the original appropriation of property. Nozick is best known for providing the justification of a minimal state by showing that it can be established without any unjust steps.\n Some literature:\n Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 1974\n\nHernando de Soto\nThe economist Hernando de Soto (Peru, 1941– ) is an advocate of transparency and private property rights, arguing that intransparent government leads to property not being given proper title, and therefore being \"dead capital\" which cannot be used as the basis of credit. Argues that laws which allocate property to those most able to use them for economic growth, so called \"squatter's rights\", are an important innovation.\n Some literature:\n The Other Path, 1986.\n The Mystery of Capital, 2000.\n\nMichael Meadowcroft\nA biography described the British politician Michael Meadowcroft as \"the main, indeed very nearly the only, philosopher of applied Liberalism within the old Liberal Party from the late 1960s onwards\". On the merger of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party in the UK to form the Liberal Democrats, Meadowcroft initially reconstituted a new Liberal Party with others who did not want to compromise the philosophy of liberalism. However, the new Liberal Party became increasingly Eurosceptic under the leadership of Steve Radford and Meadowcroft joined the Liberal Democrats in 2007. He has regularly argued for the importance of political philosophy and that members of the Liberal Democrats require more conviction in their beliefs.\n Some literature:\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nCarlos Santiago Nino\nCarlos Santiago Nino (Argentina, 1943–1993)\n Some literature:\n The Ethics of Human RightsBruce Ackerman\nBruce Ackerman (United States, 1943– )\n Some literature:\n We, The People Martha Nussbaum \nMartha Nussbaum (United States, 1947– ) is a philosopher and the current Ernst Freund Distinguished Service Professor of Law and Ethics at the University of Chicago. She specializes in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, political philosophy, existentialism, feminism, and ethics, including animal rights. She received the 2016 Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy, the 2018 Berggruen Prize, and the 2021 Holberg Prize.\n Some literature:\n The Fragility of Goodness (1986)\n Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education (1997)\n Sex and Social Justice (1998)\n Hiding from Humanity: Disgust, Shame, and the Law (2004)\n Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership (2006) From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation and Constitutional Law (2010)\n\nWill Kymlicka\nWill Kymlicka (Canada, 1962– ) tries in his philosophy to determine if forms of ethnic or minority nationalism are compatible with liberal-democratic principles of individual freedom, social equality and political democracy. In his book Multicultural Citizenship. A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights'' he argues that certain \"group-differentiated rights\" of minority cultures can be consistent with these liberal-democratic principles.\n\nGavin Faulkner \nGavin Faulkner (United States, 2002– ) is a liberal political theorist and Georgist economist who rejects the analytic approach to liberalism, and is attempting to justify political and economic liberalism through Hegelianism.\n\nFootnotes\n\nCategory:Liberalism\nLiberal theorists\nLiberal", "title": "List of liberal theorists" } ]

[ "The Report to the Parliament on Social Insurance and Allied Services was published in November 1942 and proposed a system where all people of working age should pay a weekly national insurance contribution. The benefits from this contribution would be paid to those who were sick, unemployed, retired, or widowed. The aim of this system was to provide a minimum standard of living \"below which no one should be allowed to fall\". The report also suggested that the government should combat the \"five giants on the road of reconstruction\": Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, and Idleness. One of its fundamental assumptions was the creation of a National Health Service. The report aimed to increase the competitiveness of British industry by shifting labour costs like healthcare and pensions onto the public account, and by producing healthier and more motivated workers.", "The text does not provide information on whether the report on social insurance was helpful or not.", "The context indicates that the report led by Beveridge played a significant role in shaping the post-war British society. Beveridge was initially uninterested in the committee formed to inquire into social insurance and allied services, seeing it as a distraction from his work. However, his report went on to propose fundamental changes to the social landscape, such as the implementation of a National Health Service. The impetus behind Beveridge's thinking was social justice and the creation of an ideal society after the war based on the discovery of objective socio-economic laws. The aim was to solve society's problems, including unemployment, sickness, and poverty. These proposals could have had far-reaching implications for British society and reflect the societal concerns and priorities in the UK during the Second World War.", "The context suggests that Beveridge's report has had significant influence, as it states that his arguments were widely accepted. He proposed a system of social insurance that included a National Health Service, something that was already being worked on in the Ministry of Health. And he highlighted the importance of full employment. However, the text does not include specific information about whether his proposals were directly implemented or brought about change.", "The text does not provide information on any struggles that Beveridge may have faced.", "The text indicates that Beveridge's arguments for social insurance and welfare institutions were widely accepted. However, it does not provide further detail on who exactly listened to him or implemented his recommendations." ]

[ "Yes", "no", "No", "Yes", "no", "Yes" ]

[ "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_1_q#0", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_1_q#1", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_1_q#2", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_1_q#3", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_1_q#4", "C_237643feedba46959fb07be350fab269_1_q#5" ]

[ "What is an example of a job that William Beveridge held early in his career?", "Where did he work as a lawyer?", "What year did he work at Toynbee Hall?", "Do we know what he worked on while at Toynbee hall?", "Where else did Beveridge work?", "What did he work on at the London School of Economics and Political Science?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 232 ], [ 219 ], [ 400 ], [ 1124 ], [ 1258 ] ], "texts": [ [ "After leaving university, Beveridge initially became a lawyer." ], [ "worked at Toynbee Hall, a settlement house in London." ], [ "1903" ], [ "becoming active in promoting old age pensions, free school meals, and campaigning for a national system of labour exchanges." ], [ "In 1919 he left the civil service to become director of the London School of Economics and Political Science." ], [ "he served on several commissions and committees on social policy." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 232, 219, 400, 1124, 1258 ], "texts": [ "After leaving university, Beveridge initially became a lawyer.", "worked at Toynbee Hall, a settlement house in London.", "1903", "becoming active in promoting old age pensions, free school meals, and campaigning for a national system of labour exchanges.", "In 1919 he left the civil service to become director of the London School of Economics and Political Science.", "he served on several commissions and committees on social policy." ] }

[ { "text": "Individual contributors to classical liberalism and political liberalism are associated with philosophers of the Enlightenment. Liberalism as a specifically named ideology begins in the late 18th century as a movement towards self-government and away from aristocracy. It included the ideas of self-determination, the primacy of the individual and the nation as opposed to the state and religion as being the fundamental units of law, politics and economy.\n\nSince then liberalism has broadened to include a wide range of approaches from Americans Ronald Dworkin, Richard Rorty, John Rawls and Francis Fukuyama as well as the Indian Amartya Sen and the Peruvian Hernando de Soto. Some of these people moved away from liberalism while others espoused other ideologies before turning to liberalism. There are many different views of what constitutes liberalism, and some liberals would feel that some of the people on this list were not true liberals. It is intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive. Theorists whose ideas were mainly typical for one country should be listed in that country's section of liberalism worldwide. Generally only thinkers are listed whereas politicians are only listed when they also made substantial contributions to liberal theory beside their active political work.\n\nClassical contributors to liberalism\n\nAristotle\n\nAristotle (Athens, 384–322 BC) is revered among political theorists for his seminal work Politics. He made invaluable contributions to liberal theory through his observations on different forms of government and the nature of man.\n\nHe begins with the idea that the best government provides an active and \"happy\" life for its people. Aristotle then considers six forms of government: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Polity on one side as 'good' forms of government, and Tyranny, Oligarchy, and Democracy as 'bad' forms. Considering each in turn, Aristotle rejects Monarchy as infantilizing of citizens, Oligarchy as too profit-motivated, Tyranny as against the will of the people, Democracy as serving only to the poor, and Aristocracy (known today as Meritocracy) as ideal but ultimately impossible. Aristotle finally concludes that a polity—a combination between democracy and oligarchy, where most can vote but must choose among the rich and virtuous for governors—is the best compromise between idealism and realism.\n\nIn addition, Aristotle was a firm supporter of private property. He refuted Plato's argument for a collectivist society in which family and property are held in common: Aristotle makes the argument that when one's own son or land is rightfully one's own, one puts much more effort into cultivating that item, to the ultimate betterment of society. He references barbarian tribes of his time in which property was held in common, and the laziest of the bunch would always take away large amounts of food grown by the most diligent.\n\nLaozi \n\nLaozi was a Chinese philosopher and writer, considered the founder of Taoism. Arguing that Laozi is a libertarian, James A. Dorn wrote that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, \"argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony.\"\n\nHumanism\n\nNiccolò Machiavelli\n\nNiccolò Machiavelli (Florence, 1469–1527), best known for his Il Principe was the founder of realist political philosophy, advocated republican government, citizen armies, protection of personal property, and restraint of government expenditure as being necessary to the liberties of a republic. He wrote extensively on the need for individual initiative—virtu—as an essential characteristic of stable government. He argued that liberty was the central good which government should protect, and that \"good people\" would make good laws, whereas people who had lost their virtue could maintain their liberties only with difficulty. His Discourses on Livy outlined realism as the central idea of political study and favored \"Republics\" over \"Principalities\".\n\nMachiavelli differed from true liberal thinking however, in that he still noted the benefits of princely governance. He states that republican leaders need to \"act alone\" if they want to reform a republic, and offers the example of Romulus, who killed his brother and co-ruler to found a great city. Republics need to refer to arbitrary and violent measures if it is necessary to maintain the structure of the government, as Machiavelli says that they have to ignore thoughts of justice and fairness.\n\nAnti-statist liberals consider Machiavelli's distrust as his main message, noting his call for a strong state under a strong leader, who should use any means to establish his position, whereas liberalism is an ideology of individual freedom and voluntary choices.\n Contributing literature:\n Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, 1512–1517 (Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius)\n\nDesiderius Erasmus\n\nDesiderius Erasmus (Netherlands, 1466–1536) was an advocate of humanism, critic of entrenched interests, irrationality and superstition. Erasmusian societies formed across Europe, to some extent in response to the turbulence of the Reformation.\nIn his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (1524), he analyzes the Lutheran exaggeration of the obvious limitations on human freedom.\n Contributing literature\n Stultitiae Laus, 1509 (The Praise of Folly, Internet History Sourcebooks)\n De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio, 1524\n\nÉtienne de La Boétie \nÉtienne de La Boétie (France, 1530–1563) was a French writer, magistrate and political theorist. According to Etienne the chief question of political philosophy was the question of how people come to accept the will of tyrants.\n Contributing literature\n Discourse on Voluntary Servitude, 1577\n\nHugo Grotius \nHugo Grotius (Netherlands 1583–1645)\n Contributing literature\n Mare Liberum, 1606\n De jure belli ac pacis, 1625\n\nThomas Hobbes\n\nThomas Hobbes (England, 1588–1679) theorized that government is the result of individual actions and human traits, and that it was motivated primarily by \"interest\", a term which would become crucial in the development of a liberal theory of government and political economy, since it is the foundation of the idea that individuals can be self-governing and self-regulating. His work Leviathan, did not advocate this viewpoint, but instead that only a strong government could restrain unchecked interest: it did, however, advance a proto-liberal position in arguing for an inalienable \"right of nature,\" the right to defend oneself, even against the state. Though his own ideological position is open to debate, his work influenced Locke, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison and many other liberals.\n Contributing literature: \n Leviathan, 1651 (Theologico-Political Treatise)\n\nBaruch Spinoza\nBaruch Spinoza (Netherlands, 1632–1677) is in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus and Tractatus Politicus a proto-liberal defending the value of separation of church and state as well as forms of democracy. In the first mentioned book, Spinoza expresses an early criticism of religious intolerance and a defense of secular government. Spinoza was a thoroughgoing determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of necessity. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say \"no\" to what happens to us but the possibility to say \"yes\" and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way.\n Contributing literature:\n Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, 1670 (Theologico-Political Treatise, Theologico-Political Treatise – Part 1)\n Tractatus Politicus, 1677 (Political Treatise)\n\nFrom Locke to Mill\n\nJohn Locke\n\nJohn Locke's (England, 1632–1704) notion that a \"government with the consent of the governed\" and man's natural rights—life, liberty, and estate (property) as well on tolerance, as laid down in A letter concerning toleration and Two treatises of government—had an enormous influence on the development of liberalism. Developed a theory of property resting on the actions of individuals, rather than on descent or nobility.\n Some literature:\n A Letter Concerning Toleration, 1689 \n The Second Treatise of Civil Government, 1689 FB88 - Link Vào Nhà Cái FB88 Mới Nhất 2022 | Gutenberg\n\nJohn Trenchard\nJohn Trenchard (United Kingdom, 1662–1723) was co-author, with Thomas Gordon of Cato's Letters. These newspaper essays condemned tyranny and advanced principles of freedom of conscience and freedom of speech and were a main vehicle for spreading the concepts that had been developed by John Locke.\n Some literature:\n Cato's Letters / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720–1723\n\nCharles de Montesquieu\n\nCharles de Montesquieu (France, 1689–1755)\n\nIn The Spirit of Law, Montesquieu expounded the separation of powers in government and society. In government, Montesquieu encouraged division into the now standard legislative, judicial and executive branches; in society, he perceived a natural organization into king, the people and the aristocracy, with the latter playing a mediating role. \"I do not write to censor that which is established in any country whatsoever,\" Montesquieu disclaimed in the Laws; however, he did pay special attention to what he felt was the positive example of the constitutional system in England, which in spite of its evolution toward a fusion of powers, had moderated the power of the monarch, and divided Parliament along class lines.\n\nMontesquieu's work had a seminal impact on the American and French revolutionaries. Ironically, the least liberal element of his thought—his privileging of the aristocracy—was belied by both revolutions. Montesquieu's system came to fruition in America, a country with no aristocracy; in France, political maneuvering by the aristocracy led to the convocation of the 1789 Estates-General and popular revolt.\n\n Some literature:\n De l'esprit des lois, 1748 (The Spirit of Law) )\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n\nThomas Gordon\nThomas Gordon (United Kingdom, 169?–1750) was co-author, with John Trenchard of Cato's Letters. These newspaper essays condemned tyranny and advanced principles of freedom of conscience and freedom of speech and were a main vehicle for spreading the concepts that had been developed by John Locke.\n Some literature:\n Cato's Letters / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720–1723\n\nFrançois Quesnay\nFrançois Quesnay (France, 1694–1774)\n Some literature:\n Tableau économique, 1758\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n\nVoltaire\n\nVoltaire (France, 1694–1778)\n Some literature:\n Lettres Philosophiques sur les Anglais, 1734 (Philosophical Letters on the English)\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n Essai sur l'histoire génerale et sur les moeurs et l'espirit des nations, 1756 (Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations and on the Principal Occurrences in History)\n Traité sur la Tolérance à l'occasion de la mort de Jean Calas, 1763 (Treatise on Toleration In Connection with the Death of Jean Calas)\n Dictionnaire Philosophique, 1764 (Philosophical Dictionary)\n\nJean-Jacques Rousseau\nJean-Jacques Rousseau (Switzerland, 1712–1778)\n Some literature:\n Discourse on Inequality, 1755\n On the Social Contract, 1762\n\nDenis Diderot\nDenis Diderot (France, 1713–1784)\n Some literature:\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n\nJean le Rond d'Alembert\nJean le Rond d'Alembert (France, 1717–1783)\n Some literature:\n Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)\n\nRichard Price\nRichard Price (United Kingdom, 1723–1791)\n Some literature:\n Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt, 1771\n Observations on Reversionary Payments, 1771\n Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America, 1776\n\nAnders Chydenius\n\nAnders Chydenius (Finland (then a part of the Swedish realm), 1729–1803)\nHis book Den Nationale Winsten (engl. The National Gain) proposed roughly same the ideas as Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, a decade earlier, including foundations of liberalism and capitalism and (roughly) the invisible hand. He demanded complete economic and individual freedom, including the freedom of religion (although he was a priest), worker's rights to freely move and choose their professions and employers, the freedom of speech and trade and abolitions of all privileges and price and wage controls.\n\nHe was also a member of the Swedish four-estates parliament, elected three times as representative of the clergy in the northern and western parts of Finland. In his first parliamentary session, 1765–1766, he was very successful as a member of the subcommittee that wrote Sweden's famous Constitutional Law of the Freedom of Printing, Tryckfrihetsförordningen, of 1766. In this law Chydenius combined freedom of the press, and abolishment of the political censorship, with free access for the citizens to most government documents. Chydenius liberal system, where transparency reinforces press freedom, and the right for everyone to print the public document reinforces transparency, has been a fundamental constitutional principle in Sweden ever since, except for the years of royal autocracy 1772–1809. Chydenius model for press freedom and freedom of information was reestablished and strengthened in the Swedish Constitution 1809. It is now the foundation of the present Tryckfrihetsförordningen of 1949, which is one of the fundamental laws of Sweden.\n\nIn diluted form, and without the strong constitutional protection of the Swedish free press model, the principle of free access to public documents that originated in Chydenius law of 1766, has in recent decades been spread from Sweden to the Freedom of Information Acts of many countries. This way, Anders Chydenius, has become one of the older liberal thinkers that has most practical influence on politics and public administration of modern western societies.\n\nAn edition of Anders Chydenius Complete Works, in Finnish, Swedish and English, is under preparation by the Chydenius Foundation in Finland.\n Some literature:\n Americanska Näfwerbåtar, 1753 (American birchbark canoes)\n Källan Til Rikets Wan-Magt, 1765 (The cause of the weakness of the Kingdom)\n Den Nationnale Winsten, 1765 (The National Gain) Anders Chydenius-säätiö)\n\nAdam Smith\n\nAdam Smith (Great Britain, 1723–1790), often considered the founder of modern economics, was a key figure in formulating and advancing economic doctrine of free trade and competition. In his Wealth of Nations Adam Smith outlined the key idea that if the economy is basically left to its own devices, limited and finite resources will be put to ultimately their most efficient use through people acting purely in their self-interest. This concept has been quoted out of context by later economists as the invisible hand of the market.\n\nSmith also advanced property rights and personal civil liberties, including stopping slavery, which today partly form the basic liberal ideology. He was also opposed to stock-holding companies, what today is called a \"corporation\", because he predicated the self-policing of the free market upon the free association of moral individuals.\n Some literature:\n An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776 Wealth of Nations: Table of Contents.\n The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1759\n\nImmanuel Kant\n\nImmanuel Kant (Germany, 1724–1804)\n Some literature:\n Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, 1785 (Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals )\n Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788 (Critique of Practical Reason )\n Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis, 1793 (On the common saying: this may be true in theory but it does not apply in practice)\n Zum ewigen Frieden, 1795 (Perpetual Peace Kant Zum ewigen Frieden)\n Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797 (Metaphysics of Morals )\n\nAnne Robert Jacques Turgot\nAnne Robert Jacques Turgot (France, 1727–1781)\n Some literature:\n Le Conciliateur, 1754\n Lettre sur la tolérance civile, 1754\n Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses, 1766\n Lettres sur la liberté du commerce des grains, 1770\n\nJoseph Priestley\nJoseph Priestley (United Kingdom/United States, 1733–1804)\n Some literature:\n Essay on the First Principles of Government, 1768\n The Present State of Liberty in Great Britain and her Colonies, 1769\n Remarks on Dr Blackstone's Commentaries, 1769\n Observations on Civil Liberty and the Nature and Justice of the War with America, 1772\n\nAugust Ludwig von Schlözer\nAugust Ludwig von Schlözer (Germany, 1735–1809)\n\nPatrick Henry\nPatrick Henry (United States, 1736–1799)\n Some literature:\n Liberty or Death, 1775 Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death\n\nThomas Paine\n\nThomas Paine (United Kingdom/United States, 1737–1809)\n Some literature:\n Rights of Man, 1791–92 The Rights of Man from Project Gutenberg\n Agrarian Justice, 1797\n\nThomas Jefferson\n\nThomas Jefferson (United States, 1743–1826) was the third President of the United States and author of the Declaration of Independence. He also wrote Notes on the State of Virginia and the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. He was a champion of inalienable individual rights and the separation of church and state. His ideas were repeated in many other liberal revolutions around the world, including the (early) French Revolution.\n\nMarquis de Condorcet\nMarquis de Condorcet (France, 1743–1794)\n Some literature:\n Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrés de l'esprit humain, 1795 (Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind)\n\nJeremy Bentham\nJeremy Bentham (United Kingdom, 1748–1832)\nAn early advocate of utilitarianism, animal welfare and women's rights. He had many students all around the world, including John Stuart Mill and several political leaders. Bentham demanded economic and individual freedom, including the separation of the state and church, freedom of expression, completely equal rights for women, the end of slavery and colonialism, uniform democracy, the abolition of physical punishment, also on children, the right for divorce, free prices, free trade and no restrictions on interest. Bentham was not a libertarian: he supported inheritance tax, restrictions on monopoly power, pensions, health insurance and other social security, but called for prudence and careful consideration in any such governmental intervention.\n\nAdamantios Korais\nAdamantios Korais (Smyrna, 1748–1833) A major figure of the Greek Enlightenment, Korais helped shape the modern Greek state with his theories on classical education, language, religion, secular law and constitutional government, with passionate views on the necessity of democracy. He corresponded with leading figures of the American republic, especially with Thomas Jefferson.\n Some literature:\n Report on the Present State of Civilization in Greece, 1803\n What Should We Greeks Do in the Present Circumstances?, 1805\n The Library of Greek Literature, 1805–1826\n Parerga, 1809–1827\n\nEmmanuel Sieyès\nEmmanuel Joseph Sieyès '(France, 1748–1836) played an important role in the opening years of the French Revolution, drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, expanding on the theory of national sovereignty, popular sovereignty, and representation implied in his pamphlet What is the Third Estate?.\n\nCharles James Fox\n\nCharles James Fox (United Kingdom, 1749–1806) a Whig politician and member of parliament who spent most of his career in opposition. He opposed tyranny of any sort or the threat of it. For this reason he was a staunch critic of King George III whom he regarded as an aspiring tyrant. He was an abolitionist and supporter of American Patriots and of the French Revolution. He attacked Pitt's wartime legislation and defended the liberty of religious minorities and political radicals. After Pitt's death in January 1806, Fox served briefly as Foreign Secretary in the 'Ministry of All the Talents' of William Grenville.\n The Speeches of the Right Honourable Charles James Fox in the House of Commons.\n\nAntoine Destutt de Tracy\nAntoine Destutt de Tracy (1754–1836)\n\nStanisław Staszic\nStanisław Staszic (Poland-Lithuania, 1755–1826) was a Catholic priest, philosopher, geologist, writer, poet, translator and statesman. A physiocrat, monist, pan-Slavist (after 1815) and an advocate of laissez-faire, he supported many reforms in Poland. He is particularly remembered for his political writings during the \"Great (Four-Year) Sejm\" (1788–92) and for his support of the Constitution of 3 May 1791.\n\nAnne Louise Germaine de Staël\n\nAnne Louise Germaine de Staël (France, 1766–1817)\n Some literature:\n De l'influence des passions sur le bonheur des individus et des nations, 1796\n Des circonstances actuelles qui peuvent terminer la Révolution et des principes qui doivent fonder la république en France, 1798\n Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française, 1813\n Appel aux souverains réunis à Paris pour en obtenir l'abolition de la traite des nègres, 1814\n\nBenjamin Constant\n\nBenjamin Constant (France, 1767–1830) Regarded by some as one of the fathers of modern liberalism, he was initially a republican during the French Revolution, but utterly rejected The Jacobins as an instance of the tyranny of the majority.\n Some literature:\n De l'esprit de conquête et l'usurpation (On the spirit of conquest and on usurpation), 1814\n Principes de Politique (Principles of Politics), 1815\n \"The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns,\" 1819\n\nJean-Baptiste Say\nJean-Baptiste Say (France, 1767–1832)\n Some literature:\n Traité d'économie politique (Treatise on Political Economy), 1803.\n\nWilhelm von Humboldt\n\nWilhelm von Humboldt (Germany, 1767–1835)\n Some literature:\n Ideen zu einem Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen (On the Limits of State Action), 1792.\n\nAdam Czartoryski\nAdam Czartoryski (Poland-Lithuania 1770–1867) was a statesman, and international politician. He began as a foreign minister to the Russian Tsar Alexander I and built an anti-Napoleon coalition. He became a leader of the Polish government in exile, and an enemy of Russian Tsar Nicholas I. In exile he was an activist on the Polish Question across Europe, and stimulated early Balkan independence.\n Some literature:\n Essai sur la diplomatie (Marseilles, 1830);\n Life of J. U. Niemcewicz (Paris, 1860);\n Alexander I. et Czartoryski: correspondence ... et conversations (1801–1823) Memoirs of Czartoryski, with documents relating to his negotiations with Pitt, and conversations with Palmerston in 1832\n\nDavid Ricardo\nDavid Ricardo (United Kingdom, 1772–1823)\n\nJames Mill\nJames Mill (United Kingdom, 1773–1836)\n Some literature:\n Elements of Political Economy, 1821\n\nAntoine-Elisée Cherbuliez\nAntoine-Elisée Cherbuliez (Switzerland, 1797–1869)\n\nFrédéric Bastiat\nFrédéric Bastiat (France, 1801–1850)\n\nClaude Frédéric Bastiat was a French classical liberal theorist, political economist, and member of the French assembly.\n Some literature:\n La Loi (The Law), 1849\n Harmonies économiques (Economic Harmonies), 1850\n Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas (What is Seen and What is Not Seen), 1850\n\nRifa'a al-Tahtawi\nRifa'a al-Tahtawi (Egypt, 1801–1873)\n\nRifa'a al-Tahtawi (also spelt Tahtawy) was an Egyptian writer, teacher, translator, Egyptologist, renaissance intellectual and one of the early adapters to Islamic Modernism. In 1831, Tahtawi was part of the statewide effort to modernize the Egyptian infrastructure and education. Three of his published volumes were works of political and moral philosophy. They introduced his Egyptian audience to Enlightenment ideas such as secular authority and political rights and liberty; his ideas regarding how a modern civilized society ought to be and what constituted by extension a civilized or \"good Egyptian\"; and his ideas on public interest and public good. Tahtawi's work was the first effort in what became an Egyptian renaissance (nahda) that flourished in the years between 1860 and 1940.\n Works:\n A Paris Profile, written during Tahtawi's stay in France.\n The methodology of Egyptians minds with regard to the marvels of modern literature, published in 1869 crystallizing Tahtawi's opinions on modernization.\n The honest guide for education of girls and boys, published in 1873 and reflecting the main precepts of Tahtawi's educational thoughts.\n Tawfik al-Galil insights into Egypt's and Ismail descendants' history, the first part of the History Encyclopedia published in 1868 and tracing the history of ancient Egypt till the dawn of Islam.\n A thorough summary of the biography of Mohammed published after Tahtawi's death, recording a comprehensive account of the life of Prophet Mohammed and the political, legal and administrative foundations of the first Islamic state.\n Towards a simpler Arabic grammar, published in 1869.\n Grammatical sentences, published in 1863.\n Egyptian patriotic lyrics, written in praise of Khedive Said and published in 1855.\n The luminous stars in the moonlit nights of al-Aziz, a collection of congratulatory writings to some princes, published in 1872.\n\nJohan Rudolf Thorbecke\nThe Dutch statesman Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (Netherlands, 1798–1872) was the main theorist of Dutch liberalism in the nineteenth century, outlining a more democratic alternative to the absolute monarchy, the constitutional monarchy. The constitution of 1848 was mainly his work. His main theoretical article specifically labeled as 'liberal' was 'Over het hedendaagsche staatsburgerschap' (On Modern Citizenship) from 1844. He became prime minister in 1849, thus starting numerous fundamental reforms in Dutch politics.\n\nHarriet Martineau\nHarriet Martineau (United Kingdom, 1802–1876)\n Some literature:\n Illustrations of Political Economy, 1832–1834\n Theory and Practice of Society in America, 1837\n The Martyr Age of the United States, 1839\n\nRalph Waldo Emerson\nRalph Waldo Emerson (United States, 1803–1882) was an American philosopher who argued that the basic principles of government were mutable, and that government is required only insofar as people are not self-governing. Proponent of Democracy, and of the idea that a democratic people must have a democratic ethics.\n Some literature:\n Self-Reliance Circles Politics The Nominalist and the RealistAlexis de Tocqueville\nAlexis de Tocqueville (France, 1805–1859)\n Some literature:\n De La Démocratie en Amérique, 1831–1840 (Democracy in America, )\n L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, 1856\n\nWilliam Lloyd Garrison\nWilliam Lloyd Garrison (United States, 1805–1879)\n Some literature:\n Articles advocating abolition of slavery in the newspaper The Liberator, 1831–1866\n\nFriedrich Schiller\nFriedrich Schiller (Germany, 1759–1805)\n\nMill and further\n\nJohn Stuart Mill\n\nJohn Stuart Mill (United Kingdom, 1806–1873) is one of the first champions of modern \"liberalism.\" As such, his work on political economy and logic helped lay the foundation for advancements in empirical science and public policy based on verifiable improvements. Strongly influenced by Bentham's utilitarianism, he disagrees with Kant's intuitive notion of right and formulates the \"highest normative principle\" of morals as:Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.Some consider Mill as the founder of Social liberalism. Although Mill was mainly for free markets, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. Mill was also a champion of women's rights.\n Some literature:\n Considerations On Representative Government, 1862 \n On Liberty, 1868 \n Socialism, 1879 \n\nJuan Bautista Alberdi\nJuan Bautista Alberdi (Argentina, 1810–1884)\n Some literature:\n Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina (Bases and Points of Departure for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic), 1852\n Sistema económico y rentistico de la Confederación Argentina, según su Constitución de 1853 (Economic and rentistic system of the Argentine Confederation, according to its 1853 Constitution), 1854\n\nHenry David Thoreau\nHenry David Thoreau (1817–1862)\n Some literature:\n Civil Disobedience WaldenJacob Burckhardt\nJacob Burckhardt (Switzerland, 1818–1897) State as derived from cultural and economic life\n Some literature:\n The Civilization of the Renaissance in ItalyHerbert Spencer\nHerbert Spencer (United Kingdom, 1820–1903), philosopher, psychologist, and sociologist, advanced what he called the \"Law of equal liberty\" and argued against liberal theory promoting more activist government, which he dubbed \"a new form of Toryism.\" He supported a state limited in its duties to the defense of persons and their property. For Spencer, voluntary cooperation was the hallmark of the most vibrant form of society, accommodating the widest diversity of members and the greatest diversity of goals. Spencer's evolutionary approach has been characterized as an extension of Adam Smith's \"invisible hand\" explanation of economic order; his extensive work on sympathy (in psychology as well as the foundation of ethics, particularly in The Data of Ethics) explicitly carried on Smith's approach in The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Spencer is frequently characterized as a leading Social Darwinist.\n Some literature:\n Social Statics, 1851\n Principles of Ethics, 1879, 1892\n The Man versus the State, 1884\n Essays, Scientific, Political and Speculative, 1892\n\nİbrahim Şinasi\nİbrahim Şinasi (Ottoman Empire, 1826–1871), author, journalist, translator, and newspaper editor. He was the innovator of several fields: he wrote one of the earliest examples of an Ottoman play, he encouraged the trend of translating poetry from French into Turkish, he simplified the script used for writing the Ottoman Turkish language, and he was one of the first of the Ottoman writers to write specifically for the broader public. Şinasi used his newspapers, Tercüman-ı Ahvâl and Tasvîr-i Efkâr, to promote the proliferation of European Enlightenment ideals during the Tanzimat period, and he made the education of the literate Ottoman public his personal vocation. Though many of Şinasi's projects were incomplete at the time of his death, \"he was at the forefront of a number of fields and put his stamp on the development of each field so long as it contained unsolved problems.\" Şinasi, influenced by Enlightenment thought, saw freedom of expression as a fundamental right and used journalism in order to engage, communicate with, and educate the public. By speaking directly to the public about government affairs, Şinasi declared that state actions were not solely the interest of the government.\n Works:\n Tercüme-i Manzume (1859, translation of poems from the French of La Fontaine, Lamartine, Gilbert, and Racine)\n Şair Evlenmesi (1859, the first Ottoman play, \"The Wedding of a Poet\")\n Durub-i Emsal-i Osmaniye (1863, the first book of Turkish proverbs)\n Müntahabat-ı Eş'ar (1863, collection of poems)\n\nThomas Hill Green\nThomas Hill Green (United Kingdom, 1836–1882)\n\nAuberon Herbert\nAuberon Herbert (United Kingdom, 1838–1906)\n\nCarl Menger\nCarl Menger (Austria, 1840–1921)\n Some literature:\n Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre (Principles of Economics), 1871\n Untersuchungen über die Methode der Sozialwissenschaften und der Politischen Ökonomie insbesondere (Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences: with special reference to economics), 1883\n Irrthumer des Historismus in der deutschen Nationalokonomie (The Errors of Historicism in German Economics), 1884\n Zur Theorie des Kapitals (The Theory of Capital), 1888\n\nWilliam Graham Sumner\nWilliam Graham Sumner (United States, 1840–1910)\n Some literature:\n Socialism, 1878\n The Argument Against Protective Tariffs, 1881\n Protective Taxes and Wages, 1883\n The Absurd Effort to Make the World Over, 1883\n State Interference, 1887\n Protectionism: the -ism which teaches that waste makes wealth, 1887\n The Forgotten Man, and Other Essays, 1917\n\nLester Frank Ward\nLester Frank Ward (United States, 1841–1913)\nLester Ward was a botanist, paleontologist, and sociologist. He served as the first president of the American Sociological Association. Ward was a fierce and unrelenting critic of the laissez-faire policies advocated by Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner.\n Some literature:\n (1883) Dynamic Sociology: Or Applied social science as based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences.\n (1893) The Psychic Factors of Civilization, 1893.\n (1903) Pure Sociology. A Treatise on the Origin and Spontaneous Development of Society.\n (1906) Applied Sociology. A Treatise on the Conscious Improvement of Society by Society.\n\nWard's major works can be found here: \n\nLujo Brentano\n\nLudwig Joseph Brentano (Germany, 1844–1931)\n\nTomáš Masaryk\nTomáš Garrigue Masaryk (Czechoslovakia, 1850–1937)\n\nEugen von Böhm-Bawerk\nEugen von Böhm-Bawerk (Austria, 1851–1914)\n Some literature:\n Kapital und Kapitalzins (Capital and Interest), in three volumes, 1884, 1889 and 1909\n Die Positive Theorie des Kapitals (The positive theory of capital and its critics), in three volumes, 1895 and 1896\n Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems (Karl Marx and the Close of his system),1898\n\nLouis Brandeis\nLouis Brandeis (1856–1941)\n\nThorstein Veblen\nThorstein Veblen (1857–1926) is best known as the author of Theory of the Leisure Class. Veblen was influential to a generation of American liberalism searching for a rational basis for the economy beyond corporate consolidation and \"cut throat competition\". Veblen's central argument was that individuals require sufficient non-economic time to become educated citizens. He caustically attacked pure material consumption for its own sake, and the idea that utility equalled conspicuous consumption.\n\nJohn Dewey\nJohn Dewey (United States, 1859–1952)\n Some literature:\n Liberalism and Social Action, 1935\n Democracy and Education \n\nFriedrich Naumann\nFriedrich Naumann (Germany, 1860–1919)\n\nSanteri Alkio\n\nSanteri Alkio (Finland, 1862–1930)\n\nMax Weber\nMax Weber (Germany, 1864–1920) was a theorist of state power and the relationship of culture to economics. Argued that there was a moral component to capitalism rooted in \"Protestant\" values. Weber was along with Friedrich Naumann active in the National Social Union and later in the German Democratic Party.\n Some literature:\n Die protestantische Ethik und der 'Geist' des Kapitalismus, 1904 (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism )\n\nLeonard Hobhouse\nLeonard Trelawny Hobhouse (United Kingdom, 1864–1929)\n Some literature:\n Liberalism, 1911 \n\nBenedetto Croce\nBenedetto Croce (Italy, 1866–1952)\n Some literature:\n Che cosa è il liberalismo, 1943\n\nWalther Rathenau\nWalther Rathenau (Germany, 1867–1922)\n\nSir Leo Chiozza Money\nLeo Chiozza Money (Britain, 1870–1944)\nAn Italian-born economic theorist who moved to Britain in the 1890s, where he made his name as a politician, journalist and author. In the early years of the 20th century his views attracted the interest of two future Prime Ministers, David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. After a spell as Lloyd George's parliamentary private secretary, he was a Government minister in the latter stages of the First World War.\n\nAhmed Lutfi el-Sayed\nAhmed Lutfi el-Sayed Pasha (Egypt, 1872–1963)\nAn Egyptian intellectual, anti-colonial activist and the first director of Cairo University. He was an influential person in the Egyptian nationalist movement and used his position in the media to strive and gain an independent Egypt from British rule. He was also one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism as well as the architect of Egyptian secularism and liberalism. He was fondly known as the \"Professor of the Generation\". Lutfi was one of the fiercest opponents of pan-Arabism, insisting that Egyptians are Egyptians and not Arabs. He is considered one of the most influential scholars and intellectuals in the history of Egypt.\n\nWilliam Beveridge\nWilliam Beveridge (United Kingdom, 1879–1963)\n Some literature:\n Full Employment in a Free Society, 1944\n Why I am a liberal, 1945\n\nLudwig von Mises\nLudwig von Mises (Austria/United States, 1881–1973)\n Some literature:\n Socialism, 1922\n Liberalism, 1927\n Omnipotent Government, 1944\n Human Action, 1949\n\nJosé Ortega y Gasset\nJosé Ortega y Gasset (Spain, 1883–1955)\n Some literature:\n La rebelión de las masas (The Rebellion of the Masses), 1930\n\nSalvador de Madariaga\nSalvador de Madariaga (Spain, 1886–1978). One of the principal authors of the Oxford Manifesto in 1947.\n\nAdolf Berle\nAdolf Berle (United States, 1895–1971) was author of The Modern Corporation and Private Property, detailing the importance of differentiating between the management of corporations and the share holders who are the owners. Influential in the theory of New Deal policy.\n Some literature with Gardiner Means:\n The Modern Corporation and Private PropertyWilhelm Röpke\nWilhelm Röpke (Germany, 1899–1966)\n Some literature:\n International Economic Disintegration, 1942\n The Social Crisis of Our Time, 1942\n Civitas Humana, 1944\n International Order and Economic Integration, 1945\n The Solution of the German Problem, 1946\n\nBertil Ohlin\nBertil Ohlin (Sweden, 1899–1979)\n Some literature:\n Interregional and International Trade, 1933\n\nFriedrich Hayek\n\nFriedrich Hayek (Austria/United Kingdom/United States/Germany, 1899–1992) In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. Also a Nobel Prize winner in economics and predicter of the Great Depression like fellow Austrian School economist and mentor Ludwig von Mises.\n Some literature:\n The Road to Serfdom, 1944 \n The Constitution of Liberty, 1960\n Law, Legislation and Liberty, in three volumes, 1973, 1976 and 1979\n\nKarl Popper\nKarl Raimund Popper (Austria/United Kingdom, 1902–1994) developed the idea of the open society, characterized by respect for a wide variety of opinions and behaviors and a preference for audacious but piecemeal political reform over either conservative stasis or revolutionary utopianism. In his view, all simplistic and grandiose theories of history and society shared a common feature he called historicism, which he traces back to Plato, while the open society mirrors the methodological fallibilism pioneered by Popper in his earlier works on philosophy of science.\n Some literature:\n The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1945\n The Poverty of Historicism, 1961\n\nAlan Paton\nAlan Paton (South Africa, 1903–1988) contributed with his book Cry, The beloved country to a clear anti-apartheid stand of South African liberalism. His party, the Liberal Party of South Africa was banned by the apartheid government.\n Some literature:\n Cry, The Beloved Country, 1948\n Ah, but Your Land is Beautiful, 1983\n\nAyn Rand\nAyn Rand (United States, 1905–1982) was a radical and influential moral and political philosopher. Her advocacy of strong self-interest in ethics was influenced, she claimed, by the thinkers Aristotle, Aquinas, and Locke. Her advocacy of pure laissez-faire capitalism was influenced by the classical liberal economists Mises and Hayek.\n Some literature:\n The Virtue of Selfishness, 1963\n Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal, 1966\n\nRaymond Aron\nRaymond Aron (France, 1905–1983)\n Some literature:\n Essais sur les libertés, 1965\n Démocratie et totalitarisme, 1965\n\nDonald Barkly Molteno\nDonald Barkly Molteno (South Africa, 1908–1972), known as Dilizintaba (\"He who removes mountains\"), was a constitutional lawyer and a parliamentarian but above all, an academic. His work on constitutional law centered on civil rights and his fierce opposition to the segregationalist policies of Apartheid.\n\nJohn Kenneth Galbraith\n\nJohn Kenneth Galbraith (Canadian-born economist who worked in the United States, 1908–2006)\n Some literature:\n The Affluent Society, 1958\n The Liberal Hour, 1960\n\nIsaiah Berlin\nIsaiah Berlin (Latvia/United Kingdom, 1909–1997) is most famous for his attempt to distinguish 'two conceptions of liberty'. Berlin argued that what he called 'positive' and 'negative' liberty were mutually opposing concepts. Positive conceptions assumed that liberty could only be achieved when collective power (in the form of church or state) acted to 'liberate' mankind from its worst aspects. These, Berlin felt, tended towards totalitarianism. Negative conceptions, by contrast, argued that liberty was achieved when individuals were given maximal freedom from external constraints (so long as these did not infringe on the freedom of others to achieve the same condition). Berlin was also a critic of dogmatic Enlightenment rationalism on the grounds that it was unable to accommodate value pluralism.\n Some literature:\n Two Concepts of Liberty, 1958\n Four Essays on Liberty, 1969\n From Hope and Fear Set Free, 1978\n\nMilton Friedman\nMilton Friedman (United States, 1912–2006), winner of a Nobel Prize in Economics and a self-identified Classical Liberal and libertarian, was known for the Friedman rule, Friedman's k-percent rule, and the Friedman test.\n Some literature:\n Capitalism and Freedom, 1962\n A Monetary History of the United States, 1963\n Free to Choose, 1980\n\nJames Buchanan\nJames Buchanan (United States, 1919–2013) is known for his economic theories of the political process, which were among the first to take seriously the concept of politicians as rational actors that respond to incentives.\n Some literature:\n The Calculus of Consent / James Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, 1962\n The Limits of Liberty, 1975\n Democracy in Deficit / James Buchanan & Richard E. Wagner, 1977\n The Power to Tax / James Buchanan & Geoffrey Brennan, 1980\n The Reason of Rules / James Buchanan & Geoffrey Brennan, 1985\n\nMurray Newton Rothbard\nMurray Rothbard (United States, 1926–1995) was the originator of modern anarcho-capitalism and an economist and economic historian of the Austrian school. He is widely considered one of the foremost advocates of liberty and freedom in the late 20th century. He was involved with various political movements throughout his life, notably with Ayn Rand and, later, the Libertarian Party of United States. His influence is lasting in the libertarian and anarcho-capitalist movements.\n Man, Economy, and State, 1962\n For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, 1973\n Conceived in Liberty, 1975–1979\n The Ethics of Liberty, 1982\n An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought, 1995\n\nLeszek Kołakowski\nLeszek Kołakowski (Poland, 1927–2009), philosopher and historian of ideas. He was a leading inspiration behind Poland's Solidarity movement.\n Some literature:\n Jednostka i nieskończoność. Wolność i antynomie wolności w filozofii Spinozy (The Individual and the Infinite: Freedom and Antinomies of Freedom in Spinoza's Philosophy), 1958\n Rozmowy z diabłem (US title: Conversations with the Devil / UK title: Talk of the Devil; reissued with The Key to Heaven under the title The Devil and Scripture, 1973)\n Od Hume'a do Koła Wiedeńskiego (the 1st edition:The Alienation of Reason, then Positivist Philosophy from Hume to the Vienna Circle)\n\nRalf Dahrendorf\nRalf Dahrendorf (Germany/United Kingdom, 1929–2009 )\n Some literature:\n Die Chancen der Krise: über die Zukunft des Liberalismus, 1983\n Fragmente eines neuen Liberalismus, 1987\n\nKarl-Hermann Flach\nThe journalist Karl-Hermann Flach (Germany, 1929–1973) was in his book Noch eine Chance für die Liberalen one of the main theorist of the new social liberal principles of the Free Democratic Party (Germany). He places liberalism clearly as the opposite of conservatism and opened the road for a government coalition with the social democrats.\n\nJoseph Raz\nJoseph Raz (Israel/United Kingdom, 1939–2022)\n Some literature:\n The Morality of FreedomRonald Dworkin\nRonald Dworkin (United States, 1931–2013)\n Some literature:\n Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality Justice for HedgehogsRichard Rorty\nRichard Rorty (United States, 1931–2007) was one of the leading contemporary philosophers of liberalism. His fundamental claims, among others, are that liberalism is best defined as the attempt to avoid cruelty to others; that liberals need to accept the historical 'irony' that there is no metaphysical justification for their belief that not being cruel is a virtue; that literature plays a crucial role in developing the empathy necessary to promote solidarity (and therefore lack of cruelty) between humans; and that private philosophising and public political discourse are separate practices and should remain so.\n\nAmartya Sen\n\nAmartya Sen (India, 1933– ) is an economist whose early work was based on Kenneth Arrow's General Possibility Theorem, and on the impossibility of both complete pareto optimality and solely procedural based rights. He won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his work on famine, welfare economics and social choice theory. And is an advocate of rationality as the fundamental safe guard of freedom and justice.\n Some literature:\n Development as Freedom The Argumentative IndianRobert Nozick\nRobert Nozick (United States, 1938–2002) was a libertarian (or minarchist). He advocated an unapologetically reductionist political philosophy characterized by meticulous analysis of the moral aspects of each social interaction, and did not shy away from addressing hard philosophical issues such as the original appropriation of property. Nozick is best known for providing the justification of a minimal state by showing that it can be established without any unjust steps.\n Some literature:\n Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 1974\n\nHernando de Soto\nThe economist Hernando de Soto (Peru, 1941– ) is an advocate of transparency and private property rights, arguing that intransparent government leads to property not being given proper title, and therefore being \"dead capital\" which cannot be used as the basis of credit. Argues that laws which allocate property to those most able to use them for economic growth, so called \"squatter's rights\", are an important innovation.\n Some literature:\n The Other Path, 1986.\n The Mystery of Capital, 2000.\n\nMichael Meadowcroft\nA biography described the British politician Michael Meadowcroft as \"the main, indeed very nearly the only, philosopher of applied Liberalism within the old Liberal Party from the late 1960s onwards\". On the merger of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party in the UK to form the Liberal Democrats, Meadowcroft initially reconstituted a new Liberal Party with others who did not want to compromise the philosophy of liberalism. However, the new Liberal Party became increasingly Eurosceptic under the leadership of Steve Radford and Meadowcroft joined the Liberal Democrats in 2007. He has regularly argued for the importance of political philosophy and that members of the Liberal Democrats require more conviction in their beliefs.\n Some literature:\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nCarlos Santiago Nino\nCarlos Santiago Nino (Argentina, 1943–1993)\n Some literature:\n The Ethics of Human RightsBruce Ackerman\nBruce Ackerman (United States, 1943– )\n Some literature:\n We, The People Martha Nussbaum \nMartha Nussbaum (United States, 1947– ) is a philosopher and the current Ernst Freund Distinguished Service Professor of Law and Ethics at the University of Chicago. She specializes in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, political philosophy, existentialism, feminism, and ethics, including animal rights. She received the 2016 Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy, the 2018 Berggruen Prize, and the 2021 Holberg Prize.\n Some literature:\n The Fragility of Goodness (1986)\n Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education (1997)\n Sex and Social Justice (1998)\n Hiding from Humanity: Disgust, Shame, and the Law (2004)\n Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership (2006) From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation and Constitutional Law (2010)\n\nWill Kymlicka\nWill Kymlicka (Canada, 1962– ) tries in his philosophy to determine if forms of ethnic or minority nationalism are compatible with liberal-democratic principles of individual freedom, social equality and political democracy. In his book Multicultural Citizenship. A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights'' he argues that certain \"group-differentiated rights\" of minority cultures can be consistent with these liberal-democratic principles.\n\nGavin Faulkner \nGavin Faulkner (United States, 2002– ) is a liberal political theorist and Georgist economist who rejects the analytic approach to liberalism, and is attempting to justify political and economic liberalism through Hegelianism.\n\nFootnotes\n\nCategory:Liberalism\nLiberal theorists\nLiberal", "title": "List of liberal theorists" } ]

[ "An example of a job that William Beveridge held early in his career is a lawyer.", "The text does not provide information on where William Beveridge worked as a lawyer.", "He worked at Toynbee Hall in 1903.", "While at Toynbee Hall, Beveridge became involved in social reform, promoting old age pensions, free school meals, and campaigning for a national system of labour exchanges. He also developed an interest in the causes of unemployment.", "In addition to Toynbee Hall, Beveridge worked at several other places including the Board of Trade, the Ministry of Food, and the London School of Economics and Political Science. He later became the Master of University College, Oxford.", "At the London School of Economics and Political Science, Beveridge served on several commissions and committees on social policy. He also published academic economic works including his early work on unemployment and a large historical study of prices and wages. Additionally, he defended the Fabian roots of the LSE against Edwin Cannan and Lionel Robbins, who were trying to steer it in a different direction." ]

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[ "When was the album The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste released?", "What label was the album released on?", "Where did the band tour?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What other musicians joined Ministry?", "Did they win any awards for their music?" ]

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[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "The text does not provide information on when the album The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste was released.", "The text does not provide information on what label the album The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste was released on.", "The text does not provide specific information on where the band toured for the album The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste.", "The text mentions several interesting aspects, such as the complex nature of the album's drumming requiring a second drummer, the formation of a ten piece touring line-up, the release of two singles, and the numerous side projects and collaborations that Jourgensen and Barker started in the late 1980s apart from Ministry. These side projects included Ministry's alter ego, the Revolting Cocks, Lard, Acid Horse, 1000 Homo DJs, PTP, and Pailhead. Barker released his own material as Lead into Gold while Jourgensen produced and played electric guitar on Skinny Puppy's 1989 album Rabies.", "Apart from the group's core members, the touring line-up for The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste included a second drummer, Martin Atkins (formerly of Public Image Ltd. and Killing Joke), Chris Connelly (keyboards and vocals), Skinny Puppy vocalist Nivek Ogre (vocals and keyboards), Joe Kelly (vocals and backing vocals) and guitarists Mike Scaccia, Terry Roberts, and William Tucker.", "The text does not provide information on whether they won any awards for their music." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_0_q#0", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_0_q#1", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_0_q#2", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_0_q#3", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_0_q#4" ]

[ "What happened in 1992?", "How many copies did they sell of this album?", "Did they go on tour during this time frame?", "How long before they released their next album?", "Did the band get along with each other at this point?" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 2500 ], [ 2009 ], [ 2079 ], [ 580 ] ], "texts": [ [ "A Killing Joke anthology, Laugh? I Nearly Bought One!, was released in 1992;" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Democracy tour" ], [ "After the Democracy tour, the band went on an extended hiatus." ], [ "Relations later soured between Coleman and Shihad due to a dispute over Coleman's production fee for Churn." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 2500, 2009, 2079, 580 ], "texts": [ "A Killing Joke anthology, Laugh? I Nearly Bought One!, was released in 1992;", "CANNOTANSWER", "Democracy tour", "After the Democracy tour, the band went on an extended hiatus.", "Relations later soured between Coleman and Shihad due to a dispute over Coleman's production fee for Churn." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "In 1992, the Killing Joke anthology, Laugh? I Nearly Bought One!, was released. During its production, Walker reconnected with Youth, who suggested they reform the band with himself back on bass. That same year, two singles appeared featuring the early songs \"Change\" and \"Wardance\" in new versions remixed by Youth.", "The context does not provide information on how many copies of the Killing Joke anthology, Laugh? I Nearly Bought One!, were sold.", "The context does not provide information on whether Killing Joke went on tour during 1992.", "The next album by Killing Joke, titled \"Pandemonium\", was released in 1994, which is two years after the release of their anthology, Laugh? I Nearly Bought One!, in 1992.", "The context does not provide information on the interpersonal relationships within Killing Joke band during this time period." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_1_q#0", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_1_q#1", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_1_q#2", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_1_q#3", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_1_q#4", "C_432f8c1fd0e64774bf25a45ad266b1ae_1_q#5" ]

[ "What was the band dealing with in the late 80's?", "What happened to the previous bassist and drummer?", "Who did they find to play the drums?", "Was there anyone after Martin?", "Did they release any albums during this time period?", "How did the eighth album sell?" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1872 ], [ 92 ], [ 1872 ], [ 1031 ], [ 1872 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Towards the end of 1988, Coleman and Walker looked for full-time bass players and drummers." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "First on board was drummer Martin Atkins, who had gained notability in Public Image Ltd." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "the result was Killing Joke's eighth album, the ferocious Extremities, Dirt & Various Repressed Emotions," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1872, 92, 1872, 1031, 1872 ], "texts": [ "Towards the end of 1988, Coleman and Walker looked for full-time bass players and drummers.", "CANNOTANSWER", "First on board was drummer Martin Atkins, who had gained notability in Public Image Ltd.", "CANNOTANSWER", "the result was Killing Joke's eighth album, the ferocious Extremities, Dirt & Various Repressed Emotions,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "In the late 80's, the band Killing Joke was dealing with changes in their line-up, including finding a full-time drummer and bass player. They eventually settled on Martin Atkins as the drummer and Dave \"Taif\" Ball as the bass player. They also played their first gigs in nearly two years, toured across the UK, Europe, and the US, and tried to record new material. However, the recording sessions in Germany were eventually shelved for unspecified reasons. There were further adjustments to the band's line-up and they recorded their eighth album, Extremities, Dirt & Various Repressed Emotions, which was released in 1990. There were further tours, but by the middle of 1991, this line-up had imploded and the band's lead singer, Coleman, moved to New Zealand causing a hiatus in the band's activities.", "The context does not provide specific information on what happened to the previous bassist and drummer of the band Killing Joke before Martin Atkins and Dave \"Taif\" Ball joined in 1988.", "They found Martin Atkins to play the drums. He had gained notability in Public Image Ltd before joining the band.", "The context does not provide information about any drummer joining the band Killing Joke after Martin Atkins.", "Yes, during this timeframe, Killing Joke released their eighth album titled Extremities, Dirt & Various Repressed Emotions in 1990.", "The context does not provide information on how well Killing Joke's eighth album, Extremities, Dirt & Various Repressed Emotions, sold." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_0_q#0", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_0_q#1", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_0_q#2", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_0_q#3", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_0_q#4", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_0_q#5" ]

[ "When did he die?", "What was she impeached for?", "Any interesting information?", "What was important about Kuo?", "What was she passionate about?", "When did she die?" ]

[ 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 43 ], [ 2772 ], [ 2218 ], [ 2533 ], [ 2543 ], [ 43 ] ], "texts": [ [ "1093" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In the 1070s, Shen had purchased a lavish garden estate on the outskirts of modern-day Zhenjiang," ], [ "completed his life's written work of the Dream Pool Essays," ], [ "his life's written work of the Dream Pool Essays," ], [ "1093" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 43, 2772, 2218, 2533, 2543, 43 ], "texts": [ "1093", "CANNOTANSWER", "In the 1070s, Shen had purchased a lavish garden estate on the outskirts of modern-day Zhenjiang,", "completed his life's written work of the Dream Pool Essays,", "his life's written work of the Dream Pool Essays,", "1093" ] }

[]

[ "Shen Kuo died in 1095.", "The context does not provide information on any impeachment.", "Yes, Shen Kuo was a prominent figure in state governance and the military before he was disgraced and put under probation in a fixed residence for six years. During this time, he dedicated himself to scholarly studies and produced two geographical atlases. His probation was eventually lifted and earlier charges against him were pardoned. Despite the hardships in his personal life, including an abusive second wife and a failed suicide attempt, Shen Kuo was able to pursue intellectual pastimes and scholarly interests. He wrote a book named Dream Pool Essays and named his beautiful garden estate the \"Dream Brook\". Shen Kuo died in the year 1095.", "Shen Kuo was an important figure in state governance and the military before he was ousted from his position. Despite this downfall, he turned to scholarly pursuits and produced two significant geographical atlases. He also authored an influential work, the \"Dream Pool Essays\". These contributions indicate Shen Kuo's intellectual capabilities and resilience in the face of personal adversity.", "The context does not provide information on what a female individual was passionate about. Shen Kuo, a male, was clearly passionate about scholarly studies, as indicated by his production of geographical atlases and his authorship of the Dream Pool Essays. He also enjoyed various pastimes associated with the Chinese gentry and literati, including music, Zen Buddhist meditation, calligraphy, tea drinking, alchemy, poetry, conversation, and wine drinking.", "The context does not provide information on when a female individual died." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_1_q#0", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_1_q#1", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_1_q#2", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_1_q#3", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_1_q#4", "C_07581c228a074eb78252af0caf9aac69_1_q#5" ]

[ "when was shen born?", "what was his youth like?", "did he marry?", "how many children?", "what was the biggest event of his youth?", "how long did he serve?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 52 ], [ 114 ], [ 2451 ], [ 2451 ], [ 1970 ], [ 2451 ] ], "texts": [ [ "in the year 1031." ], [ "was a somewhat lower-class gentry figure serving in official posts on the provincial level;" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "). As of 1054, Shen began serving in minor local governmental posts." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 52, 114, 2451, 2451, 1970, 2451 ], "texts": [ "in the year 1031.", "was a somewhat lower-class gentry figure serving in official posts on the provincial level;", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "). As of 1054, Shen began serving in minor local governmental posts.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Shen Kuo was born in the year 1031.", "Shen Kuo's youth was notable for his scholarly pursuits and his keen interest in observing details of his surroundings. Despite not having a prominent familial clan history, Shen Kuo was determined and relied on his wit to succeed in his studies. He passed the imperial examinations and entered a sophisticated life as an exam-drafted state bureaucrat. His family often moved around China due to his father's job, and he took notice of the various towns and rural features as they traveled. His father's role in administrative governance had a notable impact on him, sparking his interest in these areas. Shen Kuo was also often ill as a child, which developed a natural curiosity in him about medicine and pharmaceutics.", "The context does not provide information on whether Shen Kuo was married.", "The context does not provide information on how many children Shen Kuo had.", "One of the significant events in Shen Kuo's youth, as mentioned in the context, is his successful design and supervision of the hydraulic drainage of an embankment system. This project converted about one hundred thousand acres of swampland into prime farmland.", "The context does not provide specific information on how long Shen Kuo served in his governmental roles." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_1_q#0", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_1_q#1", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_1_q#2", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_1_q#3", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_1_q#4", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_1_q#5", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_1_q#6", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_1_q#7" ]

[ "Where was he born", "When was he born?", "To whom was he born?", "Did he have siblings?", "Which high school did he attend?", "What activity did he perform in the school?", "Did his family play any role in his career?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 82 ], [ 92 ], [ 218 ], [ 620 ], [ 667 ], [ 714 ], [ 893 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Trumble was born in the inner Melbourne neighbourhood of Collingwood," ], [ "1867," ], [ "son of William, born in Northern Ireland and superintendent of an insane asylum, and Scottish-born Elizabeth" ], [ "elder brother, John, also played Test cricket for Australia and his younger brother, Thomas," ], [ "He was educated at Hawthorn Grammar School" ], [ "played his early cricket for Kew Cricket Club." ], [ "Encouraging his sons' early love of cricket, William Trumble--a keen cricketer" ], [ "He placed a feather on a good length and urged his sons to aim at it when bowling." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 82, 92, 218, 620, 667, 714, 893 ], "texts": [ "Trumble was born in the inner Melbourne neighbourhood of Collingwood,", "1867,", "son of William, born in Northern Ireland and superintendent of an insane asylum, and Scottish-born Elizabeth", "elder brother, John, also played Test cricket for Australia and his younger brother, Thomas,", "He was educated at Hawthorn Grammar School", "played his early cricket for Kew Cricket Club.", "Encouraging his sons' early love of cricket, William Trumble--a keen cricketer", "He placed a feather on a good length and urged his sons to aim at it when bowling." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "Trumble was born in the inner Melbourne neighbourhood of Collingwood, Victoria.", "Trumble was born in 1867.", "Trumble was born to William, who was born in Northern Ireland and was a superintendent of an insane asylum, and Scottish-born Elizabeth (nee Clark).", "Yes, he had two brothers. His elder brother, John, also played Test cricket for Australia and his younger brother, Thomas, served as Secretary for the Department of Defence and then official secretary to the High Commissioner for Australia in London.", "He was educated at Hawthorn Grammar School.", "The text does not provide information on what activity Trumble performed in school.", "Yes, his family played a role in his career. His father, William Trumble, was a keen cricketer who encouraged his sons' love for the sport. He set out a cricket pitch at their family home and instructed his sons to aim at a feather when bowling, which helped Trumble develop his accuracy.", "The text mentions that Trumble was an immediate success when he transferred to the Melbourne Cricket Club for the 1887-88 cricket season, taking 36 wickets that season and finishing with an average of 6.77 runs per wicket, the best in the club. In his first match for Victoria against Australian opposition, against New South Wales at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, Trumble took seven wickets for 52 runs." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#0", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#1", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#2", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#3", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#4", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#5", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#6", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#7", "C_c80913f21e7c4460b2d9d60d1772884d_0_q#8" ]

[ "Did he score good at the start of his career?", "Was he droppod out of the team?", "Did he play the next season?", "Did he ever bat?", "How long was the struggle spell?", "Was he selected afterwards?", "Did he do well upon his return?", "Did he struggle financially?", "How his struggle ended?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 620 ], [ 1104 ], [ 3144 ], [ 1910 ], [ 2017 ], [ 2246 ], [ 3144 ], [ 3144 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Early in the 1889-90 Australian season, Trumble endured a period where he was not able to take wickets consistently." ], [ "Trumble finished the season with 27 wickets at an average of 14.20 per wicket." ], [ "He took only one wicket, dismissing Bobby Peel caught and bowled for 1." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Trumble was not selected for the Australian team to play Lord Sheffield's touring English team in 1891-92." ], [ "He did not return to the Australian team until his selection in the squad to tour England in 1893." ], [ "He played in all three Test matches in 1893, taking 6 wickets at an average of 39.00." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 620, 1104, 3144, 1910, 2017, 2246, 3144, 3144 ], "texts": [ "Early in the 1889-90 Australian season, Trumble endured a period where he was not able to take wickets consistently.", "Trumble finished the season with 27 wickets at an average of 14.20 per wicket.", "He took only one wicket, dismissing Bobby Peel caught and bowled for 1.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Trumble was not selected for the Australian team to play Lord Sheffield's touring English team in 1891-92.", "He did not return to the Australian team until his selection in the squad to tour England in 1893.", "He played in all three Test matches in 1893, taking 6 wickets at an average of 39.00.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "The text does not provide clear information on his scoring at the start of his career.", "Yes, Trumble was not selected for the Australian team to play Lord Sheffield's touring English team in 1891-92. He did not return to the Australian team until his selection in the squad to tour England in 1893.", "The text does not provide information on whether Trumble played in the season immediately following his exclusion from the team in 1891-92. He did return to the Australian team for the tour of England in 1893.", "Yes, Trumble did bat in various matches. In his Test cricket debut in the First Test against the English team at Lord's Cricket Ground, he batted at number eleven in the first innings and made 1 not out and in the second, made 5 runs batting at number ten. Also, on the 1893 tour, he scored 58 runs in the Test matches with a highest score of 35, and in other matches, he scored 774 runs, including one century in all first-class matches on tour.", "The context does not provide specific timelines or durations to indicate how long Trumble's struggle with form lasted.", "Yes, after not being selected for the team in 1891-92, Trumble was selected again in the Australian team to tour England in 1893.", "Upon his return in the 1893 tour, Trumble showed significant improvement, taking 6 wickets in the Test matches and scoring 58 runs with a highest score of 35. He was more successful in the other games on the tour, taking 14 wickets for 116 runs against the Players and 12/84 against Kent at Gravesend. He also scored 774 runs, including one century in all first-class matches on tour. Wisden noted an \"immense improvement\" in his form.", "The text does not provide any information about Trumble's financial situation.", "The context mentions that Trumble's struggling performance improved significantly during the 1893 tour of England. Here, he showed remarkable performance in bowling as well as batting, scoring 774 runs and taking a significant number of wickets. His form was noted as an \"immense improvement\" by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack. So, it can be inferred that his struggle ended with an improved performance during this tour." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_53febef912dd41d38a913351d47c761c_1_q#0", "C_53febef912dd41d38a913351d47c761c_1_q#1", "C_53febef912dd41d38a913351d47c761c_1_q#2", "C_53febef912dd41d38a913351d47c761c_1_q#3" ]

[ "What are some of the terms used for the phonograph?", "Was it referred to by any other names?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Any other terms that can be used?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 562 ], [ 83 ], [ 1378 ], [ 1648 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The term phonograph (\"sound writing\") was derived from the Greek words phone (phone, \"sound\" or \"voice\") and graphe (graphe, \"writing\")." ], [ "In more modern usage, the playback device is often called a \"turntable\", \"record player\", or \"record changer\"." ], [ "Arguably, any device used to record sound or reproduce recorded sound could be called a type of \"phonograph\"," ], [ "In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, \"Phonograph\", \"Gramophone\", \"Graphophone\", \"Zonophone\" and the like were still brand names specific to various makers" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 562, 83, 1378, 1648 ], "texts": [ "The term phonograph (\"sound writing\") was derived from the Greek words phone (phone, \"sound\" or \"voice\") and graphe (graphe, \"writing\").", "In more modern usage, the playback device is often called a \"turntable\", \"record player\", or \"record changer\".", "Arguably, any device used to record sound or reproduce recorded sound could be called a type of \"phonograph\",", "In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, \"Phonograph\", \"Gramophone\", \"Graphophone\", \"Zonophone\" and the like were still brand names specific to various makers" ] }

[]

[ "Some terms used to refer to the phonograph include \"turntable\", \"record player\", \"record changer\", and \"decks\" (colloquially used when the device is part of a DJ setup). Other related terms are gramophone and graphophone. In the late-19th and early-20th centuries phonograph along with \"Gramophone\", \"Graphophone\", \"Zonophone\" were brand names specific to various machines of sometimes very different designs. The generic term \"talking machine\" was also used.", "Yes, in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, terms like \"Phonograph\", \"Gramophone\", \"Graphophone\", \"Zonophone\" were all brand names specific to various versions of these types of machines. Also, the term \"talking machine\" was used as a generic term to refer to these devices.\n", "The article mentions that terminology for these devices, such as the term \"phonograph\" (\"sound writing\"), was derived from Greek words. The roots of these terms were already familiar from existing 19th-century words such as photograph (\"light writing\"), telegraph (\"distant writing\"), and telephone (\"distant sound\"). The term \"phonograph\" once referred to any device that recorded or played back sound, but it has now come to mean historic technologies of sound recording that involve modulations of a physical trace or groove. It also noted an interesting historical use of the term in the 1850s, when The New York Times carried an advertisement for \"Professor Webster's phonographic class\" and the New York State Teachers Association tabled a motion to \"employ a phonographic recorder\" to record its meetings.", "Based on the provided text, other terminology notably includes \"turntable\", \"record player\", \"record changer\", \"decks\" (when used in a DJ setup), as well as \"Gramophone\", \"Graphophone\" and \"Zonophone\". These terms were brand names for various types of sound recording devices in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. The generic term \"talking machine\" was also used to refer to these devices, especially in print." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_53febef912dd41d38a913351d47c761c_0_q#0", "C_53febef912dd41d38a913351d47c761c_0_q#1", "C_53febef912dd41d38a913351d47c761c_0_q#2", "C_53febef912dd41d38a913351d47c761c_0_q#3" ]

[ "When was the Phonograph first introduced in the United States?", "What were the first uses for the Phonograph in the United States?", "How expensive was the phonograph in the United States?", "Besides Edison, were there any other people known for their connection to phonographs?" ]

[ 2, 1, 1, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 32 ], [ 152 ], [ 2819 ], [ 255 ] ], "texts": [ [ "\", properly specific to machines made by Edison, was sometimes used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s" ], [ "cylinder-playing machines made by others." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Emile Berliner's" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 32, 152, 2819, 255 ], "texts": [ "\", properly specific to machines made by Edison, was sometimes used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s", "cylinder-playing machines made by others.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Emile Berliner's" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on when the Phonograph was first introduced in the United States.", "The text does not provide information on the first uses for the Phonograph in the United States.", "The text does not provide information on the cost of the phonograph in the United States.", "Aside from Edison, Emile Berliner is mentioned in connection with the creation of the Gramophone, another disc-playing machine. The Victor Talking Machine Company is also mentioned in relation to popularizing the Victrolas, a line of disc-playing machines." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#0", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#1", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#2", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#3", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#4", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#5", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#6", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#7", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_1_q#8" ]

[ "What kind of military command was Chuck Yeager involved with?", "Did Chuck Yeager perform any others roles in the military?", "What kind of situations or events was Chuck Yeager involved with within the military service?", "Did Chuck Yeager accomplish any other types of flights in the military?", "Is there any other events that Yeager was involved with during his service?", "What experiences did Yeager have in Pilot School?", "Did Yeager have any other experiences while in school or in his service of military time?", "What else did Yeager experience in his lifetime?", "Did anything happen while Yeager was in Pakistan or other nearby countries as a result?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1679 ], [ 0 ], [ 81 ], [ 264 ], [ 528 ], [ 675 ], [ 1129 ], [ 1816 ], [ 1942 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On June 22, 1969, Yeager was promoted to brigadier general and was assigned in July as the vice-commander of the Seventeenth Air Force." ], [ "Yeager was foremost a fighter pilot and held several squadron and wing commands." ], [ "From May 1955 to July 1957 he commanded the F-86H Sabre-equipped 417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron" ], [ "from 1957 to 1960 the F-100D Super Sabre-equipped 1st Fighter Day Squadron (later, while still under Yeager's command, re-designated the 306th Tactical Fighter Squadron)" ], [ "after completion of a year's studies at the Air War College, Yeager became the first commandant of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School," ], [ "produced astronauts for NASA and the USAF," ], [ "In 1966 Yeager took command of the 405th Tactical Fighter Wing at Clark Air Base, the Philippines, whose squadrons were deployed on rotational temporary duty" ], [ "From 1971 to 1973, at the behest of Ambassador Joe Farland, Yeager was assigned to Pakistan to advise the Pakistan Air Force." ], [ "In one of the numerous raids carried out by Indian pilots against Pakistani airfields, Yeager's plane was destroyed" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1679, 0, 81, 264, 528, 675, 1129, 1816, 1942 ], "texts": [ "On June 22, 1969, Yeager was promoted to brigadier general and was assigned in July as the vice-commander of the Seventeenth Air Force.", "Yeager was foremost a fighter pilot and held several squadron and wing commands.", "From May 1955 to July 1957 he commanded the F-86H Sabre-equipped 417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron", "from 1957 to 1960 the F-100D Super Sabre-equipped 1st Fighter Day Squadron (later, while still under Yeager's command, re-designated the 306th Tactical Fighter Squadron)", "after completion of a year's studies at the Air War College, Yeager became the first commandant of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School,", "produced astronauts for NASA and the USAF,", "In 1966 Yeager took command of the 405th Tactical Fighter Wing at Clark Air Base, the Philippines, whose squadrons were deployed on rotational temporary duty", "From 1971 to 1973, at the behest of Ambassador Joe Farland, Yeager was assigned to Pakistan to advise the Pakistan Air Force.", "In one of the numerous raids carried out by Indian pilots against Pakistani airfields, Yeager's plane was destroyed" ] }

[]

[ "Chuck Yeager was involved with several military commands, including squadron and wing commands. He commanded the F-86H Sabre-equipped 417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron, the F-100D Super Sabre-equipped 1st Fighter Day Squadron, the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, the 405th Tactical Fighter Wing, and the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing. He also served as the vice-commander of the Seventeenth Air Force.", "Yes, apart from his command roles, Yeager also served as the first commandant of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, where he was responsible for training astronauts for NASA and the USAF. Furthermore, from 1971 to 1973, Yeager was assigned to Pakistan to advise the Pakistan Air Force.", "Chuck Yeager was involved in numerous situations and events within the military service. He led squadrons in Germany, France, California, Spain, the Philippines, and South Korea, including during the Pueblo crisis. He added more combat time with 127 missions in South Vietnam. He also trained astronauts in the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, and advised the Pakistan Air Force from 1971 to 1973. His plane was destroyed in Islamabad airport during a raid by Indian pilots.", "Yes, aside from his conventional fighter jet flights, Yeager also completed five flights in the NASA M2-F1 lifting body between December 1963 and January 1964. However, an accident during a December 1963 test flight in one of the school's NF-104s eventually put an end to his record attempts.", "Yeager was also involved in the Pueblo crisis while leading the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II wing in South Korea. Additionally, during his assignment in Pakistan to advise the Pakistan Air Force, his plane was destroyed during an Indian air raid at Islamabad airport. This incident led him to claim that the Indian pilot had been specifically instructed to target his plane.", "Chuck Yeager became the first commandant of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, which produced astronauts for NASA and the USAF, after a year's study at the Air War College. The school was previously known as the USAF Flight Test Pilot School. During his tenure, Yeager completed five flights in the NASA M2-F1 lifting body between December 1963 and January 1964. An accident during a December 1963 test flight in one of the school's NF-104s ended his record attempts.", "In addition to his experiences as a commandant and a pilot, Yeager took on advisory roles, such as when he was assigned to Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 to advise the Pakistan Air Force. While at the post, his plane was destroyed during a raid by Indian pilots at Islamabad airport. He also had combat experience from his time commanding the 405th Tactical Fighter Wing at Clark Air Base in the Philippines, accruing 414 hours of combat time in 127 missions, mostly in a Martin B-57 Canberra light bomber.", "Based on the provided context, Yeager had a wide range of experiences in his military career. Some additional experiences include leading the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina, during the Pueblo crisis, and his promotion to the rank of brigadier general in 1969. Following this promotion, he was assigned in July as the vice-commander of the Seventeenth Air Force. Furthermore, Yeager's plane was destroyed while it was parked at Islamabad airport during a raid carried out by Indian pilots.", "While Yeager was advising the Pakistan Air Force from 1971 to 1973, his plane was destroyed during a raid by Indian pilots at Islamabad airport. According to a U.S diplomat, Yeager claimed that the Indian pilot had been specifically instructed by Indira Gandhi to target his plane. It was Yeager's belief that this was India's way of sending a message to the United States." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Neutral", "Yes" ]

[ "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_1_q#0", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_1_q#1", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_1_q#2", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_1_q#3", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_1_q#4", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_1_q#5", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_1_q#6", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_1_q#7" ]

[ "Did Steve Young play any notable games while a backup?", "Did they win that game?", "Did he play any other notable games?", "Who were the 49ers playing in this game?", "When was this game being played?", "Was this game played at the 49ers' stadium or the Vikings' stadium?", "Did the 49ers play well during the 1987 to 1990 period?", "Did they ever get to the Super Bowl while Steve Young was there?" ]

[ 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 76 ], [ 218 ], [ 301 ], [ 282 ], [ 145 ], [ 1758 ], [ 822 ], [ 1023 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Substituting for an injured Montana, early in the first quarter of a 1987 game against the Chicago Bears, he threw four touchdown passes in a 41-0" ], [ "41-0 victory." ], [ "he replaced Montana in the second half after the team fell behind 27-10. The 49ers still lost the game, but Young had a fairly good performance" ], [ "Minnesota Vikings," ], [ "1987" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The play earned the 49ers a 24-21 victory and a bit of revenge on the Vikings for their previous season's playoff loss." ], [ "While Montana won the NFL MVP award and led the team to victory in Super Bowl XXIV, Young still had a good season," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 76, 218, 301, 282, 145, 1758, 822, 1023 ], "texts": [ "Substituting for an injured Montana, early in the first quarter of a 1987 game against the Chicago Bears, he threw four touchdown passes in a 41-0", "41-0 victory.", "he replaced Montana in the second half after the team fell behind 27-10. The 49ers still lost the game, but Young had a fairly good performance", "Minnesota Vikings,", "1987", "CANNOTANSWER", "The play earned the 49ers a 24-21 victory and a bit of revenge on the Vikings for their previous season's playoff loss.", "While Montana won the NFL MVP award and led the team to victory in Super Bowl XXIV, Young still had a good season," ] }

[]

[ "Yes, Steve Young played several notable games as a backup. For instance, in a 1987 game against the Chicago Bears, he threw four touchdown passes leading to a 41-0 victory. In their 1987 divisional playoff game against the Minnesota Vikings, he replaced Montana in the second half and had a fairly good performance despite the team's loss. On October 30, 1988, Young ran for a 49-yard, game-winning touchdown against the Minnesota Vikings. On October 22, 1989, he posted a perfect passer rating of 158.3 in a 37-20 victory over the New England Patriots.", "Yes, they won the game on October 22, 1989, against the New England Patriots with a score of 37-20.", "Yes, another notable game came on October 30, 1988, when Young ran for a 49-yard, game-winning touchdown against the Minnesota Vikings. He had started the game with a 73-yard touchdown pass to John Taylor. This play earned the 49ers a 24-21 victory. Moreover, on December 23, 1990, Young rushed for a career-high 102 yards on just eight carries against the New Orleans Saints, becoming only the second 49ers quarterback to rush for at least 100 yards in a single game, although they lost this game.", "The 49ers were playing against the New Orleans Saints in the game where Steve Young rushed for a career-high 102 yards.", "The game in which Steve Young rushed for a career-high 102 yards was played on December 23, 1990.", "The context does not provide information on where the game between the San Francisco 49ers and The New Orleans Saints on December 23, 1990 took place.", "The provided context does suggest that the 49ers had some notable performances during the 1987 to 1990 period, but it does not provide a comprehensive evaluation of the team's performance during this entire period.", "Yes, while Steve Young was with the 49ers, they won the Super Bowl XXIV, led by Montana, who also won the NFL MVP award that year. Young was a backup during this time." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_0_q#0", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_0_q#1", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_0_q#2", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_0_q#3", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_0_q#4", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_0_q#5", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_0_q#6", "C_52dfda507a2f476c98e838aa6c80d9e5_0_q#7" ]

[ "What happened in 1992", "What was his starting job", "How was it in peril?", "Did he recover?", "What did he do?", "Did he play well on his return", "What are some interesting aspects about this article?", "How did he get a rough start?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 602 ], [ 93 ], [ 311 ], [ 394 ], [ 512 ], [ 584 ], [ 681 ] ], "texts": [ [ "By the start of the 1992 season, it appeared that Young's starting job was in serious peril." ], [ "San Francisco's starting quarterback," ], [ "In addition to having to compete with Bono, Montana appeared to be close to recovering from his elbow tendon surgery." ], [ "it turned out that Montana would not recover in time to start in the opening game." ], [ "Montana would not return until the final game of the 1992 season, a Monday Night home game against the Detroit Lions." ], [ "Montana played the entire second half and guided the 49ers to victory." ], [ "Young ended up as San Francisco's starting quarterback, but once again got off to a rough start." ], [ "On the fifth play of the opening game at the Giants, he suffered a concussion and was replaced by Bono," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 602, 93, 311, 394, 512, 584, 681 ], "texts": [ "By the start of the 1992 season, it appeared that Young's starting job was in serious peril.", "San Francisco's starting quarterback,", "In addition to having to compete with Bono, Montana appeared to be close to recovering from his elbow tendon surgery.", "it turned out that Montana would not recover in time to start in the opening game.", "Montana would not return until the final game of the 1992 season, a Monday Night home game against the Detroit Lions.", "Montana played the entire second half and guided the 49ers to victory.", "Young ended up as San Francisco's starting quarterback, but once again got off to a rough start.", "On the fifth play of the opening game at the Giants, he suffered a concussion and was replaced by Bono," ] }

[]

[ "In the 1992 NFL season, Steve Young was the starting quarterback for the San Francisco 49ers, despite initial uncertainty due to competition from backup players and the pending recovery of Joe Montana from elbow surgery. Young got off to a turbulent start, leaving the opening game due to a concussion and later missing most of another game due to the flu. However, he led the team towards a 14-2 season record. Young finished the season with 3,465 passing yards, 537 rushing yards and an NFL best 25 touchdown passes and 107.0 passer rating, which earned him the NFL Most Valuable Player Award and a selection to the Pro Bowl. Despite his efforts, the 49ers lost the NFC title game to the Dallas Cowboys.", "Steve Young's starting job was the quarterback for the San Francisco 49ers.", "Steve Young's starting job was in peril because he had to compete with backup player, Bono, and also there were indications that Joe Montana, the former first-choice quarterback, was recovering from an elbow tendon surgery and might be ready to play again.", "Yes, after a rough start to the 1992 season, which included a concussion in the opening game and later, the flu, Steve Young recovered and led the San Francisco 49ers to a 14-2 season record. He ended the season with stellar stats, earning him the NFL Most Valuable Player Award and his first selection to the Pro Bowl.", "In the 1992 season, Steve Young played as quarterback for the San Francisco 49ers. He began the season with a couple of setbacks, including a concussion and the flu, but he recovered and led the team to achieve a 14-2 record for the season. Young threw for 3,465 yards and had 25 touchdown passes, earning him the NFL's top passer rating of 107.0. He also rushed for 537 yards. He earned the NFL Most Valuable Player Award and was selected for the Pro Bowl. Despite his success, his team lost the National Football Conference title game to the Dallas Cowboys.", "Yes, upon his return Steve Young played well. He led the San Francisco 49ers to a 14-2 record for the season, threw for 3,465 yards, had 25 touchdown passes, and rushed for 537 yards. His exceptional performance earned him the NFL Most Valuable Player Award plus his first selection to the Pro Bowl.", "Some interesting aspects from the article include the fact that Steve Young, once in serious peril of losing his starting job as quarterback, managed to turn his performance around in the 1992 season, leading the San Francisco 49ers to a successful 14-2 record. Despite injuries and illness, he performed exceptionally, earning him the NFL Most Valuable Player Award and a Pro Bowl selection. Another interesting point is that he was the first quarterback in history to record a triple digit rating in consecutive seasons. The role of the 49ers' new Offensive Coordinator, Mike Shanahan, in helping Young combine his running skills with on-the-move passing decisions also adds a layer of intrigue. Additionally, Young's near-trade to the L.A. Raiders and Joe Montana's late-season return from surgery offer further elements of suspense and interest in the narrative of the season.", "Steve Young got off to a rough start in the 1992 season because on the fifth play of the opening game against the Giants, he suffered a concussion and had to be replaced by Bono. The following week, despite a strong personal performance, his team, San Francisco 49ers, also lost to the Buffalo Bills 34-31." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#0", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#1", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#2", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#3", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#4", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#5", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#6", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#7", "C_56c0fe081613466faae06f03a86016b2_0_q#8" ]

[ "What was one of the first awards that he won?", "Why was he awarded this?", "Was he injured while piloting?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Is that something he founded?", "When was he inducted?", "What else was he decorated for?", "Was there anyone of prestige there when President Ford awarded him the medal?", "What awards did he win military wise?" ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 105 ], [ 217 ], [ 2338 ], [ 1526 ], [ 1629 ], [ 1791 ], [ 380 ], [ 380 ], [ 2173 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In December 1975, the U.S. Congress awarded Yeager a silver medal \"equivalent to a noncombat Medal of Honor" ], [ "for contributing immeasurably to aerospace science by risking his life in piloting the XS-1 research airplane faster than the speed of sound" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Yeager is an honorary board member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope." ], [ "Governor Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver announced that Yeager would be one of 13 California Hall of Fame inductees" ], [ "The induction ceremony was on December 1, 2009," ], [ "President Gerald Ford presented the medal to Yeager in a ceremony at the White House on December 8, 1976." ], [ "President Gerald Ford presented the medal to Yeager in a ceremony at the White House on December 8, 1976." ], [ "The General Chuck Yeager Cadet Squadron (SER-FL-237), associated with the Florida Wing, Civil Air Patrol, and based in Brandon, Florida, is also named in his honor." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 105, 217, 2338, 1526, 1629, 1791, 380, 380, 2173 ], "texts": [ "In December 1975, the U.S. Congress awarded Yeager a silver medal \"equivalent to a noncombat Medal of Honor", "for contributing immeasurably to aerospace science by risking his life in piloting the XS-1 research airplane faster than the speed of sound", "CANNOTANSWER", "Yeager is an honorary board member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope.", "Governor Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver announced that Yeager would be one of 13 California Hall of Fame inductees", "The induction ceremony was on December 1, 2009,", "President Gerald Ford presented the medal to Yeager in a ceremony at the White House on December 8, 1976.", "President Gerald Ford presented the medal to Yeager in a ceremony at the White House on December 8, 1976.", "The General Chuck Yeager Cadet Squadron (SER-FL-237), associated with the Florida Wing, Civil Air Patrol, and based in Brandon, Florida, is also named in his honor." ] }

[]

[ "In 1973, Yeager was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame, which is arguably one of the first awards he won.", "The context does not provide specific reasons why Yeager was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1973.", "The context does not provide information on whether Yeager was injured while piloting.", "The article highlighted various aspects of Yeager's life and career, including that despite never attending college, he is regarded by many people and organizations as one of the greatest pilots of all time. He served as chairman of the Experimental Aircraft Association's Young Eagle Program from 1994-2004, and the society named him chairman emeritus. Several landmarks and organizations were also named in honor of him, including Yeager Airport, the Interstate 64/Interstate 77 bridge, and the General Chuck Yeager Cadet Squadron. He is an honorary board member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope. Lastly, Flying Magazine ranked Yeager number 5 in its 2013 list of The 51 Heroes of Aviation, making him the highest-ranked living person on the list.", "The context does not provide information on whether Yeager founded any of the organizations or landmarks named in his honor.", "Yeager was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1973.", "In December 1975, the U.S. Congress awarded Yeager a silver medal equivalent to a noncombat Medal of Honor for contributing immeasurably to aerospace science by piloting the XS-1 research airplane faster than the speed of sound in 1947.", "The context does not provide information on who else was present when President Ford awarded Yeager the medal.", "The text mentions that Yeager was awarded a silver medal by the U.S. Congress in December 1975. The award was described as being \"equivalent to a noncombat Medal of Honor\"." ]

[ "No", "no", "Yes", "Yes", "no", "No", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_27f2c24511c949a4afd19ec76e782b7a_0_q#0", "C_27f2c24511c949a4afd19ec76e782b7a_0_q#1", "C_27f2c24511c949a4afd19ec76e782b7a_0_q#2", "C_27f2c24511c949a4afd19ec76e782b7a_0_q#3", "C_27f2c24511c949a4afd19ec76e782b7a_0_q#4", "C_27f2c24511c949a4afd19ec76e782b7a_0_q#5", "C_27f2c24511c949a4afd19ec76e782b7a_0_q#6" ]

[ "What is his playing style?", "What kinds of styles did he work with?", "HOw did he hit the kick drum?", "Who said that?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he ever get formal training?", "What happened in the 1960s?" ]

[ 2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 1, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1007 ], [ 1803 ], [ 1922 ], [ 1473 ], [ 0 ], [ 204 ], [ 348 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He was, and is, a completely straightforward drummer, and it works with a lot of different styles." ], [ "He hit his drums very hard, except for his kick drum." ], [ "He would keep perfect beat with his kick, but he played it so softly that we could hear his mouth noises through his kick mic.\"" ], [ "Caillat," ], [ "Fleetwood was a self-taught drummer from his early childhood," ], [ "His first years were heavily influenced by Tony Meehan and the Everly Brothers, and during his formative years in London during the late 1960s," ], [ "Green helped Fleetwood through bouts of \"rhythmic dyslexia\" during live performances" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1007, 1803, 1922, 1473, 0, 204, 348 ], "texts": [ "He was, and is, a completely straightforward drummer, and it works with a lot of different styles.", "He hit his drums very hard, except for his kick drum.", "He would keep perfect beat with his kick, but he played it so softly that we could hear his mouth noises through his kick mic.\"", "Caillat,", "Fleetwood was a self-taught drummer from his early childhood,", "His first years were heavily influenced by Tony Meehan and the Everly Brothers, and during his formative years in London during the late 1960s,", "Green helped Fleetwood through bouts of \"rhythmic dyslexia\" during live performances" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" }, { "text": "Web most often refers to:\n\n Spider web, a silken structure created by the animal\n World Wide Web or the Web, an Internet-based hypertext system\n\nWeb, WEB, or the Web may also refer to:\n\nComputing\n WEB, a literate programming system created by Donald Knuth\n GNOME Web, a Web browser\n Web.com, a web-design company\n Webs (web hosting), a Web hosting and website building service\n\nEngineering\n Web (manufacturing), continuous sheets of material passed over rollers\n Web, a roll of paper in offset printing\n Web, the vertical element of an I-beam or a rail profile\n Web, the interior beams of a truss\n\nFilms\n Web (2013 film), a documentary\n Webs (film), a 2003 science-fiction movie\n The Web (film), a 1947 film noir\n Charlotte's Web (2006 film)\n\nLiterature\n Web (comics), a MLJ comicbook character (created 1942)\n Web (novel), by John Wyndham (1979)\n The Web (series), a science fiction series (1997–1999)\n World English Bible, a public-domain Bible translation (2000)\n Charlotte's Web, children's novel by E. B. White (1952)\n\nMathematics\n Web (differential geometry), a type of set allowing an intrinsic Riemannian-geometry characterisation of the additive separation of variables in the Hamilton–Jacobi equation\n Web, a linear system of divisors of dimension 3\n\nMusic\n Web Entertainment, a record label\n Web (album), a 1995 album by Bill Laswell and Terre Thaemlitz\n \"The Web\", a song by Marillion from Script for a Jester's Tear\n \"The Web\", a song by Neurosis from Souls at Zero\n \"The Web\", a song by Zao from The Crimson Corridor\n The Web (band), a British jazz/blues band active in the late 1960s and early 1970s\n\nPeople \n W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), African-American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, author and editor\n\nRadio\n WEBS (AM), a radio station licensed to Calhoun, Georgia, United States\n West End Broadcast (WeB FM), a radio station in Newcastle, England, that was a forerunner of NE1fm\n\nTelevision\n The Web (1950 TV series), a 1950–1954 American mystery/suspense anthology television series that was broadcast on CBS\n The Web (1957 TV series), an American mystery/suspense anthology television series, similar to the 1950–1954 series, that aired on NBC in 1957 as a summer replacement series\n W.E.B., a 1978 American TV series\n The Web, a fictional region of space in the ReBoot television series (and game)\n \"Web\", an episode of season 7 of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit\n \"The Web\", an episode of Blake's 7\n\nOther uses\n West-East Bag, an international women artists network active from 1971 to 1973\n\nSee also\n\n Cobweb (disambiguation)\n Spider Web (disambiguation)\n Webb (disambiguation)\n Webbing, a strong woven fabric\n Interdigital webbing, the presence of membranes of skin between the digits\n Webbed toes\n Webbed, a 2021 video game\n Webby (disambiguation)\n WWW (disambiguation)", "title": "Web" } ]

[ "Fleetwood's playing style is described as straightforward and disciplined. He is known for being able to effectively follow and predict the lead guitarist, meeting the guitar with the drum rhythm. He is also noted for his unique drum arrangement, placing his tom drums back to front, with his mid, high, and low pitches differing from the usual setup. However, he is not known to play traditional drum solos.", "The text does not specify the exact styles Fleetwood worked with. However, he is described as being \"very open to playing with different people as long as he didn't have to change his style.\" This implies that Fleetwood was adaptable and could play along with a variety of different styles.", "Fleetwood played his kick drum very softly, to the extent that his mouth noises could be heard through the kick mic.", "Caillat said that Fleetwood played his kick drum very softly.", "Other notable aspects from this information include Fleetwood's upbringing and initial influence from Tony Meehan and the Everly Brothers, his self-taught drumming skills, and his ability to predict and follow the lead guitarist. It also mentioned his \"rhythmic dyslexia\", a term coined to describe his panic-induced loss of rhythm during live performances, and how he managed it by singing filled pauses along to songs. His unique way of arranging his tom drums back to front is also highlighted as an interesting quirk that may have contributed to his unique style. The article also notes that despite not being a virtuoso, Fleetwood's disciplined and in-distractable style is crucial to holding together a band with strong leading personalities.", "The text does not provide information on Fleetwood having any formal drumming training. It mentions that he was a self-taught drummer from his early childhood.", "In the late 1960s, during Fleetwood's formative years in London, someone named Green helped him through bouts of \"rhythmic dyslexia\" during live performances wherein Fleetwood would panic and lose the beat. An aspect of Fleetwood's style - his ability to follow and predict the lead guitarist - is credited to Green." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "Did Mick Fleetwood write any books in his career?", "Who did he co-author the book with?", "Did he release any albums in his later career?", "How did that release do?", "Did he ever perform on television?", "What was a show he starred in ?", "Did he ever play drums for other of his bandmates albums?", "Did he mention any performers in his book?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1304 ], [ 1385 ], [ 274 ], [ 338 ], [ 2102 ], [ 2183 ], [ 801 ], [ 1450 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Fleetwood co-authored Fleetwood - My Life and Adventures with Fleetwood Mac" ], [ "writer Stephen Davis," ], [ "In 1983 he formed Mick Fleetwood's Zoo and recorded I'm Not Me." ], [ "The album featured a minor hit, \"I Want You Back\"," ], [ "Fleetwood has a secondary career as a TV and film actor," ], [ "His roles in this field have included a resistance leader in The Running Man" ], [ "He has played drums on many of his bandmates' solo records," ], [ "In the book he candidly discussed his experiences with other musicians including Eric Clapton," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1304, 1385, 274, 338, 2102, 2183, 801, 1450 ], "texts": [ "Fleetwood co-authored Fleetwood - My Life and Adventures with Fleetwood Mac", "writer Stephen Davis,", "In 1983 he formed Mick Fleetwood's Zoo and recorded I'm Not Me.", "The album featured a minor hit, \"I Want You Back\",", "Fleetwood has a secondary career as a TV and film actor,", "His roles in this field have included a resistance leader in The Running Man", "He has played drums on many of his bandmates' solo records,", "In the book he candidly discussed his experiences with other musicians including Eric Clapton," ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" }, { "text": "Web most often refers to:\n\n Spider web, a silken structure created by the animal\n World Wide Web or the Web, an Internet-based hypertext system\n\nWeb, WEB, or the Web may also refer to:\n\nComputing\n WEB, a literate programming system created by Donald Knuth\n GNOME Web, a Web browser\n Web.com, a web-design company\n Webs (web hosting), a Web hosting and website building service\n\nEngineering\n Web (manufacturing), continuous sheets of material passed over rollers\n Web, a roll of paper in offset printing\n Web, the vertical element of an I-beam or a rail profile\n Web, the interior beams of a truss\n\nFilms\n Web (2013 film), a documentary\n Webs (film), a 2003 science-fiction movie\n The Web (film), a 1947 film noir\n Charlotte's Web (2006 film)\n\nLiterature\n Web (comics), a MLJ comicbook character (created 1942)\n Web (novel), by John Wyndham (1979)\n The Web (series), a science fiction series (1997–1999)\n World English Bible, a public-domain Bible translation (2000)\n Charlotte's Web, children's novel by E. B. White (1952)\n\nMathematics\n Web (differential geometry), a type of set allowing an intrinsic Riemannian-geometry characterisation of the additive separation of variables in the Hamilton–Jacobi equation\n Web, a linear system of divisors of dimension 3\n\nMusic\n Web Entertainment, a record label\n Web (album), a 1995 album by Bill Laswell and Terre Thaemlitz\n \"The Web\", a song by Marillion from Script for a Jester's Tear\n \"The Web\", a song by Neurosis from Souls at Zero\n \"The Web\", a song by Zao from The Crimson Corridor\n The Web (band), a British jazz/blues band active in the late 1960s and early 1970s\n\nPeople \n W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), African-American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, author and editor\n\nRadio\n WEBS (AM), a radio station licensed to Calhoun, Georgia, United States\n West End Broadcast (WeB FM), a radio station in Newcastle, England, that was a forerunner of NE1fm\n\nTelevision\n The Web (1950 TV series), a 1950–1954 American mystery/suspense anthology television series that was broadcast on CBS\n The Web (1957 TV series), an American mystery/suspense anthology television series, similar to the 1950–1954 series, that aired on NBC in 1957 as a summer replacement series\n W.E.B., a 1978 American TV series\n The Web, a fictional region of space in the ReBoot television series (and game)\n \"Web\", an episode of season 7 of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit\n \"The Web\", an episode of Blake's 7\n\nOther uses\n West-East Bag, an international women artists network active from 1971 to 1973\n\nSee also\n\n Cobweb (disambiguation)\n Spider Web (disambiguation)\n Webb (disambiguation)\n Webbing, a strong woven fabric\n Interdigital webbing, the presence of membranes of skin between the digits\n Webbed toes\n Webbed, a 2021 video game\n Webby (disambiguation)\n WWW (disambiguation)", "title": "Web" } ]

[ "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_0_q#0", "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_0_q#1", "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_0_q#2", "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_0_q#3", "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_0_q#4" ]

[ "Who in the group had a solo career?", "What was the name of an album?", "Did any of the other members go solo?", "What else happened from 2003-2013?", "Did Trevor release any songs?" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 48 ], [ 1912 ], [ 966 ], [ 435 ], [ 1912 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The most successful member of the group has been Ashley Parker Angel, who was signed to Universal's Blackground Records," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "TMZ reported that Erik, Trevor, Dan & Jacob have returned to the studio to record the follow-up to O2," ], [ "Ex-bandmate, Trevor Penick, now professionally known as \"Tre Scott\", was signed to Mach 1 Music," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 48, 1912, 966, 435, 1912 ], "texts": [ "The most successful member of the group has been Ashley Parker Angel, who was signed to Universal's Blackground Records,", "CANNOTANSWER", "TMZ reported that Erik, Trevor, Dan & Jacob have returned to the studio to record the follow-up to O2,", "Ex-bandmate, Trevor Penick, now professionally known as \"Tre Scott\", was signed to Mach 1 Music,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "All members of O-Town pursued solo careers. Ashley Parker Angel was the most successful, going on to sign with Universal's Blackground Records. Trevor Penick, now professionally known as \"Tre Scott\", was signed to Mach 1 Music. Erik continued to work in the music industry and co-wrote songs for other artists. Jacob Underwood started his own country band \"Jacobs Loc\".", "The text does not provide the name of any specific album.", "Yes, all members of O-Town pursued solo careers after the group split. Trevor Penick, now professionally known as \"Tre Scott\", was signed to Mach 1 Music. Erik stayed in the music industry, collaborating and co-writing songs for other artists. Jacob Underwood started his own country band \"Jacobs Loc\".", "The text does not provide specific information about what happened between 2003 and 2013.", "The text does not provide information on whether Trevor Penick, now professionally known as \"Tre Scott\", released any songs." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_1_q#0", "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_1_q#1", "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_1_q#2", "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_1_q#3", "C_27411c25f5944181b6c494b0c96ec781_1_q#4" ]

[ "When was the album released?", "What other details are there about the album?", "What other songs were on the album?", "What were other records did the songs or album set?", "What awards and nominations did it receive?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 918 ], [ 315 ], [ 901 ], [ 1001 ], [ 1112 ] ], "texts": [ [ "July 21, 2001" ], [ "Their first single, \"Liquid Dreams\", was the first single to reach number 1 on the Billboard singles sales chart without making the Airplay chart." ], [ "All or Nothing" ], [ "All or Nothing\" reached #3 on the Billboard Hot 100 and the song was nominated for numerous awards," ], [ "Song of the Year\" during the 2001 Radio Music Awards." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 918, 315, 901, 1001, 1112 ], "texts": [ "July 21, 2001", "Their first single, \"Liquid Dreams\", was the first single to reach number 1 on the Billboard singles sales chart without making the Airplay chart.", "All or Nothing", "All or Nothing\" reached #3 on the Billboard Hot 100 and the song was nominated for numerous awards,", "Song of the Year\" during the 2001 Radio Music Awards." ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on when the album was released.", "The album is self-titled \"O-Town\" and was the first release of Clive Davis' new label, J Records. The album sold more than three million copies, aided by the publicity from a weekly television series. The first single from the album, \"Liquid Dreams,\" reached number 1 on the Billboard singles sales chart without making the Airplay chart, and it reached number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The second single, \"All or Nothing,\" reached #3 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for numerous awards, including \"Song of the Year\" during the 2001 Radio Music Awards.", "The context only mentions two songs from the O-Town album: \"Liquid Dreams\" and \"All or Nothing.\"", "The record \"Liquid Dreams\" was the first single to reach number 1 on the Billboard singles sales chart without making the Airplay chart. Additionally, it managed to peak at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The song \"All or Nothing\" from the same album became their biggest hit and reached number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The album itself sold more than three million copies.", "The song \"All or Nothing\" from the O-Town album was nominated for numerous awards, including \"Song of the Year\" during the 2001 Radio Music Awards. The context does not mention any other awards or nominations for the album or other songs." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_1_q#0", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_1_q#1", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_1_q#2", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_1_q#3", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_1_q#4" ]

[ "What were they doing in 1962?", "Were there other personnel changes?", "What was his group called?", "Did the Oak Ridge Boys make any records at this time?", "What record label were they with in the 1960s?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 376 ], [ 429 ], [ 3047 ], [ 268 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1962, Ron Page left, and the group hired Gary McSpadden (" ], [ "McSpadden quit to join a new group" ], [ "the Imperials." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Skylite," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 376, 429, 3047, 268 ], "texts": [ "In 1962, Ron Page left, and the group hired Gary McSpadden (", "McSpadden quit to join a new group", "the Imperials.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Skylite," ] }

[]

[ "In 1962, the group hired Gary McSpadden as baritone after Ron Page left the group. They also recorded another album on Skylite.", "Yes, there were numerous personnel changes. After Gary McSpadden quit to join a new group, Jim Hammill was chosen as his replacement. However, Hammill did not get along with the rest of the group and left in 1964. Upon Hammill's retirement, William Lee Golden joined as baritone. In 1966, Gatlin also left the group and Duane Allen was hired to replace him. Subsequently, Herman Harper left the group in 1968, and Noel Fox took over as the bass. In 1972, Richard Sterban left the J.D. Sumner and the Stamps Quartet and joined the Oak Ridge Boys. Lastly, Joe Bonsall joined the group in October 1973.", "Joe Bonsall was a member of the Keystone Quartet before he joined the Oak Ridge Boys.", "Yes, the Oak Ridge Boys recorded numerous albums during this time. They made one album for Festival Records, one for Stateswood, and two more for Skylite. They also recorded another album for Starday, another on Skylite in 1965, and one album for United Artists. Between 1966 and 1973, they made 12 albums with Heart Warming. They also recorded on Vista and Heart Warming's budget label, including unreleased songs from previous sessions. Furthermore, they recorded a single with Johnny Cash and the Carter Family, \"Praise the Lord and Pass the Soup,\" in 1973.", "In the 1960s, the Oak Ridge Boys recorded with several record labels, including Skylite, Festival Records, Stateswood (Skylite's budget label), Starday, United Artists and Heart Warming." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_0_q#0", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_0_q#1", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_0_q#2", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_0_q#3", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_0_q#4", "C_310e604c242e42cebfcdb99aab2aa464_0_q#5" ]

[ "What happen in 1987", "How did the album do?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What was the name of the albums", "What else did you read that was important", "When did they move" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 2414 ], [ 598 ], [ 2414 ], [ 785 ], [ 2414 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1987 Where The Fast Lane Ends was released." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The group released four more albums for MCA," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "They moved to RCA Nashville and made three albums there," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 2414, 598, 2414, 785, 2414 ], "texts": [ "In 1987 Where The Fast Lane Ends was released.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The group released four more albums for MCA,", "CANNOTANSWER", "They moved to RCA Nashville and made three albums there,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "In 1987, The Oak Ridge Boys released an album called Where The Fast Lane Ends, which was the last one before the departure of William Lee Golden. This departure was due to Golden's change in appearance and his decision to cut solo material for MCA Records.", "The text does not provide information on how the album \"Where The Fast Lane Ends\" performed.", "The text mentions some interesting details about the band's activities and changes. Steve Sanders came on board as William Lee Golden's replacement, but he left the group abruptly in 1995 due to personal issues. Duane Allen's son Dee filled in for him with help from Paul Martin. On New Year's Day in 1996, Golden rejoined the group at a concert in Merrillville, Indiana. They then released a two-disc gospel album called \"Revival\" with producer Leon Russell. The band also changed record labels a few times, going from MCA to RCA Nashville, and then to Liberty Records. Also, Steve Sanders tragically committed suicide in 1998.", "The albums mentioned in the text are \"Where The Fast Lane Ends\", \"American Vagabond\", a third \"Greatest Hits\" album, \"Best Of The Oak Ridge Boys\", their third Christmas album, two disc gospel set \"Revival\", and \"Voices\".", "The text also notes the band's professional challenges and shifts. These included a change in record labels multiple times—from MCA to RCA Nashville and finally to Liberty Records. This was partly because of changes in the management personnel at the labels. Additionally, it highlights how the band rose to meet personal challenges, such as dealing with Steve Sanders' personal issues and his abrupt departure, which led to Duane Allen's son, Dee and brother-in-law, Paul Martin stepping in as replacements. The eventual return of William Lee Golden to the group on New Year’s Day 1996 was also noted as important. Lastly, the tragic event of Steve Sanders committing suicide in 1998 is mentioned.", "The text mentions that they moved to RCA Nashville after releasing four albums for MCA. However, it does not specify the exact date or year of this move. After their stint with RCA, they later switched to Liberty Records. The exact timing of these moves is not stated in the text." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_1_q#0", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_1_q#1", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_1_q#2", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_1_q#3", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_1_q#4", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_1_q#5", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_1_q#6" ]

[ "When did THompson get interested in video games?", "When was his first lawsuit involving video games?", "What was the claim in that case?", "How was this related to video games?", "Whom did he represent in the suit?", "Was this a criminal or civil trial?", "Did Thompson do any writing about video games?" ]

[ 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 3399 ], [ 2484 ], [ 2560 ], [ 2723 ], [ 2813 ], [ 3399 ], [ 3399 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Thompson got involved in a case involving an adult on one occasion in 2004." ], [ "This was an aggravated murder case against 29-year-old Charles McCoy, Jr., the defendant in a series of highway shootings the previous year around Columbus, Ohio." ], [ "When McCoy was captured, a game console and a copy of The Getaway were in his motel room." ], [ "Although not representing McCoy and over the objections of McCoy's lawyers, Thompson succeeded in getting the court to unseal a search warrant for McCoy's residence." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 3399, 2484, 2560, 2723, 2813, 3399, 3399 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Thompson got involved in a case involving an adult on one occasion in 2004.", "This was an aggravated murder case against 29-year-old Charles McCoy, Jr., the defendant in a series of highway shootings the previous year around Columbus, Ohio.", "When McCoy was captured, a game console and a copy of The Getaway were in his motel room.", "Although not representing McCoy and over the objections of McCoy's lawyers, Thompson succeeded in getting the court to unseal a search warrant for McCoy's residence.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_0_q#0", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_0_q#1", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_0_q#2", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_0_q#3", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_0_q#4", "C_532f466e456c4ef386ece86c5deb7398_0_q#5" ]

[ "What happened in Alabama?", "How bad did the suit get?", "What else happened regarding this suit?", "Did Thompson go to jail?", "What happened later on?", "Is there any other important aspects regarding this situation?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 196 ], [ 338 ], [ 679 ], [ 1239 ], [ 1396 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Thompson was involved in a similar suit in Alabama in 2005 on behalf of the families of police personnel killed by Devin Moore," ], [ "The lawyer's participation in the case, however, ran into a dispute over his pro hac vice, or temporary, admission to practice in that state." ], [ "The opposing attorneys sought removal of the privilege by arguing that Thompson's conduct was unethical" ], [ "the judge, who went ahead and revoked Thompson's temporary admission to the state bar." ], [ "Thompson lobbied Alabama attorney general Troy King to file a civil suit and call on retailers not to sell \"cop-killing games\"." ], [ "police officer in Gassville, Arkansas by Jacob D. Robida, an 18-year-old fugitive, Thompson again raised the possibility of a connection to Grand Theft Auto," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 196, 338, 679, 1239, 1396 ], "texts": [ "Thompson was involved in a similar suit in Alabama in 2005 on behalf of the families of police personnel killed by Devin Moore,", "The lawyer's participation in the case, however, ran into a dispute over his pro hac vice, or temporary, admission to practice in that state.", "The opposing attorneys sought removal of the privilege by arguing that Thompson's conduct was unethical", "the judge, who went ahead and revoked Thompson's temporary admission to the state bar.", "Thompson lobbied Alabama attorney general Troy King to file a civil suit and call on retailers not to sell \"cop-killing games\".", "police officer in Gassville, Arkansas by Jacob D. Robida, an 18-year-old fugitive, Thompson again raised the possibility of a connection to Grand Theft Auto," ] }

[]

[ "In Alabama, Thompson was involved in a lawsuit on behalf of the families of police personnel killed by a teenager, Devin Moore, who was reportedly a compulsive Grand Theft Auto player. But his participation led to a dispute over his temporary admission to practice law in the state. The opposing attorneys argued for revocation of his privilege, claiming Thompson's conduct was unethical and that he had harassed them. The judge also said Thompson violated a gag order during the criminal trial. Thompson's request to withdraw from the case was denied, and his temporary admission to the state bar was revoked by the judge. Thompson accused the judge of protecting Moore's conviction and claimed an attorney with alleged influence on the judge told him his case would be dismissed unless the attorney was part of his team. Thompson also alleged that the game's developers posted slanderous comments about him online. After the lawsuit, Thompson lobbied the Alabama attorney general to file a civil suit and ask retailers not to sell \"cop-killing games\".", "The lawsuit in Alabama escalated to a significant degree. Thompson's participation led to a dispute over his temporary admission to practice law in the state. The opposing attorneys argued his conduct was unethical, and claimed he had harassed them through letters and emails. The judge asserted that Thompson had violated a gag order during Moore's criminal trial. When Thompson tried to withdraw from the case, his request was denied by the judge. Subsequently, his temporary admission to the state bar was revoked. Thomson also alleged influence peddling and slander against him by an attorney and the game's developers, respectively.", "Regarding the Alabama lawsuit, Thompson also made allegations about the ethical conduct of the judge and a local attorney. He claimed a local attorney told him the case would be dismissed unless the attorney was part of his team. According to Thompson, this suggested the attorney had undue influence over the judge. He also accused video game developers Rockstar Entertainment and Take Two Interactive of posting slanderous comments about him on their website. After the lawsuit, Thompson lobbied Alabama Attorney General Troy King to file a civil suit and asked retailers not to sell \"cop-killing games\". He continued to suggest a connection between the game Grand Theft Auto and violence, citing another police killing in Arkansas, though investigators found no evidence of such a connection.", "The text does not provide information on whether Thompson went to jail.", "After the lawsuit, Thompson lobbied Alabama attorney general Troy King to file a civil suit and call on retailers not to sell \"cop-killing games\". When another police officer was killed in Gassville, Arkansas by Jacob D. Robida, an 18-year-old fugitive, Thompson again raised the possibility of a connection to Grand Theft Auto, but investigators found no evidence that video games were involved.", "Another important aspect of this situation is Thompson's allegations of unethical behavior against a local attorney and the judge. He claimed that a local attorney boasted about having influence over the judge and threatened that the case would be dismissed unless said attorney was on Thompson's team. He also accused the judge of trying to protect the criminal conviction of Devin Moore. Moreover, he complained about slanderous comments allegedly made about him by the game's developers, Rockstar Entertainment and Take Two Interactive, on their website. These allegations highlight the contentious and challenging nature of the case." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_1_q#0", "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_1_q#1", "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_1_q#2", "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_1_q#3" ]

[ "what was some of james ups and downs in his career", "what was some of his downs?", "what was some of success he had?", "did he go on tour to support that" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 285 ], [ 543 ], [ 2314 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Taylor spent most of 1973 enjoying his new life as a married man and did not return to the recording studio until January 1974," ], [ "The album was a critical and commercial disaster and was his first album to miss the Top 5 since his contract with Warner." ], [ "James Taylor's artistic fortunes spiked again in 1975 when the Gold album Gorilla reached #6 and provided one of his biggest hit singles," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 285, 543, 2314 ], "texts": [ "Taylor spent most of 1973 enjoying his new life as a married man and did not return to the recording studio until January 1974,", "The album was a critical and commercial disaster and was his first album to miss the Top 5 since his contract with Warner.", "James Taylor's artistic fortunes spiked again in 1975 when the Gold album Gorilla reached #6 and provided one of his biggest hit singles,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Answer: Some of James Taylor's ups include his fifth album \"Gorilla\", which reached #6, providing one of his biggest hits, a cover version of Marvin Gaye's \"How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)\", and \"In the Pocket\" which, despite receiving criticism, went on to be certified gold. Another considerable up was the release of \"Greatest Hits\" which, over time, became his best-selling album. On the other hand, some of his downs include the release of \"Walking Man\", which was a critical and commercial disaster, being his first album to miss the Top 5 since his contract with Warner and selling only 300,000 copies in the USA. Despite some highlights, \"In the Pocket\" initially did not receive good reviews and was particularly criticized by Rolling Stone.", "Answer: Some of the downs in James Taylor's career include the album \"Walking Man\", which was a critical and commercial disaster, missing the Top 5 and selling only 300,000 copies in the USA. The title track of this album failed to appear in the Top 100. His album \"In the Pocket\" initially did not receive good reviews and was particularly criticized by Rolling Stone.", "Answer: Some of James Taylor's successes include his fifth album, \"Gorilla,\" which provided one of his biggest hit singles and reached #6. Additionally, his song \"Shower the People\", from the album \"In the Pocket\", was an enduring classic that hit #1 on the Adult Contemporary chart. By far, his biggest success came with the release of his \"Greatest Hits\" album. Over time, \"Greatest Hits\" became his best-selling album ever, earning a Diamond certification from the RIAA and selling nearly 20 million copies worldwide.", "Answer: The text does not provide information on whether James Taylor went on tour to support his albums." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_0_q#0", "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_0_q#1", "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_0_q#2", "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_0_q#3", "C_c91d7ba69a1743ff9bce37fc33450234_0_q#4" ]

[ "What is Troubled times and new beginnings?", "Did they get back together?", "What did James Taylor do for a living?", "What was one of the troubled times he had happen?", "What was one of his new beginnings?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 1, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 172 ], [ 621 ], [ 209 ], [ 2141 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Simon announced her separation from Taylor in September 1981 saying, \"Our needs are different; it seem[s] impossible to stay together" ], [ "Their breakup was highly publicized." ], [ "Taylor had thoughts of retiring by the time he played the Rock in Rio festival in Rio de Janeiro in January 1985." ], [ "At the time, Taylor was living on West End Avenue in Manhattan and on a methadone maintenance program to cure him of his drug addiction." ], [ "Taylor's next albums were partially successful; in 1988, he released Never Die Young," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 172, 621, 209, 2141 ], "texts": [ "Simon announced her separation from Taylor in September 1981 saying, \"Our needs are different; it seem[s] impossible to stay together", "Their breakup was highly publicized.", "Taylor had thoughts of retiring by the time he played the Rock in Rio festival in Rio de Janeiro in January 1985.", "At the time, Taylor was living on West End Avenue in Manhattan and on a methadone maintenance program to cure him of his drug addiction.", "Taylor's next albums were partially successful; in 1988, he released Never Die Young," ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on what \"Troubled times and new beginnings\" is.", "No, Simon and Taylor did not get back together after their separation in 1981 and subsequent divorce in 1983.", "James Taylor was a musician. He is known for writing and performing his own songs, some of which were very popular. His album \"That's Why I'm Here\" started a series of studio recordings that showcased a consistent level of quality. He also performed live and went on many tours, especially on the summer amphitheater circuit.", "One of the troubled times in James Taylor's life was when he was struggling with drug addiction. He was living in Manhattan and on a methadone maintenance program at the time. The deaths of his friends John Belushi and Dennis Wilson, the dissolution of his marriage with Carly Simon, and his desire to be a better father to his children Sally and Ben, prompted him to discontinue methadone and overcome his heroin habit. He mentioned having \"bottomed-out in a drug habit\" and being \"depressed and lost for a while,\" which indicates a particularly challenging period in his life.", "One of James Taylor's new beginnings was his performance at the Rock in Rio festival in Rio de Janeiro in 1985. This event buoyed him, both due to the audience's reception and the inspirations he took from the local music scene. This positive experience resulted in renewed motivation for his music career, leading to a \"revival\" period of sorts with the release of successful albums and hit singles. He begun touring again regularly and his performances during the later stages of his career were often marked by the musicianship of his band and backup singers." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_815c54a8ef544047bf8d6e92ab9140d2_0_q#0", "C_815c54a8ef544047bf8d6e92ab9140d2_0_q#1", "C_815c54a8ef544047bf8d6e92ab9140d2_0_q#2", "C_815c54a8ef544047bf8d6e92ab9140d2_0_q#3", "C_815c54a8ef544047bf8d6e92ab9140d2_0_q#4", "C_815c54a8ef544047bf8d6e92ab9140d2_0_q#5", "C_815c54a8ef544047bf8d6e92ab9140d2_0_q#6" ]

[ "What caused the disbandment?", "When did they disband?", "What did Zappa do afterward?", "Is there anything noteworthy about that album?", "Did it win any awards?", "What did he do after recording Hot Rats?", "Did that album rank on the charts?" ]

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[ { "text": "Discography is the study and cataloging of published sound recordings, often by specified artists or within identified music genres. The exact information included varies depending on the type and scope of the discography, but a discography entry for a specific recording will often list such details as the names of the artists involved, the time and place of the recording, the title of the piece performed, release dates, chart positions, and sales figures.\n\nA discography can also refer to the recordings catalogue of an individual artist, group, or orchestra. This is distinct from a sessionography, which is a catalogue of recording sessions, rather than a catalogue of the records, in whatever medium, that are made from those recordings. The two are sometimes confused, especially in jazz, as specific release dates for jazz records are often difficult to ascertain, and session dates are substituted as a means of organizing an artist's catalogue.\n\nAnother, more recent, definition of discography refers to a collection of musical recordings by a performer or composer, considered as a body of work. For instance, all studio albums by a performer could collectively be considered their discography.\n\nThe term \"discography\" was popularized in the 1930s by collectors of jazz records. Jazz fans did research and self-published discographies about when jazz records were made and what musicians were on the records, as record companies did not commonly include that information on or with the records at that time. Two early jazz discographies were Rhythm on Record by Hilton Schleman and Hot Discography by Charles Delaunay.\n\nA compilation of a performer's piano rolls is called a \"rollography.\"\n\nNotable books of discography\nThe following books list detailed information on the complete discographies of specific record labels, music scenes or genres.\nAllen, Walter C. - Hendersonia: The Music of Fletcher Henderson and his Musicians, A Bio-discography, Jazz Monographs No. 4, Highland Park, N.J.: Walter C. Allen, 1973.\nAndrews, Frank - Columbia 10\" records, 1904-30. [London]: City of London Phonograph and Gramophone Society, 1985\nArnold, Claude Graveley - The Orchestra on Record, 1896-1926: An Encyclopedia of Orchestral Recordings Made by the Acoustical Process, Greenwood Press 1997\nBadrock, Arthur and Andrews, Frank - The \"Cinch\" Record (September 1913 - January 1916) [London]: City of London Phonograph and Gramophone Society, 2000\nBadrock, Arthur - Tower Records (1920-1922) published by the author, Norwich, 2001\nBalacco, Thomas - Aussie Vinyl Record Guide published by Hardshell Publishing, 2016 - \nBarr, Steven C. - The (Almost) Complete 78 r.p.m. Record Dating Guide. Second ed. [Toronto, Ont.]: S.C. Barr, 1980. 51 p. Without ISBN\nBarr, Steven C. - Canadian and Canadian-U.S. Label Numerical Correlations [of] 78 r.p.m. [disc recordings. Toronto, Ont.: S.C. Barr] 1983. 4 p. \nBauer, Roberto - The New Catalogue of Historical Records, 1898-1908/09. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1947. 494 p. SBN (as found in the 1972 printing) 283-48420-9\nBrooks, Tim - Little Wonder Records, The New Amberola Phonograph Company 1999\nConnor, D. Russell and Hicks, Warren W. - BG On The Record; A bio-discography of Benny Goodman, Arlington House 1969\n\nDaniels, Bill - Disc Dating Guide, 1940-1949. Oak Lawn Books, Providence, R.I., 1981\nDethlefson, Ronald - Edison Blue Amberol Recordings 1912-1914, (2nd Edition) Stationery X-Press 1997\nDíaz-Ayala, Cristóbal - Encyclopedic Discography of Cuban Music, Vol. 1 (1898-1925). Florida International University, 2014.\nDíaz-Ayala, Cristóbal - Encyclopedic Discography of Cuban Music, Vol. 2 (1925-1960). Florida International University, 2014.\nDixon, Robert M.W., John Godrich and Howard W. Rye - Blues & Gospel Records 1890-1943, 4th ed., Clarendon Press 1997. N.B.: An informative narrative of blues recording activity is Recording the Blues, by two of these authors, i.e. Dixon and Godrich (London: Studio Vista, 1970, 85 amply ill. p.)\nEmery, Marc - Jazz [and] Blues Catalog. London, Ont.: City Lights Bookshop, [ca. 1978]. N.B.: Sale catalogue of a large and comprehensive collection of LP discs formerly held by a private collector; there are fairly numerous name and title spelling errors, but it constitutes a good brief-listed discography of the genre \nFagan, Ted and Moran, William - The Encyclopedic Discography of Victor Records vol. 1, Greenwood Press 1983\nFagan, Ted and Moran, William - The Encyclopedic Discography of Victor Records vol. 2, Greenwood Press 1986\nFancourt, Les and Bob McGrath - The Blues Discography 1943-1970, Eyeball Productions 2006\nFancourt, Leslie - British Blues 1950s to 1970: A Selective Discography, self-published 2021. N.B. Foreword by Neil Slaven\nForeman, Lewis - Systematic Discography. London, C. Bingley, 1974. 144 p. N.B. This is an instructional and style manual to aid its user in mastering or improving a researcher's discographical skills. \nGuterman, Jimmy, and Owen O'Donnell - The Worst Rock 'n' Roll Records of All Time: a Fan's Guide to the Stuff [that] You Love to Hate! in series: Citadel Press Book[s]. New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1991. N.B.: Annotated discography. \nHaas, Lük - Discography of Eastern European Punk Music 1977-1999, Tian An Men 89, Strasbourg, France 2000.\nHall, Ron - The CHUM Chart Book: a Complete Listing of Every Record To Make the 'CHUM Chart' from Its Beginning on 27 May 1957 through 14 June 1986. Eticobicoke, Ont.: Stardust Productions, 1990. N.B.: On front cover: \"CHUM's [radio station] dial 1050, Hit Parade\". Without ISBN\nHarris, Steve - Film, Television, and Stage Music on Phonograph Records: a Discography. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1988. ix, 445 p. \nHarrison, Max, [et al.] - Modern Jazz: the Essential Records, 1945-1970, a Critical Selection. London: Aquarius Books, 1975. 131, [9] p. N.B.: Subtitle combined from t.p. and a portion of the cover subtitle statement. This discography is annotated.\nJepsen, Jorgen Grunnet - Jazz Records, 1942-196x, Karl Emil Knudsen 1963-1970\nJones, Mark - Bristol Folk: a Discographical History of Bristol Folk Music in the 1960s and 1970s, Bristol Folk Publications 2009\nJones, Mark - The Famous Charisma Discography, The Record Press 2010. N.B. Forewords by Michael Palin and Chris Adams\nJones, Mark - The Saydisc and Village Thing Discography, The Record Press 2010\nJones, Mark - Transacord: Sounds of Steam, The Record Press 2011. N.B. This was published with a free CD of examples from the Transacord archive\nJones, Mark - The Virgin Discography: the 1970s, The Record Press 2013\nJones, Mark - The B&C Discography 1968-1975, The Record Press 2013. N.B. Nominated for a 2014 Association for Recorded Sound Collections excellence award (rock music discographies).\nJones, Mark - The Immediate Discography: the First 20 Years, The Record Press 2016. N.B. Winner of the 2017 Association for Recorded Sound Collections award for excellence (rock music discographies).\nJones, Mark - The B&C Discography 1968-1975 (expanded 2nd Ed.), The Record Press 2015. \nJones, Mark - The British Classical Record Industry, 1945 to 1959, The Record Press 2020. N.B. A finalist in the 2021 Association for Recorded Sound Collections excellence award (best historical research in recorded classical).\nJones, Mark - Blues from the Avon Delta: the Matchbox Blues Story, The Record Press 2021\nKennedy, Ted - Canada Pop Weekly: the Record [according to] \"R.P.M.\" [magazine]. Kelowna, B.C.: Canadian Chart Research, [1992?]. 595 p. \nKennedy, Ted - Charts Canada: \"R.P.M.\" [magazine], the Record. Kelowna, B.C.: Canadian Chart Research, [1989]. 293, [7] p.\nKennedy, Ted - Country Canada: the Record [according to] \"R.P.M.\" [magazine]. Kelowna, B.C.: Canadian Chart Research, [1992?]. 437 oblong p.\nKennedy, Ted - Maple Music: the Record [according to] \"R.P.M.\" [magazine]. Kelowna, B.C.: Canadian Chart Research, [1992]. 572, [16] oblong p. N.B.: \"'Maple Music' is [primarily]a listing of every song to enter the national top 40 pop record charts in North America with primary analysis on Canadian charts from 'R.P.M.' [magazine] and 'The Record'.\"\nKoenigsberg, Allen - Edison Cylinder Records 1889-1912, (2nd Edition) APM Press 1987\nLedbitter, Mike, & Slaven, Neil - Blues Records: 1943-1966, Oak Publications 1968\nLaird, Ross - Tantalizing Tingles A Discography of Early Ragtime, Jazz, and Novelty Syncopated Piano Recordings, 1889-1934, Greenwood Press 1995\nLaird, Ross - Moanin'Low; A discography of female popular vocal recordings 1920-1933, Greenwood Press 1996\nLaird, Ross - Brunswick records: a discography of recordings, 1916-1931, Greenwood Press, 2001.\nLaird, Ross & Rust, Brian - Discography of OKeh Records, 1918-1934. By Ross Laird and Brian Rust. Praeger, 2004\nLegere, Bill - Record Collectors Guide of Country LPs. Limited ed. Mississauga, Ont.: W.J. Legere, 1977. 269, 25, 29, 2 p., perforated and looseleaf. Without ISBN\nLegere, Bill - E[lectrical] T[anscription]s: Transcription Library of Bill Legere. Mississauga, Ont.: B. Legere, [1977]. 3 vols., each of which is perforated and looseleaf. N.B.: Vol. 1-2, Country Artists—vol. 2, Pop Artists. Without ISBN \nLyons, Len - The 101 Best Jazz Albums: a History of Jazz on Records, New York: W. Morrow & Co., 1980. 476 p., ill. with b&w photos. pbk \nLyttle, Brendan - A Chartology of Canadian Popular Music, Part Two, 1977 to 1980. Record Research Services, Calgary, [1980?]\nMcDonald, Ian - British Railways on Vinyl: 1931 to 1989, The Record Press 2013\nMoody, Pete - Memphis Minnie: the Life & Recording History of the Great Female Country Blues Singer, Sunflower 1967\nMoody, Pete - Big Maceo: Chicago Blues Pianist, 1905-1953 - His Life & Recording History, Sunflower 1968\nMoogk, Edward Balthasar - Roll Back the Years: History of Canadian Recorded Sound and Its Legacy, Genesis to 1930. Ottawa, Ont.: National Library of Canada, 1975. N.B.: In part, also, a bio-discography; the hardback ed. comes with a \"phonodisc of historical Canadian recordings\" (33 1/3 r.p.m., mono., 17 cm.) which the 1980 pbk. reprint lacks. (pbk.)\nMoogk, Edith Kathryn - Title Index to Canadian Works Listed in Edward B. Moogk's Roll Back the Years, History of Canadian Recorded Sound, Genesis to 1930, in series, C.A.M.L. Occasional Papers, no. 1. Ottawa, Ont.: Canadian Association of Music Libraries, 1988. N.B.: The t.p. and fore-matter also in French; supplements the index within E. B. Moogk's book. \nMoses, Julian Morton - American Celebrity Recordings 1900-1925, Monarch Record Enterprises, 1993\nPalm, Jim - Railways on Record, Avon-Anglia Publications & Services 1980\nPropes, Steve - Golden Oldies: a Guide to [19]50s & [19]60s Popular Rock & Roll Record Collecting. First ed. Radnor, Penn.: Chilton Book Co., 1975. pbk.\nRockwell, T. Malcolm - Hawaiian & Hawaiian Guitar Records 1891-1960, Mahina Piha Press, 2007\nRuppli, Michel - Atlantic Records, Greenwood Press 1979\nRuppli, Michel - The Savoy Labels, Greenwood Press 1980\nRuppli, Michel & Porter, Bob - The Prestige Label, Greenwood Press 1980\nRuppli, Michel - The Chess Labels, Greenwood Press 1983\nRuppli, Michel - The King Labels, Greenwood Press 1985\nRuppli, Michel - The Clef/Verve Labels, Greenwood Press 1986\nRuppli, Michel - The Aladdin/Imperial Labels, Greenwood Press 1991\nRuppli, Michel & Novitsky, Ed - The Mercury Labels, Greenwood Press 1993\nRuppli, Michel - The Decca Labels, Greenwood Press 1996\nRuppli, Michel & Novitsky, Ed - The MGM Labels, Greenwood Press 1998\nRuppli, Michel, Daniels, Bill & Novitsky, Ed - The Capitol Label Discography, Names & Numbers, 2007\nRussell, Tony - Country Music Records; A discography, 1921-1942, Oxford University Press, 2004\nRust, Brian - The Victor Master Book Vol. 2, published by the author, 1969\nRust, Brian - The American Dance Band Discography, Arlington House 1975\nRust, Brian - London Musical Shows On Record 1897 - 1976, General Gramophone Publications 1977\nRust, Brian - British Music Hall On Record, General Gramophone Publications 1979\n \nRust, Brian and Forbes, Sandy - British Dance Bands On Record 1911 to 1945, General Gramophone Publications 1987\nRust, Brian and Debus, Allen G. - The Complete Entertainment Discography from 1897 to 1942, (2nd Edition) Da Capo Press 1989\nRust, Brian & Brooks, Tim - The Columbia Master Book Discography, Greenwood Press, 1999.\nRust, Brian - Jazz and Ragtime Records (1897 - 1942), (6th Edition) Mainspring Press 2003\nSmith, Bente - Cue Track: the Canadian Record & Tape Guide. French trans. [of the introd.] by Inge K. Nielsen. First ed. Winnipeg, Man.: Cue Track, 1980. Without ISBN or ISSN \nSutton, Allan - Cakewalks, Rags and Novelties; The International Ragtime Discography (1894 - 1930), Mainspring Press 2004\nTolley, Trevor - Discographical Essays, Seven Willows, [2009]\n\nWeb discographies\n\nNotable online music databases include AllMusic, Discogs (community-built), freedb, Gracenote, MusicBrainz (community-built) and Rate Your Music (community-built).\n\nSee also\n\n:Category:Discographies (for individual artists' discographies)\nMPEG-4\nInternational Standard Music Number\nInternational Standard Audiovisual Number\nInternational Standard Musical Work Code\nInternational Standard Recording Code\nAudio engineer\nBibliography\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n\"Magnificent Obsession: The Discographers\" article by Jerry Atkins\nThe Encyclopaedic Discography of Victor Recordings - a continuation of the two volumes listed in the bibliography\nThe Music Discographies at bjbear71.com - http://bjbear71.com\nBudget Labels Article, regarding false discographic details on some low-priced classical recordings\nThe Discographic \"Den of Horrors\" relating to Bruckner recordings", "title": "Discography" }, { "text": "Tour or Tours may refer to:\n\nTravel\n Tourism, travel for pleasure\n Tour of duty, a period of time spent in military service\n Campus tour, a journey through a college or university's campus\n Guided tour, a journey through a location, directed by a guide\n Walking tour, a visit of a historical or cultural site undertaken on foot\n\nEntertainment\n Concert tour, a series of concerts by an artist or group of artists in different locations\n Touring theatre, independent theatre that travels to different venues\n\nSports\n Professional golf tours, otherwise unconnected professional golf tournaments\n Tennis tour, tennis played in tournament format at a series of venues\n Events in various sports named the Pro Tour (disambiguation)\n Tour de France (), the world's biggest bicycle race\n\nPlaces\n Tour-de-Faure, Lot, France\n Tour-en-Bessin, Calvados, France\n Tour-en-Sologne, Loir-et-Cher, France\n Tours, Indre-et-Loire, France\n Tours-en-Savoie, Savoie, France\n Tours-en-Vimeu, Somme, France\n Tours-sur-Marne, Marne, France\n Tours-sur-Meymont, Puy-de-Dôme, France\n Tours, Texas, United States\n\nPeople\n James Tour (born 1959), nanoscientist\n La Tour (surname)\n\nOther uses\n Tours FC, a French association football club based in Tours\n\nSee also\n\n Grand Tour (disambiguation)\n La Tour (disambiguation)\n Latour (disambiguation)\n Pro Tour (disambiguation)\n The Tour (disambiguation)\n Touré, West African surname\n Touring (disambiguation)\n Tourn, made by medieval sheriffs in England", "title": "Tour" }, { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

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[ "Where was he born", "What were his parents names", "Where was his father from", "Did he have siblings", "Where did he grow up?", "Where else did he spend time as a youth" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 60 ], [ 160 ], [ 296 ], [ 532 ], [ 1844 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Zappa was born on December 21, 1940 in Baltimore, Maryland." ], [ "His mother, Rosemarie (nee Collimore) was of Italian (Neapolitan and Sicilian) and French ancestry; his" ], [ "his father, whose name was anglicized to Francis Vincent Zappa, was an immigrant from Partinico, Sicily, with Greek and Arab ancestry." ], [ "Frank, the eldest of four children, was raised in an Italian-American household where Italian was often spoken by his grandparents." ], [ "After a time in Florida in the 1940s, the family returned to Maryland," ], [ "California," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 60, 160, 296, 532, 1844 ], "texts": [ "Zappa was born on December 21, 1940 in Baltimore, Maryland.", "His mother, Rosemarie (nee Collimore) was of Italian (Neapolitan and Sicilian) and French ancestry; his", "his father, whose name was anglicized to Francis Vincent Zappa, was an immigrant from Partinico, Sicily, with Greek and Arab ancestry.", "Frank, the eldest of four children, was raised in an Italian-American household where Italian was often spoken by his grandparents.", "After a time in Florida in the 1940s, the family returned to Maryland,", "California," ] }

[ { "text": "Discography is the study and cataloging of published sound recordings, often by specified artists or within identified music genres. The exact information included varies depending on the type and scope of the discography, but a discography entry for a specific recording will often list such details as the names of the artists involved, the time and place of the recording, the title of the piece performed, release dates, chart positions, and sales figures.\n\nA discography can also refer to the recordings catalogue of an individual artist, group, or orchestra. This is distinct from a sessionography, which is a catalogue of recording sessions, rather than a catalogue of the records, in whatever medium, that are made from those recordings. The two are sometimes confused, especially in jazz, as specific release dates for jazz records are often difficult to ascertain, and session dates are substituted as a means of organizing an artist's catalogue.\n\nAnother, more recent, definition of discography refers to a collection of musical recordings by a performer or composer, considered as a body of work. For instance, all studio albums by a performer could collectively be considered their discography.\n\nThe term \"discography\" was popularized in the 1930s by collectors of jazz records. Jazz fans did research and self-published discographies about when jazz records were made and what musicians were on the records, as record companies did not commonly include that information on or with the records at that time. Two early jazz discographies were Rhythm on Record by Hilton Schleman and Hot Discography by Charles Delaunay.\n\nA compilation of a performer's piano rolls is called a \"rollography.\"\n\nNotable books of discography\nThe following books list detailed information on the complete discographies of specific record labels, music scenes or genres.\nAllen, Walter C. - Hendersonia: The Music of Fletcher Henderson and his Musicians, A Bio-discography, Jazz Monographs No. 4, Highland Park, N.J.: Walter C. Allen, 1973.\nAndrews, Frank - Columbia 10\" records, 1904-30. [London]: City of London Phonograph and Gramophone Society, 1985\nArnold, Claude Graveley - The Orchestra on Record, 1896-1926: An Encyclopedia of Orchestral Recordings Made by the Acoustical Process, Greenwood Press 1997\nBadrock, Arthur and Andrews, Frank - The \"Cinch\" Record (September 1913 - January 1916) [London]: City of London Phonograph and Gramophone Society, 2000\nBadrock, Arthur - Tower Records (1920-1922) published by the author, Norwich, 2001\nBalacco, Thomas - Aussie Vinyl Record Guide published by Hardshell Publishing, 2016 - \nBarr, Steven C. - The (Almost) Complete 78 r.p.m. Record Dating Guide. Second ed. [Toronto, Ont.]: S.C. Barr, 1980. 51 p. Without ISBN\nBarr, Steven C. - Canadian and Canadian-U.S. Label Numerical Correlations [of] 78 r.p.m. [disc recordings. Toronto, Ont.: S.C. Barr] 1983. 4 p. \nBauer, Roberto - The New Catalogue of Historical Records, 1898-1908/09. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1947. 494 p. SBN (as found in the 1972 printing) 283-48420-9\nBrooks, Tim - Little Wonder Records, The New Amberola Phonograph Company 1999\nConnor, D. Russell and Hicks, Warren W. - BG On The Record; A bio-discography of Benny Goodman, Arlington House 1969\n\nDaniels, Bill - Disc Dating Guide, 1940-1949. Oak Lawn Books, Providence, R.I., 1981\nDethlefson, Ronald - Edison Blue Amberol Recordings 1912-1914, (2nd Edition) Stationery X-Press 1997\nDíaz-Ayala, Cristóbal - Encyclopedic Discography of Cuban Music, Vol. 1 (1898-1925). Florida International University, 2014.\nDíaz-Ayala, Cristóbal - Encyclopedic Discography of Cuban Music, Vol. 2 (1925-1960). Florida International University, 2014.\nDixon, Robert M.W., John Godrich and Howard W. Rye - Blues & Gospel Records 1890-1943, 4th ed., Clarendon Press 1997. N.B.: An informative narrative of blues recording activity is Recording the Blues, by two of these authors, i.e. Dixon and Godrich (London: Studio Vista, 1970, 85 amply ill. p.)\nEmery, Marc - Jazz [and] Blues Catalog. London, Ont.: City Lights Bookshop, [ca. 1978]. N.B.: Sale catalogue of a large and comprehensive collection of LP discs formerly held by a private collector; there are fairly numerous name and title spelling errors, but it constitutes a good brief-listed discography of the genre \nFagan, Ted and Moran, William - The Encyclopedic Discography of Victor Records vol. 1, Greenwood Press 1983\nFagan, Ted and Moran, William - The Encyclopedic Discography of Victor Records vol. 2, Greenwood Press 1986\nFancourt, Les and Bob McGrath - The Blues Discography 1943-1970, Eyeball Productions 2006\nFancourt, Leslie - British Blues 1950s to 1970: A Selective Discography, self-published 2021. N.B. Foreword by Neil Slaven\nForeman, Lewis - Systematic Discography. London, C. Bingley, 1974. 144 p. N.B. This is an instructional and style manual to aid its user in mastering or improving a researcher's discographical skills. \nGuterman, Jimmy, and Owen O'Donnell - The Worst Rock 'n' Roll Records of All Time: a Fan's Guide to the Stuff [that] You Love to Hate! in series: Citadel Press Book[s]. New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1991. N.B.: Annotated discography. \nHaas, Lük - Discography of Eastern European Punk Music 1977-1999, Tian An Men 89, Strasbourg, France 2000.\nHall, Ron - The CHUM Chart Book: a Complete Listing of Every Record To Make the 'CHUM Chart' from Its Beginning on 27 May 1957 through 14 June 1986. Eticobicoke, Ont.: Stardust Productions, 1990. N.B.: On front cover: \"CHUM's [radio station] dial 1050, Hit Parade\". Without ISBN\nHarris, Steve - Film, Television, and Stage Music on Phonograph Records: a Discography. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1988. ix, 445 p. \nHarrison, Max, [et al.] - Modern Jazz: the Essential Records, 1945-1970, a Critical Selection. London: Aquarius Books, 1975. 131, [9] p. N.B.: Subtitle combined from t.p. and a portion of the cover subtitle statement. This discography is annotated.\nJepsen, Jorgen Grunnet - Jazz Records, 1942-196x, Karl Emil Knudsen 1963-1970\nJones, Mark - Bristol Folk: a Discographical History of Bristol Folk Music in the 1960s and 1970s, Bristol Folk Publications 2009\nJones, Mark - The Famous Charisma Discography, The Record Press 2010. N.B. Forewords by Michael Palin and Chris Adams\nJones, Mark - The Saydisc and Village Thing Discography, The Record Press 2010\nJones, Mark - Transacord: Sounds of Steam, The Record Press 2011. N.B. This was published with a free CD of examples from the Transacord archive\nJones, Mark - The Virgin Discography: the 1970s, The Record Press 2013\nJones, Mark - The B&C Discography 1968-1975, The Record Press 2013. N.B. Nominated for a 2014 Association for Recorded Sound Collections excellence award (rock music discographies).\nJones, Mark - The Immediate Discography: the First 20 Years, The Record Press 2016. N.B. Winner of the 2017 Association for Recorded Sound Collections award for excellence (rock music discographies).\nJones, Mark - The B&C Discography 1968-1975 (expanded 2nd Ed.), The Record Press 2015. \nJones, Mark - The British Classical Record Industry, 1945 to 1959, The Record Press 2020. N.B. A finalist in the 2021 Association for Recorded Sound Collections excellence award (best historical research in recorded classical).\nJones, Mark - Blues from the Avon Delta: the Matchbox Blues Story, The Record Press 2021\nKennedy, Ted - Canada Pop Weekly: the Record [according to] \"R.P.M.\" [magazine]. Kelowna, B.C.: Canadian Chart Research, [1992?]. 595 p. \nKennedy, Ted - Charts Canada: \"R.P.M.\" [magazine], the Record. Kelowna, B.C.: Canadian Chart Research, [1989]. 293, [7] p.\nKennedy, Ted - Country Canada: the Record [according to] \"R.P.M.\" [magazine]. Kelowna, B.C.: Canadian Chart Research, [1992?]. 437 oblong p.\nKennedy, Ted - Maple Music: the Record [according to] \"R.P.M.\" [magazine]. Kelowna, B.C.: Canadian Chart Research, [1992]. 572, [16] oblong p. N.B.: \"'Maple Music' is [primarily]a listing of every song to enter the national top 40 pop record charts in North America with primary analysis on Canadian charts from 'R.P.M.' [magazine] and 'The Record'.\"\nKoenigsberg, Allen - Edison Cylinder Records 1889-1912, (2nd Edition) APM Press 1987\nLedbitter, Mike, & Slaven, Neil - Blues Records: 1943-1966, Oak Publications 1968\nLaird, Ross - Tantalizing Tingles A Discography of Early Ragtime, Jazz, and Novelty Syncopated Piano Recordings, 1889-1934, Greenwood Press 1995\nLaird, Ross - Moanin'Low; A discography of female popular vocal recordings 1920-1933, Greenwood Press 1996\nLaird, Ross - Brunswick records: a discography of recordings, 1916-1931, Greenwood Press, 2001.\nLaird, Ross & Rust, Brian - Discography of OKeh Records, 1918-1934. By Ross Laird and Brian Rust. Praeger, 2004\nLegere, Bill - Record Collectors Guide of Country LPs. Limited ed. Mississauga, Ont.: W.J. Legere, 1977. 269, 25, 29, 2 p., perforated and looseleaf. Without ISBN\nLegere, Bill - E[lectrical] T[anscription]s: Transcription Library of Bill Legere. Mississauga, Ont.: B. Legere, [1977]. 3 vols., each of which is perforated and looseleaf. N.B.: Vol. 1-2, Country Artists—vol. 2, Pop Artists. Without ISBN \nLyons, Len - The 101 Best Jazz Albums: a History of Jazz on Records, New York: W. Morrow & Co., 1980. 476 p., ill. with b&w photos. pbk \nLyttle, Brendan - A Chartology of Canadian Popular Music, Part Two, 1977 to 1980. Record Research Services, Calgary, [1980?]\nMcDonald, Ian - British Railways on Vinyl: 1931 to 1989, The Record Press 2013\nMoody, Pete - Memphis Minnie: the Life & Recording History of the Great Female Country Blues Singer, Sunflower 1967\nMoody, Pete - Big Maceo: Chicago Blues Pianist, 1905-1953 - His Life & Recording History, Sunflower 1968\nMoogk, Edward Balthasar - Roll Back the Years: History of Canadian Recorded Sound and Its Legacy, Genesis to 1930. Ottawa, Ont.: National Library of Canada, 1975. N.B.: In part, also, a bio-discography; the hardback ed. comes with a \"phonodisc of historical Canadian recordings\" (33 1/3 r.p.m., mono., 17 cm.) which the 1980 pbk. reprint lacks. (pbk.)\nMoogk, Edith Kathryn - Title Index to Canadian Works Listed in Edward B. Moogk's Roll Back the Years, History of Canadian Recorded Sound, Genesis to 1930, in series, C.A.M.L. Occasional Papers, no. 1. Ottawa, Ont.: Canadian Association of Music Libraries, 1988. N.B.: The t.p. and fore-matter also in French; supplements the index within E. B. Moogk's book. \nMoses, Julian Morton - American Celebrity Recordings 1900-1925, Monarch Record Enterprises, 1993\nPalm, Jim - Railways on Record, Avon-Anglia Publications & Services 1980\nPropes, Steve - Golden Oldies: a Guide to [19]50s & [19]60s Popular Rock & Roll Record Collecting. First ed. Radnor, Penn.: Chilton Book Co., 1975. pbk.\nRockwell, T. Malcolm - Hawaiian & Hawaiian Guitar Records 1891-1960, Mahina Piha Press, 2007\nRuppli, Michel - Atlantic Records, Greenwood Press 1979\nRuppli, Michel - The Savoy Labels, Greenwood Press 1980\nRuppli, Michel & Porter, Bob - The Prestige Label, Greenwood Press 1980\nRuppli, Michel - The Chess Labels, Greenwood Press 1983\nRuppli, Michel - The King Labels, Greenwood Press 1985\nRuppli, Michel - The Clef/Verve Labels, Greenwood Press 1986\nRuppli, Michel - The Aladdin/Imperial Labels, Greenwood Press 1991\nRuppli, Michel & Novitsky, Ed - The Mercury Labels, Greenwood Press 1993\nRuppli, Michel - The Decca Labels, Greenwood Press 1996\nRuppli, Michel & Novitsky, Ed - The MGM Labels, Greenwood Press 1998\nRuppli, Michel, Daniels, Bill & Novitsky, Ed - The Capitol Label Discography, Names & Numbers, 2007\nRussell, Tony - Country Music Records; A discography, 1921-1942, Oxford University Press, 2004\nRust, Brian - The Victor Master Book Vol. 2, published by the author, 1969\nRust, Brian - The American Dance Band Discography, Arlington House 1975\nRust, Brian - London Musical Shows On Record 1897 - 1976, General Gramophone Publications 1977\nRust, Brian - British Music Hall On Record, General Gramophone Publications 1979\n \nRust, Brian and Forbes, Sandy - British Dance Bands On Record 1911 to 1945, General Gramophone Publications 1987\nRust, Brian and Debus, Allen G. - The Complete Entertainment Discography from 1897 to 1942, (2nd Edition) Da Capo Press 1989\nRust, Brian & Brooks, Tim - The Columbia Master Book Discography, Greenwood Press, 1999.\nRust, Brian - Jazz and Ragtime Records (1897 - 1942), (6th Edition) Mainspring Press 2003\nSmith, Bente - Cue Track: the Canadian Record & Tape Guide. French trans. [of the introd.] by Inge K. Nielsen. First ed. Winnipeg, Man.: Cue Track, 1980. Without ISBN or ISSN \nSutton, Allan - Cakewalks, Rags and Novelties; The International Ragtime Discography (1894 - 1930), Mainspring Press 2004\nTolley, Trevor - Discographical Essays, Seven Willows, [2009]\n\nWeb discographies\n\nNotable online music databases include AllMusic, Discogs (community-built), freedb, Gracenote, MusicBrainz (community-built) and Rate Your Music (community-built).\n\nSee also\n\n:Category:Discographies (for individual artists' discographies)\nMPEG-4\nInternational Standard Music Number\nInternational Standard Audiovisual Number\nInternational Standard Musical Work Code\nInternational Standard Recording Code\nAudio engineer\nBibliography\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n\"Magnificent Obsession: The Discographers\" article by Jerry Atkins\nThe Encyclopaedic Discography of Victor Recordings - a continuation of the two volumes listed in the bibliography\nThe Music Discographies at bjbear71.com - http://bjbear71.com\nBudget Labels Article, regarding false discographic details on some low-priced classical recordings\nThe Discographic \"Den of Horrors\" relating to Bruckner recordings", "title": "Discography" }, { "text": "Tour or Tours may refer to:\n\nTravel\n Tourism, travel for pleasure\n Tour of duty, a period of time spent in military service\n Campus tour, a journey through a college or university's campus\n Guided tour, a journey through a location, directed by a guide\n Walking tour, a visit of a historical or cultural site undertaken on foot\n\nEntertainment\n Concert tour, a series of concerts by an artist or group of artists in different locations\n Touring theatre, independent theatre that travels to different venues\n\nSports\n Professional golf tours, otherwise unconnected professional golf tournaments\n Tennis tour, tennis played in tournament format at a series of venues\n Events in various sports named the Pro Tour (disambiguation)\n Tour de France (), the world's biggest bicycle race\n\nPlaces\n Tour-de-Faure, Lot, France\n Tour-en-Bessin, Calvados, France\n Tour-en-Sologne, Loir-et-Cher, France\n Tours, Indre-et-Loire, France\n Tours-en-Savoie, Savoie, France\n Tours-en-Vimeu, Somme, France\n Tours-sur-Marne, Marne, France\n Tours-sur-Meymont, Puy-de-Dôme, France\n Tours, Texas, United States\n\nPeople\n James Tour (born 1959), nanoscientist\n La Tour (surname)\n\nOther uses\n Tours FC, a French association football club based in Tours\n\nSee also\n\n Grand Tour (disambiguation)\n La Tour (disambiguation)\n Latour (disambiguation)\n Pro Tour (disambiguation)\n The Tour (disambiguation)\n Touré, West African surname\n Touring (disambiguation)\n Tourn, made by medieval sheriffs in England", "title": "Tour" }, { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "Zappa was born in Baltimore, Maryland.", "His mother's name was Rosemarie (nee Collimore) and his father's name was anglicized to Francis Vincent Zappa.", "His father was an immigrant from Partinico, Sicily.", "Yes, Frank Zappa was the eldest of four children.", "Zappa and his family moved often due to his father's work in the defense industry. They lived in Florida in the 1940s, returned to Maryland, and then relocated to Monterey, California. They soon moved to Claremont, California, then to El Cajon, before finally settling in San Diego.", "As a youth, Zappa spent time in Florida, Maryland, Monterey, California, Claremont, California, El Cajon, and San Diego." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#0", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#1", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#2", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#3", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#4", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#5", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#6", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#7", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_0_q#8" ]

[ "What was his personality like?", "So he could be nice too?", "What did others have to say about his personality?", "So he was a ladies' man?", "What else was he like?", "What was his reputation?", "So people didn't like him?", "Was he smart?", "What else should I know about him?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 60 ], [ 157 ], [ 252 ], [ 508 ], [ 2392 ], [ 2549 ], [ 3254 ], [ 1519 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Potemkin \"exuded both menace and welcome\"; he was arrogant," ], [ "demanding of his courtiers and very changeable in his moods but also fascinating, warm and kind." ], [ "It was generally agreed among his female companions that he was \"amply endowed with 'sex appeal'\"." ], [ "'\". Louis Philippe, comte de Segur described him as \"colossal like Russia\", \"an inconceivable mixture of grandeur and pettiness, laziness and activity, bravery and timidity, ambition and insouciance\"." ], [ "he frequented both church and numerous orgies," ], [ "Criticisms include \"laziness, corruption, debauchery, indecision, extravagance, falsification, military incompetence and disinformation on a vast scale\"" ], [ "supporters hold that only \"the sybaritism [devotion to luxury] and extravagance... are truly justified\", stressing Potemkin's \"intelligence, force of personality," ], [ "\"lots of intelligence, intrigue and credit\" but lacked \"knowledge, application and virtue\"." ], [ "A practical politician, his political ideas were \"quintessentially Russian\", and he believed in the superiority of the Tsarist autocracy (he once described the French revolutionaries as \"a pack of madmen\")." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 60, 157, 252, 508, 2392, 2549, 3254, 1519 ], "texts": [ "Potemkin \"exuded both menace and welcome\"; he was arrogant,", "demanding of his courtiers and very changeable in his moods but also fascinating, warm and kind.", "It was generally agreed among his female companions that he was \"amply endowed with 'sex appeal'\".", "'\". Louis Philippe, comte de Segur described him as \"colossal like Russia\", \"an inconceivable mixture of grandeur and pettiness, laziness and activity, bravery and timidity, ambition and insouciance\".", "he frequented both church and numerous orgies,", "Criticisms include \"laziness, corruption, debauchery, indecision, extravagance, falsification, military incompetence and disinformation on a vast scale\"", "supporters hold that only \"the sybaritism [devotion to luxury] and extravagance... are truly justified\", stressing Potemkin's \"intelligence, force of personality,", "\"lots of intelligence, intrigue and credit\" but lacked \"knowledge, application and virtue\".", "A practical politician, his political ideas were \"quintessentially Russian\", and he believed in the superiority of the Tsarist autocracy (he once described the French revolutionaries as \"a pack of madmen\")." ] }

[ { "text": "Grigory, Grigori and Grigoriy are Russian masculine given names.\n\nIt may refer to watcher angels or more specifically to the egrḗgoroi or Watcher angels.\n\nGrigory\n\n Grigory Baklanov (1923–2009), Russian novelist\n Grigory Barenblatt (1927-2018), Russian mathematician\n Grigory Bey-Bienko (1903–1971), Russian entomologist\n Grigory Danilevsky (1829–1890), Russian novelist\n Grigory Falko (born 1987), Russian swimmer\n Grigory Fedotov (1916–1957), Soviet football player and manager\n Grigory Frid (1915–2012), Russian composer\n Grigory Gagarin (1810–1893), Russian painter and military commander\n Grigory Gamarnik (born 1929), Soviet wrestler\n Grigory Gamburtsev (1903–1955), Soviet seismologist\n Grigory Ginzburg (1904–1961), Russian pianist\n Grigory Grum-Grshimailo (1860–1936), Russian entomologist\n Grigory Gurkin (1870–1937), Altay landscape painter\n Grigory Helbach (1863–1930), Russian chess master\n Grigory Kiriyenko (born 1965), Russian fencer\n Grigory Kriss (born 1940), Soviet épée fencer\n Grigory Laguta (born 1984), Russian-born Latvian motorcycle speedway rider\n Grigory Landsberg (1890–1957), Soviet physicist\n Grigory Langsdorff (1774–1852), German-Russian naturalist and explorer\n Grigory Leps (born 1962), Russian singer and songwriter of Georgian origin\n Grigory Levenfish (1889–1961), Soviet chess Grandmaster\n Grigory Kaminsky (1894–1938), Soviet politician\n Grigory Kotoshikhin (c. 1630–1667), Russian diplomat and writer\n Grigory Kotovsky (1881–1925), Soviet military commander\n Grigory Kulik (1890–1950), Soviet military commander\n Grigory Mairanovsky (1899–1964), Soviet biochemist and poison developer\n Grigory Margulis (born 1946), Russian mathematician\n Grigory Misutin (born 1970), Ukrainian artistic gymnast\n Grigory Nelyubov (1934–1966), Russian cosmonaut\n Grigory Neujmin (1886–1946), Russian astronomer\n Grigory Novak (1919–1980), Soviet Ukrainian weightlifter\n Grigory Ordzhonikidze (1886–1937), Georgian communist\n Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov (1734–1783), Russian military commander and diplomat, lover of Catherine the Great\n Grigory Ostrovsky (1756–1814), Russian painter\n Grigory Petrovsky (1878–1958), Soviet Ukraininan communist and revolutionary\n Grigory Petrovich Nikulin (1895-1965), Soviet revolutionary\n Grigory Pirogov (1885–1931), Russian bass opera singer\n Grigory Pomerants (1918–2013), Russian philosopher and cultural theorist\n Grigory Potanin (1835–1920), Russian orientalist and explorer\n Grigory Potemkin (1739–1791), Russian military leader, statesman, favorite of Catherine the Great\n Grigory Razumovsky (1759–1837), Ukrainian biologist, geologist and philosopher\n Grigory Romodanovsky (died 1682), Russian military commander and diplomat\n Grigory Romanov (1923–2008), Soviet politician\n Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov (1890–1946), Russian military commander\n Grigory Abramovich Shajn (1892–1956), Soviet Russian astronomer\n Grigory Shelikhov (1747–1795), Russian seafarer and merchant\n Grigory or Gregory Skovoroda (1722–1794), Ukrainian philosopher, poet, teacher and composer\n Grigory Sokolov (born 1950), Russian pianist\n Grigory Soroka (1823–1864), Russian painter\n Grigory Sukochev (born 1988), Australian volleyball player\n Grigory Spiridov (1713–1790), Russian admiral\n Grigory Ugryumov (1764–1823), Russian painter\n Grigory Yavlinsky (born 1952), Russian economist and politician\n Grigory Zinoviev (1883–1936), Soviet politician\n\nGrigori\n Grigori Chukhrai (1921-2001), Russian screenwriter and director\n Grigori Galitsin (born 1957), Russian erotic photographer and porn director\n Grigori Kozintsev (1905-1973), Soviet Russian film director\n Grigori Kromanov (1926–1984), Estonian theatre and film director\n Grigori Ivanovitch Langsdorff or Georg von Langsdorff (1774-1852), Prussian aristocrat, politician and naturalist\n Grigori Marchenko (born 1946), Honorary Consul of the Singaporean government to the Kazakh government\n Grigori Panteleimonov (1885-1934), Russian sports shooter\n Grigori Perelman (born 1966), Russian mathematician\n Grigori Rasputin (1869-1916), a Russian mystic\n Grigori Voitinsky (1893-1956), Comintern official\n Grigori Zozulya (1893-1973), Russian artist\n\nGrigoriy \n Grigoriy Andreyev (born 1976), Russian marathon runner\n Grigoriy Dobrygin (born 1986), Russian actor\n Grigoriy Gruzinsky (1833–1899), Georgian prince\n Grigoriy Myasoyedov (1834–1911), Russian painter\n Grigoriy Mihaylovich Naginskiy (born 1958), Russian politician\n Grigoriy Oparin (born 1997), Russian chess Grandmaster\n Grigoriy Oster (born 1947), Russian author and screenwriter\n Grigoriy Plaskov (born 1898), Soviet artillery lieutenant\n Grigoriy Tarasevich (born 1995), Russian swimmer\n Grigoriy Yablonsky (born 1940), Soviet-born American chemical engineer and professor\n Grigoriy Yegorov (born 1967), Kazakhstani former pole vaulter\n\nFictional characters \n Father Grigori, in the computer game Half-Life 2\n Grigori Rasputin (Hellboy), a comic book character\n Grigori Daratrazanoff, a main Carpathian character in Christine Feehan's Dark series\n Grigori, the name of the titular dragon in the computer game Dragon's Dogma\n Grigori Panteleevich Melekhov, in And Quiet Flows the Don\n\nSee also \n Daniel Grigori, an angel in Lauren Kate's Fallen novel series\n Gregory (given name)\n Krikor, Western Armenian variant\n Ryhor, Belarusian variant\n\nCategory:Russian masculine given names", "title": "Grigory" } ]

[ "Potemkin had a complex personality. He was said to exude both menace and welcome, depicting himself as both arrogant and demanding, but also warm and kind. His moods were changeable and he could be fascinating. He was viewed as having a lot of sex appeal and featured a contrasting internal personality, showing devotion to both religious practices and hedonistic pursuits. Potemkin was eccentric and a workaholic, with vanity and a love for jewelry. He was sensitive about his appearance, especially his lost eye. He disliked flattery and was known to be an intellectual with an interest in history and a love for classical music and opera. He was a practical politician and believed in the superiority of the Tsarist autocracy. He had an affinity for luxurious lifestyle and extravagant spending, but also deemed himself as entirely happy as he was able to fulfill his desires.", "Yes, despite having a complex personality and often being demanding and arrogant, Potemkin also had a warmer side. He was described as being fascinating, kind, and even warm at times. Furthermore, his intellectual pursuits and love for culture and the arts suggest a deeper, more thoughtful side to his character.", "Opinions of Potemkin's personality varied among his contemporaries. Louis Philippe, comte de Segur described him as a mixture of grandeur and pettiness, laziness and activity, bravery and timidity, ambition and insouciance. The Prince of Ligne noted Potemkin's natural abilities and excellent memory. Some criticized him for laziness, corruption, debauchery, indecision, extravagance, falsification, military incompetence and disinformation on a vast scale. Others, however, admired his intelligence, force of personality, vision, courage, and generosity. Potemkin was also criticized for swiftly thinking out plans but carrying them out slowly and abandoning them easily. Despite his various abilities, critics such as Sir John Sinclair referred to him as a \"worthless and dangerous character\".", "Yes, it is suggested in the passage that Potemkin was considered attractive by his female companions who acknowledged that he was \"amply endowed with 'sex appeal'\".", "Potemkin was also an intellectual, with a strong interest in history and was generally knowledgeable. He had a love for classical music and opera, and was a food lover, enjoying both peasant and fine food. His favorite foods included roast beef and potatoes. He exhibited habits like nail biting to the point of developing hangnail. He was also known for his love of creating English gardens wherever he went, building houses, and buying estates. He adored diamonds and beautiful things and had a large collection of exquisite and rare stones. His political ideas were quintessentially Russian and he held a belief in the superiority of the Tsarist autocracy. He was criticized for being lazy and corrupt, but also appreciated for his intelligence and generosity. Despite the criticisms he received, he considered himself entirely happy.", "Potemkin's reputation was complex and somewhat divisive. He faced criticisms of \"laziness, corruption, debauchery, indecision, extravagance, falsification, military incompetence and disinformation on a vast scale,\" with some adversaries viewing him as a \"worthless and dangerous character\". However, he was also celebrated by some for his \"intelligence, force of personality, spectacular vision, courage, generosity\" and his ability in military matters. Despite the flaws attributed to him, he was remembered for his achievements and cultural contributions. Furthermore, he was considered attractive and charming, with his female companions remarking on his abundant sex appeal.", "Opinions on Potemkin were mixed. While some criticized him for his laziness, corruption, debauchery, indecision, extravagance, military incompetence, and disinformation at a massive scale, he was also admired by others for his intelligence, force of personality, vision, courage, and generosity. He was derided as a \"worthless and dangerous character\" by certain contemporaries but also acknowledged for his great abilities. While not everybody appreciated him, it cannot be claimed that he was universally disliked.", "Yes, Potemkin was described as an intellectual with \"natural abilities\" and an \"excellent memory\". He was also described as interested in history and being generally knowledgeable. He proved his practical political acumen with ideas that were described as \"quintessentially Russian\". So, based on these descriptions, it can be inferred that Potemkin was indeed smart.", "Aside from being a controversial figure with a complex personality, Potemkin was a lover of fine things, including jewelry, real estate, and fine food. He indulged in luxuries and expensive pursuits, like throwing magnificent parties, building palaces, and acquiring rare, beautiful diamonds. Despite being known for his extravagance and being criticized for some of his behaviors, he considered himself entirely happy, having fulfilled all his passions. Potemkin was also sensitive about his appearance, especially his lost eye, and only agreed to have his portrait made twice. He was a workaholic, and although he was described as lazy by some, others noted his active involvement in affairs of state and military matters. He was also a big fan of English gardens, and ensured they were prepared wherever he went. In summary, Potemkin was a complex, multifaceted individual with a range of interests and personal qualities, which have contributed to his enduring historical significance." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#0", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#1", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#2", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#3", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#4", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#5", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#6", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#7", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#8", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#9", "C_e4d9fa72e6104a5da6b02e036ecebd90_1_q#10" ]

[ "When did Grigory die?", "Why did he die?", "Did he have any specific medical conditions?", "Where did he die?", "Did he die at home or in a hospital?", "Do many believe foul play?", "any other interesting facts about his death?", "What happened during that period?", "Where is it located?", "Where else did he construct?", "Did he have any others?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 0, 2, 2, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 6235 ], [ 5722 ], [ 5904 ], [ 6292 ], [ 6390 ], [ 6480 ], [ 2950 ], [ 3003 ], [ 3083 ], [ 3239 ], [ 3368 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On October 16 [O.S. October 5] 1791" ], [ "Potemkin fell ill" ], [ "He fasted briefly and recovered some strength, but refused medicine and began to feast once again," ], [ "open steppe, 40 miles from Jassy." ], [ "Jerzy Lojek have suggested that he was poisoned" ], [ "but this is rejected by Montefiore," ], [ "Potemkin then embarked on a period of city-founding." ], [ "Construction started at his first effort, Kherson," ], [ "Black Sea" ], [ "Next was the port of Akhtiar," ], [ "His biggest failure, however, was his effort to build the city of Ekaterinoslav" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 6235, 5722, 5904, 6292, 6390, 6480, 2950, 3003, 3083, 3239, 3368 ], "texts": [ "On October 16 [O.S. October 5] 1791", "Potemkin fell ill", "He fasted briefly and recovered some strength, but refused medicine and began to feast once again,", "open steppe, 40 miles from Jassy.", "Jerzy Lojek have suggested that he was poisoned", "but this is rejected by Montefiore,", "Potemkin then embarked on a period of city-founding.", "Construction started at his first effort, Kherson,", "Black Sea", "Next was the port of Akhtiar,", "His biggest failure, however, was his effort to build the city of Ekaterinoslav" ] }

[ { "text": "Grigory, Grigori and Grigoriy are Russian masculine given names.\n\nIt may refer to watcher angels or more specifically to the egrḗgoroi or Watcher angels.\n\nGrigory\n\n Grigory Baklanov (1923–2009), Russian novelist\n Grigory Barenblatt (1927-2018), Russian mathematician\n Grigory Bey-Bienko (1903–1971), Russian entomologist\n Grigory Danilevsky (1829–1890), Russian novelist\n Grigory Falko (born 1987), Russian swimmer\n Grigory Fedotov (1916–1957), Soviet football player and manager\n Grigory Frid (1915–2012), Russian composer\n Grigory Gagarin (1810–1893), Russian painter and military commander\n Grigory Gamarnik (born 1929), Soviet wrestler\n Grigory Gamburtsev (1903–1955), Soviet seismologist\n Grigory Ginzburg (1904–1961), Russian pianist\n Grigory Grum-Grshimailo (1860–1936), Russian entomologist\n Grigory Gurkin (1870–1937), Altay landscape painter\n Grigory Helbach (1863–1930), Russian chess master\n Grigory Kiriyenko (born 1965), Russian fencer\n Grigory Kriss (born 1940), Soviet épée fencer\n Grigory Laguta (born 1984), Russian-born Latvian motorcycle speedway rider\n Grigory Landsberg (1890–1957), Soviet physicist\n Grigory Langsdorff (1774–1852), German-Russian naturalist and explorer\n Grigory Leps (born 1962), Russian singer and songwriter of Georgian origin\n Grigory Levenfish (1889–1961), Soviet chess Grandmaster\n Grigory Kaminsky (1894–1938), Soviet politician\n Grigory Kotoshikhin (c. 1630–1667), Russian diplomat and writer\n Grigory Kotovsky (1881–1925), Soviet military commander\n Grigory Kulik (1890–1950), Soviet military commander\n Grigory Mairanovsky (1899–1964), Soviet biochemist and poison developer\n Grigory Margulis (born 1946), Russian mathematician\n Grigory Misutin (born 1970), Ukrainian artistic gymnast\n Grigory Nelyubov (1934–1966), Russian cosmonaut\n Grigory Neujmin (1886–1946), Russian astronomer\n Grigory Novak (1919–1980), Soviet Ukrainian weightlifter\n Grigory Ordzhonikidze (1886–1937), Georgian communist\n Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov (1734–1783), Russian military commander and diplomat, lover of Catherine the Great\n Grigory Ostrovsky (1756–1814), Russian painter\n Grigory Petrovsky (1878–1958), Soviet Ukraininan communist and revolutionary\n Grigory Petrovich Nikulin (1895-1965), Soviet revolutionary\n Grigory Pirogov (1885–1931), Russian bass opera singer\n Grigory Pomerants (1918–2013), Russian philosopher and cultural theorist\n Grigory Potanin (1835–1920), Russian orientalist and explorer\n Grigory Potemkin (1739–1791), Russian military leader, statesman, favorite of Catherine the Great\n Grigory Razumovsky (1759–1837), Ukrainian biologist, geologist and philosopher\n Grigory Romodanovsky (died 1682), Russian military commander and diplomat\n Grigory Romanov (1923–2008), Soviet politician\n Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov (1890–1946), Russian military commander\n Grigory Abramovich Shajn (1892–1956), Soviet Russian astronomer\n Grigory Shelikhov (1747–1795), Russian seafarer and merchant\n Grigory or Gregory Skovoroda (1722–1794), Ukrainian philosopher, poet, teacher and composer\n Grigory Sokolov (born 1950), Russian pianist\n Grigory Soroka (1823–1864), Russian painter\n Grigory Sukochev (born 1988), Australian volleyball player\n Grigory Spiridov (1713–1790), Russian admiral\n Grigory Ugryumov (1764–1823), Russian painter\n Grigory Yavlinsky (born 1952), Russian economist and politician\n Grigory Zinoviev (1883–1936), Soviet politician\n\nGrigori\n Grigori Chukhrai (1921-2001), Russian screenwriter and director\n Grigori Galitsin (born 1957), Russian erotic photographer and porn director\n Grigori Kozintsev (1905-1973), Soviet Russian film director\n Grigori Kromanov (1926–1984), Estonian theatre and film director\n Grigori Ivanovitch Langsdorff or Georg von Langsdorff (1774-1852), Prussian aristocrat, politician and naturalist\n Grigori Marchenko (born 1946), Honorary Consul of the Singaporean government to the Kazakh government\n Grigori Panteleimonov (1885-1934), Russian sports shooter\n Grigori Perelman (born 1966), Russian mathematician\n Grigori Rasputin (1869-1916), a Russian mystic\n Grigori Voitinsky (1893-1956), Comintern official\n Grigori Zozulya (1893-1973), Russian artist\n\nGrigoriy \n Grigoriy Andreyev (born 1976), Russian marathon runner\n Grigoriy Dobrygin (born 1986), Russian actor\n Grigoriy Gruzinsky (1833–1899), Georgian prince\n Grigoriy Myasoyedov (1834–1911), Russian painter\n Grigoriy Mihaylovich Naginskiy (born 1958), Russian politician\n Grigoriy Oparin (born 1997), Russian chess Grandmaster\n Grigoriy Oster (born 1947), Russian author and screenwriter\n Grigoriy Plaskov (born 1898), Soviet artillery lieutenant\n Grigoriy Tarasevich (born 1995), Russian swimmer\n Grigoriy Yablonsky (born 1940), Soviet-born American chemical engineer and professor\n Grigoriy Yegorov (born 1967), Kazakhstani former pole vaulter\n\nFictional characters \n Father Grigori, in the computer game Half-Life 2\n Grigori Rasputin (Hellboy), a comic book character\n Grigori Daratrazanoff, a main Carpathian character in Christine Feehan's Dark series\n Grigori, the name of the titular dragon in the computer game Dragon's Dogma\n Grigori Panteleevich Melekhov, in And Quiet Flows the Don\n\nSee also \n Daniel Grigori, an angel in Lauren Kate's Fallen novel series\n Gregory (given name)\n Krikor, Western Armenian variant\n Ryhor, Belarusian variant\n\nCategory:Russian masculine given names", "title": "Grigory" } ]

[ "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_0_q#0", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_0_q#1", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_0_q#2", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_0_q#3", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_0_q#4" ]

[ "How did no sirree come about?", "Who said it first?", "was it a success?", "did they duplicate it?", "why was it a failure?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 1, 0, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 311 ], [ 201 ], [ 1547 ], [ 1793 ], [ 1846 ] ], "texts": [ [ "No Sirree! had its genesis at the studio of Neysa McMein," ], [ "was a take-off of a then-popular European touring revue called La Chauve-Souris, directed by Nikita Balieff." ], [ "With the success of No Sirree! the Round Tablers hoped to duplicate it with an \"official\"" ], [ "The revue opened in November 1922 and was a failure," ], [ "running for just 15 performances." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 311, 201, 1547, 1793, 1846 ], "texts": [ "No Sirree! had its genesis at the studio of Neysa McMein,", "was a take-off of a then-popular European touring revue called La Chauve-Souris, directed by Nikita Balieff.", "With the success of No Sirree! the Round Tablers hoped to duplicate it with an \"official\"", "The revue opened in November 1922 and was a failure,", "running for just 15 performances." ] }

[]

[ "No Sirree! came about at the studio of Neysa McMein, which served as a salon for Round Tablers away from the Algonquin. Seemingly, it was inevitable that the Round Table members, given their literary and theatrical activities, would write and stage their own revue, and that is how No Sirree! was born. The show, staged for one night only in April 1922, was a take-off of a then-popular European touring revue called La Chauve-Souris, directed by Nikita Balieff.", "The text does not provide information on who first said \"No Sirree!\"", "The text suggests that No Sirree! was successful, at least to some degree. It was notable for Robert Benchley's contribution, The Treasurer's Report, which was so well-received that Irving Berlin hired Benchley to deliver the Report as part of his Music Box Revue, paying him $500 a week. The Treasurer's Report was later made into a short sound film, marking the beginning of a second career for Benchley in Hollywood. The success of No Sirree! also led the Round Tablers to attempt to duplicate its success with another production, The Forty-niners, although this latter show was a failure.", "The Round Tablers attempted to duplicate the success of No Sirree! with another production called The Forty-niners. However, this show was not successful and ran for only 15 performances.", "The text does not provide specific reasons why The Forty-niners, the revue attempted after the success of No Sirree!, was a failure." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_1_q#0", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_1_q#1", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_1_q#2", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_1_q#3", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_1_q#4", "C_b6a9e4af8dc54cd7abeb132612c7e77e_1_q#5" ]

[ "What is Activites about?", "What is the activity of the Round table?", "what are the department of Round tables?", "What is the name of their worker?", "Any important information?", "Where is round table located?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 120 ], [ 1769 ], [ 1769 ], [ 1197 ], [ 1769 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In addition to the daily luncheons, members of the Round Table worked and associated with each other almost constantly. The group was devoted to games, including cribbage and poker." ], [ "The group was devoted to games, including cribbage and poker." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "A number of Round Tablers were inveterate practical jokers, constantly pulling pranks on one another. As time went on the jokes became ever more elaborate." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 120, 1769, 1769, 1197, 1769 ], "texts": [ "In addition to the daily luncheons, members of the Round Table worked and associated with each other almost constantly. The group was devoted to games, including cribbage and poker.", "The group was devoted to games, including cribbage and poker.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "A number of Round Tablers were inveterate practical jokers, constantly pulling pranks on one another. As time went on the jokes became ever more elaborate.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The activities are about the members of the Round Table socializing and having fun together. They played games like cribbage and poker and had their own poker club called the Thanatopsis Literary and Inside Straight Club. They also liked to play charades, a game called \"I can give you a sentence\", and \"Murder\", the group's version of Wink murder. They often frequented a private island, where they played games like croquet. Additionally, many of them were accomplished practical jokers and liked to play pranks on each other.", "The activity of the Round Table included daily luncheons, playing various games such as cribbage, poker, charades, and \"Murder\" (their version of Wink murder). They had a poker club called the Thanatopsis Literary and Inside Straight Club. They also played a game called \"I can give you a sentence\" and engaged in practical jokes. Members of the Round Table would often visit Neshobe Island, where they would also engage in their usual games and activities.", "The text does not provide information on any departments of the Round Table.", "The text does not provide specific names of workers associated with the Round Table.", "Important information from the text includes details about the leisure activities of the Round Table members who were largely involved in playing games like cribbage, poker, charades etc. Noteworthy is their own poker club, the Thanatopsis Literary and Inside Straight Club. The text also mentions their fondness for practical jokes, with a memorable prank played on Woollcott involving a portrait of himself. They often visited Neshobe Island, co-owned by some members of the group and governed by Woollcott. Regular participants in their activities included Kaufman, Adams, Broun, Ross and Woollcott, along with non-Round Tablers like Herbert Bayard Swope, Paul Hyde Bonner, Raoul Fleischmann, Harpo Marx, and Ring Lardner.", "The text does not provide specific information on the location of the Round Table. However, it does mention that members often visited Neshobe Island in Lake Bomoseen, Vermont." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_1_q#0", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_1_q#1", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_1_q#2", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_1_q#3", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_1_q#4", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_1_q#5", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_1_q#6" ]

[ "What was his legacy?", "Did he break any records?", "What awards did he win?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he receive any other honors?", "Has he influenced other people?", "In what way did he influence them?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 71 ], [ 460 ], [ 1445 ], [ 634 ], [ 1902 ], [ 320 ], [ 1738 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Tittle was the fourth player to throw seven touchdown passes in a game, when he did so in 1962 against the Redskins." ], [ "His 36 touchdown passes in 1963 set a record which stood for over two decades until it was surpassed by Dan Marino in 1984;" ], [ "He made seven Pro Bowls, four first-team All-Pro teams, and four times was named the NFL's Most Valuable Player or Player of the Year:" ], [ "Despite record statistics and three straight championship game appearances, Tittle was never able to deliver a title to his team." ], [ "He was featured on four Sports Illustrated covers: three during his playing career and one shortly after retirement." ], [ "Joe Kapp (1969), Peyton Manning (2013), Nick Foles (2013), and Drew Brees (2015). Tittle," ], [ "Tittle had \"broken records that at one time appeared unassailable and he has been the hero of more second half rallies than Napoleon and the Harlem Globetrotters.\"" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 71, 460, 1445, 634, 1902, 320, 1738 ], "texts": [ "Tittle was the fourth player to throw seven touchdown passes in a game, when he did so in 1962 against the Redskins.", "His 36 touchdown passes in 1963 set a record which stood for over two decades until it was surpassed by Dan Marino in 1984;", "He made seven Pro Bowls, four first-team All-Pro teams, and four times was named the NFL's Most Valuable Player or Player of the Year:", "Despite record statistics and three straight championship game appearances, Tittle was never able to deliver a title to his team.", "He was featured on four Sports Illustrated covers: three during his playing career and one shortly after retirement.", "Joe Kapp (1969), Peyton Manning (2013), Nick Foles (2013), and Drew Brees (2015). Tittle,", "Tittle had \"broken records that at one time appeared unassailable and he has been the hero of more second half rallies than Napoleon and the Harlem Globetrotters.\"" ] }

[]

[ "Tittle retired with several NFL records, including being the fourth player to throw seven touchdown passes in a game, followed by four more players. His 36 touchdown passes in 1963 set a record and as of 2016, it remains a Giants franchise record. Despite his statistics and three straight championship game appearances, Tittle was never able to deliver a title to his team. Post-retirement, the Giants struggled, making Tittle's contribution significant. He made seven Pro Bowls, four first-team All-Pro teams, and was named the NFL's Most Valuable Player or Player of the Year four times. He was also featured on four Sports Illustrated covers. The trade of Tittle for Lou Cordileone is considered as one of the worst trades in 49ers history, making it one of the best trades in Giants franchise history.", "Yes, Tittle broke several records. He was the fourth player to throw seven touchdown passes in a game, when he did so in 1962 against the Redskins. His 36 touchdown passes in 1963 set a record that lasted for over two decades. At the time of his retirement, Tittle held these NFL records, as well as others.", "Tittle made seven Pro Bowls and four first-team All-Pro teams. He was also named the NFL's Most Valuable Player or Player of the Year four times: in 1957 and 1962 by the UPI, in 1961 by the NEA, and in 1963 by the AP and NEA.", "Yes, one interesting aspect is the trade of Tittle for Lou Cordileone, which is widely regarded as one of the worst trades in 49ers history and conversely, one of the best in Giants franchise history. Seth Wickersham also noted an interesting contrast between the Giants, with hall of fame players including Tittle known for losing championships, and the Yankees, renowned for winning them despite both teams sharing the same city, stadium and social circles. Also notable is that Tittle was featured on four Sports Illustrated covers, and his record of 36 touchdown passes in 1963 stood for over two decades. Despite his impressive performance, Tittle's inability to deliver a title to his team and his winless postseason career create a dichotomy between his regular and postseason performances.", "Based on the context provided, Tittle did not receive any other honors apart from making seven Pro Bowls, becoming part of four first-team All-Pro teams, and being named the NFL's Most Valuable Player or Player of the Year four times.", "The text does not provide information on whether Tittle has influenced other people.", "The text does not provide information on how Tittle influenced other people." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "no", "No" ]

[ "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_0_q#0", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_0_q#1", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_0_q#2", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_0_q#3", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_0_q#4", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_0_q#5", "C_407f713d9f2b464ba528046ea0727944_0_q#6" ]

[ "What year was the famous photo taken?", "What was the name of the magazine the famous photo was on?", "What year was the photo published in the magazine?", "What sport did he play in his famous photo?", "Are there any more interesting information about the famous photo?", "Were there any controversy with the famous photo?", "What year did his Autobiography with the famous photo come out?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 96 ], [ 787 ], [ 818 ], [ 1202 ], [ 584 ], [ 1226 ], [ 1361 ] ], "texts": [ [ "on September 20, 1964," ], [ "The photo was published in the October 2, 1964, issue of Life magazine. It is regarded as having changed the way that photographers look at sports," ], [ "October 2, 1964," ], [ "Football" ], [ "Post-Gazette editors declined to publish the photo, looking for \"action shots\" instead, but Berman entered the image into contests where it took on a life of its own," ], [ "After at first having failed to see the appeal of the image, Tittle eventually grew to embrace it, putting it on the back cover of his 2009 autobiography." ], [ "2009" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 96, 787, 818, 1202, 584, 1226, 1361 ], "texts": [ "on September 20, 1964,", "The photo was published in the October 2, 1964, issue of Life magazine. It is regarded as having changed the way that photographers look at sports,", "October 2, 1964,", "Football", "Post-Gazette editors declined to publish the photo, looking for \"action shots\" instead, but Berman entered the image into contests where it took on a life of its own,", "After at first having failed to see the appeal of the image, Tittle eventually grew to embrace it, putting it on the back cover of his 2009 autobiography.", "2009" ] }

[]

[ "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_1_q#0", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_1_q#1", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_1_q#2", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_1_q#3", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_1_q#4", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_1_q#5", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_1_q#6" ]

[ "Why did Mitchell undertake his first expedition?", "What year did he begin the expedition?", "Was he correct in his belief?", "Was there a long term effect?", "What happened in the attack?", "Where did the attack happen?", "What kind of problems did this create for Mitchell?" ]

[ 1, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 224 ], [ 635 ], [ 2274 ], [ 2715 ], [ 2206 ], [ 1647 ], [ 2460 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Charles Sturt believed that the Murray-Darling system formed the main river system of New South Wales and Mitchell wanted to prove Sturt wrong." ], [ "24 November 1831" ], [ "The immediate effect was that Mitchell decided to abandon the expedition and return south." ], [ "Fourteen years after the attack, Mitchell revealed that the convicts had indulged in sexual relations with Aboriginal women." ], [ "Supplies were scattered and beneath the wreckage were two dead men." ], [ "found the Barwon by the end of the month, where he set up camp." ], [ "Mitchell buried the two bodies and salvaged some equipment." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 224, 635, 2274, 2715, 2206, 1647, 2460 ], "texts": [ "Charles Sturt believed that the Murray-Darling system formed the main river system of New South Wales and Mitchell wanted to prove Sturt wrong.", "24 November 1831", "The immediate effect was that Mitchell decided to abandon the expedition and return south.", "Fourteen years after the attack, Mitchell revealed that the convicts had indulged in sexual relations with Aboriginal women.", "Supplies were scattered and beneath the wreckage were two dead men.", "found the Barwon by the end of the month, where he set up camp.", "Mitchell buried the two bodies and salvaged some equipment." ] }

[]

[ "Mitchell undertook his first expedition to investigate the claim made by a convict named George Clarke that a large river, called Kindur, flowed north-west from the Liverpool ranges in New South Wales to the sea. Furthermore, Mitchell wanted to prove Charles Sturt wrong, who believed that the Murray-Darling system formed the main river system of New South Wales.", "Mitchell began the expedition on 24 November 1831.", "Upon returning to Sydney, Mitchell concluded that there was no truth about the existence of the river Kindur claimed by Clarke. Therefore, his belief turned out to be incorrect.", "The text does not provide information on any long term effect of Mitchell's expedition.", "In the attack, Heneage Finch, who had been travelling with three convicts and provisions, had returned to their campsite after a failed attempt to locate the main expedition and found it ransacked. Supplies were scattered and, tragically, two men were found dead beneath the wreckage. The details of the attack itself are not explicitly provided in the text.", "The text does not provide a specific location for where the attack that resulted in the death of two men happened. It only mentions that Finch discovered the aftermath of the attack at the campsite upon his return after a failed attempt to locate the main expedition.", "The attack created several problems for Mitchell. Firstly, it left him without much needed provisions which Finch had failed to bring. Secondly, the deaths of two of his men in the attack was a tragedy. Lastly, the attack led Mitchell to abandon the expedition and return south." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_0_q#0", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_0_q#1", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_0_q#2", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_0_q#3", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_0_q#4", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_0_q#5", "C_31fec604f00d47fca55b1bf8097cb058_0_q#6" ]

[ "What was Mitchell exploring during his fourth expedition?", "Was he correct?", "When did he begin his explorations?", "Who else was with the exploration party?", "Did anything interesting happen during his exploration?", "Why did he call it Mount Abundance?", "How long did the expedition last?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 2284 ], [ 200 ], [ 2510 ], [ 908 ], [ 2510 ], [ 2168 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Mitchell's fourth expedition was into Queensland in 1845-46. He was convinced that a significant river must flow north-west into the Gulf of Carpentaria," ], [ "Later that year, Kennedy proved beyond doubt that the Victoria did not continue north-west, but turned south-west and joined Cooper Creek." ], [ "On 15 December 1845 Mitchell started from Boree (Buree in Mitchell's journal) with a large party including Edmund Kennedy as second in command" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "This rivulet led him to a magnificent pastoral district in the midst of which stood a solitary hill that he named Mount Abundance." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "On the homeward journey he trekked along the Maranoa River to St.George Bridge, arriving in Sydney 20 January 1847." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 2284, 200, 2510, 908, 2510, 2168 ], "texts": [ "Mitchell's fourth expedition was into Queensland in 1845-46. He was convinced that a significant river must flow north-west into the Gulf of Carpentaria,", "Later that year, Kennedy proved beyond doubt that the Victoria did not continue north-west, but turned south-west and joined Cooper Creek.", "On 15 December 1845 Mitchell started from Boree (Buree in Mitchell's journal) with a large party including Edmund Kennedy as second in command", "CANNOTANSWER", "This rivulet led him to a magnificent pastoral district in the midst of which stood a solitary hill that he named Mount Abundance.", "CANNOTANSWER", "On the homeward journey he trekked along the Maranoa River to St.George Bridge, arriving in Sydney 20 January 1847." ] }

[]

[ "Mitchell was exploring Queensland during his fourth expedition, specifically looking for a significant river he believed flowed north-west into the Gulf of Carpentaria.", "No, he was not correct. Later that year, Edmund Kennedy proved that the river Mitchell had discovered, which he named the Victoria River, did not continue north-west, but turned south-west and joined Cooper Creek. Kennedy renamed the river the Barcoo River.", "Mitchell began his explorations on 15 December 1845.", "Edmund Kennedy was with the exploration party and served as second in command. There were also other unnamed individuals, referred to as a large party in the text.", "Yes, several interesting things happened during his exploration. He discovered and named various geographical features, including a natural bridge of rocks on the Balonne which he called St.George Bridge, and Mount Abundance. He discovered what he was certain was the fabled north-west river, and named it Victoria River, only to later discover that he was mistaken. He also discovered the well-known grass that now bears his name during the homeward journey.", "The text does not provide information on why Mitchell named it Mount Abundance.", "Mitchell's expedition lasted from 15 December 1845 until his arrival in Sydney on 20 January 1847. Thus, the expedition took a little over a year." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#0", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#1", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#2", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#3", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#4", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#5", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#6", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#7", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#8", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_0_q#9" ]

[ "how did he join the angels", "Did Jackson do well there", "what else did he achieve there", "Did they win any more", "Did he achieve any personal goals during this time", "Did he have any other achievements", "What was special about 44", "Is there anything else I should learn about him", "Did the A's disband", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 113 ], [ 251 ], [ 746 ], [ 835 ], [ 892 ], [ 1044 ], [ 1113 ], [ 1436 ], [ 1531 ], [ 602 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Gene Autry, had heard of Jackson's desire to return to California to play, and signed him to a five-year contract." ], [ "Jackson's first game back at Yankee Stadium with the Angels, he broke out of a terrible season-starting slump to hit a home run off former teammate Ron Guidry." ], [ "That season, the Angels won the American League West, and would do so again in 1986," ], [ "lost the American League Championship Series both times." ], [ "On September 17, 1984, on the 17th anniversary of the day he hit his first home run, he hit his 500th, at Anaheim Stadium off Bud Black of the Royals." ], [ "In 1987, he signed a one-year contract to return to the A's, wearing the number 44" ], [ "the number 44 with which he was now most associated rather than the number 9 he previously wore in Oakland." ], [ "Jackson was the last player in the major leagues to have played for the Kansas City Athletics." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Jackson's election to the Hall of Fame, Steinbrenner had begun to say that letting him go was the biggest mistake he had made as Yankee owner." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 113, 251, 746, 835, 892, 1044, 1113, 1436, 1531, 602 ], "texts": [ "Gene Autry, had heard of Jackson's desire to return to California to play, and signed him to a five-year contract.", "Jackson's first game back at Yankee Stadium with the Angels, he broke out of a terrible season-starting slump to hit a home run off former teammate Ron Guidry.", "That season, the Angels won the American League West, and would do so again in 1986,", "lost the American League Championship Series both times.", "On September 17, 1984, on the 17th anniversary of the day he hit his first home run, he hit his 500th, at Anaheim Stadium off Bud Black of the Royals.", "In 1987, he signed a one-year contract to return to the A's, wearing the number 44", "the number 44 with which he was now most associated rather than the number 9 he previously wore in Oakland.", "Jackson was the last player in the major leagues to have played for the Kansas City Athletics.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Jackson's election to the Hall of Fame, Steinbrenner had begun to say that letting him go was the biggest mistake he had made as Yankee owner." ] }

[]

[ "He joined the Angels after the owner of the California Angels, Gene Autry, signed him to a five-year contract.", "Yes, Jackson did well with the Angels. He broke out of a terrible season-starting slump in his first game back at Yankee Stadium with the Angels by hitting a home run. During his time with the Angels, the team won the American League West in 1982 and again in 1986. He also hit his 500th home run while playing for the Angels.", "While playing for the Angels, he helped the team win the American League West twice, in 1982 and again in 1986. He also hit his 500th career home run at Anaheim Stadium.", "The context does not provide information on any other wins by the Angels while Jackson was with the team.", "Yes, Jackson achieved personal goals during his time with the Angels. Specifically, he hit his 500th career home run on September 17, 1984, which marked the 17th anniversary of his first home run.", "Based on the provided context, no other specific achievements are mentioned regarding Jackson's tenure with the California Angels.", "The number 44 was special because it was the number Jackson was most associated with during his career. He wore this number when he returned to the A's in 1987.", "According to the context, Jackson became the last player in the major leagues to have played for the Kansas City Athletics. He also ended his career by announcing his retirement at the age of 41, after signing a one-year contract with the A's in 1987.", "The context does not provide information on whether the A's disbanded.", "One interesting aspect of the article is the reaction of the Yankee fans when Jackson returned to Yankee Stadium playing for the Angels. They were angry at Steinbrenner for allowing Jackson to leave the Yankees, chanting his name and ending with the chant \"Steinbrenner sucks!\" Steinbrenner himself later admitted letting Jackson go was the biggest mistake he had made as a Yankee owner. Also, Jackson was the last player in the major league to have played for the Kansas City Athletics, which could be an interesting fact for baseball history enthusiasts." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#0", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#1", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#2", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#3", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#4", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#5", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#6", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#7", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#8", "C_a115a3119c04420bb2dbe71f36612907_1_q#9" ]

[ "Who did Jackson play for in 80-81?", "What happened during that last year with the Yankees?", "What kind of difficulties?", "Did Steinbrenner and Jackson butt heads about anything else?", "What was the result of that physical examination?", "Did their feud continue?", "What was his record that season?", "Was the tension with Steinbrenner ever resolved?", "Are there any other relevant facts from this time period?", "What is his record against the Dodgers?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 232 ], [ 292 ], [ 434 ], [ 649 ], [ 804 ], [ 864 ], [ 977 ], [ 1323 ], [ 1669 ], [ 1591 ] ], "texts": [ [ "As he entered the last year of his Yankee contract in 1981," ], [ "Jackson endured several difficulties from George Steinbrenner." ], [ "Jackson expected Steinbrenner to work out a new contract for him as well. Steinbrenner never did" ], [ "when the 1981 Major League Baseball strike began, Steinbrenner invoked a clause in Jackson's contract forcing him to take a complete physical examination." ], [ "Jackson was outraged and blasted Steinbrenner in the media." ], [ "When the season resumed, Jackson's hitting improved, partly to show Steinbrenner he wasn't finished as a player." ], [ "He hit a long home run into the upper deck in Game Five of the strike-forced 1981 American League Division Series with the Brewers," ], [ "Jackson was medically cleared to play Game Three, but manager Bob Lemon refused to start him or even play him, allegedly acting under orders from Steinbrenner." ], [ "Jackson had faced the Dodgers four straight times in the World Series by 1981. No other player in Major League history has played against the same team more consecutive times" ], [ "However, they lost the last three games and the World Series to the Dodgers." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 232, 292, 434, 649, 804, 864, 977, 1323, 1669, 1591 ], "texts": [ "As he entered the last year of his Yankee contract in 1981,", "Jackson endured several difficulties from George Steinbrenner.", "Jackson expected Steinbrenner to work out a new contract for him as well. Steinbrenner never did", "when the 1981 Major League Baseball strike began, Steinbrenner invoked a clause in Jackson's contract forcing him to take a complete physical examination.", "Jackson was outraged and blasted Steinbrenner in the media.", "When the season resumed, Jackson's hitting improved, partly to show Steinbrenner he wasn't finished as a player.", "He hit a long home run into the upper deck in Game Five of the strike-forced 1981 American League Division Series with the Brewers,", "Jackson was medically cleared to play Game Three, but manager Bob Lemon refused to start him or even play him, allegedly acting under orders from Steinbrenner.", "Jackson had faced the Dodgers four straight times in the World Series by 1981. No other player in Major League history has played against the same team more consecutive times", "However, they lost the last three games and the World Series to the Dodgers." ] }

[]

[ "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#0", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#1", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#2", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#3", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#4", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#5", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#6", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#7", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#8", "C_212b8e892b1d481da159f79f8adb2a74_1_q#9" ]

[ "when did he get into music?", "what was his first release?", "Did they like him?", "where did he learn how to be a bass player?", "what other bands did he play with before Van Halen?", "did he have hits early in his career?", "did he go on tour at all during this time?", "why did he decide to leave the band he was with and join Van Halens?", "is there anything else interesting?", "are there other claims?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 176 ], [ 1534 ], [ 1783 ], [ 2166 ], [ 733 ], [ 1055 ], [ 2166 ], [ 1534 ], [ 1859 ], [ 1997 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He took an interest in guitar as a teenager, but picked up the bass instead since most of his other friends already played guitar or drums." ], [ "During this time, bass player Mark Stone parted ways with Mammoth and the Van Halens decided to audition Anthony as a replacement." ], [ "After the session, the Van Halen brothers asked Anthony to join their band." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "His first band was called Poverty's Children. Other bands he played in included Black Opal, Balls, and Snake." ], [ "Snake played covers of ZZ Top, Lynyrd Skynyrd, and Foghat, along with some original songs." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "During this time, bass player Mark Stone parted ways with Mammoth and the Van Halens decided to audition Anthony as a replacement." ], [ "One story claims that he said he had to think about it and consulted Snake guitarist Tony Caggiano who advised Anthony to join Van Halen." ], [ "However, according to Michael Anthony's web site, when asked if he wanted to join Mammoth, Anthony immediately said yes. This has become the accepted version of events." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 176, 1534, 1783, 2166, 733, 1055, 2166, 1534, 1859, 1997 ], "texts": [ "He took an interest in guitar as a teenager, but picked up the bass instead since most of his other friends already played guitar or drums.", "During this time, bass player Mark Stone parted ways with Mammoth and the Van Halens decided to audition Anthony as a replacement.", "After the session, the Van Halen brothers asked Anthony to join their band.", "CANNOTANSWER", "His first band was called Poverty's Children. Other bands he played in included Black Opal, Balls, and Snake.", "Snake played covers of ZZ Top, Lynyrd Skynyrd, and Foghat, along with some original songs.", "CANNOTANSWER", "During this time, bass player Mark Stone parted ways with Mammoth and the Van Halens decided to audition Anthony as a replacement.", "One story claims that he said he had to think about it and consulted Snake guitarist Tony Caggiano who advised Anthony to join Van Halen.", "However, according to Michael Anthony's web site, when asked if he wanted to join Mammoth, Anthony immediately said yes. This has become the accepted version of events." ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide specific information on when Anthony got into music.", "The context does not provide information on Anthony's first release.", "Based on the context, it can be inferred that the Van Halen brothers were impressed with Anthony during their jam sessions, as they asked him to join their band afterwards.", "The context does not provide specific information on where Anthony learned how to be a bass player. However, it mentions that he started playing the bass as a teenager and modeled his bass playing after Jack Bruce of Cream, John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin, and Harvey Brooks of Electric Flag.", "Before joining Van Halen, Anthony played in bands called Poverty's Children, Black Opal, Balls, and Snake.", "The context does not provide information on whether Anthony had hits early in his career.", "The context does not provide information on whether Anthony went on tour during this time.", "The context suggests that Anthony decided to join Van Halen because he was impressed by their skill during jam sessions. It does not specify why he chose to leave his previous band, Snake.", "The context mentions a few interesting facts such as Anthony being naturally left-handed but playing right-handed, converting a guitar into a bass by removing the two highest strings, and modeling his bass playing after well-known musicians such as Jack Bruce, John Paul Jones, and Harvey Brooks. It also mentions that he was a talented multi-sport athlete and a marching band member during his school years.", "The context mentions a claim about the circumstances of Anthony's joining Van Halen. The band Mammoth, which would later become Van Halen, asked Anthony to join them after a successful jam session. One story claims that he said he had to think about it and consulted with a guitarist from his then current band, Snake; according to another, found on Michael Anthony's website, he immediately agreed to join. The latter version of events is generally accepted." ]

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[ "What was his role in Van Halen?", "what caused his role to start diminishing?", "Was he actually fired?", "WHen did he leave the band?", "where did he go?", "What were some of his side projects?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What was the super group?", "Did the release any hits?", "Were they ever released?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 357 ], [ 0 ], [ 1965 ], [ 769 ], [ 1148 ], [ 1223 ], [ 1479 ], [ 1488 ], [ 1661 ], [ 1816 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Anthony played bass on only three songs," ], [ "As early as 1996, rumors periodically surfaced that Anthony had been fired from Van Halen, despite claims to the contrary." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "2000 and 2001. Anthony's name was also credited in a few band newsletters and appeared in band interviews during this time. Sometime after this, Anthony disappeared" ], [ "Anthony began periodic appearances with Sammy Hagar during his solo tours." ], [ "He usually played as part of both the Waboritas and Los Tres Gusanos, two of Hagar's bands." ], [ "In 2002, Anthony, Hagar, Neal Schon, Deen Castronovo, and Joe Satriani formed the \"supergroup\"" ], [ "Anthony, Hagar, Neal Schon, Deen Castronovo, and Joe Satriani formed the \"supergroup\" Planet Us" ], [ "Planet Us recorded two songs, including \"Psycho Vertigo,\" which was intended for the original Spider-Man soundtrack but ultimately did not make the album." ], [ "That and the other Planet Us song written for the band, \"Peephole,\" were later released on the 2008 Sammy Hagar solo album Cosmic Universal Fashion." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 357, 0, 1965, 769, 1148, 1223, 1479, 1488, 1661, 1816 ], "texts": [ "Anthony played bass on only three songs,", "As early as 1996, rumors periodically surfaced that Anthony had been fired from Van Halen, despite claims to the contrary.", "CANNOTANSWER", "2000 and 2001. Anthony's name was also credited in a few band newsletters and appeared in band interviews during this time. Sometime after this, Anthony disappeared", "Anthony began periodic appearances with Sammy Hagar during his solo tours.", "He usually played as part of both the Waboritas and Los Tres Gusanos, two of Hagar's bands.", "In 2002, Anthony, Hagar, Neal Schon, Deen Castronovo, and Joe Satriani formed the \"supergroup\"", "Anthony, Hagar, Neal Schon, Deen Castronovo, and Joe Satriani formed the \"supergroup\" Planet Us", "Planet Us recorded two songs, including \"Psycho Vertigo,\" which was intended for the original Spider-Man soundtrack but ultimately did not make the album.", "That and the other Planet Us song written for the band, \"Peephole,\" were later released on the 2008 Sammy Hagar solo album Cosmic Universal Fashion." ] }

[]

[ "Anthony was a member of the band Van Halen, where he played bass and was credited as a songwriter.", "The context does not provide a specific reason for why Anthony's role in Van Halen started to diminish.", "The context does not provide a clear answer as to whether Anthony was actually fired from Van Halen. There were rumors of him being fired dating back to 1996, but Anthony continued to work with the band until his departure after the 2004 reunion tour.", "Anthony left Van Halen after the 2004 reunion tour.", "After leaving Van Halen, Anthony began making periodic appearances with Sammy Hagar during his solo tours and played as part of Hagar's bands, the Waboritas and Los Tres Gusanos. In 2002, Anthony formed the \"supergroup\" Planet Us with Sammy Hagar, Neal Schon, Deen Castronovo, and Joe Satriani.", "Anthony's side projects after leaving Van Halen included making periodic appearances with Sammy Hagar during his solo tours and playing as part of Hagar's bands, the Waboritas and Los Tres Gusanos. He also formed the \"supergroup\" Planet Us in 2002 with Sammy Hagar, Neal Schon, Deen Castronovo, and Joe Satriani. They recorded two songs, \"Psycho Vertigo\" and \"Peephole.\"", "Some interesting aspects from the article include the fact that despite persistent rumors of Anthony being fired from the band Van Halen dating back to 1996, he continued to work with them until his departure after the 2004 reunion tour. Another interesting aspect is that during the recording of Van Halen's 1998 album, \"Van Halen III\", Anthony's contribution was significantly reduced, playing bass only on three songs with Eddie Van Halen playing the rest. Anthony also formed a \"supergroup\" called Planet Us in 2002, for which they wrote two songs originally intended for the Spider-Man soundtrack, which were later released on a Sammy Hagar solo album in 2008.", "The \"supergroup\" was called Planet Us and it was formed in 2002 by Anthony, Sammy Hagar, Neal Schon, Deen Castronovo, and Joe Satriani.", "The context does not provide information about whether the \"supergroup\" Planet Us released any hit songs.", "Yes, the two songs that Planet Us wrote, \"Psycho Vertigo\" and \"Peephole,\" were later released on the 2008 Sammy Hagar solo album Cosmic Universal Fashion." ]

[ "Yes", "neutral", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "How did Montel get into wrestling?", "What was Montel's job when he was young?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Was he ever married?" ]

[ 1, 1, 2, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1622 ], [ 1622 ], [ 1184 ], [ 0 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "He has been a fan of Manchester United F.C. since he was 13," ], [ "Assad has a son from a short-lived relationship." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1622, 1622, 1184, 0 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "He has been a fan of Manchester United F.C. since he was 13,", "Assad has a son from a short-lived relationship." ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on how Montel got into wrestling.", "The text does not provide information on what Montel's job was when he was young.", "The context provided in the article contains a few interesting aspects, such as Montel being a fan of Manchester United F.C., his love for video games and how it inspired his finishing move in wrestling, his conversion to atheism from Islam, his fight with a rare heart condition, and his achievements in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. The article also mentions the various tattoos he has collected over his lifetime, some of which reference significant cultural and literary symbols.", "The text does not provide information on whether Montel was ever married." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "When did Theo play for the Red Sox?", "How long did he play for that team?", "While with the Red sox did they ever go to the world series on any special events?", "When did he leave the red sox team?", "Did his career end with the red sox?", "Was there anything else interesting in this article about the red sox?", "Did the reporters figure out it was him?", "Wow, anything else interesting like this you can share?", "what did he do when he returned to the Red sox?", "What was the years of his career span with the team?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 53 ], [ 186 ], [ 489 ], [ 899 ], [ 1673 ], [ 1261 ], [ 1408 ], [ 1517 ], [ 1812 ], [ 2822 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Lucchino became president and chief executive officer (CEO) of the Red Sox on November 15, 2001 and hired Epstein to work under him." ], [ "At the end of the 2002 season, Lucchino appointed Epstein to replace interim general manager (GM) Mike Port." ], [ "The new players were regarded as instrumental in breaking the so-called \"Curse of the Bambino\" when the Red Sox defeated the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series." ], [ "On October 31, 2005, Epstein resigned, rejecting a three-year, $1.5-million-per-year contract for personal reasons." ], [ "Epstein remained in contact with the team's front office and on January 12, 2006, he and Red Sox management announced his return." ], [ "Because it was Halloween the night he resigned from the Red Sox, Epstein left Fenway Park wearing a gorilla suit in an attempt to avoid reporters." ], [ "A witness reported spotting a person wearing a gorilla suit driving a Volvo similar to Epstein's that night." ], [ "The suit was loaned to him and was later auctioned for $11,000. The money raised was given to The Jimmy Fund and the Foundation to be Named Later (FTBNL)." ], [ "later, the team announced that he would resume the title of general manager and add the title of executive vice president." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 53, 186, 489, 899, 1673, 1261, 1408, 1517, 1812, 2822 ], "texts": [ "Lucchino became president and chief executive officer (CEO) of the Red Sox on November 15, 2001 and hired Epstein to work under him.", "At the end of the 2002 season, Lucchino appointed Epstein to replace interim general manager (GM) Mike Port.", "The new players were regarded as instrumental in breaking the so-called \"Curse of the Bambino\" when the Red Sox defeated the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series.", "On October 31, 2005, Epstein resigned, rejecting a three-year, $1.5-million-per-year contract for personal reasons.", "Epstein remained in contact with the team's front office and on January 12, 2006, he and Red Sox management announced his return.", "Because it was Halloween the night he resigned from the Red Sox, Epstein left Fenway Park wearing a gorilla suit in an attempt to avoid reporters.", "A witness reported spotting a person wearing a gorilla suit driving a Volvo similar to Epstein's that night.", "The suit was loaned to him and was later auctioned for $11,000. The money raised was given to The Jimmy Fund and the Foundation to be Named Later (FTBNL).", "later, the team announced that he would resume the title of general manager and add the title of executive vice president.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on Theo playing for the Red Sox.", "The context does not provide information on Theo playing for any team.", "Yes, while Theo Epstein was with the Red Sox, they went to the World Series in 2004 and won it. This was instrumental in breaking the \"Curse of the Bambino.\" It was the Red Sox' first World Series championship since 1918, ending one of the longest championship droughts in the history of Major League Baseball.", "Theo Epstein initially left the Red Sox on October 31, 2005. He then returned to the Red Sox on January 12, 2006, but the context does not specify when he finally left the team after his return.", "The context does not provide information on whether Theo Epstein's career ended with the Red Sox.", "Yes, there were a few interesting events detailed in this context about the Red Sox. Theo Epstein, as Red Sox GM, is credited with initiating the trade of Nomar Garciaparra and making key contract acquisitions including Kevin Millar and Curt Schilling. These players helped break the \"Curse of the Bambino\" when the Red Sox defeated the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series. Additionally, on the night Epstein resigned from the Red Sox, he left Fenway Park wearing a gorilla suit in an attempt to avoid reporters. This suit was later auctioned for $11,000, and the money raised was donated to charity. Furthermore, Epstein was mentioned in the Mitchell Report regarding a November 2006 email exchange about the possible acquisition of player Eric Gagne, who was suspected of steroid use. Despite reservations, Epstein traded for Gagne in 2007.", "The context does not provide specific information on whether the reporters figured out that the person in the gorilla suit was Theo Epstein.\n", "The context provided does not contain any more interesting facts.", "When Theo Epstein returned to the Red Sox on January 12, 2006, he resumed his former position as general manager and added the title of executive vice president.", "The context specifies that Theo Epstein joined the Red Sox in November 2001. He initially left the team in October 2005, but returned in January 2006. The context does not provide the year when he finally left the team after his return." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "did he play with chicago cubs?", "does he still play for them?", "did he set any records?", "Who did he play with?", "Who were some of his teammates?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1128 ], [ 711 ], [ 175 ], [ 1755 ], [ 298 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On October 12, 2011, Epstein agreed to a five-year contract worth $18.5 million with the Chicago Cubs." ], [ "Epstein re-signed with the club on September 28, 2016, with a five-year contract estimated to be worth up to $25million." ], [ "The Cubs finished in last place in the National League Central for the first three years of Epstein's presidency," ], [ "the Cubs" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "On October 23, 2011, he took out a full-page ad in The Boston Globe, thanking Red Sox fans and the team's owners for their support." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1128, 711, 175, 1755, 298 ], "texts": [ "On October 12, 2011, Epstein agreed to a five-year contract worth $18.5 million with the Chicago Cubs.", "Epstein re-signed with the club on September 28, 2016, with a five-year contract estimated to be worth up to $25million.", "The Cubs finished in last place in the National League Central for the first three years of Epstein's presidency,", "the Cubs", "CANNOTANSWER", "On October 23, 2011, he took out a full-page ad in The Boston Globe, thanking Red Sox fans and the team's owners for their support." ] }

[]

[ "No, Epstein did not play with the Chicago Cubs. He was the president of baseball operations for the team.", "No, Epstein did not play for the Chicago Cubs, he was the president of baseball operations.", "The text does not provide information on Epstein setting any records.", "The text does not provide information on Epstein playing with any team.", "The text does not provide information on Epstein having any teammates.", "The text does not provide information on any other interesting aspects about this article." ]

[ "No", "No", "no", "No", "Yes", "no" ]

[ "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_1_q#0", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_1_q#1", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_1_q#2", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_1_q#3", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_1_q#4", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_1_q#5", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_1_q#6", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_1_q#7" ]

[ "What can you tell me about walking and discipline?", "What did he say in regards to his stance on batsmen?", "What happened in the 2003 world cup match?", "Did anyone oppose the decision?", "Did any rules change based on his protesting?", "What did the former players debate?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What did he do wrong in that match against south africa?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 200 ], [ 321 ], [ 679 ], [ 3195 ], [ 35 ], [ 2277 ], [ 2241 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Cricket has for many years debated whether batsmen should \"walk\"," ], [ "Gilchrist reignited this debate by walking during a high-profile match, the 2003 World Cup semi-final against Sri Lanka," ], [ "after the umpire ruled him to be not out. He has since proclaimed himself to be \"a walker\"," ], [ "Gilchrist's actions have sparked debate amongst current and former players and umpires." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "whether batsmen should \"walk\", that is to agree that they have been dismissed and leave the field of play without waiting for (or contrary to) an umpire's decision." ], [ "In January 2006, he was fined 40% of his match fee in an ODI against South Africa." ], [ "dissent against umpiring decisions." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 200, 321, 679, 3195, 35, 2277, 2241 ], "texts": [ "Cricket has for many years debated whether batsmen should \"walk\",", "Gilchrist reignited this debate by walking during a high-profile match, the 2003 World Cup semi-final against Sri Lanka,", "after the umpire ruled him to be not out. He has since proclaimed himself to be \"a walker\",", "Gilchrist's actions have sparked debate amongst current and former players and umpires.", "CANNOTANSWER", "whether batsmen should \"walk\", that is to agree that they have been dismissed and leave the field of play without waiting for (or contrary to) an umpire's decision.", "In January 2006, he was fined 40% of his match fee in an ODI against South Africa.", "dissent against umpiring decisions." ] }

[]

[ "Walking in cricket refers to a batsman's choice to leave the field of play when they believe they have been dismissed, without waiting for an umpire's decision. This practice has been subject to debate among players and umpires for years. Adam Gilchrist is a prominent cricketer who declared himself to be a walker, often leaving the field of play when he believed he was out, even when the umpire ruled otherwise. However, this act occasionally sparked tensions and debates within the team, with Gilchrist feeling isolated and accused of being selfish. Besides this, Gilchrist had multiple instances of emotional outbursts on the cricket field, and was fined and reprimanded several times for dissent against umpiring decisions, which points to a complex relationship with discipline in the sport.", "Adam Gilchrist declared himself to be \"a walker\", a term for a batsman who chooses to walk if they believe they are out, regardless of the umpire's decision. He mentioned in his autobiography that he felt his stance resulted in “zero support in the team,\" making the dressing room uncomfortable. He also added that he \"felt isolated\" and as though he was \"silently accused of betraying the team\", with the implication that he was seen as selfish, and trying to cultivate his clean image at the expense of making others look dishonest.", "In the 2003 World Cup semi-final match against Sri Lanka, Adam Gilchrist made the decision to \"walk\", even though the umpire had ruled him not out. This action reignited the debate surrounding the practice of walking among players and umpires. Later during the 2003 World Cup, Gilchrist also accused Pakistani wicketkeeper Rashid Latif of making a racist remark towards him while Latif was batting in their group match. However, Latif, who was cleared by match referee Clive Lloyd, threatened to sue Gilchrist for this claim.", "According to the provided text, Ricky Ponting, an Australian cricketer, stated multiple times that he was not a walker, essentially opposing Gilchrist's decision to walk regularly. Furthermore, New Zealand captain Stephen Fleming accused Gilchrist of conducting a \"walking crusade\", implying some opposition to the practice. Also, Gilchrist in his autobiography noted an absence of support within his team for his decision to walk, feeling isolated and silently accused of betraying the team. It's not clear whether anyone specifically opposed his decision in the 2003 World Cup semi-final match against Sri Lanka.", "The text does not provide any information on whether Adam Gilchrist's decision to \"walk\" or his protests led to any changes in the rules of cricket.", "The text does not provide specific information on what former players debated. However, it mentions that Adam Gilchrist's action of walking during games sparked debate amongst current and former players and umpires, indicating that they engaged in discussions about the practice of walking, its implications and whether or not batsmen should self-dismiss and leave the field without waiting for an umpire's decision.", "Aside from the in-depth discussion on the practice of \"walking\" during cricket games, the text also touches on several controversies surrounding Adam Gilchrist. These include his confrontations with umpires, for which he was fined multiple times, his public dispute over Muttiah Muralitharan's bowling action that landed him in trouble with the Australian Cricket Board, and an incident during the 2003 World Cup where he accused Pakistani wicketkeeper Rashid Latif of making a racist remark towards him. These incidents highlight the charged atmosphere and high stakes often present in top-level cricket, adding further depth to the discussion on player behavior and ethics in the sport.", "In an One Day International (ODI) match against South Africa in January 2006, Adam Gilchrist was fined 40% of his match fee. However, the text does not provide the specific reason for this fine, just that it was an instance of Gilchrist showing dissent against umpiring decisions." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#0", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#1", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#2", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#3", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#4", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#5", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#6", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#7", "C_a9ccda28bf8a4a1f84da266403ead958_0_q#8" ]

[ "Did he donate to a lot of charities?", "What type of political work did he do?", "Does he have a business degree?", "What type of media has he been in?", "What is the Nine network?", "Is he still a part of the Nine Network?", "What has he done in business?", "What company directorships has he had?", "Has he donated to any other charities?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1003 ], [ 1150 ], [ 2013 ], [ 474 ], [ 524 ], [ 2013 ], [ 1611 ], [ 1683 ], [ 2013 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In August 2010, he presented the Freedom Wheels program, an initiative to provide modified bikes to kids with disabilities, a cheque for $20,000." ], [ "Gilchrist has been the chair of the National Australia Day Council since 2008." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In March 2008, Gilchrist joined the Nine Network." ], [ "Gilchrist has appeared as one of a panel of revolving co-hosts for the revived Wide World of Sports Weekend Edition." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Gilchrist has had a number of company directorships outside of cricket." ], [ "His appointment to the board of ASX listed sandalwood company TFS Corporation, committee member of Commonwealth Business Forum in Perth and director of Travelex." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1003, 1150, 2013, 474, 524, 2013, 1611, 1683, 2013 ], "texts": [ "In August 2010, he presented the Freedom Wheels program, an initiative to provide modified bikes to kids with disabilities, a cheque for $20,000.", "Gilchrist has been the chair of the National Australia Day Council since 2008.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In March 2008, Gilchrist joined the Nine Network.", "Gilchrist has appeared as one of a panel of revolving co-hosts for the revived Wide World of Sports Weekend Edition.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Gilchrist has had a number of company directorships outside of cricket.", "His appointment to the board of ASX listed sandalwood company TFS Corporation, committee member of Commonwealth Business Forum in Perth and director of Travelex.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text mentions that Gilchrist is an ambassador for World Vision in India and sponsors a boy there. He also participated in many charity events as an Amway Australia Ambassador and presented a cheque for $20,000 to the Freedom Wheels program. However, the text does not clearly state if he donated to \"a lot\" of charities.", "The text doesn't mention Gilchrist doing any political work. However, he has been the chair of the National Australia Day Council since 2008 and supported debate on whether Australia Day should be moved to a new date because the current date is seen as offensive to many Aboriginal Australians.", "The text does not provide information on whether Gilchrist has a business degree.", "Gilchrist has appeared in media as a sports commentator for Nine Network's cricket coverage during the Australian summer, the Wide World of Sports Weekend Edition, and for Channel Ten's third series of the Big Bash League.", "The context does not provide information about what the Nine Network is.", "The text does not provide information on whether Gilchrist is currently still a part of the Nine Network.", "Gilchrist has held a number of company directorships outside of cricket, such as being appointed to the board of ASX listed sandalwood company TFS Corporation, being a committee member of Commonwealth Business Forum in Perth, and serving as a director of Travelex.", "Gilchrist has held directorships in several companies, including the ASX listed sandalwood company TFS Corporation and Travelex. He has also been a committee member of the Commonwealth Business Forum in Perth.", "The text does not provide information on whether Gilchrist has donated to any other charities apart from his involvement with World Vision in India and the Freedom Wheels program." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_0_q#0", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_0_q#1", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_0_q#2", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_0_q#3", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_0_q#4" ]

[ "What is The W?", "Was this a success?", "Did it win any awards?", "What is Iron Flag?", "Who did they collaborate with?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 373 ], [ 782 ], [ 1653 ], [ 1809 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The group reconvened once again to make The W, though without Ol' Dirty Bastard, who was at the time incarcerated in California" ], [ "The W was mostly well received by critics," ], [ "The album would go on to reach double platinum status." ], [ "In 2001, the Wu-Tang Clan released Iron Flag, an album which made extensive use of outside producers and guests." ], [ "Ron Isley, Flavor Flav, and prominent producers Trackmasters," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 373, 782, 1653, 1809 ], "texts": [ "The group reconvened once again to make The W, though without Ol' Dirty Bastard, who was at the time incarcerated in California", "The W was mostly well received by critics,", "The album would go on to reach double platinum status.", "In 2001, the Wu-Tang Clan released Iron Flag, an album which made extensive use of outside producers and guests.", "Ron Isley, Flavor Flav, and prominent producers Trackmasters," ] }

[]

[ "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_1_q#0", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_1_q#1", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_1_q#2", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_1_q#3", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_1_q#4", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_1_q#5", "C_ed7510c47a814d6e906ba57071384fbc_1_q#6" ]

[ "who started wu-tang clan", "what does wu-tang clan stand for", "when did the group start", "did they become successful", "whats the first album", "why did the start", "who wrote their music" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 570 ], [ 1243 ], [ 608 ], [ 1761 ], [ 1761 ], [ 0 ], [ 1761 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The Wu-Tang Clan was assembled in the early 1990s with RZA as the de facto leader and" ], [ "RZA and Ol' Dirty Bastard adopted the name for the group after the film Shaolin and Wu Tang." ], [ "early 1990s" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "All in Together Now was never signed to a record label." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 570, 1243, 608, 1761, 1761, 0, 1761 ], "texts": [ "The Wu-Tang Clan was assembled in the early 1990s with RZA as the de facto leader and", "RZA and Ol' Dirty Bastard adopted the name for the group after the film Shaolin and Wu Tang.", "early 1990s", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "All in Together Now was never signed to a record label.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The Wu-Tang Clan was assembled in the early 1990s by RZA, who also acted as the group's producer.", "The group developed backronyms for the name Wu-Tang Clan, including \"We Usually Take All Niggas' Garments\", \"Witty Unpredictable Talent And Natural Game\", and \"Wisdom of the Universe, and the Truth of Allah for the Nation of the Gods\".", "The Wu-Tang Clan was assembled in the early 1990s.", "The text does not provide information on the success of the Wu-Tang Clan.", "The group's debut album loosely adopted a Shaolin vs. Wu-Tang theme, dividing the album into Shaolin and Wu-Tang sections. The text does not provide the title of the album.", "The context does not provide specific information on why the Wu-Tang Clan was started.", "The context suggests that RZA, as the de facto leader and producer of the Wu-Tang Clan, likely had a significant role in writing their music. However, the exact details on who wrote their music are not provided in the context." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#0", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#1", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#2", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#3", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#4", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#5", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#6", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#7", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#8", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#9", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_1_q#10" ]

[ "Does Kramer have any parents? Who are they?", "What about his dad?", "Did he have any siblings?", "Was there any other family member mentioned?", "How was relations between the two?", "How was his relation with his mom?", "How was his childhood?", "Any other notable events from childhood?", "What else happened?", "How is Kramer's ASL fluency?", "Does he have any children?" ]

[ 0, 2, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 516 ], [ 765 ], [ 1847 ], [ 969 ], [ 990 ], [ 472 ], [ 146 ], [ 34 ], [ 279 ], [ 1054 ], [ 1204 ] ], "texts": [ [ "his mom, Babs Kramer, who works as a restroom matron at an upscale restaurant." ], [ "dad never makes an appearance; however, in \"The Chinese Woman\", Kramer mentions that he is the last male member of his family," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "he has or had a deaf cousin," ], [ "cousin, from whom he learned fluent American Sign Language," ], [ "Kramer was estranged for a long period from his mom," ], [ "he grew up in a strict household where he had to be in bed every night by 9:" ], [ "a man in a park exposed himself to him when he was a young boy." ], [ "he ran away from home at age seventeen and stowed away aboard a steamer bound for Sweden." ], [ "when Kramer tries to communicate in ASL, he speaks complete gibberish and cannot correctly translate the ASL he sees others using." ], [ "has no biological children, although he adopted mile 114 of the Arthur Burkhardt Expressway" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 516, 765, 1847, 969, 990, 472, 146, 34, 279, 1054, 1204 ], "texts": [ "his mom, Babs Kramer, who works as a restroom matron at an upscale restaurant.", "dad never makes an appearance; however, in \"The Chinese Woman\", Kramer mentions that he is the last male member of his family,", "CANNOTANSWER", "he has or had a deaf cousin,", "cousin, from whom he learned fluent American Sign Language,", "Kramer was estranged for a long period from his mom,", "he grew up in a strict household where he had to be in bed every night by 9:", "a man in a park exposed himself to him when he was a young boy.", "he ran away from home at age seventeen and stowed away aboard a steamer bound for Sweden.", "when Kramer tries to communicate in ASL, he speaks complete gibberish and cannot correctly translate the ASL he sees others using.", "has no biological children, although he adopted mile 114 of the Arthur Burkhardt Expressway" ] }

[]

[ "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#0", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#1", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#2", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#3", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#4", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#5", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#6", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#7", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#8", "C_33e02ddf098e44bf8567c8040347250a_0_q#9" ]

[ "Who is Kramer based on?", "Why did he use Kenny Kramer?", "Was Kenny Kramer a friend of Larry David's?", "How were relations between the two?", "Did Kramer agree for his name to be used for the show?", "Did the real life Kramer become popular from the use of his name?", "Who played Kramer in the sitcom?", "What episode was focused on Kenny Kramer?", "What did the episode say about his tour?", "What other names did this character have?" ]

[ 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 1, 2, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 52 ], [ 1615 ], [ 137 ], [ 1615 ], [ 503 ], [ 785 ], [ 145 ], [ 933 ], [ 1263 ], [ 575 ] ], "texts": [ [ "real-life Kenny Kramer, a neighbor of co-creator Larry David from New York." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Michael Richards did not in any way base his performance on the real Kramer, to the point of refusing to meet him." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Kenny Kramer had not yet given consent to use his name," ], [ "Kenny Kramer created the \"Kramer Reality Tour\", a New York City bus tour that points out actual locations of events or places featured in Seinfeld." ], [ "Richards" ], [ "The \"Kramer Reality Tour\" is itself spoofed on Seinfeld in \"The Muffin Tops.\"" ], [ "Jerry notes, reality is the last thing Kramer is qualified to give a tour on." ], [ "character was originally known as \"Kessler.\"" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 52, 1615, 137, 1615, 503, 785, 145, 933, 1263, 575 ], "texts": [ "real-life Kenny Kramer, a neighbor of co-creator Larry David from New York.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Michael Richards did not in any way base his performance on the real Kramer, to the point of refusing to meet him.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Kenny Kramer had not yet given consent to use his name,", "Kenny Kramer created the \"Kramer Reality Tour\", a New York City bus tour that points out actual locations of events or places featured in Seinfeld.", "Richards", "The \"Kramer Reality Tour\" is itself spoofed on Seinfeld in \"The Muffin Tops.\"", "Jerry notes, reality is the last thing Kramer is qualified to give a tour on.", "character was originally known as \"Kessler.\"" ] }

[]

[ "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_1_q#0", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_1_q#1", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_1_q#2", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_1_q#3", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_1_q#4", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_1_q#5", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_1_q#6", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_1_q#7" ]

[ "What background can you give me on the Merchandise Mart?", "What other businesses participate in the mart?", "How big is the building space?", "What is the financial stats for the Mart?", "How is commerce involved with the Mart?", "What else does it include?", "What other businesses does it house?", "How big is the facility or area?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 741 ], [ 2474 ], [ 2474 ], [ 1576 ], [ 1975 ], [ 2109 ], [ 2241 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Wholesale showrooms occupy 50% of the usable floor space, and the Sultan of Brunei once spent $1.6 million at the Mart to furnish his entire palace," ], [ "the Mart also has featured award-winning designs as selected by the American Institute of Architects." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "A retail shopping area, named The Shops at the Mart, opened in 1991 and includes apparel shops, beauty services," ], [ "The Apparel Center houses the 521-room Holiday Inn Chicago Mart Plaza River North hotel, the offices of the Chicago Sun-Times" ], [ "Chicago campus of the Illinois Institute of Art - Chicago, as well as the Chicago office of the Ogilvy & Mather advertising agency." ], [ "GoHealth occupies 93,000 square feet (8,600 m2) on the 5th floor of Merchandise Mart," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 741, 2474, 2474, 1576, 1975, 2109, 2241 ], "texts": [ "Wholesale showrooms occupy 50% of the usable floor space, and the Sultan of Brunei once spent $1.6 million at the Mart to furnish his entire palace,", "the Mart also has featured award-winning designs as selected by the American Institute of Architects.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "A retail shopping area, named The Shops at the Mart, opened in 1991 and includes apparel shops, beauty services,", "The Apparel Center houses the 521-room Holiday Inn Chicago Mart Plaza River North hotel, the offices of the Chicago Sun-Times", "Chicago campus of the Illinois Institute of Art - Chicago, as well as the Chicago office of the Ogilvy & Mather advertising agency.", "GoHealth occupies 93,000 square feet (8,600 m2) on the 5th floor of Merchandise Mart," ] }

[]

[ "The Merchandise Mart is a unique facility that houses a mix of wholesalers, retailers, and professional services. A significant portion of its floor space is occupied by wholesale showrooms, some of which are open only to wholesalers while others are accessible to the general public. Unlike traditional stores, these showrooms often feature full, usable rooms that allow customers to compare products from different manufacturers. Some of these showrooms offer design, preservation, renovation, and installation services. The Mart has also been a resource for architects and decorators, hosting award-winning designs chosen by the American Institute of Architects. It has also served as a hub for market research projects. Despite facing financial hardship in the 1930s, the Mart has continued to display up-to-date home furnishing trends in its showrooms and trade shows. The headquarters of the Owners Service Company was moved here in 1942 and the Mart also introduced a retail shopping area with various stores and services in 1991. The Mart houses the offices of various companies and organizations - GoHealth, Motorola Mobility, Potbelly Sandwich Works' corporate offices to name a few. The Mart also features a hotel and serves as the Chicago campus for the Illinois Institute of Art - Chicago.", "Aside from wholesalers and showrooms, the Mart also hosts a retail shopping area called The Shops at the Mart. This includes apparel shops, beauty services, bookstores and newsstands, financial services, telecommunication services, travel services, specialty food and wine stores, photo services, a dry cleaner, shoe shine stand, and a food court. There are also logistic services like a U.S. Post Office and a FedEx location. The Apparel Center houses the Holiday Inn Chicago Mart Plaza River North hotel, the Chicago Sun-Times offices, and the Chicago campus of the Illinois Institute of Art - Chicago, as well as the Chicago office of the Ogilvy & Mather advertising agency. GoHealth, Potbelly Sandwich Works' corporate offices, and Motorola Mobility are other businesses that have their offices located in the Mart.", "The text doesn't provide the total size of the Merchandise Mart building. However, it mentions that GoHealth occupies 93,000 square feet (8,600 m2) on the 5th floor of this building.", "The text does not provide comprehensive financial statistics for the Merchandise Mart. However, it mentions that in 1931, Marshall Field and Company, one of the occupants, lost five million dollars and then eight million in 1932. This led to a reduction of the company's space in the Mart from four floors to one and a half. It does not provide data about the Mart's overall revenue, profit, or current financial status.", "The Merchandise Mart engages in commerce in several ways. It houses wholesale showrooms, occupying 50% of the usable floor space, selling a range of goods to both wholesalers and the general public. Certain showrooms offer items for purchase individually or as a collection, and others provide professional services such as design, preservation, renovation, and installation. The Mart is also home to The Shops at the Mart, a retail area that features a variety of businesses including apparel shops, beauty services, bookstores, financial services, specialty food and wine stores, and a food court. The Mart also offers spaces to various businesses for their offices, thereby generating rental income. Thus, commerce is a central aspect of the Merchandise Mart's operations.", "In addition to the wholesale showrooms and retail shopping area, the Merchandise Mart includes an array of other amenities and businesses. It houses professional firms that specialize in market research projects, and it features spaces for various businesses such as GoHealth, Motorola Mobility, and Potbelly Sandwich Works' corporate offices. The Mart is home to a 521-room Holiday Inn hotel, the offices of the Chicago Sun-Times, and the Chicago campus of the Illinois Institute of Art. The Ogilvy & Mather advertising agency also has an office in the Mart. Further services include a U.S. Post Office, a FedEx location, and various other amenities such as a dry cleaner and shoe shine stand.", "The Merchandise Mart houses various businesses such as the corporate offices of GoHealth, Potbelly Sandwich Works, and Motorola Mobility. In its retail section, The Shops at the Mart, there are various shops and services including apparel shops, beauty services, bookstores and newsstands, financial services, telecommunication services, travel services, specialty food and wine stores, photo services, a dry cleaner, shoe shine stand, and a food court. The Apparel Center within the Mart is home to the Holiday Inn Chicago Mart Plaza River North hotel, the offices of the Chicago Sun-Times, and the Chicago campus of the Illinois Institute of Art - Chicago, along with the Chicago office of the Ogilvy & Mather advertising agency. It also houses a U.S. Post Office and a FedEx location.", "The text does not provide specific information on the total size of the Merchandise Mart facility or area." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_0_q#0", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_0_q#1", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_0_q#2", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_0_q#3", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_0_q#4", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_0_q#5", "C_c56aae4d8c80485a9e7ef0b0171753d6_0_q#6" ]

[ "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What did this have to do with Merchandise Mart?", "What notable businesses are using the office space?", "Why did WMAQ leave the Mart?", "Are there any other television companies occupying the mart?", "Is this the only television company there?", "What is the most notable television company to have occupied space in the Mart?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1019 ], [ 1168 ], [ 1028 ], [ 1508 ], [ 1668 ], [ 0 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On January 7, 1949, NBC station WNBQ commercially debuted its television broadcast schedule on channel 5," ], [ "Although WMAQ-TV has since moved to NBC Tower about a mile away, and for the most part the 19th floor of the Mart has been turned into office space," ], [ "one former tenant (Bankers Life and Trust Company) maintained a remnant of the original studios as their video and multimedia department." ], [ "WMAQ-TV has since moved to NBC Tower about a mile away," ], [ "Local regional sports network Comcast SportsNet Chicago has their control room, and broadcasts their live studio programming from the Apparel Center expansion;" ], [ "the studios had been home to previous RSNs FSN Chicago and SportsChannel Chicago." ], [ "On January 7, 1949, NBC station WNBQ commercially debuted its television broadcast schedule on channel 5," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1019, 1168, 1028, 1508, 1668, 0 ], "texts": [ "On January 7, 1949, NBC station WNBQ commercially debuted its television broadcast schedule on channel 5,", "Although WMAQ-TV has since moved to NBC Tower about a mile away, and for the most part the 19th floor of the Mart has been turned into office space,", "one former tenant (Bankers Life and Trust Company) maintained a remnant of the original studios as their video and multimedia department.", "WMAQ-TV has since moved to NBC Tower about a mile away,", "Local regional sports network Comcast SportsNet Chicago has their control room, and broadcasts their live studio programming from the Apparel Center expansion;", "the studios had been home to previous RSNs FSN Chicago and SportsChannel Chicago.", "On January 7, 1949, NBC station WNBQ commercially debuted its television broadcast schedule on channel 5," ] }

[]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "The text does not provide information on Merchandise Mart's relation to the events.", "Flashpoint Academy is redeveloping the former WMAQ space into a modern soundstage facility, a screening room, backlot, and classroom space over the 19th and 20th floors. Comcast SportsNet Chicago has their control room in the Apparel Center expansion and broadcasts their live studio programming from there. The offices had previously been used by regional sports networks FSN Chicago and SportsChannel Chicago. One former tenant, Bankers Life and Trust Company, maintained a portion of the original studios for their video and multimedia department.", "The text does not provide specific reasons why WMAQ-TV left the Mart.", "Based on the text, Comcast SportsNet Chicago occupies the Apparel Center expansion in the Mart where they broadcast their live studio programming. However, it does not mention any other television company occupying the Mart.", "The text only mentions Comcast SportsNet Chicago as a television company occupying the Mart currently. It does not specify if it's the only one.", "The most notable television company mentioned in the text that occupied space in the Mart is NBC, specifically its station WMAQ-TV, recognizing its historical significance as the world's first all-color TV station." ]

[ "No", "no", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#0", "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#1", "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#2", "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#3", "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#4", "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#5", "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#6", "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#7", "C_1c93816f29aa4c889ff3aa3793569d09_1_q#8" ]

[ "What is the code is red about?", "Did it receive good reviews?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What was Time waits for no slave?", "Did it do well?", "Are there other albums involved in this time frame?", "What was the name of that album?", "What do you find to be the most interesting fact?", "Do a lot of their lyrics contain meanings like this?" ]

[ 0, 2, 0, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 256 ], [ 2018 ], [ 83 ], [ 1706 ], [ 2018 ], [ 598 ], [ 549 ], [ 666 ], [ 2018 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The album continued the band's progressive approach to their brutal brand of extreme metal, with their trademark grindcore sound retained." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "It features guest appearances from Jeffrey Walker (Carcass), Jamey Jasta (Hatebreed vocalist) and Jello Biafra (" ], [ "Napalm Death's fourteenth studio album," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "on 15 September 2006" ], [ "Smear Campaign" ], [ "The main lyrical focus is criticism of the United States Government and other governments who are strongly religious." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 256, 2018, 83, 1706, 2018, 598, 549, 666, 2018 ], "texts": [ "The album continued the band's progressive approach to their brutal brand of extreme metal, with their trademark grindcore sound retained.", "CANNOTANSWER", "It features guest appearances from Jeffrey Walker (Carcass), Jamey Jasta (Hatebreed vocalist) and Jello Biafra (", "Napalm Death's fourteenth studio album,", "CANNOTANSWER", "on 15 September 2006", "Smear Campaign", "The main lyrical focus is criticism of the United States Government and other governments who are strongly religious.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on what the album \"The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code\" is about.", "The context does not provide information on the reviews of the album \"The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code\".", "The context mentions several interesting aspects such as:\n\n- Napalm Death continuing their progressive approach to their brutal brand of extreme metal and retaining their trademark grindcore sound.\n- Members of the band joining another extreme metal band, Anaal Nathrakh, for a tour.\n- The lyrical focus of the follow-up album, Smear Campaign, being criticism of the United States Government and other governments who are strongly religious.\n- The tragic death of Jesse Pintado due to liver failure and the emotional response from bandmate Mitch Harris.\n- Bassist Shane Embury working on a project with Mick Kenney of Anaal Nathrakh, with their work to be released on FETO Records at the end of 2007.\n- The leaking onto the internet of Napalm Death's fourteenth studio album, \"Time Waits for No Slave\", before it's official release.", "\"Time Waits for No Slave\" is the fourteenth studio album by Napalm Death. It was leaked onto the internet and then officially released on 23 January 2009. The album had a digipak version containing two extra songs - \"Suppressed Hunger\" and \"Omnipresent Knife In Your Back\".", "The context does not provide information on how well the album \"Time Waits for No Slave\" performed or was received.", "Yes, besides \"Time Waits for No Slave\", the context mentions two other albums within this time frame. These are \"The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code\" which was released in April 2005 and \"Smear Campaign\" which was recorded in June 2006 and released on 15 September 2006.", "The other albums mentioned in this timeframe are \"The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code\" and \"Smear Campaign\".", "As an AI, I don't have personal feelings or opinions. However, a fact that might be considered interesting is the death of Jesse Pintado, a member of Napalm Death, due to liver failure and the emotional response from bandmate Mitch Harris who thought of him as a brother. This fact adds a human element to the history of the band.", "The context only indicates that the main lyrical focus of the album \"Smear Campaign\" is criticism of the United States Government and other governments that are strongly religious. It does not provide information about the lyrical content or themes of other Napalm Death's songs or albums." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Neutral", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What was Easy Meat?", "How many copies did it sell?", "Did it have any hits?", "How much did it raise for charity?", "Did the band tour for the album?", "Was there anything else interesting about that album?", "Did that tour get cancelled?", "Was it rescheduled anywhere?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1807 ], [ 2025 ], [ 1906 ], [ 2025 ], [ 389 ], [ 555 ], [ 677 ], [ 818 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Napalm Death's sixteenth studio album, Apex Predator - Easy Meat, was released on 26 January 2015." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "On 4 July, a Nepal Charity Event track from the Apex Predator sessions called \"Earth Wire\" was released on their page." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In March 2012, Napalm Death headlined the Metal Mayhem IV festival organized by \"Defenders of Metal\" in Nepal. This was the first time Napalm Death played in Nepal." ], [ "Napalm Death were scheduled to play a special one-off show at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, on 22 March 2013." ], [ "The show was eventually cancelled at the Victoria and Albert Museum, due to concerns that the noise levels could damage parts of the museum." ], [ "The show was relocated to the De La Warr Pavilion in Bexhill, and was performed on 29 November 2013." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1807, 2025, 1906, 2025, 389, 555, 677, 818 ], "texts": [ "Napalm Death's sixteenth studio album, Apex Predator - Easy Meat, was released on 26 January 2015.", "CANNOTANSWER", "On 4 July, a Nepal Charity Event track from the Apex Predator sessions called \"Earth Wire\" was released on their page.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In March 2012, Napalm Death headlined the Metal Mayhem IV festival organized by \"Defenders of Metal\" in Nepal. This was the first time Napalm Death played in Nepal.", "Napalm Death were scheduled to play a special one-off show at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, on 22 March 2013.", "The show was eventually cancelled at the Victoria and Albert Museum, due to concerns that the noise levels could damage parts of the museum.", "The show was relocated to the De La Warr Pavilion in Bexhill, and was performed on 29 November 2013." ] }

[]

[ "Easy Meat is part of the title of Napalm Death's sixteenth studio album, Apex Predator - Easy Meat, which was released on 26 January 2015.", "The text does not provide information on how many copies the album \"Apex Predator - Easy Meat\" by Napalm Death sold.", "The text does not provide information on whether the album \"Apex Predator - Easy Meat\" by Napalm Death had any hits.", "The text does not provide information on how much the album \"Apex Predator - Easy Meat\" by Napalm Death raised for charity.", "The text does not provide information on whether Napalm Death toured for the album \"Apex Predator - Easy Meat\".", "The text mentions a Nepal Charity Event track from the Apex Predator sessions called \"Earth Wire\" was released on their page. However, no other specific details about the album \"Apex Predator - Easy Meat\" are provided in the text.", "The text does not provide information on whether a tour associated with Napalm Death's album \"Apex Predator - Easy Meat\" was cancelled.", "The text does not provide information on whether a tour associated with Napalm Death's album \"Apex Predator - Easy Meat\" was rescheduled." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_1a1c975485ca4ecbbe6f63e78e6e98c2_1_q#0", "C_1a1c975485ca4ecbbe6f63e78e6e98c2_1_q#1", "C_1a1c975485ca4ecbbe6f63e78e6e98c2_1_q#2", "C_1a1c975485ca4ecbbe6f63e78e6e98c2_1_q#3", "C_1a1c975485ca4ecbbe6f63e78e6e98c2_1_q#4", "C_1a1c975485ca4ecbbe6f63e78e6e98c2_1_q#5", "C_1a1c975485ca4ecbbe6f63e78e6e98c2_1_q#6", "C_1a1c975485ca4ecbbe6f63e78e6e98c2_1_q#7" ]

[ "What type of music did the band have?", "How many albums did this band have?", "Were there any hit singles?", "What was important about the lyrics?", "How many of the songs were banned?", "Were mostly all of the songs dealing with recreational drug use?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Is there other important information?" ]

[ 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 5653 ], [ 8682 ], [ 8682 ], [ 6391 ], [ 6536 ], [ 6934 ], [ 7598 ], [ 3137 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Sgt. Pepper, according to American musicologist Allan F. Moore, is composed mainly of rock and pop music," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Concerns that some of the lyrics in Sgt. Pepper refer to recreational drug use led to the BBC banning several songs from British radio," ], [ "A Day in the Life\" because of the phrase \"I'd love to turn you on\"," ], [ "\"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" became the subject of speculation, as many believed that the song's title was code for the hallucinogenic drug LSD." ], [ "The author Sheila Whiteley attributes Sgt. Pepper's underlying philosophy not only to the drug culture, but also to metaphysics and the non-violent approach of the flower power movement." ], [ "In November 1966, during a return flight to London from Kenya, where he had been on holiday with Beatles tour manager Mal Evans," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 5653, 8682, 8682, 6391, 6536, 6934, 7598, 3137 ], "texts": [ "Sgt. Pepper, according to American musicologist Allan F. Moore, is composed mainly of rock and pop music,", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "Concerns that some of the lyrics in Sgt. Pepper refer to recreational drug use led to the BBC banning several songs from British radio,", "A Day in the Life\" because of the phrase \"I'd love to turn you on\",", "\"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" became the subject of speculation, as many believed that the song's title was code for the hallucinogenic drug LSD.", "The author Sheila Whiteley attributes Sgt. Pepper's underlying philosophy not only to the drug culture, but also to metaphysics and the non-violent approach of the flower power movement.", "In November 1966, during a return flight to London from Kenya, where he had been on holiday with Beatles tour manager Mal Evans," ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

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[ "How did he began his career in Saturday Nigh Live?", "Was he good in the show?", "Did the audience like him?", "Did he have any disguised name in the show?", "What other shows he made in the SNL?", "Did he left the SNL?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 168 ], [ 3253 ], [ 3253 ], [ 1027 ], [ 3253 ] ], "texts": [ [ "After Will Ferrell left Saturday Night Live in the following spring, Forte joined the cast," ], [ "He was promoted to repertory player after his first year." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2004, he made his film debut in Around the World in 80 Days." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 168, 3253, 3253, 1027, 3253 ], "texts": [ "After Will Ferrell left Saturday Night Live in the following spring, Forte joined the cast,", "He was promoted to repertory player after his first year.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 2004, he made his film debut in Around the World in 80 Days.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "After Will Ferrell left Saturday Night Live, Forte joined the cast at the beginning of the twenty-eighth season. He was promoted to repertory player after his first year. Initially, he struggled with stage fright and interpreting sketches he didn't write himself, and had to \"re-learn\" performing after years of being a writer.", "Forte initially struggled with stage fright and interpreting sketches, particularly having trouble impersonating figures like President George W. Bush. He was nearly let go from the show after his third season, but was brought back after some consideration. It took Forte approximately five seasons to feel fully comfortable performing on the show. Nonetheless, Forte was known for his \"10-to-1\" sketches thought of as bizarre, and characters like MacGruber became popular. His pieces were often well received upon reading.", "The text does not provide specific information on the audience's reception of Forte's work on Saturday Night Live. However, his skits were known to be bizarre yet popular, particularly his character MacGruber, which was successful enough to be turned into a film, suggesting that he was likely positively received by viewers.", "Forte portrayed various characters on Saturday Night Live, including President George W. Bush, Tim Calhoun, the Falconer, and his best-known character, MacGruber. However, it's not stated whether any of these characters were considered a \"disguised name\" for Forte.", "In addition to his famed character MacGruber, Forte was part of many other sketches during his time on Saturday Night Live. Examples include a sketch titled \"Potato Chip,\" where he played a NASA recruiter, and another where he inhabits the character Jeff Montgomery, a sex offender posing as one for Halloween. He performed as Tim Calhoun, a politician, and the Falconer. He also played a motivational coach alongside Peyton Manning in one sketch and co-starred with Andy Samberg in the first SNL Digital Short, \"Lettuce.\"", "The text does not provide information on whether Will Forte left Saturday Night Live." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_4507c1bc4a7b4f2ba25d948fa5c3e4e1_1_q#0", "C_4507c1bc4a7b4f2ba25d948fa5c3e4e1_1_q#1", "C_4507c1bc4a7b4f2ba25d948fa5c3e4e1_1_q#2", "C_4507c1bc4a7b4f2ba25d948fa5c3e4e1_1_q#3", "C_4507c1bc4a7b4f2ba25d948fa5c3e4e1_1_q#4", "C_4507c1bc4a7b4f2ba25d948fa5c3e4e1_1_q#5" ]

[ "what happened in 1997?", "what did he do next?", "did he do well there?", "did he join the late show?", "what other characteres?", "did he win any awards for these?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 0, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 320 ], [ 458 ], [ 1793 ], [ 1871 ], [ 2269 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He began taking classes at the Groundlings in Los Angeles, an improvisational and sketch comedy troupe and school, while tutoring children to make ends meet." ], [ "The comics landed him his first professional job writing for The Jenny McCarthy Show," ], [ "Shortly thereafter, he was asked to submit a packet to the Late Show with David Letterman" ], [ "At his audition for SNL, he performed multiple original characters, including Tim Calhoun," ], [ "Tim Calhoun, a speed reader, a prison guard, in addition to impressions of singer Michael McDonald and actor Martin Sheen." ], [ "He felt his time to shine as a performer was already over, as he was in his thirties when he auditioned." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 320, 458, 1793, 1871, 2269 ], "texts": [ "He began taking classes at the Groundlings in Los Angeles, an improvisational and sketch comedy troupe and school, while tutoring children to make ends meet.", "The comics landed him his first professional job writing for The Jenny McCarthy Show,", "Shortly thereafter, he was asked to submit a packet to the Late Show with David Letterman", "At his audition for SNL, he performed multiple original characters, including Tim Calhoun,", "Tim Calhoun, a speed reader, a prison guard, in addition to impressions of singer Michael McDonald and actor Martin Sheen.", "He felt his time to shine as a performer was already over, as he was in his thirties when he auditioned." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "The text does not provide information on what happened in 1997.", "The text does not specify what he did immediately after realizing he would be making a mistake by not taking the offer from Saturday Night Live.", "The text does not provide information on how well he did at Saturday Night Live.", "Yes, he did join the Late Show with David Letterman, but after only nine months, he was \"let go\" from the job. He recalled his stint on the program as unpleasant, noting that he did not have enough experience in writing.", "During his audition for Saturday Night Live (SNL), he performed multiple original characters including Tim Calhoun, a speed reader, a prison guard, and an older piece from his days with the Groundlings of a gold-painted street performer who performs fellatio to pay for his face paint. His performance also included impressions of singer Michael McDonald and actor Martin Sheen.", "The text does not provide information on whether he won any awards for these performances." ]

[ "No", "No", "no", "No", "Yes", "no" ]

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[ "what does language have to do with the article?", "what did he write in what he published?", "was his book a best seller?", "what was his greatest accomplishment?", "what is the most important fact in this article?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "what else does he examine?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 309 ], [ 7172 ], [ 7172 ], [ 6780 ], [ 5773 ], [ 5964 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In his Phenomenology of Perception (first published in French in 1945), Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of the body-subject (le corps propre) as an alternative to the Cartesian \"ego cogito.\"" ], [ "Consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually \"engaged.\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "he continues a dialogue between phenomenology and the diverse work carried out in psychology, all in order to return to the study of the acquisition of language in children," ], [ "He carefully considers language, then, as the core of culture, by examining in particular the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense" ], [ "analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account pathologies of language, painting, cinema, literature, poetry and song." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 309, 7172, 7172, 6780, 5773, 5964 ], "texts": [ "In his Phenomenology of Perception (first published in French in 1945), Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of the body-subject (le corps propre) as an alternative to the Cartesian \"ego cogito.\"", "Consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually \"engaged.\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "he continues a dialogue between phenomenology and the diverse work carried out in psychology, all in order to return to the study of the acquisition of language in children,", "He carefully considers language, then, as the core of culture, by examining in particular the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense", "analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account pathologies of language, painting, cinema, literature, poetry and song." ] }

[ { "text": "Gestalt psychology, gestaltism, or configurationism is a school of psychology that emerged in the early twentieth century in Austria and Germany as a theory of perception that was a rejection of basic principles of Wilhelm Wundt's and Edward Titchener's elementalist and structuralist psychology.\n\nAs used in Gestalt psychology, the German word Gestalt ( , ; meaning \"form\") is interpreted as \"pattern\" or \"configuration\". Gestalt psychologists emphasize that organisms perceive entire patterns or configurations, not merely individual components. The view is sometimes summarized using the adage, \"the whole is more than the sum of its parts.\"\n\nGestalt psychology was founded on works by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka.\n\nOrigin and history\n\nMax Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) founded Gestalt psychology in the early 20th century. The dominant view in psychology at the time was structuralism, exemplified by the work of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), and Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927). Structuralism was rooted firmly in British empiricism and was based on three closely interrelated theories: \n\"atomism,\" also known as \"elementalism,\" the view that all knowledge, even complex abstract ideas, is built from simple, elementary constituents\n\"sensationalism,\" the view that the simplest constituents—the atoms of thought—are elementary sense impressions\n\"associationism,\" the view that more complex ideas arise from the association of simpler ideas.\nTogether, these three theories give rise to the view that the mind constructs all perceptions and even abstract thoughts strictly from lower-level sensations that are related solely by being associated closely in space and time. The Gestaltists took issue with this widespread \"atomistic\" view that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements.\n\nIn contrast, the Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking psychological phenomena down into smaller parts would not lead to understanding psychology. The Gestalt psychologists believed, instead, that the most fruitful way to view psychological phenomena is as organized, structured wholes. They argued that the psychological \"whole\" has priority and that the \"parts\" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. One could say that the approach was based on a macroscopic view of psychology rather than a microscopic approach. Gestalt theories of perception are based on human nature being inclined to understand objects as an entire structure rather than the sum of its parts.\n\nWertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), a member of the School of Brentano. Von Ehrenfels introduced the concept of Gestalt to philosophy and psychology in 1890, before the advent of Gestalt psychology as such. Von Ehrenfels observed that a perceptual experience, such as perceiving a melody or a shape, is more than the sum of its sensory components. He claimed that, in addition to the sensory elements of the perception, there is something extra. Although in some sense derived from the organization of the component sensory elements, this further quality is an element in its own right. He called it Gestalt-qualität or \"form-quality.\" \n\nFor instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them that binds them together into a tune – the Gestalt-qualität. It is this Gestalt-qualität that, according to von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, while still retaining its identity. The idea of a Gestalt-qualität has roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of gestalt and figural moment, respectively.\n\nBy 1914, the first published references to Gestalt theory could be found in a footnote of Gabriele von Wartensleben's application of Gestalt theory to personality. She was a student at Frankfurt Academy for Social Sciences, who interacted deeply with Wertheimer and Köhler.\n\nThrough a series of experiments, Wertheimer discovered that a person observing a pair of alternating bars of light can, under the right conditions, experience the illusion of movement between one location and the other. He noted that this was a perception of motion absent any moving object. That is, it was pure phenomenal motion. He dubbed it phi (\"phenomenal\") motion. Wertheimer's publication of these results in 1912 marks the beginning of Gestalt psychology. In comparison to von Ehrenfels and others who had used the term \"gestalt\" earlier in various ways, Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the \"gestalt\" is perceptually primary. The gestalt defines the parts from which it is composed, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts. Wertheimer took the more radical position that \"what is given me by the melody does not arise ... as a secondary process from the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon what the whole is\", (1925/1938). In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly, in vision, one sees the form of the circle first—it is given \"im-mediately\" (i.e., its apprehension is not mediated by a process of part-summation). Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars.\n\nThe two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiments were Köhler and Koffka. Köhler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist Max Planck (1858–1947), but had taken his degree in psychology under Carl Stumpf (1848–1936). Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917, Köhler (1917/1925) published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Köhler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists, that animals can learn by \"sudden insight\" into the \"structure\" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) and Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively.\n\nThe terms \"structure\" and \"organization\" were focal for the Gestalt psychologists. Stimuli were said to have a certain structure, to be organized in a certain way, and that it is to this structural organization, rather than to individual sensory elements, that the organism responds. When an animal is conditioned, it does not simply respond to the absolute properties of a stimulus, but to its properties relative to its surroundings. To use a favorite example of Köhler's, if conditioned to respond in a certain way to the lighter of two gray cards, the animal generalizes the relation between the two stimuli rather than the absolute properties of the conditioned stimulus: it will respond to the lighter of two cards in subsequent trials even if the darker card in the test trial is of the same intensity as the lighter one in the original training trials.\n\nIn 1921, Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, Growth of the Mind. With the help of American psychologist Robert Ogden, Koffka introduced the Gestalt point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in Psychological Bulletin. It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually settling at Smith College in 1927. In 1935, Koffka published his Principles of Gestalt Psychology. This textbook laid out the Gestalt vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the Gestaltists was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science would have to accommodate not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but the facts of two other \"scientific categories\": questions of order and questions of Sinn, a German word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings.\n\nHaving survived the Nazis up to the mid-1930s, all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935. Köhler published another book, Dynamics in Psychology, in 1940 but thereafter the Gestalt movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving, Productive Thinking, was published posthumously in 1945, but Köhler was left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues.\n\nGestalt therapy\nGestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case, it is not identical to Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term \"Gestalt\" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the Gestalt psychologists would object to it; on the other hand, Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most Gestalt psychologists emphasize that Gestalt therapy is not a form of Gestalt psychology.\n\nMary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): \"What Perts has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear and often incompatible—from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is not Gestalt psychology\" With her analysis, however, she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general as a psychotherapy method.\n\nThere have been clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the psychotherapeutic field long before Perls'ian Gestalt therapy, in group psychoanalysis (Foulkes), Adlerian individual psychology, by Gestalt psychologists in psychotherapy like Erwin Levy, Abraham S. Luchins, by Gestalt psychologically oriented psychoanalysts in Italy (Canestrari and others), and there have been newer developments foremost in Europe. For example, a strictly Gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German Gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter and his colleagues in Germany, Austria (Gerhard Stemberger and colleagues) and Switzerland. Other countries, especially Italy, have seen similar developments.\n\nContributions \nGestalt psychology made many contributions to the body of psychology. The Gestaltists were the first to demonstrate empirically and document many facts about perception—including facts about the perception of movement, the perception of contour, perceptual constancy, and perceptual illusions. Wertheimer's discovery of the phi phenomenon is one example of such a contribution. In addition to discovering perceptual phenomena, the contributions of Gestalt psychology include: (a) a unique theoretical framework and methodology, (b) a set of perceptual principles, (c) a well-known set of perceptual grouping laws, (d) a theory of problem solving based on insight, and (e) a theory of memory. The following subsections discuss these contributions in turn.\n\nTheoretical framework and methodology\nThe Gestalt psychologists practiced a set of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object.\n\nThe theoretical principles are the following:\n Principle of totality—Conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a system of dynamic relationships. Wertheimer described holism as fundamental to Gestalt psychology, writing \"There are wholes, the behavior of which is not determined by that of their individual elements, but where the part-processes are themselves determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole.\" In other words, a perceptual whole is different from what one would predict based on only its individual parts. Moreover, the nature of a part depends upon the whole in which it is embedded. Köhler, for example, writes \"In psychology...we have wholes which, instead of being the sum of parts existing independently, give their parts specific functions or properties that can only be defined in relation to the whole in question.\" Thus, the maxim that the whole is more than the sum of its parts is not a precise description of the Gestaltist view. Rather, \"The whole is something else than the sum of its parts, because summing is a meaningless procedure, whereas the whole-part relationship is meaningful.\"\n\n Principle of psychophysical isomorphism – Köhler hypothesized that there is a correlation between conscious experience and cerebral activity.\n\nBased on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:\n Phenomenon experimental analysis—In relation to the Totality Principle any psychological research should take phenomena as a starting point and not be solely focused on sensory qualities.\n Biotic experiment—The Gestalt psychologists established a need to conduct real experiments that sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, what would be habitual for a subject.\n\nProperties\nThe key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.\n\nReification\n\nReification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.\n\nFor instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes disparate shapes as \"belonging\" to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.\n\nReification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as \"real\" contours.\n\nMultistability\n\nMultistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the Necker cube and Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, Gestalt psychology does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.\n\nInvariance\n\nInvariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which is immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified.\n\nEmergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.\n\nFigure-ground organization\n\nThe perceptual field (what an organism perceives) is organized. Figure-ground organization is one form of perceptual organization. Figure-ground organization is the interpretation of perceptual elements in terms of their shapes and relative locations in the layout of surfaces in the 3-D world. Figure-ground organization structures the perceptual field into a figure (standing out at the front of the perceptual field) and a background (receding behind the figure). Pioneering work on figure-ground organization was carried out by the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin. The Gestalt psychologists demonstrated that we tend to perceive as figures those parts of our perceptual fields that are convex, symmetric, small, and enclosed.\n\nPrägnanz\n\nLike figure-ground organization, perceptual grouping (sometimes called perceptual segregation) is a form of perceptual organization. Organisms perceive some parts of their perceptual fields as \"hanging together\" more tightly than others. They use this information for object detection. Perceptual grouping is the process that determines what these \"pieces\" of the perceptual field are.\n\nThe Gestaltists were the first psychologists to systematically study perceptual grouping. According to Gestalt psychologists, the fundamental principle of perceptual grouping is the law of Prägnanz. (The law of Prägnanz is also known as the law of good Gestalt.) Prägnanz is a German word that directly translates to \"pithiness\" and implies salience, conciseness, and orderliness. The law of Prägnanz says that we tend to experience things as regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple. As Koffka put it, \"Of several geometrically possible organizations that one will actually occur which possesses the best, simplest and most stable shape.\"\n\nThe law of Prägnanz implies that, as individuals perceive the world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so they can observe reality in its most simplistic form. Eliminating extraneous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This meaning created by perception implies a global regularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spatial relations. The law of good Gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness, which is what all of Gestalt theory is based on.\n\nA major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as wholes rather than as the sums of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws.\n\nGestalt psychologists attempted to discover refinements of the law of Prägnanz, and this involved writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what is often called \"gestalt laws\". Wertheimer defined a few principles that explain the ways humans perceive objects. Those principles were based on similarity, proximity, continuity. The Gestalt concept is based on perceiving reality in its simplest form. The various laws are called laws or principles, depending on the paper where they appear—but for simplicity's sake, this article uses the term laws. These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. These laws deal with the sensory modality of vision. However, there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory (Bregman – GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and 1940s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.\n\nLaw of proximity\n\nThe law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects, they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure illustrating the law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.\n\nLaw of similarity\n\nThe law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark, and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together and the light circles as grouped together, forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity.\n\nLaw of closure\n\nGestalt psychologists believed that humans tend to perceive objects as complete rather than focusing on the gaps that the object might contain. For example, a circle has good Gestalt in terms of completeness. However, we will also perceive an incomplete circle as a complete circle. That tendency to complete shapes and figures is called closure. The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.\n\nLaw of symmetry\n\nThe law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets.\n\nLaw of common fate\nThe law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that the movement of elements of an object produces paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.\n\nLaw of continuity\n\nThe law of continuity (also known as the law of good continuation) states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object. For example, the figure depicting the law of continuity shows a configuration of two crossed keys. When the image is perceived, we tend to perceive the key in the background as a single uninterrupted key instead of two separate halves of a key.\n\nLaw of past experience\nThe law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters \"L\" and \"I\" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.\n\nMusic\nAn example of the Gestalt movement in effect, as it is both a process and result, is a music sequence. People are able to recognise a sequence of perhaps six or seven notes, despite them being transposed into a different tuning or key. An early theory of gestalt grouping principles in music was composer-theorist James Tenney's Meta+Hodos (1961). Auditory Scene Analysis as developed by Albert Bregman further extends a gestalt approach to the analysis of sound perception.\n\nProblem solving and insight\nGestalt psychology contributed to the scientific study of problem solving. In fact, the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany marks the beginning of the scientific study of problem solving. Later this experimental work continued through the 1960s and early 1970s with research conducted on relatively simple (but novel for participants) laboratory tasks of problem solving.\n\nGiven Gestalt psychology's focus on the whole, it was natural for Gestalt psychologists to study problem-solving from the perspective of insight, seeking to understand the process by which organisms sometimes suddenly transition from having no idea how to solve a problem to instantly understanding the whole problem and its solution. In a famous set of experiments, Köhler gave chimpanzees some boxes and placed food high off the ground; after some time, the chimpanzees appeared to suddenly realize that they could stack the boxes on top of each other to reach the food.\n\nMax Wertheimer distinguished two kinds of thinking: productive thinking and reproductive thinking. Productive thinking is solving a problem based on insight—a quick, creative, unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction. Reproductive thinking is solving a problem deliberately based on previous experience and knowledge. Reproductive thinking proceeds algorithmically—a problem solver reproduces a series of steps from memory, knowing that they will lead to a solution—or by trial and error.\n\nKarl Duncker, another Gestalt psychologist who studied problem solving, coined the term functional fixedness for describing the difficulties in both visual perception and problem solving that arise from the fact that one element of a whole situation already has a (fixed) function that has to be changed in order to perceive something or find the solution to a problem.\n\nAbraham Luchins also studied problem solving from the perspective of Gestalt psychology. He is well known for his research on the role of mental set (Einstellung effect), which he demonstrated using a series of problems having to do with refilling water jars.\n\nAnother Gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes:\n\n Unconscious leap in thinking.\n The increased amount of speed in mental processing.\n The amount of short-circuiting that occurs in normal reasoning.\n\nViews going against the Gestalt psychology are:\nNothing-special view\n Neo-gestalt view\nThe Three-Process View\n\nFuzzy-trace theory of memory\nFuzzy-trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt psychology. Fuzzy-trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist.\n\nLegacy \n\nGestalt psychology struggled to precisely define terms like Prägnanz, to make specific behavioral predictions, and to articulate testable models of underlying neural mechanisms. It was criticized as being merely descriptive. These shortcomings led, by the mid-20th century, to growing dissatisfaction with Gestaltism and a subsequent decline in its impact on psychology. Despite this decline, Gestalt psychology has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.\n\nSupport from cybernetics and neurology \nIn the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such:\n\nA frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon which he must center a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not concerned with the detail of stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only by size and movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision and he is not distracted.\n\nThe lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human beings is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilized on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, \"fixes\" it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary movements. As a result, the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image \"marks time\" in the vicinity of this point.\n\nIn the 1990s, Andranik Tangian developed a model of artificial perception that implemented a principle of correlativity, which operationalized the Gestalt psychology laws in their interaction. The model finds structures in data without knowing the structures, similarly to segregating elements in abstract painting—like curves, contours and spots—without identifying them with known objects. The approach is based on the least complex data representations in the sense of Kolmogorov, i.e. requiring the least memory storage, which is regarded as saving the brain energy. The least complexity criterion leads to multi-level data representations in terms of generative patterns and their transformations, using proximities, similarities, symmetries, common fate grouping, continuities, etc. The idea that perception is data representation rather than \"physical\" recognition is illustrated by the effect of several voices produced by a single physical body—a loudspeaker membrane, whereas the effect of a single tone is produced by several physical bodies—organ pipes tuned as a chord and activated by a single key. It is shown that the physical causality in certain observations can be revealed through optimal data representations, and this nature–information duality is explained by the fact that both nature and information are subordinated to the same principle of efficiency. In some situations, the least complex data representations use the patterns already stored in the memory, demonstrating the dependence of perception on previous knowledge—in line with the Gestalt psychology law of past experience. Such an intelligent perception is opposed to the naïve perception that is based exclusively on direct percepts and is therefore context-dependent. The model is applied to automatic notation of music—recognition of interval structures in chords and polyphonic voices (with no reference to pitch, thereby relying on interval hearing instead of absolute hearing) as well as rhythms under variable tempo, approaching the capabilities of trained musicians. The model is also relevant to visual scene analysis and explains some modes of abstract thinking.\n\nQuantum cognition modeling\n\nSimilarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that \"similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable\" yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an \"implicate order\". The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other can depend on the order in which they are performed—a pertinent feature for psychological processes, as an experiment performed on a conscious person may influence the outcome of a subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person.\n\nUse in contemporary social psychology \nThe halo effect can be explained through the application of Gestalt theories to social information processing. The constructive theories of social cognition are applied to the expectations of individuals. They have been perceived in this manner and the person judging the individual is continuing to view them in this positive manner. Gestalt's theories of perception enforces that individual's tendency to perceive actions and characteristics as a whole rather than isolated parts, therefore humans are inclined to build a coherent and consistent impression of objects and behaviors in order to achieve an acceptable shape and form. The halo effect is what forms patterns for individuals, the halo effect being classified as a cognitive bias which occurs during impression formation. The halo effect can also be altered by physical characteristics, social status and many other characteristics. As well, the halo effect can have real repercussions on the individual's perception of reality, either negatively or positively, meaning to construct negative or positive images about other individuals or situations, something that could lead to self-fulfilling prophesies, stereotyping, or even discrimination.\n\nContemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology\n\nSome of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on Gestalt perception. Researchers continue to test hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying Gestalt principles such as the principle of similarity.\n\nOther important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology.\n\nIn some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, a textbook on visual perception states that, \"The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their 'laws' of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a 'good' or 'simple' shape, for example?\"\n\nOne historian of psychology, David J. Murray, has argued that Gestalt psychologists first discovered many principles later championed by cognitive psychology, including schemas and prototypes. Another psychologist has argued that the Gestalt psychologists made a lasting contribution by showing how the study of illusions can help scientists understand essential aspects of how the visual system normally functions, not merely how it breaks down.\n\nUse in design\n\nThe gestalt laws are used in several visual design fields, such as user interface design and cartography. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns.\n\nIn map design, principles of Prägnanz or grouping are crucial for implying a conceptual order to the portrayed geographic features, thus facilitating the intended use of the map. The Law of Similarity is employed by selecting similar map symbols for similar kinds of features or features with similar properties; the Law of Proximity is crucial to identifying geographic patterns and regions; and the Laws of Closure and Continuity allow users to recognize features that may be obscured by other features (such as when a road goes over a river).\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Gestalt psychology on Encyclopædia Britannica\n Journal \"Gestalt Theory - An International Multidisciplinary Journal\" in full text (open source)\n International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications – GTA\n\nCategory:Cognitive psychology\nCategory:Graphic design\nCategory:Holism\nCategory:Perception\nCategory:Psychological schools", "title": "Gestalt psychology" }, { "text": "Process philosophy, also ontology of becoming, or processism, is an approach in philosophy that identifies processes, changes, or shifting relationships as the only real experience of everyday living. In opposition to the classical view of change as illusory (as argued by Parmenides) or accidental (as argued by Aristotle), process philosophy posits transient occasions of change or becoming as the only fundamental things of the ordinary everyday real world.\n\nSince the time of Plato and Aristotle, classical ontology has posited ordinary world reality as constituted of enduring substances, to which transient processes are ontologically subordinate, if they are not denied. If Socrates changes, becoming sick, Socrates is still the same (the substance of Socrates being the same), and change (his sickness) only glides over his substance: change is accidental, and devoid of primary reality, whereas the substance is essential.\n\nIn physics, Ilya Prigogine distinguishes between the \"physics of being\" and the \"physics of becoming\". Process philosophy covers not just scientific intuitions and experiences, but can be used as a conceptual bridge to facilitate discussions among religion, philosophy, and science.\n\nProcess philosophy is sometimes classified as closer to continental philosophy than analytic philosophy, because it is usually only taught in continental philosophy departments. However, other sources state that process philosophy should be placed somewhere in the middle between the poles of analytic versus continental methods in contemporary philosophy.\n\nHistory\n\nIn ancient Greek thought \n\nHeraclitus proclaimed that the basic nature of all things is change.\n\nThe quotation from Heraclitus appears in Plato's Cratylus twice; in 401d as:\nTa onta ienai te panta kai menein ouden\"All entities move and nothing remains still\"and in 402a\n\nPanta chōrei kai ouden menei kai dis es ton auton potamon ouk an embaies\n\"Everything changes and nothing remains still ... and ... you cannot step twice into the same stream\"\n\nHeraclitus considered fire as the most fundamental element.\n\n\"All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and gold for goods.\"\n\nThe following is an interpretation of Heraclitus's concepts into modern terms by Nicholas Rescher.\n\n\"...reality is not a constellation of things at all, but one of processes. The fundamental \"stuff\" of the world is not material substance, but volatile flux, namely \"fire\", and all things are versions thereof (puros tropai). Process is fundamental: the river is not an object, but a continuing flow; the sun is not a thing, but an enduring fire. Everything is a matter of process, of activity, of change (panta rhei).\"\n\nAn early expression of this viewpoint is in Heraclitus's fragments. He posits strife, ἡ ἔρις (strife, conflict), as the underlying basis of all reality defined by change. The balance and opposition in strife were the foundations of change and stability in the flux of existence.\n\nNietzsche and Kierkegaard\nIn his written works, Friedrich Nietzsche proposed what has been regarded as a philosophy of becoming that encompasses a \"naturalistic doctrine intended to counter the metaphysical preoccupation with being\", and a theory of \"the incessant shift of perspectives and interpretations in a world that lacks a grounding essence\".\n\nSøren Kierkegaard posed questions of individual becoming in Christianity which were opposed to the ancient Greek philosophers' focus on the indifferent becoming of the cosmos. However, he established as much of a focus on aporia as Heraclitus and others previously had, such as in his concept of the leap of faith which marks an individual becoming. As well as this, Kierkegaard opposed his philosophy to Hegel's system of philosophy approaching becoming and difference for what he saw as a \"dialectical conflation of becoming and rationality\", making the system take upon the same trait of motionlessness as Parmenides' system.\n\nTwentieth century\nIn the early twentieth century, the philosophy of mathematics was undertaken to develop mathematics as an airtight, axiomatic system in which every truth could be derived logically from a set of axioms. In the foundations of mathematics, this project is variously understood as logicism or as part of the formalist program of David Hilbert. Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell attempted to complete, or at least facilitate, this program with their seminal book Principia Mathematica, which purported to build a logically consistent set theory on which to found mathematics. After this, Whitehead extended his interest to natural science, which he held needed a deeper philosophical basis. He intuited that natural science was struggling to overcome a traditional ontology of timeless material substances that does not suit natural phenomena. According to Whitehead, material is more properly understood as 'process'. In 1929, he produced the most famous work of process philosophy, Process and Reality, continuing the work begun by Hegel but describing a more complex and fluid dynamic ontology.\n\nProcess thought describes truth as \"movement\" in and through substance (Hegelian truth), rather than substances as fixed concepts or \"things\" (Aristotelian truth). Since Whitehead, process thought is distinguished from Hegel in that it describes entities that arise or coalesce in becoming, rather than being simply dialectically determined from prior posited determinates. These entities are referred to as complexes of occasions of experience. It is also distinguished in being not necessarily conflictual or oppositional in operation. Process may be integrative, destructive or both together, allowing for aspects of interdependence, influence, and confluence, and addressing coherence in universal as well as particular developments, i.e., those aspects not befitting Hegel's system. Additionally, instances of determinate occasions of experience, while always ephemeral, are nonetheless seen as important to define the type and continuity of those occasions of experience that flow from or relate to them.\n\nWhitehead's Process and Reality\nAlfred North Whitehead began teaching and writing on process and metaphysics when he joined Harvard University in 1924.\n\nIn his book Science and the Modern World (1925), Whitehead noted that the human intuitions and experiences of science, aesthetics, ethics, and religion influence the worldview of a community, but that in the last several centuries science dominates Western culture. Whitehead sought a holistic, comprehensive cosmology that provides a systematic descriptive theory of the world which can be used for the diverse human intuitions gained through ethical, aesthetic, religious, and scientific experiences, and not just the scientific.\n\nWhitehead's influences were not restricted to philosophers or physicists or mathematicians. He was influenced by the French philosopher Henri Bergson (1859–1941), whom he credits along with William James and John Dewey in the preface to Process and Reality.\n\nProcess metaphysics\n\nFor Whitehead, metaphysics is about logical frameworks for the conduct of discussions of the character of the world. It is not directly and immediately about facts of nature, but only indirectly so, in that its task is to explicitly formulate the language and conceptual presuppositions that are used to describe the facts of nature. Whitehead thinks that discovery of previously unknown facts of nature can in principle call for reconstruction of metaphysics.\n\nThe process metaphysics elaborated in Process and Reality posits an ontology which is based on the two kinds of existence of an entity, that of actual entity and that of abstract entity or abstraction, also called 'object'.\n\nActual entity is a term coined by Whitehead to refer to the entities that really exist in the natural world. For Whitehead, actual entities are spatiotemporally extended events or processes. An actual entity is how something is happening, and how its happening is related to other actual entities. The actually existing world is a multiplicity of actual entities overlapping one another.\n\nThe ultimate abstract principle of actual existence for Whitehead is creativity. Creativity is a term coined by Whitehead to show a power in the world that allows the presence of an actual entity, a new actual entity, and multiple actual entities. Creativity is the principle of novelty. It is manifest in what can be called 'singular causality'. This term may be contrasted with the term 'nomic causality'. An example of singular causation is that I woke this morning because my alarm clock rang. An example of nomic causation is that alarm clocks generally wake people in the morning. Aristotle recognizes singular causality as efficient causality. For Whitehead, there are many contributory singular causes for an event. A further contributory singular cause of my being awoken by my alarm clock this morning was that I was lying asleep near it till it rang.\n\nAn actual entity is a general philosophical term for an utterly determinate and completely concrete individual particular of the actually existing world or universe of changeable entities considered in terms of singular causality, about which categorical statements can be made. Whitehead's most far-reaching and radical contribution to metaphysics is his invention of a better way of choosing the actual entities. Whitehead chooses a way of defining the actual entities that makes them all alike, qua actual entities, with a single exception.\n\nFor example, for Aristotle, the actual entities were the substances, such as Socrates. Besides Aristotle's ontology of substances, another example of an ontology that posits actual entities is in the monads of Leibniz, which are said to be 'windowless'.\n\nWhitehead's actual entities\n\nFor Whitehead's ontology of processes as defining the world, the actual entities exist as the only fundamental elements of reality.\n\nThe actual entities are of two kinds, temporal and atemporal.\n\nWith one exception, all actual entities for Whitehead are temporal and are occasions of experience (which are not to be confused with consciousness). An entity that people commonly think of as a simple concrete object, or that Aristotle would think of as a substance, is, in this ontology, considered to be a temporally serial composite of indefinitely many overlapping occasions of experience. A human being is thus composed of indefinitely many occasions of experience.\n\nThe one exceptional actual entity is at once both temporal and atemporal: God. He is objectively immortal, as well as being immanent in the world. He is objectified in each temporal actual entity; but He is not an eternal object.\n\nThe occasions of experience are of four grades. The first grade comprises processes in a physical vacuum such as the propagation of an electromagnetic wave or gravitational influence across empty space. The occasions of experience of the second grade involve just inanimate matter; \"matter\" being the composite overlapping of occasions of experience from the previous grade. The occasions of experience of the third grade involve living organisms. Occasions of experience of the fourth grade involve experience in the mode of presentational immediacy, which means more or less what are often called the qualia of subjective experience. So far as we know, experience in the mode of presentational immediacy occurs in only more evolved animals. That some occasions of experience involve experience in the mode of presentational immediacy is the one and only reason why Whitehead makes the occasions of experience his actual entities; for the actual entities must be of the ultimately general kind. Consequently, it is inessential that an occasion of experience have an aspect in the mode of presentational immediacy; occasions of the grades one, two, and three, lack that aspect.\n\nThere is no mind-matter duality in this ontology, because \"mind\" is simply seen as an abstraction from an occasion of experience which has also a material aspect, which is of course simply another abstraction from it; thus the mental aspect and the material aspect are abstractions from one and the same concrete occasion of experience. The brain is part of the body, both being abstractions of a kind known as persistent physical objects, neither being actual entities. Though not recognized by Aristotle, there is biological evidence, written about by Galen, that the human brain is an essential seat of human experience in the mode of presentational immediacy. We may say that the brain has a material and a mental aspect, all three being abstractions from their indefinitely many constitutive occasions of experience, which are actual entities.\n\nTime, causality, and process\nInherent in each actual entity is its respective dimension of time. Potentially, each Whiteheadean occasion of experience is causally consequential on every other occasion of experience that precedes it in time, and has as its causal consequences every other occasion of experience that follows it in time; thus it has been said that Whitehead's occasions of experience are 'all window', in contrast to Leibniz's 'windowless' monads. In time defined relative to it, each occasion of experience is causally influenced by prior occasions of experiences, and causally influences future occasions of experience. An occasion of experience consists of a process of prehending other occasions of experience, reacting to them. This is the process in process philosophy.\n\nSuch process is never deterministic. Consequently, free will is essential and inherent to the universe.\n\nThe causal outcomes obey the usual well-respected rule that the causes precede the effects in time. Some pairs of processes cannot be connected by cause-and-effect relations, and they are said to be spatially separated. This is in perfect agreement with the viewpoint of the Einstein theory of special relativity and with the Minkowski geometry of spacetime. It is clear that Whitehead respected these ideas, as may be seen for example in his 1919 book An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge as well as in Process and Reality. In this view, time is relative to an inertial reference frame, different reference frames defining different versions of time.\n\nAtomicity\n\nThe actual entities, the occasions of experience, are logically atomic in the sense that an occasion of experience cannot be cut and separated into two other occasions of experience. This kind of logical atomicity is perfectly compatible with indefinitely many spatio-temporal overlaps of occasions of experience. One can explain this kind of atomicity by saying that an occasion of experience has an internal causal structure that could not be reproduced in each of the two complementary sections into which it might be cut. Nevertheless, an actual entity can completely contain each of indefinitely many other actual entities.\n\nAnother aspect of the atomicity of occasions of experience is that they do not change. An actual entity is what it is. An occasion of experience can be described as a process of change, but it is itself unchangeable.\n\nThe reader should bear in mind that the atomicity of the actual entities is of a simply logical or philosophical kind, thoroughly different in concept from the natural kind of atomicity that describes the atoms of physics and chemistry.\n\nTopology\n\nWhitehead's theory of extension was concerned with the spatio-temporal features of his occasions of experience. Fundamental to both Newtonian and to quantum theoretical mechanics is the concept of momentum. The measurement of a momentum requires a finite spatiotemporal extent. Because it has no finite spatiotemporal extent, a single point of Minkowski space cannot be an occasion of experience, but is an abstraction from an infinite set of overlapping or contained occasions of experience, as explained in Process and Reality. Though the occasions of experience are atomic, they are not necessarily separate in extension, spatiotemporally, from one another. Indefinitely many occasions of experience can overlap in Minkowski space.\n\nNexus is a term coined by Whitehead to show the network actual entity from the universe. In the universe of actual entities spread actual entity. Actual entities are clashing with each other and form other actual entities. The birth of an actual entity based on an actual entity, actual entities around him referred to as nexus.\n\nAn example of a nexus of temporally overlapping occasions of experience is what Whitehead calls an enduring physical object, which corresponds closely with an Aristotelian substance. An enduring physical object has a temporally earliest and a temporally last member. Every member (apart from the earliest) of such a nexus is a causal consequence of the earliest member of the nexus, and every member (apart from the last) of such a nexus is a causal antecedent of the last member of the nexus. There are indefinitely many other causal antecedents and consequences of the enduring physical object, which overlap, but are not members, of the nexus. No member of the nexus is spatially separate from any other member. Within the nexus are indefinitely many continuous streams of overlapping nexūs, each stream including the earliest and the last member of the enduring physical object. Thus an enduring physical object, like an Aristotelian substance, undergoes changes and adventures during the course of its existence.\n\nIn some contexts, especially in the theory of relativity in physics, the word 'event' refers to a single point in Minkowski or in Riemannian space-time. A point event is not a process in the sense of Whitehead's metaphysics. Neither is a countable sequence or array of points. A Whiteheadian process is most importantly characterized by extension in space-time, marked by a continuum of uncountably many points in a Minkowski or a Riemannian space-time. The word 'event', indicating a Whiteheadian actual entity, is not being used in the sense of a point event.\n\nWhitehead's abstractions\n\nWhitehead's abstractions are conceptual entities that are abstracted from or derived from and founded upon his actual entities. Abstractions are themselves not actual entities. They are the only entities that can be real but are not actual entities. This statement is one form of Whitehead's 'ontological principle'.\n\nAn abstraction is a conceptual entity that refers to more than one single actual entity. Whitehead's ontology refers to importantly structured collections of actual entities as nexuses of actual entities. Collection of actual entities into a nexus emphasizes some aspect of those entities, and that emphasis is an abstraction, because it means that some aspects of the actual entities are emphasized or dragged away from their actuality, while other aspects are de-emphasized or left out or left behind.\n\n'Eternal object' is a term coined by Whitehead. It is an abstraction, a possibility, or pure potential. It can be ingredient into some actual entity. It is a principle that can give a particular form to an actual entity.\n\nWhitehead admitted indefinitely many eternal objects. An example of an eternal object is a number, such as the number 'two'. Whitehead held that eternal objects are abstractions of a very high degree of abstraction. Many abstractions, including eternal objects, are potential ingredients of processes.\n\nRelation between actual entities and abstractions stated in the ontological principle\n\nFor Whitehead, besides its temporal generation by the actual entities which are its contributory causes, a process may be considered as a concrescence of abstract ingredient eternal objects. God enters into every temporal actual entity.\n\nWhitehead's ontological principle is that whatever reality pertains to an abstraction is derived from the actual entities upon which it is founded or of which it is comprised.\n\nCausation and concrescence of a process\nConcrescence is a term coined by Whitehead to show the process of jointly forming an actual entity that was without form, but about to manifest itself into an entity Actual full (satisfaction) based on datums or for information on the universe. The process of forming an actual entity is the case based on the existing datums. Concretion process can be regarded as subjectification process.\n\nDatum is a term coined by Whitehead to show the different variants of information possessed by actual entity. In process philosophy, datum is obtained through the events of concrescence. Every actual entity has a variety of datum.\n\nCommentary on Whitehead and on process philosophy\nWhitehead is not an idealist in the strict sense. Whitehead's thought may be regarded as related to the idea of panpsychism (also known as panexperientialism, because of Whitehead's emphasis on experience).\n\nOn God \nWhitehead's philosophy is complex, subtle, and nuanced; and in order to comprehend his thinking regarding what is commonly referred to by many religions as \"God\", it is recommended that one read from Process and Reality Corrected Edition (1978), wherein regarding \"God\" the authors elaborate Whitehead's conception.\n\nHe is the unconditioned actuality of conceptual feeling at the base of things; so that by reason of this primordial actuality, there is an order in the relevance of eternal objects to the process of creation. [...] The particularities of the actual world presuppose it; while it merely presupposes the general metaphysical character of creative advance, of which it is the primordial exemplification. [emphasis in original]\n\nProcess philosophy, might be considered according to some theistic forms of religion to give God a special place in the universe of occasions of experience. Regarding Whitehead's use of the term \"occasions\" in reference to \"God\", Process and Reality Corrected Edition explains:\n\n'Actual entities' - also termed 'actual occasions' - are the final real things of which the world is made up. There is no going behind actual entities to find anything more real. They differ among themselves: God is an actual entity, and so is the most trivial puff of existence in far-off empty space. But, though there are gradations of importance, and diversities of function, yet in the principles which actuality exemplifies all are on the same level. The final facts are, all alike, actual entities; and these actual entities are drops of experience, complex and interdependent.\n\nIt also can be assumed within some forms of theology that a God encompasses all the other occasions of experience but also transcends them and this might lead to it being argued that Whitehead endorses some form of panentheism. Since, it is argued theologically, that \"free will\" is inherent to the nature of the universe, Whitehead's God is not omnipotent in Whitehead's metaphysics. God's role is to offer enhanced occasions of experience. God participates in the evolution of the universe by offering possibilities, which may be accepted or rejected. Whitehead's thinking here has given rise to process theology, whose prominent advocates include Charles Hartshorne, John B. Cobb, Jr., and Hans Jonas, who was also influenced by the non-theological philosopher Martin Heidegger. However, other process philosophers have questioned Whitehead's theology, seeing it as a regressive Platonism.\n\nWhitehead enumerated three essential natures of God. The primordial nature of God consists of all potentialities of existence for actual occasions, which Whitehead dubbed eternal objects. God can offer possibilities by ordering the relevance of eternal objects. The consequent nature of God prehends everything that happens in reality. As such, God experiences all of reality in a sentient manner. The last nature is the superjective. This is the way in which God's synthesis becomes a sense-datum for other actual entities. In some sense, God is prehended by existing actual entities.\n\nLegacy and applications\n\nBiology \nIn plant morphology, Rolf Sattler developed a process morphology (dynamic morphology) that overcomes the structure/process (or structure/function) dualism that is commonly taken for granted in biology. According to process morphology, structures such as leaves of plants do not have processes, they are processes.\n\nIn evolution and in development, the nature of the changes of biological objects are considered by many authors to be more radical than in physical systems. In biology, changes are not just changes of state in a pre-given space, instead the space and more generally the mathematical structures required to understand object change over time.\n\nEcology \nWith its perspective that everything is interconnected, that all life has value, and that non-human entities are also experiencing subjects, process philosophy has played an important role in discourse on ecology and sustainability. The first book to connect process philosophy with environmental ethics was John B. Cobb, Jr.'s 1971 work, Is It Too Late: A Theology of Ecology. In a more recent book (2018) edited by John B. Cobb, Jr. and Wm. Andrew Schwartz, Putting Philosophy to Work: Toward an Ecological Civilization contributors explicitly explore the ways in which process philosophy can be put to work to address the most urgent issues facing our world today, by contributing to a transition toward an ecological civilization. That book emerged from the largest international conference held on the theme of ecological civilization (Seizing an Alternative: Toward an Ecological Civilization) which was organized by the Center for Process Studies in June 2015. The conference brought together roughly 2,000 participants from around the world and featured such leaders in the environmental movement as Bill McKibben, Vandana Shiva, John B. Cobb, Jr., Wes Jackson, and Sheri Liao. The notion of ecological civilization is often affiliated with the process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead—especially in China.\n\nMathematics \n\nIn the philosophy of mathematics, some of Whitehead's ideas re-emerged in combination with cognitivism as the cognitive science of mathematics and embodied mind theses.\n\nSomewhat earlier, exploration of mathematical practice and quasi-empiricism in mathematics from the 1950s to 1980s had sought alternatives to metamathematics in social behaviours around mathematics itself: for instance, Paul Erdős's simultaneous belief in Platonism and a single \"big book\" in which all proofs existed, combined with his personal obsessive need or decision to collaborate with the widest possible number of other mathematicians. The process, rather than the outcomes, seemed to drive his explicit behaviour and odd use of language, as if the synthesis of Erdős and collaborators in seeking proofs, creating sense-datum for other mathematicians, was itself the expression of a divine will. Certainly, Erdős behaved as if nothing else in the world mattered, including money or love, as emphasized in his biography The Man Who Loved Only Numbers.\n\nMedicine \n\nSeveral fields of science and especially medicine seem to make liberal use of ideas in process philosophy, notably the theory of pain and healing of the late 20th century. The philosophy of medicine began to deviate somewhat from scientific method and an emphasis on repeatable results in the very late 20th century by embracing population thinking, and a more pragmatic approach to issues in public health, environmental health and especially mental health. In this latter field, R. D. Laing, Thomas Szasz and Michel Foucault were instrumental in moving medicine away from emphasis on \"cures\" and towards concepts of individuals in balance with their society, both of which are changing, and against which no benchmarks or finished \"cures\" were very likely to be measurable.\n\nPsychology \n\nIn psychology, the subject of imagination was again explored more extensively since Whitehead, and the question of feasibility or \"eternal objects\" of thought became central to the impaired theory of mind explorations that framed postmodern cognitive science. A biological understanding of the most eternal object, that being the emerging of similar but independent cognitive apparatus, led to an obsession with the process \"embodiment\", that being, the emergence of these cognitions. Like Whitehead's God, especially as elaborated in J. J. Gibson's perceptual psychology emphasizing affordances, by ordering the relevance of eternal objects (especially the cognitions of other such actors), the world becomes. Or, it becomes simple enough for human beings to begin to make choices, and to prehend what happens as a result. These experiences may be summed in some sense but can only approximately be shared, even among very similar cognitions with identical DNA. An early explorer of this view was Alan Turing who sought to prove the limits of expressive complexity of human genes in the late 1940s, to put bounds on the complexity of human intelligence and so assess the feasibility of artificial intelligence emerging. Since 2000, Process Psychology has progressed as an independent academic and therapeutic discipline: In 2000, Michel Weber created the Whitehead Psychology Nexus: an open forum dedicated to the cross-examination of Alfred North Whitehead's process philosophy and the various facets of the contemporary psychological field.\n\nPhilosophy of movement \nThe philosophy of movement is a sub-area within process philosophy that treats processes as movements. It studies processes as flows, folds, and fields in historical patterns of centripetal, centrifugal, tensional, and elastic motion. See Thomas Nail's philosophy of movement and process materialism.\n\nSee also\nConcepts\nActual idealism\nAnicca, the Buddhist doctrine that all is \"transient, evanescent, inconstant\"\nPanta rhei, Heraclitus's concept that \"everything flows\"\nDialectic\nDialectical monism\nElisionism\nHolomovement\nPancreativism\nSalishan languages#Nounlessness\nSpeculative realism\n\nPeople\nJohn B. Cobb\nDavid Ray Griffin\nArthur Peacocke\nMichel Weber\nArran Gare\nJoseph A. Bracken\nMilič Čapek\nWilmon Henry Sheldon\nThomas Nail\nIain McGilchrist\nEugene Gendlin\nTina Röck\nCharles Hartshorne\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nAcademia pages of the Center for Philosophical Practice.\n\nWhitehead Research Project\nProcess and Reality. Part V. Final Interpretation\nWolfgang Sohst: Prozessontologie. Ein systematischer Entwurf der Entstehung von Existenz (Berlin 2009)\n Critique of a Metaphysics of Process (Antwerp 2012)\n\n \nCategory:Holism\nCategory:Subfields of metaphysics\nCategory:Religion and science", "title": "Process philosophy" }, { "text": "Embodied cognition is the theory that many features of cognition, whether human or otherwise, are shaped by aspects of an organism's entire body. Sensory and motor systems are seen as fundamentally integrated with cognitive processing. The cognitive features include high-level mental constructs (such as concepts and categories) and performance on various cognitive tasks (such as reasoning or judgment). The bodily aspects involve the motor system, the perceptual system, the bodily interactions with the environment (situatedness), and the assumptions about the world built into the organism's functional structure.\n\nThe embodied mind thesis challenges other theories, such as cognitivism, computationalism, and Cartesian dualism. It is closely related to the extended mind thesis, situated cognition, and enactivism. The modern version depends on insights drawn from up to date research in psychology, linguistics, cognitive science, dynamical systems, artificial intelligence, robotics, animal cognition, plant cognition, and neurobiology.\n\nTheory\n\nProponents of the embodied cognition thesis emphasize the active and significant role the body plays in the shaping of cognition and in the understanding of an agent's mind and cognitive capacities. In philosophy, embodied cognition holds that an agent's cognition, rather than being the product of mere (innate) abstract representations of the world, is strongly influenced by aspects of an agent's body beyond the brain itself. An embodied model of cognition opposes the disembodied Cartesian model, according to which all mental phenomena are non-physical and, therefore, not influenced by the body. With this opposition the embodiment thesis intends to reintroduce an agent's bodily experiences into any account of cognition. It is a rather broad thesis and encompasses both weak and strong variants of embodiment. In an attempt to reconcile cognitive science with human experience, the enactive approach to cognition defines \"embodiment\" as follows: \n\nThis double sense attributed to the embodiment thesis emphasizes the many aspects of cognition that researchers in different fields—such as philosophy, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, psychology, and neuroscience—are involved with. This general characterization of embodiment faces some difficulties: a consequence of this emphasis on the body, experience, culture, context, and the cognitive mechanisms of an agent in the world is that often distinct views and approaches to embodied cognition overlap. The theses of extended cognition and situated cognition, for example, are usually intertwined and not always carefully separated. And since each of the aspects of the embodiment thesis is endorsed to different degrees, embodied cognition should be better seen \"as a research program rather than a well-defined unified theory\".\n\nSome authors explain the embodiment thesis by arguing that cognition depends on an agent's body and its interactions with a determined environment. From this perspective, cognition in real biological systems is not an end in itself, it is constrained by the system's goals and capacities. Such constraints do not mean cognition is set by adaptive behavior (or autopoiesis) alone, but instead that cognition requires \"some kind of information processing... the transformation or communication of incoming information\". The acquiring of such information involves the agent's \"exploration and modification of the environment\". \n\nAnother approach to understanding embodied cognition comes from a narrower characterization of the embodiment thesis. The following narrower view of embodiment avoids any compromises to external sources other than the body and allows differentiating between embodied cognition, extended cognition, and situated cognition. Thus, the embodiment thesis can be specified as follows: \n\nThis thesis points out the core idea that an agent's body plays a significant role in shaping different features of cognition, such as perception, attention, memory, reasoning—among others. Likewise, these features of cognition depend on the kind of body an agent has. The thesis omits direct mention of some aspects of the \"more encompassing biological, psychological and cultural context\" included in the enactive definition, making it possible to separate embodied cognition, extended cognition, and situated cognition.\n\nIn contrast to the embodiment thesis, the extended mind thesis limits cognitive processing neither to the brain nor even to the body, it extends it outward into the agent's world. Situated cognition emphasizes that this extension is not just a matter of including resources outside the head but stressing the role of probing and changing interactions with the agent's world. Cognition is situated in that it is inherently dependent upon the cultural and social contexts within which it takes place.\n\nThis conceptual reframing of cognition as an activity influenced by the body has had significant implications. For instance, the view of cognition inherited by most contemporary cognitive neuroscience is internalist in nature. An agent's behavior along with his capacity to maintain (accurate) representations of the surrounding environment were considered as the product of \"powerful brains that can maintain the world models and devise plans\". From this perspective, cognizing was conceived as something that an isolated brain did. In contrast, accepting the role the body plays during cognitive processes allows us to account for a more encompassing view of cognition. This shift in perspective within neuroscience suggests that successful behavior in real-world scenarios demands the integration of several sensorimotor and cognitive (as well as affective) capacities of an agent. Thus, cognition emerges in the relationship between an agent and the affordances provided by the environment rather than in the brain alone.\n\nIn 2002, a collection of positive characterizations summarizing what the embodiment thesis entails for cognition were offered. Margaret Wilson argues that the general outlook of embodied cognition \"displays an interesting co-variation of multiple observations and houses a number of different claims: (1) cognition is situated; (2) cognition is time-pressured; (3) we off-load cognitive work onto the environment; (4) the environment is part of the cognitive system; (5) cognition is for action; (6) offline cognition is bodily-based\". According to Wilson, the first three and the fifth claim appear to be at least partially true, while the fourth claim is deeply problematic in that all things that have an impact on the elements of a system are not necessarily considered part of the system. The sixth claim has received the least attention in the literature on embodied cognition, yet it might be the most significant of the six claims as it shows how certain human cognitive capabilities, that previously were thought to be highly abstract, now appear to be leaning towards an embodied approach for their explanation. Wilson also describes at least five main (abstract) categories that combine both sensory and motor skills (or sensorimotor functions). The first three are working memory, episodic memory, and implicit memory; the fourth is mental imagery, and finally, the fifth concerns reasoning and problem—solving.\n\nHistory \n\nThe theory of embodied cognition, along with the multiple aspects it comprises, can be regarded as the imminent result of an intellectual skepticism towards the flourishment of the disembodied theory of mind put forth by René Descartes in the 17th century. According to Cartesian dualism, the mind is entirely distinct from the body and can be successfully explained and understood without reference to the body or to its processes.\n\nResearch has been done to identify the set of ideas that would establish what could be considered as the early stages of embodied cognition around inquiries regarding the mind-body-soul relation and vitalism in the German tradition from 1740 to 1920. The modern approach and definition of embodied cognition has a relatively short history. Intellectual underpinnings of embodied cognition can be traced back to the influence of philosophy and, more specifically, the phenomenological tradition, psychology, and connectionism in the 20th century.\n\nPhenomenologists such as Edmund Husserl (1850–1938), Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1962) served as a source of inspiration for what would later be known as the embodiment thesis. They stood up against the mechanistic and disembodied approach to the explanation of the mind by emphasizing the fact that there are aspects of human experiences (consciousness, cognition) that cannot simply be explained by a model of the mind as computation of inner symbols. From a phenomenological standpoint, such aspects remain unaccountable if, as in Cartesian dualism, they are not \"deeply rooted in the physical nuts-and-bolts of the interacting agent\". Maurice Merleau-Ponty in his Phenomenology of Perception , for example, rejects the cartesian idea that people's primary mode of being in the world is thinking and proposes corporeity , that is, the body itself as the primary site for knowing the world, and perception as the medium and the pre-reflective foundation of experience. So stated, the body is the primary condition for experience since it comprises a collection of active meanings about the world and its objects. The body also provides the first-person perspective (a point of view) with which one experiences the world and opens up multiple possibilities for being.\n\nThe appreciation of the phenomenological mindset allows us to not overlook the influence that phenomenology's speculative but systematic reflection on the mind-body-world relation had in the growth and development of the core ideas which embodied cognition comprises. From a phenomenological perspective \"all cognition is embodied, interactive, and embedded in dynamically changing environments\". These constitute the set of beliefs which proponents of embodied cognition such as Francisco Varela, Eleonor Rosch, and Evan Thompson will revise later on and seek to reintroduce in the scientific study of cognition under the name of enaction. Enactivism reclaims the importance of considering the biodynamics of the living organism to understand cognition by gathering ideas from fields such as biology, psychoanalysis, Buddhism, and phenomenology. According to this enactive approach, organisms obtain knowledge or develop their cognitive capacities through a perception–action relationship with a mutually determining environment.\n\nThis basic idea of (qualitative) experience as the product of an individual's active perception–action interactions with its surrounding is also traceable to the American contextualist or pragmatist tradition in works such as Art As Experience by John Dewey. For Dewey, experiences affect people's personal lives as they are the by-product of continuous and commutative interactions of a biological and organic self (an incarnated body) with the world. These lived (corporeal) experiences should serve as the foundation to build upon.\n\nOn the bases of empirical grounds, and in opposition to those philosophical traditions that belittled the importance of the body to understand cognition, research on embodiment have demonstrated the relationship between cognition and bodily process. Thus, understanding cognition requires to consider and investigate the sensory and motor mechanism that enables it. George Lakoff, for example, holds that reasoning and language, arise from the nature of bodily experiences and, thus, even people's own metaphors have bodily references.\n\nSince the 1950s, encouraged by progress in informatics, researchers began to create digital models of the processes by which sensory input is selected by the brain, stored in the memory, connected to existing knowledge and used for elaboration. These traditional computationalists views of cognition that were typical in the 1950s–1980s are now considered implausible because there is no continuity with the cognitive skills that would have been demanded and developed by the ancestors of the human species. Some researchers argue that this algorithmic focus on mental activities ignores the fact that human beings engage with evolutionary pressures using their entire bodies. Margaret Wilson considers the embodied cognition perspective as fundamentally an evolutionary one, viewing cognition as a set of abilities that built upon, and still reflects, the structure of physical bodies and how human brains evolved to manage those bodies. The theory of evolution emphasises that thanks to their bipedal gait, early humans did not need their 'forepaws' for locomotion, facilitating them to manipulate the environment with the aid of tools. One researcher goes even further, positing that the multiple opportunities provided by human hands shape people's concepts of the mind. One example is that people often conceive cognitive processes in manual terms, such as 'grasping an idea'.\n\nJ.J. Gibson (1904–1979) developed his theory on ecological psychology that entirely contradicted the computationalist idea of understanding the mind as information processing which by that time had permeated psychology—both in theory and practice. Gibson particularly disagreed with the way his contemporaries understood the nature of perception. Computationalist perspectives, for example, consider perceptual objects as an unreliable source of information upon which the mind must do some sort of inference. Gibson view perceptual processes as the product of the relation between a moving agent and its relationship with a specific environment. Similarly, Varela and colleague's argue that both cognition and the environment are not pre-given; instead, they are enacted or brought forth by the agent's history of sensorimotor and structurally coupled activities.\n\nConnectionism also put forth a critique to the computationalist commitments yet granting the possibility of some sort of non-symbolic computational processes to take place. According to the connectionist thesis, cognition as a biological phenomenon can be explained and understood through the interaction and dynamics of artificial neural networks (ANNs). Given the traces of abstraction that remain in the inputs and outputs through which connectionist neural networks carry its computations, connectionism is said to be not so far from computationalism and unable to cope with both the challenge of dealing with the details involved during perceiving and acting and explaining higher level cognition. Likewise, connectionism's take on cognition is biologically inspired by the behavior and interaction of single neurons, yet its connections to the embodiment thesis in general, and to perception–action interactions in particular, are not clearly outlined or straightforward.\n\nBy early 2000, O'Regan, J. K. and Noë, A. provided empirical evidence against the computationalist mindset arguing that although cortical maps exist in the brain and their patterns of activation give rise to perceptual experiences, they alone are unable to fully explain the subjective character of experience. Namely, it is unclear how internal representations generate conscious perception. Given this ambiguity, O'Regan, J. K. and Nöe, A. put forth what would later be known as \"sensorimotor contingencies\" (SMCs) in an attempt to understand the changing character of sensations as actors act in the world. According to the SMC theory, \n\nEver since the late 20th century and recognizing the significant role the body plays for cognition, the embodied cognition theory has gained (an ever increasing) popularity, it has been the subject of multiple articles in different research areas, and the mainstream approach to what Shapiro and Spaulding call the \"embodied make-over\". A consequence of this widespread acceptance of the embodiment thesis is the emergence of 4E features of cognition (embodied, embedded, enacted, and extended cognition). Under 4E, cognition is no longer thought of as being instantiated in or by a single organism, rather:\n\nScope\n\nEmbodied cognition argues that several factors both internal and external (such as the body and the environment) play a role in the development of an agent's cognitive capacities, just as mental constructs (such as thoughts and desires) are said to influence an agent's bodily actions. For this reason, embodied cognition is considered as a wide-ranging research program, rather than a well-defined and unified theory. A scientific approach to embodied cognition reaches, inspires, and brings together ideas from several research areas, each with its own take on embodiment yet in a joint effort to (methodically) investigate embodied cognition.\n\nResearch on embodied cognition comprises a variety of fields within the sciences such as linguistics, neuroscience, (cognitive) psychology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, robotics, etc. For this reason, contemporary developments on embodied cognition can be regarded as the embodied make-over of cognitive science offering new ways to look at the nature, structure, and mechanisms of cognition. Embodying cognition requires the different features of cognition such as perception, language, memory, learning, reasoning, emotion, self-regulation, and its social aspects to be revisited and investigated through lens of embodiment in order to ground its theoretical and methodological underpinnings.\n\nEmbodied cognition has gained the attention and interest of classical cognitive science (along with all sciences it comprises) to incorporate embodiment ideas into its research. In linguistics, George Lakoff (a cognitive scientist and linguist) and his collaborators Mark Johnson, Mark Turner, and Rafael E. Núñez have promoted and expanded the embodiment thesis based on developments within the field of cognitive science. Their research have provided evidence suggesting that people use their understanding of familiar physical objects, actions, and situations to understand other domains. All cognition is based on the knowledge that comes from the body and other disciplines are mapped onto humans' embodied knowledge using a combination of conceptual metaphor, image schema and prototypes.\n\nThe conceptual metaphors research have argued that people use metaphors all over to be in charge of the conceptual level; in other words, they map one conceptual state into another one. Therefore, research have stated that there is a single metaphor behind various definitions. Several examples of conceptual metaphors from different fields were collected to explain how metaphors relate to other metaphors and often refer to body aspects. The most common example given to this explanation is when the people describe the concept of love, associating this love metaphor with physically embodied journey experiences. Another example of the language and embodiment of Lakoff and Mark Turner is visual metaphors. Accordingly, they argue that the positioning of these visual metaphors for upright and forward-moving creatures depends on body type and the characteristics of the body's interaction with the environment.\n\nAnother study from 2000 focused on the \"image schema\" to investigate how people understand abstract concepts. Accordingly, abstract concepts are understood by considering basic physical situations. Abstract concepts, whose basic physical states are considered, then interpreted by using sensory-motor and perceptual skills. Thus, it is shown that there is a spatial reasoning process that requires using the body even in reasoning over abstract concepts. In this context, the image schema is seen as a conceptual metaphor form. For example, spatial reasoning skills and the visual cortex tend to be used to understand a mathematical concept consisting of imaginary numbers that are purely abstract. Thus, it has been shown how important the body plays in the image schema as in the conceptual metaphor in the interpretation of concepts.\n\nAnother important factor in understanding linguistic categories is prototypes. Eleanor Rosch argued that prototypes play an important role in people's cognition. According to her research, prototypes are the most typical members of a category, and she explains this with an example from birds. The robin, for example, is a prototypical bird while the penguin is not a prototypical bird which shows that objects that are prototypical are more easily categorized, and therefore, people can find answers by reasoning about the categories they encounter through these prototypes. Another study identified basic level categories that exemplify this situation in a more structured way. Accordingly, basic level categories are categories that can be associated with basic physical motions; they are made up of prototypes that can be easily visualized. These prototypes are used for reasoning about general categories. On the other hand, Lakoff emphasizes that what is important in prototype theory, rather than class or type characteristics, is that the feature of the categories people use is a bodily experience. Thus, as seen in the general of these approaches, it can be said that the most basic feature in understanding and interpreting linguistic concepts and categories is whether the concept or category has been experienced bodily.\n\nNeuroscientists Gerald Edelman, António Damásio and others have outlined the connection between the body, individual structures in the brain and aspects of the mind such as consciousness, emotion, self-awareness and will. Biology has also inspired Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana, Francisco Varela, Eleanor Rosch and Evan Thompson to develop a closely related version of the idea, which they call enactivism. The motor theory of speech perception proposed by Alvin Liberman and colleagues at the Haskins Laboratories argues that the identification of words is embodied in perception of the bodily movements by which spoken words are made. \nIn related work at Haskins, Paul Mermelstein, Philip Rubin, Louis Goldstein, and colleagues developed articulatory synthesis tools for computationally modeling the physiology and aeroacoustics of the vocal tract, demonstrating how cognition and perception of speech can be shaped by biological constraints. This was extended into the audio-visual domain by the \"talking heads\" approach of Eric Vatikiotis-Bateson, Rubin, and other colleagues.\n\nThe concept of embodiment has been inspired by research in cognitive neuroscience, such as the proposals of Gerald Edelman concerning how mathematical and computational models such as neuronal group selection and neural degeneracy result in emergent categorization. From a neuroscientific perspective, the embodied cognition theory examines the interaction of sensorimotor, cognitive, and affective neurological systems. The embodied mind thesis is compatible with some views of cognition promoted in neuropsychology, such as the theories of consciousness of Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, Gerald Edelman, and Antonio Damasio. It is also supported by a broad and ever-increasing collection of empirical studies within neuroscience. By examining brain activity with neuroimaging techniques, researchers have found indications of embodiment. In an Electroencephalography (EEG) study researchers showed that in line with the embodied cognition, sensorimotor contingency and common coding theses, sensory and motor processes in the brain are not sequentially separated, they are strongly coupled. Considering the interaction of the sensorimotor and cognitive system, a study from 2005 stresses how crucial sensorimotor cortices are for semantic comprehension of body–action terms and sentences. A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study from 2004 showed that passively read action words, such as lick, pick or kick, led to a somatotopic neuronal activity in or adjacent to brain regions associated with actual movement of the respective body parts. Using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a study in 2005 stated that the activity of the motor system is coupled to auditory action-related sentences. When the participants listened to hand–or foot-related sentences, the motor evoked potentials (MEPs) recorded from the hand and foot muscles were reduced. These two exemplary studies indicate a relationship between cognitively understanding words referring to sensorimotor concepts and activation of sensorimotor cortices. Along the lines of embodiment, neuroimaging techniques serve to show interactions of the sensory and motor system.\n\nNext to neuroimaging studies, behavioral studies also provides evidence supporting the embodied cognition theory. Abstract higher cognitive concepts such as the \"importance\" of an object or an issue also seem to stand in relation to the sensorimotor system. People estimate objects to be heavier when they are told that they are important or hold important information in contrast to unimportant information. Similarly, weight affects the way people invest physical and cognitive effort when dealing with concrete or abstract issues. For example, more importance is assigned to decision–making procedures when holding heavier clipboards. What this suggest is that the physical effort invested in concrete objects leads to more cognitive effort when dealing with abstract concepts.\n\nThe work of cognitive neuroscientists such as Francisco Varela and Walter Freeman seeks to explain embodied and situated cognition in terms of dynamical systems theory and neurophenomenology, rejecting the idea that the brain merely uses representations to cognise (a position also espoused by Gerhard Werner). There are several neuroscientific approaches to explain cognition from an embodied perspective as well as multiple methods such as neuroimaging techniques, behavioral experiments, and dynamical models that can be employed to support and further investigate embodied cognition.\n\nIn the field of Robotics researchers such as Rodney Brooks, Hans Moravec and Rolf Pfeifer have argued that true artificial intelligence can only be achieved by machines that have sensory and motor skills and are connected to the world through a body. The insights of these robotics researchers have in turn inspired philosophers like Andy Clark and Hendriks-Jansen.\n\nIn the light of these, a body is essential for cognition and, therefore, for intelligent behavior since the interaction between the body and the environment is fundamental for developing cognitive abilities. This type of knowledge is grounded in physical embodiment–the relationship humans have with their bodies. It is the concept of \"the idea that the mind is not only connected to the body but that the body influences the mind\". Embodied artificial intelligence and robotics is a method of applying this principle to artificial systems.\n\nTraditional artificial intelligence involves a computational approach. This primary computational paradigm evolved to the embodied perspective with embodied cognition studies and brought more interdisciplinary research topics to artificial intelligence. Embodied perspective brings a necessity of working with the physical world and systems which came alongside robotics. Robotics are essential for the embodied artificial perspective because computers and robots are different. Computers define the inputs; robots can interact with the physical world via their own body. Researchers working on embodied AI is moving away from an algorithm-driven approach to the robots to interact with the physical world. Embodied Artificial intelligence tries to figure out how biological systems work first, then construct basic rules of intelligent behavior, and finally apply that knowledge to create artificial systems, robots, or intelligent devices. Embodied artificial intelligence has a large scale of applications and research. For instance, the embodied artificial approach can be seen in micro- and nano-mechatronic systems and evolvable hardware, top-down bio-synthetic systems research, bottom-up chemo-synthetic systems, and biochemical systems. The majority of embodied artificial intelligence focuses on robot training and autonomous vehicles technologies. Autonomous vehicles have a significant interest in embodied artificial intelligence applications because this technology allows driving and making possible judgments based on what they see as humans do.\n\nThese applications demonstrate that embodied cognition brought a broader perspective to artificial intelligence and robotics. Without question, the applications of embodied artificial intelligence keep evolving with the help of twenty-first-century technology.\n\nPerception \n\nTraditional neuropsychological research widely acknowledged that when an internal representation of the outside world is activated somewhere in the brain, it leads to a perceptual experience. Embodied cognition challenges this claim by stating that the existence of cortical maps in the brain fails to explain and account for the subjective character of people's perceptual experiences. For example, they cannot sufficiently explain the apparent stability of the visual world despite eye movements, the filling-in of the blind spot, the \"change blindness\", and other such visual illusions that unveil the (seemingly) imperfections of the visual system. From an embodied cognition perspective, perception is not a passive reception of (incomplete) sensory inputs for which the brain must compensate to provide us with a coherent picture. The brain interprets the outside world based on an individual's intentions, memories, and emotions, as well as the environment and the specific situation the individual is in. Perception involves more complex processes than simply receiving inputs (or visual stimuli) from the external world to output actions in response to them. Perception is an active process conducted by a perceiving agent (a perceiver), it entails an engaged perceiver and is influenced by the agent's experiences and intentions, his bodily states, and the interaction between the agent's body and the environment around it.\n\nOne example of such active interaction between perception and the body is the case that distance perception can be influenced by bodily states. The way people view the outside world can differ depending on the physical resources that individuals have such as fitness, age, or glucose levels. For instance, in one study, people with chronic pain who are less capable of moving around perceived given distances as further than healthy people did. Another study shows that intended actions can affect processing in visual search, with more orientation errors for pointing than for grasping. Because orientation is important when grasping an object, the plan to grasp an object is thought to improve orientation accuracy. This shows how actions, the body's interaction with the environment, can contribute to the visual processing of task-relevant information.\n\nPerception also influences the perspective individuals to take on a particular situation and the type of judgments they make. For instance, researchers have shown that people will significantly more likely take the perspective of another person (e.g., a person in a picture) instead of their own when making judgements about objects in a photograph. This means that the presence of people (as compared to only objects) in a visual scene affects the perspective a viewer takes when making judgements on, for example, relations between objects in the scene. Some researchers state that these results suggest a \"disembodied\" cognition given the fact that people take the perspective of others instead of their own and make judgments accordingly.\n\nLanguage\n\nEmbodied cognition views on language describes how when humans comprehend words, sensorimotor areas are involved in interacting with the objects and entities the words refer to. \nFirst experimental studies of the impact of body’s sex, age and constitution (temperament) on language perception and use emerged in 1995-99 and expanded from 2010s \n\nThe embodiment effect initially was called \"projection through capacities” and emerged as a tendency of people attribute meaning to common adjectives and abstract and neutral nouns depending on their endurance, tempo, plasticity, emotionality, sex or age. For example, in these studies males with stronger motor-physical endurance estimated abstractions describing people-, work/reality- and time-related concepts in more positive terms than males with a weaker endurance. Females with stronger social or physical endurance estimated social attractors in more positive terms than weaker females. Both male and female temperament groups with higher sociability showed a universal positive bias in their estimations of social concepts, in comparison to participants with lower sociability. \n\nOver the last years, behavioral and neural evidence has shown that the process of language comprehension activates motor simulations and involves motor systems. Some researchers have investigated mirror neurons to illustrate the link between the mirror neuron systems and language suggesting that some aspects of language (such as part of semantics and phonology) can be embodied in the sensorimotor system represented by mirror neurons.\n\nIt is well known that language has a multi-component structure, one of which is language comprehension. Research on embodied cognition shows that language comprehension involves the motor system. In addition, various studies explain that understanding linguistic explanations of actions is based on a simulation of the action described. These action simulations also include evaluation of the motor system. A study in which university students evaluated language comprehension and motor system with a pendulum swinging task while performing a \"sentence judgment task\" found significant changes in functions containing performable sentences.\n\nAnother study used the mirror neurons perspective to illustrate the relationship between the motor system and several language components. Because mirror neurons are one of the essential parts of the motor system, researchers compared monkeys and humans in an anatomical framework; specifically, they made the comparison with respect to Broca's area. Another study concerning the role of mirror neurons during learning via language usage stated that activations occurred in Broca's area even when participants watched other people's conversations without hearing the sounds. An fMRI study examining the relationship of mirror neurons in humans with linguistic materials has shown that there are activations in the premotor cortex and Broca's area when reading or listening to sentences associated with actions. According to these findings, researchers state that there is a connection between the motor system and language. They also argue that the motor system together with mirror neurons mechanisms can process certain aspects of language.\n\n, literature mainly focuses on the relation between language and embodied cognition on a motor system, more precisely by mirror neuron explanations. This relationship also extends to cognitive capabilities which involve a variety of language components. Studies have examined how embodied and extended cognition can help to reconceptualize and ground second language acquisition. The nature of language acquisition extends cognitive capability itself due to the fact that it has multiple components which have embodied representations associated with language processing and provide a ground concept for language.\n\nMemory\n\nThe body has an essential role in shaping the mind. So, the mind must be understood in the context of its relationship with a physical body that interacts in the world. These interactions can also be cognitive activities in everyday life, such as driving, chatting, imagining the placement of items in a room. These cognitive activities are limited by memory capacity. The relationships between memory and embodied cognition have been demonstrated in studies in different fields and through various tasks. In general, studies on embodied cognition and memory investigate how manipulations on the body cause changes in memory performance, or vice versa, manipulations through memory tasks subsequently lead to bodily changes. Researchers has drawn attention to the relationship between memory and action from an embodied cognition approach where memory is defined as integrated patterns of actions limited by the body. On the one hand, embodied cognition sees action preparation as a fundamental function of cognition. On the other hand, memory plays a role in tasks that do not occur in the present but involve remembering actions and information from the past and imagining events that may or may not happen in the future. Glenberg blurs this apparent dichotomy by arguing that there is a reciprocal relationship between memory, action, and perception. Accordingly, manipulations that can take place in the body or movement can lead to changes in memory.\n\nResearchers have also investigated the influence of body position on ease of recall in an autobiographical memory study to examine the effect of embodied cognition on memory performance. Participants were asked to take positions compatible or incompatible with their original body position of the remembered event during a recall event. Researchers found out that participants given compatible body positions compared to incompatible body positions showed faster responses in recalling memories during the experiment. Thus, they concluded that body position facilitates access to autobiographical memories. The relationship between memory and body has also emphasised that memory systems depend on the body's experiences with the world. This is particularly evident in episodic memory because this type of memories in the episodic memory system are defined by their content and are remembered as experienced by the person who is remembering. Research has also investigated the relationship between embodiment and memory by recalling collective and personal memories indicating how embodiment enriches the understanding of memory. Embodied memory research through the recalling of personal traumas and violent memories has reported that people who have experienced trauma or violence re-feel their experiences in their narratives throughout their lives. In addition, memories that threaten a person's life by directly affecting the body, such as injury and physical violence, recreate similar reactions again in the body while remembering the event. For example, people can report feeling smells, sounds, and movements when remembering childhood trauma memories. A proper evaluation of those memories and the corresponding physical and physiological phenomena associated with them could describe how those set of recalled memories are embodied.\n\nNew perspectives on the neural structure and memory processes underlying embodied cognition, episodic memory, recall, and recognition have also been explored. As experiences are received, neural states are reenacted in action, perception, and introspection systems. Perception includes sensory modalities; motor modalities include movement; and introspection includes emotional, mental, and motivational states. All of these modalities altogether constitute different aspects that shape experiences. Therefore, cognitive processes applied to memory support the action that is appropriate for a particular situation, not by remembering what the situation is, but by remembering the relationship of the action to that situation. For example, remembering and identifying the party one attended the previous day is said to be related to the body because the sensory-motor aspects of the event that is being recalled (i.e., the party), along with the details of what happened, are being reconstructed.\n\nLearning\n\nResearch on embodied cognition and learning suggests that learning could occur and be triggered by perception-action interactions of the body with the surrounding environment. An embodied cognitive approach to child development provides insights into how infants attain spatial knowledge and develop spatial skills that allow them to (successfully) interact with the world around them. Most infants learn to walk in the first 18 months of life, which draws on ample new opportunities for exploring things around them. In this exploration, infants learn spatial relations, and by carrying objects from one place to another, they may also learn affordances such as \"transportability\". Thereafter, new phases in exploration may occur through which infants can discover other even more elaborate affordances. According to Eleanor Gibson, exploration takes an essential place in cognitive development. For example, infants explore whatever is in their vicinity by seeing, mouthing, or touching it before learning to reach objects nearby. Then, infants learn to crawl, which enables them to seek out objects beyond reaching distance, learn basic spatial relations between themselves, objects, and others, and get an understanding of depth and distance. This development of motor skills through the exploration of the physical and social world seems to play a central role in visual-spatial cognition.\n\nEmbodied perception-action experience may serve as a tool for learning that extends across the life span, from infancy to adulthood. Research on the role of action in early as well as educational learning contexts demonstrates the importance of embodiment for learning. In one experiment, three-month-old infants who were not skilled in reaching were trained to reach for objects with velcro-covered mittens instead. Afterward, the assessments and comparison with the control group showed that infants can rapidly form goal-based action representations and view others' actions as goal-directed. Further research indicates that mere observational experience by infants does not produce these results. Similarly, research has shown how action and bodily movements can be used as scaffolds for learning. A study investigating whether infants at high risk for developing autism spectrum disorders (ASD) could benefit from action scaffolded interventions (reaching experiences) during early development indicates an increase in grasping activity following training. And thus, it provides evidence about the possibility for high-risk of ASD infants to learn and respond to action-based treatment interventions. Another study investigates how teaching methods can benefit from embodiment and proposes that a professor's movements and gestures contribute to learning by growing students' embodied experiences in the classroom, leading to an increased capacity to recall.\n\nThe action-based language theory (ABL) states that aspects of embodiment are also relevant for language learning and acquisition. ABL proposes that the brain exploits the same mechanisms used in motor control for language learning. When adults, for example, call attention to an object and an infant follows the lead and attends to said object, canonical neurons are activated and affordances of an object become available to the infant. Simultaneously, hearing the articulation of the object's name leads to the activation of speech mirror mechanisms in infants. This chain of events allows for Hebbian learning of the meaning of verbal labels by linking the speech and action controllers, which get activated in this scenario.\n\nThe role of gestures in learning is another example of the importance of embodiment for cognition. Gestures can aid, facilitate and enhance learning performance, or compromise it when the gestures are restricted or meaningless to the content that is being transmitted. In a study using the Tower of Hanoi (TOH) puzzle, participants were divided into two groups. In the first part of the experiment, the smallest disks used in TOH were the lightest and could be moved using just one hand. For the second part, this was reversed for one group (switch group) so that the smallest disks were the heaviest, and participants needed both hands to move them. The disks remained the same for the other group (no-switch group). After the experiment ended, participants were asked to explain their solution while researchers monitored their gestures when describing their solution. The results showed that using gestures affected the performance of the switch group in the second part of the experiment. The more they used one-handed gestures to depict their solution in the first part of the experiment, the worse they performed in the second part.\n\nA study investigating the role of gestures in second language learning states that learning the vocabulary with self-performed gestures increases learning outcomes. The enduring benefits continued even after two and six months post-learning. In addition, the same study also investigated the neural correlates of learning a second language with gestures. The results indicate that left premotor areas and the superior temporal sulcus (a brain region responsible for visual processing of biological motion) were activated during learning with gestures. Similarly, an fMRI study showed that children who learned to solve mathematical problems using a speech and gesture strategy were more likely to have activation in motor regions of the brain. The activation of motor regions occurred during scans in which children were not using gestures to solve the problems. These findings indicate that learning with gestures creates a neural trace of the motor system that goes beyond the learning phase and activates when children engage with problems they learned to solve with gestures.\n\nEmbodied cognition has also been linked to both reading and writing. Research shows that physical and perceptual engagements congruent with the content of the reading material can boost reading comprehension. Findings also suggest that the benefits accrued from handwriting as compared to typing in letter recognition and written communication result from the more embodied nature of handwriting.\n\nReasoning\nExperiments investigating the relation between motor processes and high-level reasoning have suggested that bodily action and sensorimotor experience are linked to various aspects of reasoning. A study indicated that even though most individuals recruit visual processes when presented with spatial problems such as mental rotation tasks, motor experts (such as wrestlers) favor motor processes over visual encoding to manipulate the objects mentally, showing higher overall performance. Results indicate that motor experts' performance drops once the (hand) movement is inhibited. A related study showed that motor experts use similar processes for the mental rotation of body parts and polygons, whereas non-experts treated these stimuli differently. These results were not due to underlying confounds, as demonstrated by a training study that showed mental rotation improvements after a one-year motor training compared with controls. Similar patterns were also found in working memory tasks, with the ability to remember movements being significantly disrupted by a secondary verbal task in controls and by a motor task in motor experts, suggesting the involvement of different mechanisms to encode movements based on either verbal or on motor processes.\n\nThe role of motor experience in reasoning has also been investigated through gestures. The Gesture as Simulated Action theory (GSA) provides a framework for understanding how gestures manifest their connection. According to GSA, gestures result from the embodied simulation of actions and sensorimotor states. Consequently, gesturing while expressing or reasoning ideas shows that embodied processes are involved in producing them. More significantly, gesturing heightens focus and increases activation of motor and perceptual information. Gestures are said to have a casual role in reasoning as gesturing leads to increased motor and perceptual information flow during the reasoning process. This does not necessarily translate into more effective reasoning, as such information is sometimes irrelevant for a specific problem. The effects of gestures on reasoning are not limited only to speakers; they convey information that also affects listeners' reasoning. For example, listeners could produce similar simulations to those of the speaker by attending to the speaker's gestures.\n\nMore evidence for the embodied role of gestures during reasoning comes from studies on mathematical and geometric reasoning. Studies indicate that gestures and, more particularly, dynamic depictive gestures (i.e., gestures used to represent and show the transformation of objects) are linked to better performance in snap judgment (intuition), insight, and mathematical reasoning for proof. Additionally, the use of dynamic depictive gestures are associated with better mathematical reasoning, and thus, directing learners to use such gestures facilitates justification and proof activities.\n\nEmbodied cognition theory has been applied in behavioral law and economics theory to enlighten reasoning and decision-making processes involving risk and time, decisions, and judgment. Research has shown that the idea that mental processes are grounded in bodily states is not being captured in the standard view of human rationality and the link between them could be useful for understanding and predicting human actions that seem irrational. The concept of \"embodied rationality\" results from expanding such ideas into law and highlights how findings stemming from embodied cognition offer a more encompassing insight into human behavior and rationality.\n\nEmotion\n\nEmbodied cognition theories have provided rigorous accounts of emotion and the processing of information about emotion. In this respect, experiencing and re-experiencing an emotion involve overlapping mental processes. Research has shown that one re-experiences emotion through the interconnections of the neurons that were active during the original experience. During the re-experience process, a partial multimodal reenactment of the experience is produced. One reason why only parts of the original neural populations are reactivated is that attention is selectively focused on certain aspects of the experience that are most salient and important for the individual.\n\nThe first theory of embodiment effect on emotions is known as James–Lange theory, after 19th century scientists William James and Carl Lange. They pointed out that physiological arousal prior events generates a disposition to experience emotions, and so emotions are not just reactions to these events but are also reflections of dispositional body's states \n\nRe-experience of emotion is produced in the originally implicated sensory-motor systems as if the individual were there, in the very situation, the very emotional state, or with the very object of thought. For example, the embodiment of anger might involve muscle tension used to strike, the enervation of certain facial muscles to frown, etc. Such simulation is backed by a specialized mirror neuron or a \"mirror neuron system\", which maps the correspondences between the observed and performed actions. A remaining issue is the lack of consensus about the exact location of the mirror neurons, whether they constitute a system, and whether there actually are mirror neurons.\n\nTheories of embodiment propose that the processing of emotional states and the concepts used to refer to them are partly based on one's own perceptual, motor, and somatosensory systems. Research has shown, through manipulations of facial expressions and posture under controlled laboratory settings, how the embodiment of a person's emotion casually affects the way emotional information is processed. Similar studies have evidenced that nodding the head while listening to persuasive messages led to more positive attitudes toward the message than when shaking the head. When people are led to adopt certain bodily positions indirectly associated with different feelings such as fear, anger, and sadness, these corporeal postures are said to modulate the experienced affect. In a series of experiments on the neurobiological basis of language, researchers investigated the role of embodiment in emotional language through electromyographic (EMG) measurements of specific muscle regions. They found that action verbs that refer to positive emotional expressions (e.g., to smile) elicit smile muscle activation as compared to mere positive adjectives unrelated to actions (e.g., funny). Further research found that action verb stimuli also yield muscle activation and shape judgment only when muscle activation is not inhibited. Thus, these results suggest that language is embodied rather than symbolic.\n\nGiven the significant role emotions (e.g., fear and hope) play in an individual's life, research has been done linking embodiment, motivation, and behavior to investigate the intrinsic tendencies to act towards or away from a given stimulus. The approach and avoidance conflict (AAC) or approach and avoidance task (AAT) describes a natural behavioral bias to approach pleasant stimuli and avoid unpleasant ones (congruent response) faster than approaching unpleasant stimuli and avoiding pleasant ones (incongruent responses).\n\nThe AAT has been investigated in different scenarios and with different types of stimuli such as words and images. A study focusing on the AAT on embodied cognition, for example, examined people's response to positive and negative words presented on the center of a screen by moving them away or towards the center. The study concludes that participants moved the given positive words towards the center of the screen while moving the negative words away from the center of the screen. In conformity with the AAT, participants showed an approach effect for positive words and avoidance effects for negative words. In a 2021 study on emotional or affective priming, the AAT was used to demonstrate the interaction between emotions and visual exploration. Pictures of news pages were presented on the computer screen and eye movements were measured. Researchers found out that the participants' harmonious bodily interaction during the emotional preparation process shows that their interest in the image's content displayed on the computer screen increased. These findings demonstrate the effect of emotional priming in the approach and avoidance behavior. A study on the behavioral aspects of the AAT suggests that there is an embodied component that is crucial to it. To investigate the role of gestures in AAT, participants were asked to react to positive and negative stimuli by either pressing a (far or near) button on a response pad; or by pushing forward or pulling backward a joystick. Researchers reported a significant response time advantage for the congruent responses when performed with the joystick and none when performed with the response pad. The fact that participants are faster at responding to the stimuli with the joystick seems to suggest the role of a crucial embodied component. In contrast to the response pad, the joystick couples more naturally with the body (hand) for the performance of the action and facilitates the gesture of approaching or avoiding positive or negative stimuli.\n\nEvolutionary psychologists view emotion as an important self-regulatory aspect of embodied cognition, and emotion as a motivator towards goal-relevant action. Emotion helps drive adaptive behavior. The evolutionary perspective considers both spoken and written language as forms of embodied cognition. Pacing and non-verbal communication reflect embodied cognition in spoken language. Technical aspects of written language (such as italics, all caps, and emoticons) promote an inner voice and thereby a sense of feeling rather than thinking about a written message. At least some abstract words are said to be semantically grounded in emotional knowledge; they are \"embodied\". Whereas the meanings of the words \"eye\" and \"grasp\" can be explained to a degree, by pointing to objects and actions, those of \"beauty\" and \"freedom\" can not. Abstract terms show a strong tendency to be semantically linked to knowledge about emotions. In addition, abstract words strongly activate the anterior cingulate cortex, a site known to be relevant for emotion processing. Motor system activation for emotion-expressing body parts was found when adults processed abstract emotion words, indicating that, for one important class of abstract concepts, semantic grounding in emotion-expressing action can partly explain the meaning–symbol link.\n\nSelf-regulation\n\nThe basic idea underlying findings on embodied cognition is that cognition is composed of experiences that are multimodal and spread throughout the body, not in a way that amodal semantic nodes are stored purely in the mind. In line with this idea of embodied cognition, the body itself can also be involved in self-regulation.\n\nSelf-regulation can be defined as the capacity of organisms to successfully implement goal-consistent responses despite distracting or countervailing influences. Most people undergo a dilemma when they encounter immediate pains to gain long-term benefits. When facing this dilemma, the body can help augment willpower by evoking nonconscious willpower-strengthening goals that boost people's ongoing conscious attempts to facilitate their pursuit of long-term goals.\n\nIn a study, the effect of muscle-firming on donating money to Haiti was investigated. The participants either held the pen to fill out the donation sheet in their fingers (\"control conditions\") or in their hands (\"muscle-firming\" condition). Significantly, more participants of the \"muscle-firming\" group donated money than of the control group. One can therefore deduce that firming one's muscles can help to get over their physical aversion to viewing the devastation in Haiti and spending money. Similarly, physical or environmental cues signal the energetic costs of action and, subsequently, influence willingness to engage in additional volitional action. Studies have also shown that exposure to physical or conceptual thirst or dryness-related cues reduces perceived energy and, successively, decreases self-regulation These studies suggest that embodied cognition can play a role in self-regulation.\n\nSome suggest that the embodied mind serves self-regulatory processes by combining movement and cognition to reach a goal. Thus, the embodied mind has a facilitative effect. To navigate the social world, one must approach helpful resources such as friends and avoid dangers like foes. Facial expression can be a signal for evaluation of whether a person is desirable or dangerous. Embodied cognition can aid in clarifying others' emotions when emotional signals may be ambiguous. In a study, participants were able to identify expression shifts faster when they mimicked them in contrast to participants holding a pen in their mouths that froze their facial muscles, therefore, unable to mimic facial expressions. Other goal-relevant actions may be encouraged by embodied cognition, as evidenced by the automated approach and avoidance of certain environmental cues. Embodied cognition is also influenced by the situation. If one moves in a way previously associated with danger, the body may require a higher level of information processing than if the body moves in a way associated with a benign situation. The studies above may suggest that embodied cognition could serve a functional purpose by assisting in self-regulatory processes.\n\nSocial cognition\n\nIn social psychology, and more specifically in social cognition, research focuses on how people interact and influence one another. In the context of embodiment, research in social cognition investigates how the presence of people and interactions between them affects each other's thoughts, feelings, and behavior. More precisely, social cognition proposes that thoughts, feelings, and behavior are grounded in sensorimotor experiences and bodily states.\n\nIn the field of phenomenology, Merleau-Ponty's intercorporeity means that when meeting a person, one initially experiences the other person via their bodily expressions, which has an impact before cognitive reflections. This phenomenon is investigated in social psychology and is known as nonverbal synchrony. Synchrony during social interaction arises spontaneously and is often independent of conscious information processing.\n\nIn a dyadic social interaction study from 2014, same-sex participants interacted verbally in \"cooperative\", \"competitive\", and \"fun task\" conditions. The focus of this study was to investigate the connection between the participants' affectivity and nonverbal synchrony. Results showed that positive emotions were associated with positive synchrony while negative emotions were associated negatively. Other findings describe a causal relation between synchrony and emotions with synchrony leading to affect rather than vice versa. In a similar study, same-sex participant pairs were instructed to alternate asking certain questions and to progressively self-disclose. Results show that people spontaneously move together in space and synchronize their movement, enhancing the quality of interaction (embodied rapport). Self-disclosure and behavioral synchrony correlate with positive emotions towards another person. These two exemplary studies describe how nonverbal, behavioral synchrony of bodily movements influences the psychological experience of the interaction between people. These findings support the embodiment thesis idea of bodily experiences affecting people's psychological and emotional states.\n\nOne aspect of social cognition concerns perspective-taking, which consists in perceiving a situation from another person’s point of view. Two categories of perspective-taking include visual and spatial perspective-taking. Visual perspective-taking (VPT) is defined as viewing a situation from another person’s point of view and understanding how they see the world. Spatial perspective-taking (SPT) involves the ability to access what spatial information another viewer is perceiving, such as the orientation of objects in relation to each other. Accordingly, VPT has two different levels. VPT1 refers to understanding what is in someone else’s point of view; VPT2 entails adopting this point of view and understanding how the world is represented from this point of view. Both levels are grounded and situated, yet it is only VPT2 that is embodied; it is only VPT2 that relies on deliberate movement simulation. In the case of SPT, research has shown that not only the presence of another person in the position of potential actions on objects leads to SPT in participants, but also phrasing the query in terms of actions increases the number of people who participate in SPT. The embodiment of SPT is also dependent on sex and social skills. Males and people with lower social skills are said to have lower levels of embodiment in SPT as compared to females and people with higher social skills.\n\nResearch suggests that aging affects social cognition and perspective-taking. In one study, four experiments evaluated implicit and explicit VPT as well as executive and social cognition measures in healthy young and older adults. Congruency effect (the detrimental effect of congruency of the alternative perspective on response time and accuracy) was detected in both egocentric and allocentric conditions in explicit VPT1 and VPT2. Incongruencies in VPT1 less influenced older adults. In VPT2, older adults showed a more significant congruency effect and influence of allocentric perspective during egocentric judgment. These results could explain the impairment of older adults in social tasks that rely on perspective-taking.\n\nSensorimotor contingencies\nAs a part of the embodied cognition theory, proponents suggest that an organism's sensory and the motor systems are dynamically integrated. This idea is known as sensorimotor coupling which allows sensory information to be efficiently used during action. Similarly, the concept of sensorimotor contingencies (SMCs) states that the quality of perception is determined by the knowledge of how sensory information changes when one acts in the world. As an example, to look underneath an object, one has to bend down, shift one's head, and change the gaze direction. Proponents of the SMCs theory argue that every stimulus modality / sensory modality such as light, sound pressure, etc. follow specific rules (i.e. sensorimotor contingencies) that govern those changes of sensory information. Consequentially, since those rules differ between modalities, also the qualitative experience of them differs. There are multiple examples that highlight the distinction between SMCs of different modalities. An instance of an SMC distinct for the visual percept is the expansion of the flow pattern on the retina when the body moves forward and the analogous contraction when the body moves backward. In contrast, auditory SMCs are affected by head rotations which change the temporal asynchrony of a received signal between the right and the left ear. This movement mainly affects the amplitude and not the frequency of the sensory input.\n\nSupport for the SMCs theory is brought forward by studies on sensory substitution, sensory augmentation, and research on the field of robotics. Research on sensory substitution and sensory substitution devices investigates the replacement of one modality by another (e.g. visual information replaced by tactile information). The core idea is that sensorimotor contingencies of one modality are transmitted via another modality. Sensory augmentation aims for the perception of a new sense via already existing perceptual channels. In this case, sensory augmentation allows for new sensorimotor contingencies to be formed. In the field of robotics, researchers investigate, for example, how visual SMCs are learned on a neural level with the help of a robotic arm and dynamic neural fields.\n\nApplications \n\nOver the past years, embodied cognition research has gradually redeemed the scientific study of bodily experiences and simultaneously laid a theoretical and empirical foundation across multiple disciplines. Principles and findings underlying embodied cognition have begun to be transferred and applied in several fields ranging from education, robotics, clinical settings, social psychology, sports, to music.\n\nEducation \n\nEmbodied cognition findings have been translated into an overhaul of educational and teaching practices in favor of embodied learning and teaching methods. In particular, such embodied practices feature prominently in science education. For example, Energy Theater is a method for teaching about energy dynamics based on the embodied interaction theory. In this method, participants each play the role of a unit of energy, and together, they enact the transformation and transfer of energy in specific scenarios.\n\nThe Human Orrery is another embodied educational method in which students learn about the solar system through enactment. In this method, the position of the planets is marked by disks, and the participants enact the role of the planets by moving on their orbits.\n\nIn a survey from 2020, researchers analyzed several frameworks that bring embodied cognition theory into clever classroom practices for the teaching and learning of mathematics. The embodied design-based research program identifies and classifies at least two forms of embodied designs: perception and action-based designs. In perception-based designs, the target is a/b concepts such as likelihood, slope, and proportional equivalence in geometrical similitude. The first step in this design involves asking students to use their naïve worldview to judge a set of material presented to them by their teacher, which affirms their naïve worldview. Afterward, teachers provide students with appropriate media and attempt to guide them to build models by following the formal procedure. In action-based designs, learners are presented with sensorimotor problems. Abrahamson and colleagues developed the \"Mathematical Imagery Trainer\" platform to explore this design. In one particular version of this platform, designed to teach proportions to learners, they moved two cursors with both hands to turn a screen green. The screen would only turn green when the height of right and left hands from the base had a particular ratio. Once learners discovered the strategy to solve this problem, the grid and numerals are added to the screen to shift learners from a qualitative to a quantitative understanding of the concept at hand.\n\nOverall, embodied cognition has served as a new framework for exploring the learning process and developing new educational practices. The older educational methods are slowly being replaced or complemented by the new approaches inspired by embodied cognition theory.\n\nAI and robotics \nEmbodied cognition has significantly impacted artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics; it has contributed to the drastic changes AI has been through over the last years. Insights from embodied cognition have allowed researchers to build more dynamic robots with more fluid and more expressive motions facilitating better performance in complex scenarios.\n\nShakey the robot is a well-known milestone in AI; it was one of the first approaches to building mobile robots capable of reasoning about their own actions and performing specific tasks in a determined environment. Shakey had a relatively simple body and followed commands by itself, melding logical reasoning with physical action to navigate in a room. A limitation was that Shakey’s architecture (Lisp) relied heavily on symbolic computational principles that, consequently, demanded that it iterate through long command sequences to perform a particular action. Thus, Shakey was slow and could take days to complete particular tasks. Besides, Shakey’s performance was constrained by a highly controlled environment.\n\nEmbodied AI tries not to overlook or underestimate the \"body\" when creating AI systems. It poses that future research should move towards systems that incorporate embodied perspectives. The body as a contributor to states of the mind is seen as more than a mere follower of (algorithmic) instructions. Embodiment is said to shape intelligent information processing because \"intelligence is fundamentally a result of embodied interaction which exploits structure in the world\".\n\nEmbodied AI gave birth to situated robotic perspectives that included more versatile AI architectures. Situated robotics are based on an incremental approach to AI and reliance on parallel activity producers that interface effectively with action and perception. Unlike traditional robots, situated robots perform better in complex and dynamic environments that create unpredictable situations for robots most of the time. The behavior of these robots changes according to their environment so that they can deal with incredibility in various situations. For instance, social situations are rife with unpredictability, and social robots need to be able to predict all sorts of behaviors—human or otherwise. In this vein, Jun Tani’s lab has introduced an abstract brain model called PV-RNN, based on the principle of free energy, and has incorporated a meta-prior in it. While a high meta-prior leads to a confident behavior generation in robots and ignores the behavior of other robots, robots with a low meta-prior adapt to the behaviour of other robots and avoid generating their own behavioral pattern.\n\nInstances of situated robots include aerial robots developed by companies such as senseFly, which produces fixed-wing autonomous drones for professional use, owned by Parrot SA, and Flyability, which builds drones for the inspection and exploration of indoor and confined spaces. They rely on the research of Dario Floreano's laboratory on mini-robots and evolutionary robotics.\n\nAnother example of situated robots is Atlas. Built in 2013 by Boston Dynamics, Atlas is an anthropomorphic robot with a height of 1.5 m and a weight of 89 kg that can move with agility and diversity in various situations. The algorithms of Atlas allow for the complex and dynamic interaction between its body and the environment. The movement of Atlas is driven by perception and has evolved over time from on-fly adjustment to perceiving its environment.\n\nClinical settings \n\nThe procedures and methods of investigation in clinical neuropsychology have been directly influenced by localization and computational approaches to cognition. These techniques have made numerous contributions to the development of clinical practice. Embodied cognition broadens the scope of clinical practice by providing a more comprehensive view of cognitive processes under both normal and pathological conditions by highlighting the role of the body and sensory-motor experience in cognition. Thereby, challenging the integration of embodied cognitive practices in clinical assessment and diagnosis processes. For instance, there exist a number of interventions and therapies which are incorporating the ability of the body to influence cognitive states to aid individuals with psychological difficulties. An example is the already established use of behavioral treatments for children’s disorders such as autism. Another example of embodied integrative therapies involves sensorimotor retraining as well as stimulation techniques to prevent, reduce, or release pain associated with phantom limbs. Also, fields of psychotherapy (body oriented psychotherapy and somatic psychology), which are prominent in Europe and encompasses embodied interventions such as dance and movement therapy, have begun to receive more empirical support. One of the most common integrative treatments of mental illness to the western psychosocial sphere is via mindfulness practices and exercise.\n\nSport \nEmbodied cognitive perspectives can inform and impact motor skill research in the fields of sport and sport psychology. Studies have shown that the embodiment thesis comes into action through many ways in sport such as sport-related action-specific perception, understanding, prediction, judgement, training, and language comprehension. From an embodied cognition perspective, a study examined the relationship between previous motor and visual experience and the current officiating experience of expert judges and referees. It was reported that sports judges who had performed the judged tasks and/or had experience observing others perform the specific tasks would achieve better in judging a specific sport activity compared to someone without this motor and observational experience. In another study, reading comprehension and memory were shown to be improved if the subject would simultaneously read the description of certain physical activity (e.g basketball actions) and perform physical manipulations that were consistent with them. The action-based theory of reading comprehension states that the sensory system and motor system are involved during the process of understanding, imagining, and remembering an action described in a story, as if the reader was actually perceiving or executing that action. These and similar studies show the influence of embodied cognition in sport and sport psychology.\n\nMusic \n\nEmbodied music cognition is a paradigm that puts forward the idea that bodily interactions with music significantly affect music cognition. Researchers proposed that musical emotions, meaning, and the feelings evoked by listening to music, are the vehicle for the embodiment of abstract thoughts. Thus music has a specific cognitive function that allows for this possibility. Researcher have suggested embodied music cognition occurs at two levels: the surface level and the primary level. The surface level includes psychomotor activities of a music performer, visible bodily reactions to music, and rhythmic entrainment. The primary level of embodied music cognition is the tonal/temporal encoding of it; it commands the surface level.\n\nThe research on embodied music cognition focuses on two main trends: exploring embodiment and expanding the concept of embodiment in music. The first trend includes studies investigating bodily articulation and gesturing in relation to music. Embodied music cognition considers musical experiences from an action and perception viewpoint. One can observe that many people move when they listen to music; in many cultures there is no clear distinction between music and dance. Through the different movements of the body, it is assumed that people are able to give meaning to music. This perspective is different from the traditional approach to music cognition, which bases musical meaning on merely perception-based analysis of musical structure. Through the measurement of sounds, movement, human physiology, and computational modeling, embodied music cognition is constantly building up reliable knowledge about the role of the human body in musical meaning formation. Embodied music cognition is potentially applicable to better understand the role of music in social interactions. Multiple studies show that children move more synchronously with music when they dance as a group.\n\nThe second trend includes studies that strive to connect embodied music cognition to other research fields such as neurology and psychology. For example, a study showed that people who have Parkinson’s disease and are primed by music instead of metronomes beeps are capable of both entertainment and control. The study suggests that using the body to produce timed sequences of action, particularly when music is used as a pacing cue, allows people who have Parkinson’s disease to achieve similar performance levels as healthy individuals.\n\nSocial psychology \nThe embodiment has also important potential applications in social psychology, where researchers have studied how people's own bodily states influence their understanding and interaction with others. Researchers have provided evidence demonstrating the influence of bodily states on social judgments and social behavior. They described that people's experiences with physical temperature per se can influence their perceptions of and prosocial behavior toward other people, without their awareness. When people engage in motor movements that symbolized a particular social category, it primes the use of such category in social judgment.\n\nActivists have tried to combine social psychology research with principles of embodiment to further their goals. For instance, virtual reality (VR) has been used in what is called virtual reality therapy to invoke empathy in viewers. The New York Times created a VR project to display the experience of child refugees called \"The Displaced\". By grounding users in the experience of child refugees from different countries, this project triggered strong empathy in viewers. In the \"6 x 9\" project, Guardian has used VR to replicate the experience of solitary confinement in American prisons. \"Notes on Blindness: Into Darkness\" released in 2016, an exploration of the sensory, emotional, psychological experience of blindness using VR.\n\nControversy\n\nResearch on embodied cognition is extremely broad, covering a wide range of concepts. Methods to study how human cognition is embodied vary from experiment to experiment based on the operational definition used by researchers. The evidence supporting embodiment abounds within the different sciences, yet the interpretation of results and their significance are still disputed and researchers continue looking for appropriate ways to study and explain embodied cognition.\n\nResearch with preverbal infants\n\nResearchers have suggested that pre-verbal infants may be considered an ideal and naturalistic case for studying embodied cognition, especially embodied social cognition since they utilise symbols less than adults do. Some researchers have criticised this notion since it may be impossible to know which stage of a preverbal infant is supposed to be the \"ideal model\" for embodied social cognition, as infant cognition changes dramatically throughout the preverbal period. A 9-month-old has reached a different developmental stage than a 2-month-old.\n\nAnother major issue is whether or not a particular ability reflects an embodied mode of processing. Looking-time, for example, is said to likely be a better measure of embodied cognition than reaching because infants that age lack certain fine motor skills. Infants may first develop a passive mode of embodied cognition before they develop the active mode involving fine motor movements. Researchers have described how this is problematic in that there is no apparent reason to suppose that the abilities described through looking-time paradigm reflect embodied processing. For the distinction between embodied and symbolic modes of processing to be useful in generating testable experimental hypotheses, it must be clear what sort of evidence could, at least in principle, allow a researcher to determine whether or not any particular ability is embodied.\n\nReplication crisis and misinterpretation \nA methodological phenomenon in the sciences is the replication crisis. Inside the field of embodied cognition, it indicates that certain findings have failed to be reproduced with the same results as the originals. Such studies have in common the embodiment idea that bodily experiences influence cognitive processes that are typically considered as mental. For example, power posing which is classified under embodied cognition because it states that having a person physically expand their body increases their confidence, failed to be replicated in several cases. Similarly, studies indicating that weight sensations activate concepts of importance, which in turn may affect morality-related variables, has also failed to be replicated. Researchers also could not replicate the previous findings claiming that holding a warm cup creates a sense of interpersonal warmth.\n\nResearchers failing to replicate the same results does not prove cognition is unaffected/uninfluenced by the body. There are still plenty of findings within the topic of embodied cognition that are scientifically sound. Some researchers state that many of the failed attempts to replicate embodiment findings are due to priming. And many cases of facilitative movements of the body due to priming may be incorrectly labeled as evidence of embodied cognition. The pencil-in-teeth study evidencing embodied cognition may be considered the result of priming. Researchers could have deduced that the quicker responses to positive sentences by participants engaging their smiling muscles indicated embodied cognition. Opponents argue that the effects obtained during this experiment were primed or facilitated by the engagement of certain facial muscles. Priming (pencil in teeth, lips) may causally induce certain perceptual-motor activity that, in turn, induces certain cognitive processes, without the perceptual-motor activity constituting cognitive processing.\n\nSee also \n\nAction-specific perception\nActive inference\nBlue Brain Project\nCognitive biology\nCognitive linguistics\nCognitive neuropsychology\nCognitive neuroscience\nCognitive science\nConceptual blending\nConceptual metaphor\nEcological psychology\nEmbodied bilingual language\nEmbodied cognitive science\nEmbodied embedded cognition\nEmbodied music cognition\nEmbodied phenomenology\nEnactivism\nExtended cognition\nExtended mind thesis\nExternalism\nFeeling\nImage schema\nMetaphors We Live By\nMoravec's paradox\nMotor cognition\nNeuroconstructivism\nNeuropsychology\nNeurophenomenology\nPhilosophy of mind\nPlant cognition\nWhere Mathematics Comes From\nWomen, Fire, and Dangerous Things\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n*\n\nExternal links \n Volume 9, Issue 2 – Janus Head, a special issue of Janus Head: Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature, Continental Philosophy, Phenomenological Psychology and the Arts. Guest edited by Shaun Gallagher.\nEmbodiment and Experientialism from the Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (pdf)\nEmbodied Cognition: A Field Guide (pdf) – from an Artificial Intelligence perspective\n Where the Action Is by Paul Dourish- for applications to human-computer interaction.\n Pragmatism, Ideology, and Embodiment: William James and the Philosophical Foundations of Embodiment by Tim Rohrer\n Society for the Scientific Study of Embodiment\n Embodied Cognition – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n 2001 Summary of how the embodiment hypothesis of cognitive linguistics has begun to interact with theories of embodiment in fields ranging from cognitive anthropology to cognitive neuroscience\n Goddard College's Embodiment Studies Web Resources\n Embodiment Resources – for those researching into embodiment, particularly as it relates to phenomenology, sociology and cognitive neuroscience.\n EUCog – European Network for the Advancement of Artificial Cognitive Systems, Interaction and Robotics Many references here to up to date research on embodiment and enaction\n Milestones:SHAKEY: The World’s First Mobile Intelligent Robot, 1972\n SenseFly\n\nCategory:Cognitive science\nCategory:Enactive cognition\nCategory:Philosophy of artificial intelligence\nCategory:Mind–body problem\nCategory:Concepts in the philosophy of mind", "title": "Embodied cognition" }, { "text": "Enactivism is a position in cognitive science that argues that cognition arises through a dynamic interaction between an acting organism and its environment. It claims that the environment of an organism is brought about, or enacted, by the active exercise of that organism's sensorimotor processes. \"The key point, then, is that the species brings forth and specifies its own domain of problems ...this domain does not exist \"out there\" in an environment that acts as a landing pad for organisms that somehow drop or parachute into the world. Instead, living beings and their environments stand in relation to each other through mutual specification or codetermination\" (p. 198). \"Organisms do not passively receive information from their environments, which they then translate into internal representations. Natural cognitive systems...participate in the generation of meaning ...engaging in transformational and not merely informational interactions: they enact a world.\" These authors suggest that the increasing emphasis upon enactive terminology presages a new era in thinking about cognitive science. How the actions involved in enactivism relate to age-old questions about free will remains a topic of active debate.\n\nThe term 'enactivism' is close in meaning to 'enaction', defined as \"the manner in which a subject of perception creatively matches its actions to the requirements of its situation\". The introduction of the term enaction in this context is attributed to Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch in The Embodied Mind (1991), who proposed the name to \"emphasize the growing conviction that cognition is not the representation of a pre-given world by a pre-given mind but is rather the enactment of a world and a mind on the basis of a history of the variety of actions that a being in the world performs\". This was further developed by Thompson and others, to place emphasis upon the idea that experience of the world is a result of mutual interaction between the sensorimotor capacities of the organism and its environment. However, some writers maintain that there remains a need for some degree of the mediating function of representation in this new approach to the science of the mind.\n\nThe initial emphasis of enactivism upon sensorimotor skills has been criticized as \"cognitively marginal\", but it has been extended to apply to higher level cognitive activities, such as social interactions. \"In the enactive view,... knowledge is constructed: it is constructed by an agent through its sensorimotor interactions with its environment, co-constructed between and within living species through their meaningful interaction with each other. In its most abstract form, knowledge is co-constructed between human individuals in socio-linguistic interactions...Science is a particular form of social knowledge construction...[that] allows us to perceive and predict events beyond our immediate cognitive grasp...and also to construct further, even more powerful scientific knowledge.\"\n\nEnactivism is closely related to situated cognition and embodied cognition, and is presented as an alternative to cognitivism, computationalism, and Cartesian dualism.\n\nPhilosophical aspects\n\nEnactivism is one of a cluster of related theories sometimes known as the 4Es. As described by Mark Rowlands, mental processes are:\n Embodied involving more than the brain, including a more general involvement of bodily structures and processes.\n Embedded functioning only in a related external environment.\n Enacted involving not only neural processes, but also things an organism does.\n Extended into the organism's environment.\n\nEnactivism proposes an alternative to dualism as a philosophy of mind, in that it emphasises the interactions between mind, body and the environment, seeing them all as inseparably intertwined in mental processes. The self arises as part of the process of an embodied entity interacting with the environment in precise ways determined by its physiology. In this sense, individuals can be seen to \"grow into\" or arise from their interactive role with the world.\n\"Enaction is the idea that organisms create their own experience through their actions. Organisms are not passive receivers of input from the environment, but are actors in the environment such that what they experience is shaped by how they act.\"\n\nIn The Tree of Knowledge Maturana & Varela proposed the term enactive \"to evoke the view of knowledge that what is known is brought forth, in contraposition to the more classical views of either cognitivism or connectionism. They see enactivism as providing a middle ground between the two extremes of representationalism and solipsism. They seek to \"confront the problem of understanding how our existence-the praxis of our living- is coupled to a surrounding world which appears filled with regularities that are at every instant the result of our biological and social histories.... to find a via media: to understand the regularity of the world we are experiencing at every moment, but without any point of reference independent of ourselves that would give certainty to our descriptions and cognitive assertions. Indeed the whole mechanism of generating ourselves, as describers and observers tells us that our world, as the world which we bring forth in our coexistence with others, will always have precisely that mixture of regularity and mutability, that combination of solidity and shifting sand, so typical of human experience when we look at it up close.\"[Tree of Knowledge, p. 241] Another important notion relating to enactivism is autopoiesis. The word refers to a system that is able to reproduce and maintain itself. Maturana & Varela describe that \"This was a word without a history, a word that could directly mean what takes place in the dynamics of the autonomy proper to living systems\" Using the term autopoiesis, they argue that any closed system that has autonomy, self-reference and self-construction (or, that has autopoietic activities) has cognitive capacities. Therefore, cognition is present in all living systems. This view is also called autopoietic enactivism.\n\nRadical enactivism is another form of enactivist view of cognition. Radical enactivists often adopt a thoroughly non-representational, enactive account of basic cognition. Basic cognitive capacities mentioned by Hutto and Myin include perceiving, imagining and remembering. They argue that those forms of basic cognition can be explained without positing mental representations. With regard to complex forms of cognition such as language, they think mental representations are needed, because there needs explanations of content. In human being's public practices, they claim that \"such intersubjective practices and sensitivity to the relevant norms comes with the mastery of the use of public symbol systems\" (2017, p. 120), and so \"as it happens, this appears only to have occurred in full form with construction of sociocultural cognitive niches in the human lineage\" (2017, p. 134). They conclude that basic cognition as well as cognition in simple organisms such as bacteria are best characterized as non-representational.\n\nEnactivism also addresses the hard problem of consciousness, referred to by Thompson as part of the explanatory gap in explaining how consciousness and subjective experience are related to brain and body. \"The problem with the dualistic concepts of consciousness and life in standard formulations of the hard problem is that they exclude each other by construction\". Instead, according to Thompson's view of enactivism, the study of consciousness or phenomenology as exemplified by Husserl and Merleau-Ponty is to complement science and its objectification of the world. \"The whole universe of science is built upon the world as directly experienced, and if we want to subject science itself to rigorous scrutiny and arrive at a precise assessment of its meaning and scope, we must begin by reawakening the basic experience of the world of which science is the second-order expression\" (Merleau-Ponty, The phenomenology of perception as quoted by Thompson, p. 165). In this interpretation, enactivism asserts that science is formed or enacted as part of humankind's interactivity with its world, and by embracing phenomenology \"science itself is properly situated in relation to the rest of human life and is thereby secured on a sounder footing.\"\n\nEnaction has been seen as a move to conjoin representationalism with phenomenalism, that is, as adopting a constructivist epistemology, an epistemology centered upon the active participation of the subject in constructing reality. However, 'constructivism' focuses upon more than a simple 'interactivity' that could be described as a minor adjustment to 'assimilate' reality or 'accommodate' to it. Constructivism looks upon interactivity as a radical, creative, revisionist process in which the knower constructs a personal 'knowledge system' based upon their experience and tested by its viability in practical encounters with their environment. Learning is a result of perceived anomalies that produce dissatisfaction with existing conceptions.\n\nShaun Gallagher also points out that pragmatism is a forerunner of enactive and extended approaches to cognition. According to him, enactive conceptions of cognition can be found in many pragmatists such as Charles Sanders Peirce and John Dewey. For example, Dewey says that \"The brain is essentially an organ for effecting the reciprocal adjustment to each other of the stimuli received from the environment and responses directed upon it\" (1916, pp. 336–337). This view is fully consistent with enactivist arguments that cognition is not just a matter of brain processes and brain is one part of the body consisting of the dynamical regulation. Robert Brandom, a neo-pragmatist, comments that \"A founding idea of pragmatism is that the most fundamental kind of intentionality (in the sense of directedness towards objects) is the practical involvement with objects exhibited by a sentient creature dealing skillfully with its world\" (2008, p. 178).\n\nHow does constructivism relate to enactivism? From the above remarks it can be seen that Glasersfeld expresses an interactivity between the knower and the known quite acceptable to an enactivist, but does not emphasize the structured probing of the environment by the knower that leads to the \"perturbation relative to some expected result\" that then leads to a new understanding. It is this probing activity, especially where it is not accidental but deliberate, that characterizes enaction, and invokes affect, that is, the motivation and planning that lead to doing and to fashioning the probing, both observing and modifying the environment, so that \"perceptions and nature condition one another through generating one another.\" The questioning nature of this probing activity is not an emphasis of Piaget and Glasersfeld.\n\nSharing enactivism's stress upon both action and embodiment in the incorporation of knowledge, but giving Glasersfeld's mechanism of viability an evolutionary emphasis, is evolutionary epistemology. Inasmuch as an organism must reflect its environment well enough for the organism to be able to survive in it, and to be competitive enough to be able to reproduce at sustainable rate, the structure and reflexes of the organism itself embody knowledge of its environment. This biology-inspired theory of the growth of knowledge is closely tied to universal Darwinism, and is associated with evolutionary epistemologists such as Karl Popper, Donald T. Campbell, Peter Munz, and Gary Cziko. According to Munz, \"an organism is an embodied theory about its environment... Embodied theories are also no longer expressed in language, but in anatomical structures or reflex responses, etc.\"\n\nOne objection to enactive approaches to cognition is the so-called \"scale-up objection\". According to this objection, enactive theories only have limited value because they cannot \"scale up\" to explain more complex cognitive capacities like human thoughts. Those phenomena are extremely difficult to explain without positing representation. But recently, some philosophers are trying to respond to such objection. For example, Adrian Downey (2020) provides a non-representational account of Obsessive-compulsive disorder, and then argues that ecological-enactive approaches can respond to the \"scaling up\" objection.\n\nPsychological aspects\nMcGann & others argue that enactivism attempts to mediate between the explanatory role of the coupling between cognitive agent and environment and the traditional emphasis on brain mechanisms found in neuroscience and psychology. In the interactive approach to social cognition developed by De Jaegher & others, the dynamics of interactive processes are seen to play significant roles in coordinating interpersonal understanding, processes that in part include what they call participatory sense-making. Recent developments of enactivism in the area of social neuroscience involve the proposal of The Interactive Brain Hypothesis where social cognition brain mechanisms, even those used in non-interactive situations, are proposed to have interactive origins.\n\nEnactive views of perception\nIn the enactive view, perception \"is not conceived as the transmission of information but more as an exploration of the world by various means. Cognition is not tied into the workings of an 'inner mind', some cognitive core, but occurs in directed interaction between the body and the world it inhabits.\"\n\nAlva Noë in advocating an enactive view of perception sought to resolve how we perceive three-dimensional objects, on the basis of two-dimensional input. He argues that we perceive this solidity (or 'volumetricity') by appealing to patterns of sensorimotor expectations. These arise from our agent-active 'movements and interaction' with objects, or 'object-active' changes in the object itself. The solidity is perceived through our expectations and skills in knowing how the object's appearance would change with changes in how we relate to it. He saw all perception as an active exploration of the world, rather than being a passive process, something which happens to us.\n\nNoë's idea of the role of 'expectations' in three-dimensional perception has been opposed by several philosophers, notably by Andy Clark. Clark points to difficulties of the enactive approach. He points to internal processing of visual signals, for example, in the ventral and dorsal pathways, the two-streams hypothesis. This results in an integrated perception of objects (their recognition and location, respectively) yet this processing cannot be described as an action or actions. In a more general criticism, Clark suggests that perception is not a matter of expectations about sensorimotor mechanisms guiding perception. Rather, although the limitations of sensorimotor mechanisms constrain perception, this sensorimotor activity is drastically filtered to fit current needs and purposes of the organism, and it is these imposed 'expectations' that govern perception, filtering for the 'relevant' details of sensorimotor input (called \"sensorimotor summarizing\").\n\nThese sensorimotor-centered and purpose-centered views appear to agree on the general scheme but disagree on the dominance issue – is the dominant component peripheral or central. Another view, the closed-loop perception one, assigns equal a-priori dominance to the peripheral and central components. In closed-loop perception, perception emerges through the process of inclusion of an item in a motor-sensory-motor loop, i.e., a loop (or loops) connecting the peripheral and central components that are relevant to that item. The item can be a body part (in which case the loops are in steady-state) or an external object (in which case the loops are perturbed and gradually converge to a steady state). These enactive loops are always active, switching dominance by the need.\n\nAnother application of enaction to perception is analysis of the human hand. The many remarkably demanding uses of the hand are not learned by instruction, but through a history of engagements that lead to the acquisition of skills. According to one interpretation, it is suggested that \"the hand [is]...an organ of cognition\", not a faithful subordinate working under top-down instruction, but a partner in a \"bi-directional interplay between manual and brain activity.\" According to Daniel Hutto: \"Enactivists are concerned to defend the view that our most elementary ways of engaging with the world and others - including our basic forms of perception and perceptual experience - are mindful in the sense of being phenomenally charged and intentionally directed, despite being non-representational and content-free.\" Hutto calls this position 'REC' (Radical Enactive Cognition): \"According to REC, there is no way to distinguish neural activity that is imagined to be genuinely content involving (and thus truly mental, truly cognitive) from other non-neural activity that merely plays a supporting or enabling role in making mind and cognition possible.\"\n\nParticipatory sense-making\n\nHanne De Jaegher and Ezequiel Di Paolo (2007) have extended the enactive concept of sense-making into the social domain. The idea takes as its departure point the process of interaction between individuals in a social encounter. De Jaegher and Di Paolo argue that the interaction process itself can take on a form of autonomy (operationally defined). This allows them to define social cognition as the generation of meaning and its transformation through interacting individuals.\n\nThe notion of participatory sense-making has led to the proposal that interaction processes can sometimes play constitutive roles in social cognition (De Jaegher, Di Paolo, Gallagher, 2010). It has been applied to research in social neuroscience and autism.\n\nIn a similar vein, \"an inter-enactive approach to agency holds that the behavior of agents in a social situation unfolds not only according to their individual abilities and goals, but also according to the conditions and constraints imposed by the autonomous dynamics of the interaction process itself\". According to Torrance, enactivism involves five interlocking themes related to the question \"What is it to be a (cognizing, conscious) agent?\" It is:\n1. to be a biologically autonomous (autopoietic) organism\n2. to generate significance or meaning, rather than to act via...updated internal representations of the external world\n3. to engage in sense-making via dynamic coupling with the environment\n4. to 'enact' or 'bring forth' a world of significances by mutual co-determination of the organism with its enacted world\n5. to arrive at an experiential awareness via lived embodiment in the world.\n\nTorrance adds that \"many kinds of agency, in particular the agency of human beings, cannot be understood separately from understanding the nature of the interaction that occurs between agents.\" That view introduces the social applications of enactivism. \"Social cognition is regarded as the result of a special form of action, namely social interaction...the enactive approach looks at the circular dynamic within a dyad of embodied agents.\"\n \nIn cultural psychology, enactivism is seen as a way to uncover cultural influences upon feeling, thinking and acting. Baerveldt and Verheggen argue that \"It appears that seemingly natural experience is thoroughly intertwined with sociocultural realities.\" They suggest that the social patterning of experience is to be understood through enactivism, \"the idea that the reality we have in common, and in which we find ourselves, is neither a world that exists independently from us, nor a socially shared way of representing such a pregiven world, but a world itself brought forth by our ways of communicating and our joint action....The world we inhabit is manufactured of 'meaning' rather than 'information'.\n\nLuhmann attempted to apply Maturana and Varela's notion of autopoiesis to social systems. \"A core concept of social systems theory is derived from biological systems theory: the concept of autopoiesis. Chilean biologist Humberto Maturana come up with the concept to explain how biological systems such as cells are a product of their own production.\" \"Systems exist by way of operational closure and this means that they each construct themselves and their own realities.\"\n\nEducational aspects\nThe first definition of enaction was introduced by psychologist Jerome Bruner, who introduced enaction as 'learning by doing' in his discussion of how children learn, and how they can best be helped to learn. He associated enaction with two other ways of knowledge organization: Iconic and Symbolic.\n\n\"Any domain of knowledge (or any problem within that domain of knowledge) can be represented in three ways: by a set of actions appropriate for achieving a certain result (enactive representation); by a set of summary images or graphics that stand for a concept without defining it fully (iconic representation); and by a set of symbolic or logical propositions drawn from a symbolic system that is governed by rules or laws for forming and transforming propositions (symbolic representation)\"\nThe term 'enactive framework' was elaborated upon by Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana.\n\nSriramen argues that enactivism provides \"a rich and powerful explanatory theory for learning and being.\" and that it is closely related to both the ideas of cognitive development of Piaget, and also the social constructivism of Vygotsky. Piaget focused on the child's immediate environment, and suggested cognitive structures like spatial perception emerge as a result of the child's interaction with the world. According to Piaget, children construct knowledge, using what they know in new ways and testing it, and the environment provides feedback concerning the adequacy of their construction. In a cultural context, Vygotsky suggested that the kind of cognition that can take place is not dictated by the engagement of the isolated child, but is also a function of social interaction and dialogue that is contingent upon a sociohistorical context. Enactivism in educational theory \"looks at each learning situation as a complex system consisting of teacher, learner, and context, all of which frame and co-create the learning situation.\" Enactivism in education is very closely related to situated cognition, which holds that \"knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used.\" This approach challenges the \"separating of what is learned from how it is learned and used.\"\n\nArtificial intelligence aspects\n\nThe ideas of enactivism regarding how organisms engage with their environment have interested those involved in robotics and man-machine interfaces. The analogy is drawn that a robot can be designed to interact and learn from its environment in a manner similar to the way an organism does, and a human can interact with a computer-aided design tool or data base using an interface that creates an enactive environment for the user, that is, all the user's tactile, auditory, and visual capabilities are enlisted in a mutually explorative engagement, capitalizing upon all the user's abilities, and not at all limited to cerebral engagement. In these areas it is common to refer to affordances as a design concept, the idea that an environment or an interface affords opportunities for enaction, and good design involves optimizing the role of such affordances.\n\nThe activity in the AI community has influenced enactivism as a whole. Referring extensively to modeling techniques for evolutionary robotics by Beer, the modeling of learning behavior by Kelso, and to modeling of sensorimotor activity by Saltzman, McGann, De Jaegher, and Di Paolo discuss how this work makes the dynamics of coupling between an agent and its environment, the foundation of enactivism, \"an operational, empirically observable phenomenon.\" That is, the AI environment invents examples of enactivism using concrete examples that, although not as complex as living organisms, isolate and illuminate basic principles.\n\nMathematical formalisms \n\nEnactive cognition has been formalised in order to address subjectivity in artificial general intelligence.\n\nA mathematical formalism of AGI is an agent proven to maximise a measure of intelligence. Prior to 2022, the only such formalism was AIXI, which maximised “the ability to satisfy goals in a wide range of environments”. In 2015 Jan Lieke and Marcus Hutter showed that \"Legg-Hutter intelligence is measured with respect to a fixed UTM. AIXI is the most intelligent policy if it uses the same UTM\", a result which \"undermines all existing optimality properties for AIXI\", rendering them subjective.\n\nThis problem stems from AIXI's use of compression as a proxy for intelligence, which requires that cognition take place in isolation from the environment in which goals are pursued. AIXI runs on one universal turing machine (UTM), while the measure of intelligence (the environment) runs on another. Michael Timothy Bennett argued this formalises Mind–body dualism, which is what renders claims regarding AIXI’s behaviour moot without knowing the UTM the environment runs on as well. Bennett’s argument was that if cognition is a function A, the UTM is a function B and reality is a function C, then AIXI is the best choice of A to maximise the performance of the composed function C(B(A)). Unfortunately, C(B(A)) depends upon B(A), not upon A alone. To formalise enactive cognition, the formalisation of agent and environment as separate mathematical objects had to be abandoned. Instead, Bennett formalised an arbitrary task, integrating agency with the environment as a single object D. Subsequently both cognition and the reality within which it takes place were characterised as software, meaning instead of C(B(A)), cognition was formalised in terms of B(D) (or B(C(A)) as the original formulation had it). This classified all sensorimotor activity as software, and the universe as the interpreter, relying on pancomputationalism.\n\nAs a result, an alternative proxy for intelligence called weakness was identified and shown to outperform compression in terms of the \"ability to complete a wide range of tasks\" and equivalently \"ability to generalise\", meaning that if enactivism holds and Mind–body dualism does not, then compression is not necessary or sufficient for intelligence, calling into question widely held views on intelligence (see also Hutter Prize). This formalisation of enactive cognition has also been used to provide a mechanistic explanation of symbol emergence in terms of modelling the intent of other agents. This is built upon the Mirror Symbol Hypothesis, which posits that sets of sensorimotor activities form symbols in the manner of perceptual symbol systems (see Lawrence W. Barsalou), though the characterisation of symbols as perceptual was abandoned. As these symbols must be present both in the act of undertaking an action and of observing it, they arguably explain the ability to empathise (conditional upon the ability to model other-directed intentionality ).\n\nSee also\n\nAction-specific perception\nAutopoesis\nBiosemiotics\nCognitive science\nCognitive psychology\nComputational theory of mind\nConnectivism\nCultural psychology\nDistributed cognition\nEmbodied cognition\nEmbodied embedded cognition\nEnactive interfaces\nExtended cognition\nExtended mind\nExternalism#Enactivism and embodied cognition\nMind–body problem\nPhenomenology (philosophy)\nPractopoiesis\nRepresentationalism\nSituated cognition\nSocial cognition\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n \n \n Di Paolo, E. A., Rohde, M. and De Jaegher, H., (2010). Horizons for the Enactive Mind: Values, Social Interaction, and Play. In J. Stewart, O. Gapenne and E. A. Di Paolo (eds), Enaction: Towards a New Paradigm for Cognitive Science, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 33 – 87. \nGallagher, Shaun (2017). Enactivist Interventions: Rethinking the Mind. Oxford University Press. \n Hutto, D. D. (Ed.) (2006). Radical Enactivism: Intentionality, phenomenology, and narrative. In R. D. Ellis & N. Newton (Series Eds.), Consciousness & Emotion, vol. 2. \n McGann, M. & Torrance, S. (2005). Doing it and meaning it (and the relationship between the two). In R. D. Ellis & N. Newton, Consciousness & Emotion, vol. 1: Agency, conscious choice, and selective perception. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. \nMerleau-Ponty, Maurice (2005). Phenomenology of Perception. Routledge. (Originally published 1945)\nNoë, Alva (2010). Out of Our Heads: Why You Are Not Your Brain, and Other Lessons from the Biology of Consciousness. Hill and Wang.\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n Slides related to a chapter on haptic perception (recognition through touch): \n \n An overview of the rationale and means and methods for the study of representations that the learner constructs in his/her attempt to understand knowledge in a given field. See in particular §1.2.1.4 Toward social representations (p. 24)\n An extensive but uncritical introduction to the work of Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana\n Entire journal issue on enactivism's status and current debates.\n\n \nCategory:Action (philosophy)\nCategory:Behavioral neuroscience\nCategory:Cognitive science\nCategory:Consciousness\nCategory:Educational psychology\nCategory:Emergence\nCategory:Epistemology of science\nCategory:Knowledge representation\nCategory:Metaphysics of mind\nCategory:Motor cognition\nCategory:Neuropsychology\nCategory:Perception\nCategory:Philosophical theories\nCategory:Philosophy of psychology\nCategory:Psychological concepts\nCategory:Psychological theories\nCategory:Sociology of knowledge", "title": "Enactivism" }, { "text": "Difference is a key concept of philosophy, denoting the process or set of properties by which one entity is distinguished from another within a relational field or a given conceptual system. In the Western philosophical system, difference is traditionally viewed as being opposed to identity, following the Principles of Leibniz, and in particular, his Law of the identity of indiscernibles. In structuralist and poststructuralist accounts, however, difference is understood to be constitutive of both meaning and identity. In other words, because identity (particularly, personal identity) is viewed in non-essentialist terms as a construct, and because constructs only produce meaning through the interplay of differences (see below), it is the case that for both structuralism and poststructuralism, identity cannot be said to exist without difference.\n\nDifference in Leibniz's law\nGottfried Leibniz's Principle of the identity of indiscernibles states that two things are identical if and only if they share the same and only the same properties. This is a principle which defines identity rather than difference, although it established the tradition in logic and analytical philosophy of conceiving of identity and difference as oppositional.\n\nKant's critique\nIn his Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant argues that it is necessary to distinguish between the thing in itself and its appearance. Even if two objects have completely the same properties, if they are at two different places at the same time, they are numerically different:\n\nDifference in structuralism \nStructural linguistics, and subsequently structuralism proper, are founded on the idea that meaning can only be produced differentially in signifying systems (such as language). This concept first came to prominence in the structuralist writings of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and was developed for the analysis of social and mental structures by French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. The former was concerned to question the prevailing view of meaning \"inhering\" in words, or the idea that language is a nomenclature bearing a one-to-one correspondence to the real. Instead, Saussure argues that meaning arises through differentiation of one sign from another, or even of one phoneme from another:In language there are only differences. Even more important: a difference generally implies positive terms between which the difference is set up; but in language there are only differences without positive terms. Whether we take the signified or the signifier, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system. The idea or phonic substance that a sign contains is of less importance than the other signs that surround it. ... A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas; but the pairing of a certain number of acoustical signs with as many cuts made from the mass thought engenders a system of values.\nIn his Structural Anthropology, Claude Lévi-Strauss applied this concept to the anthropological study of mental structures, kinship and belief systems, examining the way in which social meaning emerges through a series of structural oppositions between paired/opposed kinship groups, for example, or between basic oppositional categories (such as friend and enemy, life and death, or in a later volume, the raw and the cooked).\n\nDifference and in poststructuralism\n\nThe French philosopher Jacques Derrida both extended and profoundly critiqued structuralist thought on the processes by which meaning is produced through the interplay of difference in language, and in particular, writing. Whereas structuralist linguistics had recognized that meaning is differential, much structuralist thought, such as narratology, had become too focused on identifying and producing a typology of the fixed differential structures and binary oppositions at work in any given system. In his work, Derrida sought to show how the differences on which any signifying system depends are not fixed, but get caught up and entangled with each other. Writing itself becomes the prototype of this process of entanglement, and in Of Grammatology (1967) and \"\" (in Margins of Philosophy, 1972) Derrida shows how the concept of writing (as the paradoxical absence or de-presencing of the living voice) has been subordinated to the desired \"full presence\" of speech within the Western philosophical tradition. His early thought on the relationship between writing and difference is collected in his book of essays entitled Writing and Difference (1967).\n\nElsewhere, Derrida coined the term (a deliberate misspelling of ) in order to provide a conceptual hook for his thinking on the meaning processes at work within writing/language. This neologism is a play on the two meanings of the French word : to differ and to defer. Derrida thereby argues that meaning does not arise out of fixed differences between static elements in a structure, but that the meanings produced in language and other signifying systems are always partial, provisional and infinitely deferred along a chain of differing/deferring signifiers. At the same time, the word itself performs this entanglement and confusion of differential meanings, for it depends on a minimal difference (the substitution of the letter \"a\" for the letter \"e\") which cannot be apprehended in oral speech, since the suffixes \"-ance\" and \"-ence\" have the same pronunciation in French. The \"phonemic\" (non-)difference between and can only be observed in writing, hence producing differential meaning only in a partial, deferred and entangled manner.\n\n has been defined as \"the non-originary, constituting-disruption of presence\": spatially, it differs, creating spaces, ruptures, and differences and temporally, it defers, delaying presence from ever being fully attained. Derrida's criticism of essentialist ontology draws on the differential ontology of Friedrich Nietzsche (who introduced the concept of , \"difference\", in his unpublished manuscripts (KSA 11:35[58], p. 537)) and Emmanuel Levinas (who proposed an ethics of the Other). \n\nIn a similar vein, Gilles Deleuze's Difference and Repetition (1968) was an attempt to think difference as having an ontological privilege over identity, inverting the traditional relationship between those two concepts and implying that identities are only produced through processes of differentiation.\n\nSee also\n Nominalism#Indian philosophy\n Deconstruction\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:Logic\nCategory:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz\nCategory:Immanuel Kant\nCategory:Continental philosophy\nCategory:Structuralism\nCategory:Deconstruction\nCategory:Post-structuralism\nCategory:Difference\nCategory:French philosophers\nCategory:Metaphysical properties\nCategory:Identity (philosophy)", "title": "Difference (philosophy)" }, { "text": "Virtuality is a concept in philosophy elaborated by French thinker Gilles Deleuze.\n\nOverview\nDeleuze used the term virtual to refer to an aspect of reality that is ideal, but nonetheless real. An example of this is the meaning, or sense, of a proposition that is not a material aspect of that proposition (whether written or spoken) but is nonetheless an attribute of that proposition. In Bergsonism, Deleuze writes that \"virtual\" is not opposed to \"real\" but opposed to \"actual\", whereas \"real\" is opposed to \"possible\".Deleuze identifies the virtual, considered as a continuous multiplicity, with Bergson's \"duration\": \"it is the virtual insofar as it is actualized, in the course of being actualized, it is inseparable from the movement of its actualization.\"\n\nDeleuze argues that Henri Bergson developed \"the notion of the virtual to its highest degree\" and that he based his entire philosophy on it.Both Henri Bergson, and Deleuze himself build their conception of the virtual in reference to a quotation in which writer Marcel Proust defines a virtuality, memory as \"real but not actual, ideal but not abstract\".\n\nReception\nAnother core meaning has been elicited by Denis Berthier, in his 2004 book Méditations sur le réel et le virtuel (\"Meditations on the real and the virtual\"), based on uses in science (virtual image), technology (virtual world), and etymology (derivation from virtue—Latin virtus). At the same ontological level as \"the possible\" (i.e. ideally-possible) abstractions, representations, or imagined \"fictions\", the actually-real \"material\", or the actually-possible \"probable\", the \"virtual\" is \"ideal-real\". It is what is not real, but displays the full qualities of the real—in a plainly actual (i.e., not potential)—way. The prototypical case is a reflection in a mirror: it is already there, whether or not one can see it; it is not waiting for any kind of actualization. This definition allows one to understand that real effects may be issued from a virtual object, so that our perception of it and our whole relation to it, are fully real, even if it is not. This explains how virtual reality can be used to cure phobias. \n\nBrian Massumi shows the political implications of this. According to Massumi in \"Parables for the Virtual\", the virtual is something \"inaccessible to the senses\" and can be felt in its effects. His definition goes on to explain virtuality through the use of a topological figure, in which stills of all of the steps in its transformation superposed would create a virtual image. Its virtuality lies in its inability to be seen or properly diagramed, yet can be figured in the imagination.\n\nHowever, note that the writers above all use terms such as \"possible\", \"potential\" and \"real\" in different ways and relate the virtual to these other terms differently. Deleuze regards the opposite of the virtual as the actual. Rob Shields argues that the opposite of the virtual is the material for there are other actualities such as a probability (e.g., \"risks\" are actual dangers that have not yet materialized but there is a \"probability\" that they will).\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n Deleuze, Gilles. 1966. Bergsonism. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. NY: Zone, 1991. .\n ---. 2002a. Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953-1974. Trans. David Lapoujade. Ed. Michael Taormina. Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents ser. Los Angeles and New York: Semiotext(e), 2004. .\n ---. 2002b. \"The Actual and the Virtual.\" In Dialogues II. Rev. ed. Trans. Eliot Ross Albert. New York and Chichester: Columbia UP. 148-152. .\n Christine Buci-Glucksmann, La folie du voir: Une esthétique du virtuel, Galilée, 2002\n Massumi, Brian. 2002. Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation. Post-Contemporary Interventions ser. Durham and London: Duke UP. .\n \"Origins of Virtualism: An Interview with Frank Popper conducted by Joseph Nechvatal\", CAA Art Journal, Spring 2004, pp. 62–77\n Frank Popper, From Technological to Virtual Art, Leonardo Books, MIT Press, 2007\n Rob Shields, The Virtual Routledge 2003.\n Rob Shields \"Virtualities\", Theory, Culture & Society 23:2-3. 2006. pp. 284–86.\n\nCategory:Reality\nCategory:Gilles Deleuze\nCategory:Metaphysical properties", "title": "Virtuality (philosophy)" }, { "text": "In physics, a field is a physical quantity, represented by a scalar, vector, or tensor, that has a value for each point in space and time. For example, on a weather map, the surface temperature is described by assigning a number to each point on the map; the temperature can be considered at a certain point in time or over some interval of time, to study the dynamics of temperature change. A surface wind map, assigning an arrow to each point on a map that describes the wind speed and direction at that point, is an example of a vector field, i.e. a 1-dimensional (rank-1) tensor field. Field theories, mathematical descriptions of how field values change in space and time, are ubiquitous in physics. For instance, the electric field is another rank-1 tensor field, while electrodynamics can be formulated in terms of two interacting vector fields at each point in spacetime, or as a single-rank 2-tensor field.\n\nIn the modern framework of the quantum theory of fields, even without referring to a test particle, a field occupies space, contains energy, and its presence precludes a classical \"true vacuum\". This has led physicists to consider electromagnetic fields to be a physical entity, making the field concept a supporting paradigm of the edifice of modern physics. \"The fact that the electromagnetic field can possess momentum and energy makes it very real ... a particle makes a field, and a field acts on another particle, and the field has such familiar properties as energy content and momentum, just as particles can have.\" In practice, the strength of most fields diminishes with distance, eventually becoming undetectable. For instance the strength of many relevant classical fields, such as the gravitational field in Newton's theory of gravity or the electrostatic field in classical electromagnetism, is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source (i.e., they follow Gauss's law). \n\nA field can be classified as a scalar field, a vector field, a spinor field or a tensor field according to whether the represented physical quantity is a scalar, a vector, a spinor, or a tensor, respectively. A field has a consistent tensorial character wherever it is defined: i.e. a field cannot be a scalar field somewhere and a vector field somewhere else. For example, the Newtonian gravitational field is a vector field: specifying its value at a point in spacetime requires three numbers, the components of the gravitational field vector at that point. Moreover, within each category (scalar, vector, tensor), a field can be either a classical field or a quantum field, depending on whether it is characterized by numbers or quantum operators respectively. In this theory an equivalent representation of field is a field particle, for instance a boson.\n\nHistory\nTo Isaac Newton, his law of universal gravitation simply expressed the gravitational force that acted between any pair of massive objects. When looking at the motion of many bodies all interacting with each other, such as the planets in the Solar System, dealing with the force between each pair of bodies separately rapidly becomes computationally inconvenient. In the eighteenth century, a new quantity was devised to simplify the bookkeeping of all these gravitational forces. This quantity, the gravitational field, gave at each point in space the total gravitational acceleration which would be felt by a small object at that point. This did not change the physics in any way: it did not matter if all the gravitational forces on an object were calculated individually and then added together, or if all the contributions were first added together as a gravitational field and then applied to an object.\n\nThe development of the independent concept of a field truly began in the nineteenth century with the development of the theory of electromagnetism. In the early stages, André-Marie Ampère and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb could manage with Newton-style laws that expressed the forces between pairs of electric charges or electric currents. However, it became much more natural to take the field approach and express these laws in terms of electric and magnetic fields; in 1849 Michael Faraday became the first to coin the term \"field\".\n\nThe independent nature of the field became more apparent with James Clerk Maxwell's discovery that waves in these fields propagated at a finite speed. Consequently, the forces on charges and currents no longer just depended on the positions and velocities of other charges and currents at the same time, but also on their positions and velocities in the past.\n\nMaxwell, at first, did not adopt the modern concept of a field as a fundamental quantity that could independently exist. Instead, he supposed that the electromagnetic field expressed the deformation of some underlying medium—the luminiferous aether—much like the tension in a rubber membrane. If that were the case, the observed velocity of the electromagnetic waves should depend upon the velocity of the observer with respect to the aether. Despite much effort, no experimental evidence of such an effect was ever found; the situation was resolved by the introduction of the special theory of relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905. This theory changed the way the viewpoints of moving observers were related to each other. They became related to each other in such a way that velocity of electromagnetic waves in Maxwell's theory would be the same for all observers. By doing away with the need for a background medium, this development opened the way for physicists to start thinking about fields as truly independent entities.\n\nIn the late 1920s, the new rules of quantum mechanics were first applied to the electromagnetic field. In 1927, Paul Dirac used quantum fields to successfully explain how the decay of an atom to a lower quantum state led to the spontaneous emission of a photon, the quantum of the electromagnetic field. This was soon followed by the realization (following the work of Pascual Jordan, Eugene Wigner, Werner Heisenberg, and Wolfgang Pauli) that all particles, including electrons and protons, could be understood as the quanta of some quantum field, elevating fields to the status of the most fundamental objects in nature. That said, John Wheeler and Richard Feynman seriously considered Newton's pre-field concept of action at a distance (although they set it aside because of the ongoing utility of the field concept for research in general relativity and quantum electrodynamics).\n\nClassical fields\n\nThere are several examples of classical fields. Classical field theories remain useful wherever quantum properties do not arise, and can be active areas of research. Elasticity of materials, fluid dynamics and Maxwell's equations are cases in point.\n\nSome of the simplest physical fields are vector force fields. Historically, the first time that fields were taken seriously was with Faraday's lines of force when describing the electric field. The gravitational field was then similarly described.\n\nNewtonian gravitation\n\nA classical field theory describing gravity is Newtonian gravitation, which describes the gravitational force as a mutual interaction between two masses.\n\nAny body with mass M is associated with a gravitational field g which describes its influence on other bodies with mass. The gravitational field of M at a point r in space corresponds to the ratio between force F that M exerts on a small or negligible test mass m located at r and the test mass itself:\n \nStipulating that m is much smaller than M ensures that the presence of m has a negligible influence on the behavior of M.\n\nAccording to Newton's law of universal gravitation, F(r) is given by\n\nwhere is a unit vector lying along the line joining M and m and pointing from M to m. Therefore, the gravitational field of M is\n\nThe experimental observation that inertial mass and gravitational mass are equal to an unprecedented level of accuracy leads to the identity that gravitational field strength is identical to the acceleration experienced by a particle. This is the starting point of the equivalence principle, which leads to general relativity.\n\nBecause the gravitational force F is conservative, the gravitational field g can be rewritten in terms of the gradient of a scalar function, the gravitational potential Φ(r):\n\nElectromagnetism\n\nMichael Faraday first realized the importance of a field as a physical quantity, during his investigations into magnetism. He realized that electric and magnetic fields are not only fields of force which dictate the motion of particles, but also have an independent physical reality because they carry energy.\n\nThese ideas eventually led to the creation, by James Clerk Maxwell, of the first unified field theory in physics with the introduction of equations for the electromagnetic field. The modern version of these equations is called Maxwell's equations.\n\nElectrostatics\n\nA charged test particle with charge q experiences a force F based solely on its charge. We can similarly describe the electric field E so that . Using this and Coulomb's law tells us that the electric field due to a single charged particle is\n \n\nThe electric field is conservative, and hence can be described by a scalar potential, V(r):\n\nMagnetostatics\n\nA steady current I flowing along a path ℓ will create a field B, that exerts a force on nearby moving charged particles that is quantitatively different from the electric field force described above. The force exerted by I on a nearby charge q with velocity v is\n \nwhere B(r) is the magnetic field, which is determined from I by the Biot–Savart law:\n\nThe magnetic field is not conservative in general, and hence cannot usually be written in terms of a scalar potential. However, it can be written in terms of a vector potential, A(r):\n\nElectrodynamics\n\nIn general, in the presence of both a charge density ρ(r, t) and current density J(r, t), there will be both an electric and a magnetic field, and both will vary in time. They are determined by Maxwell's equations, a set of differential equations which directly relate E and B to ρ and J.\n\nAlternatively, one can describe the system in terms of its scalar and vector potentials V and A. A set of integral equations known as retarded potentials allow one to calculate V and A from ρ and J, and from there the electric and magnetic fields are determined via the relations\n \n \n\nAt the end of the 19th century, the electromagnetic field was understood as a collection of two vector fields in space. Nowadays, one recognizes this as a single antisymmetric 2nd-rank tensor field in spacetime.\n\nGravitation in general relativity\n\nEinstein's theory of gravity, called general relativity, is another example of a field theory. Here the principal field is the metric tensor, a symmetric 2nd-rank tensor field in spacetime. This replaces Newton's law of universal gravitation.\n\nWaves as fields\nWaves can be constructed as physical fields, due to their finite propagation speed and causal nature when a simplified physical model of an isolated closed system is set . They are also subject to the inverse-square law.\n\nFor electromagnetic waves, there are optical fields, and terms such as near- and far-field limits for diffraction. In practice though, the field theories of optics are superseded by the electromagnetic field theory of Maxwell.\n\nQuantum fields\n\nIt is now believed that quantum mechanics should underlie all physical phenomena, so that a classical field theory should, at least in principle, permit a recasting in quantum mechanical terms; success yields the corresponding quantum field theory. For example, quantizing classical electrodynamics gives quantum electrodynamics. Quantum electrodynamics is arguably the most successful scientific theory; experimental data confirm its predictions to a higher precision (to more significant digits) than any other theory. The two other fundamental quantum field theories are quantum chromodynamics and the electroweak theory.\n\nIn quantum chromodynamics, the color field lines are coupled at short distances by gluons, which are polarized by the field and line up with it. This effect increases within a short distance (around 1 fm from the vicinity of the quarks) making the color force increase within a short distance, confining the quarks within hadrons. As the field lines are pulled together tightly by gluons, they do not \"bow\" outwards as much as an electric field between electric charges.\n\nThese three quantum field theories can all be derived as special cases of the so-called standard model of particle physics. General relativity, the Einsteinian field theory of gravity, has yet to be successfully quantized. However an extension, thermal field theory, deals with quantum field theory at finite temperatures, something seldom considered in quantum field theory.\n\nIn BRST theory one deals with odd fields, e.g. Faddeev–Popov ghosts. There are different descriptions of odd classical fields both on graded manifolds and supermanifolds.\n\nAs above with classical fields, it is possible to approach their quantum counterparts from a purely mathematical view using similar techniques as before. The equations governing the quantum fields are in fact PDEs (specifically, relativistic wave equations (RWEs)). Thus one can speak of Yang–Mills, Dirac, Klein–Gordon and Schrödinger fields as being solutions to their respective equations. A possible problem is that these RWEs can deal with complicated mathematical objects with exotic algebraic properties (e.g. spinors are not tensors, so may need calculus for spinor fields), but these in theory can still be subjected to analytical methods given appropriate mathematical generalization.\n\nField theory\nField theory usually refers to a construction of the dynamics of a field, i.e., a specification of how a field changes with time or with respect to other independent physical variables on which the field depends. Usually this is done by writing a Lagrangian or a Hamiltonian of the field, and treating it as a classical or quantum mechanical system with an infinite number of degrees of freedom. The resulting field theories are referred to as classical or quantum field theories.\n\nThe dynamics of a classical field are usually specified by the Lagrangian density in terms of the field components; the dynamics can be obtained by using the action principle.\n\nIt is possible to construct simple fields without any prior knowledge of physics using only mathematics from multivariable calculus, potential theory and partial differential equations (PDEs). For example, scalar PDEs might consider quantities such as amplitude, density and pressure fields for the wave equation and fluid dynamics; temperature/concentration fields for the heat/diffusion equations. Outside of physics proper (e.g., radiometry and computer graphics), there are even light fields. All these previous examples are scalar fields. Similarly for vectors, there are vector PDEs for displacement, velocity and vorticity fields in (applied mathematical) fluid dynamics, but vector calculus may now be needed in addition, being calculus for vector fields (as are these three quantities, and those for vector PDEs in general). More generally problems in continuum mechanics may involve for example, directional elasticity (from which comes the term tensor, derived from the Latin word for stretch), complex fluid flows or anisotropic diffusion, which are framed as matrix-tensor PDEs, and then require matrices or tensor fields, hence matrix or tensor calculus. The scalars (and hence the vectors, matrices and tensors) can be real or complex as both are fields in the abstract-algebraic/ring-theoretic sense.\n\nIn a general setting, classical fields are described by sections of fiber bundles and their dynamics is formulated in the terms of jet manifolds (covariant classical field theory).\n\nIn modern physics, the most often studied fields are those that model the four fundamental forces which one day may lead to the Unified Field Theory.\n\nSymmetries of fields \nA convenient way of classifying a field (classical or quantum) is by the symmetries it possesses. Physical symmetries are usually of two types:\n\nSpacetime symmetries\n\nFields are often classified by their behaviour under transformations of spacetime. The terms used in this classification are:\n scalar fields (such as temperature) whose values are given by a single variable at each point of space. This value does not change under transformations of space.\n vector fields (such as the magnitude and direction of the force at each point in a magnetic field) which are specified by attaching a vector to each point of space. The components of this vector transform between themselves contravariantly under rotations in space. Similarly, a dual (or co-) vector field attaches a dual vector to each point of space, and the components of each dual vector transform covariantly.\n tensor fields, (such as the stress tensor of a crystal) specified by a tensor at each point of space. Under rotations in space, the components of the tensor transform in a more general way which depends on the number of covariant indices and contravariant indices.\n spinor fields (such as the Dirac spinor) arise in quantum field theory to describe particles with spin which transform like vectors except for one of their components; in other words, when one rotates a vector field 360 degrees around a specific axis, the vector field turns to itself; however, spinors would turn to their negatives in the same case.\n\nInternal symmetries\n\nFields may have internal symmetries in addition to spacetime symmetries. In many situations, one needs fields which are a list of spacetime scalars: (φ1, φ2, ... φN). For example, in weather prediction these may be temperature, pressure, humidity, etc. In particle physics, the color symmetry of the interaction of quarks is an example of an internal symmetry, that of the strong interaction. Other examples are isospin, weak isospin, strangeness and any other flavour symmetry.\n\nIf there is a symmetry of the problem, not involving spacetime, under which these components transform into each other, then this set of symmetries is called an internal symmetry. One may also make a classification of the charges of the fields under internal symmetries.\n\nStatistical field theory\n\nStatistical field theory attempts to extend the field-theoretic paradigm toward many-body systems and statistical mechanics. As above, it can be approached by the usual infinite number of degrees of freedom argument.\n\nMuch like statistical mechanics has some overlap between quantum and classical mechanics, statistical field theory has links to both quantum and classical field theories, especially the former with which it shares many methods. One important example is mean field theory.\n\nContinuous random fields\nClassical fields as above, such as the electromagnetic field, are usually infinitely differentiable functions, but they are in any case almost always twice differentiable. In contrast, generalized functions are not continuous. When dealing carefully with classical fields at finite temperature, the mathematical methods of continuous random fields are used, because thermally fluctuating classical fields are nowhere differentiable. Random fields are indexed sets of random variables; a continuous random field is a random field that has a set of functions as its index set. In particular, it is often mathematically convenient to take a continuous random field to have a Schwartz space of functions as its index set, in which case the continuous random field is a tempered distribution.\n\nWe can think about a continuous random field, in a (very) rough way, as an ordinary function that is almost everywhere, but such that when we take a weighted average of all the infinities over any finite region, we get a finite result. The infinities are not well-defined; but the finite values can be associated with the functions used as the weight functions to get the finite values, and that can be well-defined. We can define a continuous random field well enough as a linear map from a space of functions into the real numbers.\n\nSee also \n\n Conformal field theory\n Covariant Hamiltonian field theory\n Field strength\n History of the philosophy of field theory\n Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of a field\n Scalar field theory\n Velocity field\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n \n Landau, Lev D. and Lifshitz, Evgeny M. (1971). Classical Theory of Fields (3rd ed.). London: Pergamon. . Vol. 2 of the Course of Theoretical Physics.\n\nExternal links \n\n Particle and Polymer Field Theories\n\nCategory:Mathematical physics\nCategory:Theoretical physics\nCategory:Physical quantities", "title": "Field (physics)" }, { "text": "Hylomorphism is a philosophical doctrine developed by the Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, which conceives every physical entity or being (ousia) as a compound of matter (potency) and immaterial form (act), with the generic form as immanently real within the individual. The word is a 19th-century term formed from the Greek words ὕλη (hyle: \"wood, matter\") and μορφή (morphē: \"form\"). Hylomorphic theories of physical entities have been undergoing a revival in contemporary philosophy.\n\nAristotle's concept of matter \n\nThe Ancient Greek language originally had no word for matter in general, as opposed to raw material suitable for some specific purpose or other, so Aristotle adapted the word for \"wood\" to this purpose. The idea that everything physical is made of the same basic substance holds up well under modern science, although it may be thought of more in terms of energy or matter/energy.\n\nThe Latin equivalent of the hyle concept – and later its medieval version – also emerged from Aristotle's notion. The Greek term's Latin equivalent was silva, which literally meant woodland or forest. However, Latin thinkers opted for a word that had a technical sense (rather than literal meaning). This emphasized silva as that of which a thing is made, but one that remained a substratum with changed form. The word materia was chosen instead to indicate a meaning not in handicraft but in the passive role that mother (mater) plays in conception.\n\nAristotle's concept of hyle is the principle that correlates with shape and this can be demonstrated in the way the philosopher described hyle, saying it is that which receives form or definiteness, that which is formed. It can also be the material cause underlying a change in Aristotelian philosophy. Aristotle explained that \"By hyle I mean that which in itself is neither a particular thing nor of a certain quantity nor assigned to any other of the categories by which being is determined.\" This means that hyle is brought into existence not due to its being its agent or its own actuality but only when form attaches to it. It has been described as a plenum or a field, a conceptualization that opposed Democritus' atomistic ontology. It is maintained that the Aristotelian concept should not be understood as a \"stuff\" since there is, for example, hyle that is intellectual as well as sensible hyle found in the body.\n\nFor Aristotle, hyle is composed of four elements – fire, water, air, and earth – but these were not considered pure substances since matter and form exist in a combination of hot, moist, dry, and cold so that everything is united to form the elements.\n\nAristotle defines matter as \"that out of which\" something is made. For example, letters are the matter of syllables. Thus, \"matter\" is a relative term: an object counts as matter relative to something else. For example, clay is matter relative to a brick because a brick is made of clay, whereas bricks are matter relative to a brick house. Change is analyzed as a material transformation: matter is what undergoes a change of form. For example, consider a lump of bronze that's shaped into a statue. Bronze is the matter, and this matter loses one form (morphe) (that of a lump) and gains a new form (that of a statue). According to Aristotle's theory of perception, we perceive an object by receiving its form (eidos) with our sense organs. Thus, forms include complex qualia such as colors, textures, and flavors, not just shapes.\n\nBody–soul hylomorphism\n\nBasic theory\n\nAristotle applies his theory of hylomorphism to living things. He defines a soul as that which makes a living thing alive. Life is a property of living things, just as knowledge and health are. Therefore, a soul is a form—that is, a specifying principle or cause—of a living thing. Furthermore, Aristotle says that a soul is related to its body as form to matter.\n\nHence, Aristotle argues, there is no problem in explaining the unity of body and soul, just as there is no problem in explaining the unity of wax and its shape. Just as a wax object consists of wax with a certain shape, so a living organism consists of a body with the property of life, which is its soul. On the basis of his hylomorphic theory, Aristotle rejects the Pythagorean doctrine of metempsychosis, ridiculing the notion that just any soul could inhabit just any body.\n\nAccording to Timothy Robinson, it is unclear whether Aristotle identifies the soul with the body's structure. According to one interpretation of Aristotle, a properly organized body is already alive simply by virtue of its structure. However, according to another interpretation, the property of life—that is, the soul—is something in addition to the body's structure. Robinson uses the analogy of a car to explain this second interpretation. A running car is running not only because of its structure but also because of the activity in its engine. Likewise, according to this second interpretation, a living body is alive not only because of its structure but also because of an additional property: the soul, which a properly organized body needs in order to be alive. John Vella uses Frankenstein's monster to illustrate the second interpretation: the corpse lying on Frankenstein's table is already a fully organized human body, but it is not yet alive; when Frankenstein activates his machine, the corpse gains a new property, the property of life, which Aristotle would call the soul.\n\nLiving bodies\nSome scholars have pointed out a problem facing Aristotle's theory of soul-body hylomorphism. They argue that a living thing's matter is its body and the body needs a soul in order to be alive. Similarly, a bronze sphere's matter is bronze, which needs roundness in order to be a sphere. Now, bronze remains the same bronze after ceasing to be a sphere. Therefore, it seems that a body should remain the same body after death. \n\nBronze however is not alive and changing its shape does not involve a substantial change. Moreover, Aristotle explicitly denies that a body remains a body after death. A corpse is only equivocally a body because Aristotle states that a body that has lost its soul is no longer potentially alive. To lose the potentiality of life is to be a corpse. Living bodies are thus a composite of soul and matter: the body lives insofar as its soul is actualizing its matter. The body and soul are not two distinct things but as one substance. That is why Aristotle defines the body as having life potentially and the substantial form as the potential body's life source. Aristotelians need to take care not to use the word \"body\" equivocally to refer to both living things and corpses. \n\nThe soul as the body's substantial form enables personal identity to persist over time. Consider the fact that a living body is constantly replacing old matter with new. A five-year-old body consists of different matter than does the same person's seventy-year-old body. If the five-year-old body and the seventy-year-old body consist of different matter, then what makes them the same body? The answer is that the same soul has been animating matter into that person's body. Because the five-year-old and the seventy-year-old bodies share a soul—that is, the person's life—we can identify them both as the body. Apart from the soul, we cannot identify what collection of matter is the body. Therefore, a person's body is no longer that person's body after it dies.\n\nIntellect\n\nAristotle says that the intellect (nous), the ability to think, has no bodily organ (in contrast with other psychological abilities, such as sense-perception and imagination). Aristotle distinguishes between two types of intellect. These are traditionally called the \"passive intellect\" and the \"active (or agent) intellect\". The passive intellect is like clay; it can become anything and is subject to change. The function of the active intellect is to use forms abstracted from physical things to activate the passive intellect to acts of understanding. Passive intellect is also the storehouse of understood ideas. Aristotle says that the \"active (or agent) intellect\" is not mixed with the body and suggests that it can exist apart from it.\n\nTeleology and ethics\n\nAristotle holds a teleological worldview: he sees the universe as inherently purposeful. Basically, Aristotle claims that potentiality exists for the sake of actuality. Thus, matter exists for the sake of receiving its form, as an organism has sight for the sake of seeing. Now, each thing has certain potentialities as a result of its form. Because of its form, a snake has the potential to slither; we can say that the snake ought to slither. The more a thing achieves its potential, the more it succeeds in achieving its purpose.\n\nAristotle bases his ethical theory on this teleological worldview. Because of his form, a human being has certain abilities. Hence, his purpose in life is to exercise those abilities as well and as fully as possible. Now, the most characteristic human ability, which is not included in the form of any other organism, is the ability to think. The ability to deliberate makes it possible to choose the course of action that reason deems best--even if it is emotionally undesirable. Contemporary Aristotelians tend to stress exercising freedom and acting wisely as the best way to live. Yet, Aristotle argued that the best type of happiness is virtuously contemplating God and the second best is acting in accord with moral virtue. Either way, for Aristotle the best human life is a life lived rationally.\n\nLegacy\n\nUniversal hylomorphism\nThe Neoplatonic philosopher Avicebron (a.k.a.Solomon Ibn Gabirol) proposed a Neoplatonic version of this Aristotelian concept, according to which all things, including soul and intellect, are composed of matter and form.\n\nMedieval modifications\nThomas Aquinas emphasized the act/potency understanding of form/matter whereby form activates the potency of matter and existence activates souls. The angels are accordingly composites of esse (potentiality) and existence (actuality) that activates immateriali souls, while God alone is per se existence, pure act without any potencies. \n\nMedieval theologians, newly exposed to Aristotle's philosophy, applied hylomorphism to Christian doctrines such as the transubstantiation of the Eucharist's bread and wine into the body and blood of Jesus. Theologians such as Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas developed Christian applications of hylomorphism.\n\nAristotle's texts on the agent intellect have given rise to diverse interpretations. Some following Averroes (Ibn Rusd 1126-1198) argue that Aristotle equated the active intellect with a divine being who infuses concepts into the passive intellect to aid human understanding. Others following Aquinas (1225-74) argue that the Neo-platonic interpretation is a mistake: the active intellect is actually part of the human soul. The controversy matters insofar as the Neo-platonic interpretation of Aristotle holds that he rejected personal immortality, while the Thomistic interpretation holds that Aristotle used the agent intellect to establish personal immortality. Others interpret Aristotle as arguing that a person's ability to think (unlike his other psychological abilities) belongs to some incorporeal organ distinct from his body. This would amount to a form of dualism. However, according to some scholars, it would not be a full-fledged Cartesian dualism. This interpretation creates what Robert Pasnau has called the \"mind-soul problem\": if the intellect belongs to an entity distinct from the body, and the soul is the form of the body, then how is the intellect part of the soul? Yet, another interpretation distinguishes the passive intellect and the agent intellect and considers the passive intellect to be a property of the body, while the agent intellect is a substance distinct from the body. Some proponents of this interpretation think that each person has his own agent intellect, which presumably separates from the body at death. Others interpret the agent intellect as a single divine being, perhaps the unmoved mover, Aristotle's God. Still others argue that Aristotle held that an individual form is capable of having properties of its own. According to this interpretation, the soul is a property of the body, but the ability to think is a property of the soul itself, not of the body. If that is the case, then the soul is the body's form and yet thinking need not involve any bodily organ.\n\nSubstantial form, accidental form, and prime matter\n\nMedieval philosophers who used Aristotelian concepts frequently distinguished between substantial forms and accidental forms. A substance necessarily possesses at least one substantial form. It may also possess a variety of accidental forms. For Aristotle, a \"substance\" (ousia) is an individual thing—for example, an individual man or an individual horse. Within every physical substance, the substantial form determines what kind of thing the physical substance is by actualizing prime matter as individualized by the causes of that thing's coming to be. For instance, the chick comes to be when the substantial form of chickens actualizes the hen's egg and that actualization is possible insofar as that egg is in potency to being actualized both as a chicken due to the receptivity of its prime matter to the substantial form of chickens and into a chick with certain colored feathers due to the individualization of the egg given by its parents. So while the individualized matter determines individualized properties, the substantial form determines essential properties. The substantial form of substance S consists of S's essence and its essential properties (the properties that S needs in order to be the kind of substance that S is). Substantial change destroys the ability of a substantial form to actualize individualized prime matter without affecting prime matter's ability to be actualized by a new substantial form. When the wolf eats the chick, the chick's rearranged matter becomes part of the wolf and animated by the wolf's substantial form. \n\nIn contrast, S's accidental forms are S's non-essential properties, properties that S can lose or gain without changing into a different kind of substance. The chick can lose its feathers due to parasites without ceasing to be an individual chicken.\n\nPlurality vs. unity of substantial form\nMany medieval theologians and philosophers followed Aristotle in seeing a living being's soul as that being's form—specifically, its substantial form. However, they disagreed about whether X's soul is X's only substantial form. Some medieval thinkers argued that X's soul is X's only substantial form animating the entire body of X. In contrast, other medieval thinkers argued that a living being contains at least two substantial forms—(1) the shape and structure of its body, and (2) its soul, which makes its body alive.\n\nThomistic hylomorphism\nThomas Aquinas claimed that X's soul was X's only substantial form, although X also had numerous accidental forms that accounted for X's nonessential features. Aquinas defined a substantial form as that which makes X's matter constitute X, which in the case of a human being is also able to transcend the limitations of matter and establish both the rational capacity and natural immortality of human beings. Nevertheless, Aquinas did not claim that human persons were their disembodied souls because the human soul is essentially a substantial form activating matter into the body. He held that a proper human being is a composite of the rational soul and matter (both prime matter and individualized matter). So a soul separated from its body does not become an angel but retains its orientation to animate matter, while a corpse from which the soul has departed is not actually or potentially a human being.\n\nEleonore Stump describes Aquinas' theory of the soul in terms of \"configuration\". The body is matter that is \"configured\", i.e. structured, while the soul is a \"configured configurer\". In other words, the soul is itself a configured thing, but it also configures the body. A dead body is merely matter that was once configured by the soul. It does not possess the configuring capacity of a human being.\n\nAquinas believed that rational capacity was a property of the soul alone, not of any bodily organ. However, he did believe that the brain had some basic cognitive function. Aquinas’ attribution of rational capacity to the immaterial soul allowed him to claim that disembodied souls could retain their rational capacity as his identification of the soul's individual act of existence allowed him to claim that personal immortality is natural for human beings. Aquinas was also adamant that disembodied souls were in an unnatural state and that the perfection of heaven includes God miraculously enabling the soul to function once again as a substantial form by reanimating matter into a living body as promised by the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead.\n\nModern physics\nThe idea of hylomorphism can be said to have been reintroduced to the world when Werner Heisenberg invented his duplex world of quantum mechanics. In his 1958 text Physics and Philosophy, Heisenberg states:\n\nA hylomorphic interpretation of Bohmian mechanics has been suggested, in which the cosmos is a single substance that is composed of both material particles and a substantial form. There is also a hylomorphic interpretation of the collapse of the wave function.\n\nSee also\n\n Endurantism\n \"Hylotheism\"\n Hylozoism\n Inherence\n Materialism\n Moderate realism\n Substance theory\n Tripartitism\n Vitalism\n\nNotes\n\nSources\n Aristotle.\n Metaphysics\n Nicomachean Ethics\n On the Soul.\n Physics\n Caston, Victor.\n \"Aristotle's Psychology\". A Companion to Ancient Philosophy. Ed. Mary Gill and Pierre Pellegrin. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2006. 316-46.\n \"Aristotle's Two Intellects: A Modest Proposal\". Phronesis 44.3 (1999): 199-227.\n Cross, Richard. The Physics of Duns Scotus. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998.\n Eberl, Jason T. \"Aquinas on the Nature of Human Beings.\" The Review of Metaphysics 58.2 (November 2004): 333-65.\n Gilson, Étienne. The Philosophy of St. Bonaventure. Trans. F. J. Sheed. NY: Sheed & Ward, 1938.\n Irwin, Terence. Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1990.\n Keck, David. Angels & Angelology in the Middle Ages. NY: Oxford UP, 1998.\n Kenny, Anthony. Aquinas on Mind. London: Routledge, 1993.\n Leftow, Brian.\n \"Souls Dipped in Dust.\" Soul, Body, and Survival: Essays on the Metaphysics of Human Persons. Ed. Kevin Corcoran. NY: Cornell UP, 2001. 120-38.\n \"Soul, Mind, and Brain.\" The Waning of Materialism. Ed. Robert C. Koons and George Bealer. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010. 395-417.\n McEvilley, Thomas. The Shape of Ancient Thought. NY: Allworth, 2002.\n Mendell, Henry. \"Aristotle and Mathematics\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 26 March 2004. Stanford University. 2 July 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/>.\n Normore, Calvin. \"The Matter of Thought\". Representation and Objects of Thought in Medieval Philosophy. Ed. Henrik Lagerlund. Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007. 117-133.\n Pasnau, Robert. Thomas Aquinas on Human Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001.\n Robinson, Timothy. Aristotle in Outline. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1995.\n Simondon, Gilbert (2003). L’Individuation à la lumière des notions de forme et d’information [1958]. Paris: Jérôme Millon.\n Shields, Christopher.\n \"A Fundamental Problem about Hylomorphism\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 29 June 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/suppl1.html>.\n Aristotle. London: Routledge, 2007.\n \"Some Recent Approaches to Aristotle's De Anima\". De Anima: Books II and III (With Passages From Book I). Trans. W.D. Hamlyn. Oxford: Clarendon, 1993. 157-81.\n \"Soul as Subject in Aristotle's De Anima\". Classical Quarterly 38.1 (1988): 140-49.\n Stump, Eleanore.\n \"Non-Cartesian Substance Dualism and Materialism without Reductionism.\" Faith and Philosophy 12.4 (October 1995): 505-31.\n \"Resurrection, Reassembly, and Reconstitution: Aquinas on the Soul.\" Die Menschliche Seele: Brauchen Wir Den Dualismus. Ed. B. Niederbacher and E. Runggaldier. Frankfurt, 2006. 151-72.\n Vella, John. Aristotle: A Guide for the Perplexed. NY: Continuum, 2008.\n\nExternal links\n hylomorphism (philosophy) -- Encyclopædia Britannica\n\nCategory:Aristotelianism\nCategory:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics\nCategory:Substance theory\nCategory:Philosophy of Aristotle\nCategory:Scotism\nCategory:Theories in ancient Greek philosophy", "title": "Hylomorphism" }, { "text": "The term autopoiesis () refers to a system capable of producing and maintaining itself by creating its own parts.\nThe term was introduced in the 1972 publication Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living by Chilean biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela to define the self-maintaining chemistry of living cells. \n\nThe concept has since been applied to the fields of cognition, systems theory, architecture and sociology. Niklas Luhmann briefly introduced the concept of autopoiesis to organizational theory.\n\nOverview\nIn their 1972 book Autopoiesis and Cognition, Chilean biologists Maturana and Varela described how they invented the word autopoiesis.\n\nThey explained that,\n\nThey described the \"space defined by an autopoietic system\" as \"self-contained\", a space that \"cannot be described by using dimensions that define another space. When we refer to our interactions with a concrete autopoietic system, however, we project this system on the space of our manipulations and make a description of this projection.\"\n\nMeaning\n\nAutopoiesis was originally presented as a system description that was said to define and explain the nature of living systems. A canonical example of an autopoietic system is the biological cell. The eukaryotic cell, for example, is made of various biochemical components such as nucleic acids and proteins, and is organized into bounded structures such as the cell nucleus, various organelles, a cell membrane and cytoskeleton. These structures, based on an internal flow of molecules and energy, produce the components which, in turn, continue to maintain the organized bounded structure that gives rise to these components.\n\nAn autopoietic system is to be contrasted with an allopoietic system, such as a car factory, which uses raw materials (components) to generate a car (an organized structure) which is something other than itself (the factory). However, if the system is extended from the factory to include components in the factory's \"environment\", such as supply chains, plant / equipment, workers, dealerships, customers, contracts, competitors, cars, spare parts, and so on, then as a total viable system it could be considered to be autopoietic.\n\nOf course, cells also require raw materials (nutrients), and produce numerous products -waste products, the extracellular matrix, intracellular messaging molecules, etc.\n\nAutopoiesis in biological systems can be viewed as a network of constraints that work to maintain themselves. This concept has been called organizational closure or constraint closure and is closely related to the study of autocatalytic chemical networks where constraints are reactions required to sustain life.\n\nThough others have often used the term as a synonym for self-organization, Maturana himself stated he would \"[n]ever use the notion of self-organization ... Operationally it is impossible. That is, if the organization of a thing changes, the thing changes\". Moreover, an autopoietic system is autonomous and operationally closed, in the sense that there are sufficient processes within it to maintain the whole. Autopoietic systems are \"structurally coupled\" with their medium, embedded in a dynamic of changes that can be recalled as sensory-motor coupling. This continuous dynamic is considered as a rudimentary form of knowledge or cognition and can be observed throughout life-forms.\n\nAn application of the concept of autopoiesis to sociology can be found in Niklas Luhmann's Systems Theory, which was subsequently adapted by Bob Jessop in his studies of the capitalist state system. Marjatta Maula adapted the concept of autopoiesis in a business context. The theory of autopoiesis has also been applied in the context of legal systems by not only Niklas Luhmann, but also Gunther Teubner. Patrik Schumacher has applied the term to refer to the 'discursive self-referential making of architecture.' \n\nIn the context of textual studies, Jerome McGann argues that texts are \"autopoietic mechanisms operating as self-generating feedback systems that cannot be separated from those who manipulate and use them\". Citing Maturana and Varela, he defines an autopoietic system as \"a closed topological space that 'continuously generates and specifies its own organization through its operation as a system of production of its own components, and does this in an endless turnover of components, concluding that \"Autopoietic systems are thus distinguished from allopoietic systems, which are Cartesian and which 'have as the product of their functioning something different from themselves. Coding and markup appear allopoietic\", McGann argues, but are generative parts of the system they serve to maintain, and thus language and print or electronic technology are autopoietic systems.\n\nThe philosopher Slavoj Žižek, in his discussion of Hegel, argues:\n\nRelation to complexity\nAutopoiesis can be defined as the ratio between the complexity of a system and the complexity of its environment.\n\nAutopoiesis has been proposed as a potential mechanism of abiogenesis, by which molecules evolved into more complex cells that could support the development of life.\n\nComparison with other theories of life \n\nAutopoiesis is just one of several current theories of life, including the chemoton of Tibor Gánti, the hypercycle of Manfred Eigen and Peter Schuster,\n\n the (M,R) systems of Robert Rosen, and the autocatalytic sets of Stuart Kauffman, similar to an earlier proposal by Freeman Dyson. \nAll of these (including autopoiesis) found their original inspiration in Erwin Schrödinger's book What is Life? but at first they appear to have little in common with one another, largely because the authors did not communicate with one another, and none of them made any reference in their principal publications to any of the other theories. Nonetheless, there are more similarities than may be obvious at first sight, for example between Gánti and Rosen. Until recently there have been almost no attempts to compare the different theories and discuss them together.\n\nRelation to cognition\nAn extensive discussion of the connection of autopoiesis to cognition is provided by Evan Thompson in his 2007 publication, Mind in Life. The basic notion of autopoiesis as involving constructive interaction with the environment is extended to include cognition. Initially, Maturana defined cognition as behavior of an organism \"with relevance to the maintenance of itself\". However, computer models that are self-maintaining but non-cognitive have been devised, so some additional restrictions are needed, and the suggestion is that the maintenance process, to be cognitive, involves readjustment of the internal workings of the system in some metabolic process. On this basis it is claimed that autopoiesis is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for cognition. Thompson wrote that this distinction may or may not be fruitful, but what matters is that living systems involve autopoiesis and (if it is necessary to add this point) cognition as well. It can be noted that this definition of 'cognition' is restricted, and does not necessarily entail any awareness or consciousness by the living system.\n\nRelation to consciousness\nThe connection of autopoiesis to cognition, or if necessary, of living systems to cognition, is an objective assessment ascertainable by observation of a living system.\n\nOne question that arises is about the connection between cognition seen in this manner and consciousness. The separation of cognition and consciousness recognizes that the organism may be unaware of the substratum where decisions are made. What is the connection between these realms? Thompson refers to this issue as the \"explanatory gap\", and one aspect of it is the hard problem of consciousness, how and why we have qualia.\n\nA second question is whether autopoiesis can provide a bridge between these concepts. Thompson discusses this issue from the standpoint of enactivism. An autopoietic cell actively relates to its environment. Its sensory responses trigger motor behavior governed by autopoiesis, and this behavior (it is claimed) is a simplified version of a nervous system behavior. The further claim is that real-time interactions like this require attention, and an implication of attention is awareness.\n\nCriticism\n\nThere are multiple criticisms of the use of the term in both its original context, as an attempt to define and explain the living, and its various expanded usages, such as applying it to self-organizing systems in general or social systems in particular. Critics have argued that the concept and its theory fail to define or explain living systems and that, because of the extreme language of self-referentiality it uses without any external reference, it is really an attempt to give substantiation to Maturana's radical constructivist or solipsistic epistemology, or what Danilo Zolo has called instead a \"desolate theology\". An example is the assertion by Maturana and Varela that \"We do not see what we do not see and what we do not see does not exist\".\n\nAccording to Razeto-Barry, the influence of Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living in mainstream biology has proven to be limited. Razeto-Barry believes that autopoiesis is not commonly used as the criterion for life.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n – general introduction to the ideas behind autopoiesis\n \n \n —an adaptation of autopoiesis to language.\n —Luhmann's adaptation of autopoiesis to social systems\n —biologist view of autopoiesis\n\n \n —the main published reference on autopoiesis\n —a book on the autopoiesis concept in many different areas\n \n — draws on systems theory and cognitive science to introduce autopoiesis to literary studies\n —one of the original papers on the concept of autopoiesis.\n \n —cognitive systems perspective on autopoiesis\n\nExternal links \n\n The Observer Web: Autopoiesis and Enaction: a website with more explanations\n Several papers on autopoietic theory are available through archonic.net\n A mindmap-collection of links and papers visualized by Ragnar Heil\n Autopoiesis and knowledge in the organization by Aquiles Limone, Luis E. Bastias\n\nCategory:Cybernetics\nCategory:Systems theory\nCategory:Enactive cognition\nCategory:Consciousness studies\nCategory:Self-replication\nCategory:Management cybernetics\nCategory:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics\nCategory:Biological hypotheses", "title": "Autopoiesis" }, { "text": "In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when a complex entity has properties or behaviors that its parts do not have on their own, and emerge only when they interact in a wider whole.\n\nEmergence plays a central role in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry.\n\nIn philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called emergentism.\n\nIn philosophy\n\nPhilosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the etiology of a system's properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. Nicolai Hartmann (1882–1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a categorial novum (new category).\n\nDefinitions\nThis concept of emergence dates from at least the time of Aristotle. The many scientists and philosophers who have written on the concept include John Stuart Mill (Composition of Causes, 1843) and Julian Huxley (1887–1975).\n\nThe philosopher G. H. Lewes coined the term \"emergent\" in 1875, distinguishing it from the merely \"resultant\":\n\nEvery resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.\n\nStrong and weak emergence\nUsage of the notion \"emergence\" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of \"weak emergence\" and \"strong emergence\". One paper discussing this division is Weak Emergence, by philosopher Mark Bedau. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flock of starlings in flight or a school of fish, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not, a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated, analysed or reduced.\n\nSome common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive.\n\nWeak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at a fundamental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a reductionist analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are scale dependent: they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.\n\nBedau notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that consciousness is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional philosophical questions about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign.\n\nStrong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system upon its components; qualities produced this way are irreducible to the system's constituent parts. The whole is other than the sum of its parts. It is argued then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. Physics lacks well-established examples of strong emergence, unless it is interpreted as the impossibility in practice to explain the whole in terms of the parts. Practical impossibility may be a more useful distinction than one in principle, since it is easier to determine and quantify, and does not imply the use of mysterious forces, but simply reflects the limits of our capability.\n\nViability of strong emergence\nSome thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:\n\nStrong emergence can be criticized for leading to causal overdetermination. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? Jaegwon Kim says:\n\nIf M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny downward causation. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call physicalism into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.\n\nObjective or subjective quality\nCrutchfield regards the properties of complexity and organization of any system as subjective qualities determined by the observer.\n\nDefining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer’s notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer’s chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.\n\nThe low entropy of an ordered system can be viewed as an example of subjective emergence: the observer sees an ordered system by ignoring the underlying microstructure (i.e. movement of molecules or elementary particles) and concludes that the system has a low entropy.\nOn the other hand, chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can also be seen as subjective emergent, while at a microscopic scale the movement of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.\n\nIn science\nIn physics, emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.\n\nAn emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity.\n\nAccording to Laughlin, for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details.\n\nNovelist Arthur Koestler used the metaphor of Janus (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or holistic vs. reductionistic) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence. Theoretical physicist PW Anderson states it this way:\n\nMeanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. Renormalization methods in theoretical physics enable physicists to study critical phenomena that are not tractable as the combination of their parts. In 2009, Gu et al. presented a class of infinite physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties. More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. These results concern infinite systems, finite systems being considered computable. However, macroscopic concepts which only apply in the limit of infinite systems, such as phase transitions and the renormalization group, are important for understanding and modeling real, finite physical systems. Gu et al. concluded that\n\nIn humanity\n\nHuman beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure. An early argument (1904–05) for the emergence of social formations can be found in Max Weber's most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Recently, the emergence of a new social system is linked with the emergence of order from nonlinear relationships among multiple interacting units, where multiple interacting units are individual thoughts, consciousness, and actions.\n\nIn linguistics, the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of stylometry to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014). It has also been argued that the structure and regularity of language grammar, or at least language change, is an emergent phenomenon. While each speaker merely tries to reach their own communicative goals, they use language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed. In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances.\n\nEconomic trends and patterns which emerge are studied intensively by technical analysts.Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include SEED-SCALE, appreciative inquiry, Future Search, the world cafe or knowledge cafe, Open Space Technology, and others (Holman, 2010). In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed SEED-SCALE to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that self-assemble in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.\n\nIn technology\nThe bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the Universal Dielectric Response (UDR), can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems. Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, TCP flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a phase transition. Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications simulate emergent behavior. One example is Boids, which mimics the swarming behavior of birds.\n\nIn religion and art\nIn religion, emergence grounds expressions of religious naturalism and syntheism in which a sense of the sacred is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more complex forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in The Sacred Emergence of Nature by Ursula Goodenough & Terrence Deacon and Beyond Reductionism: Reinventing the Sacred by Stuart Kauffman, both from 2006, as well as Syntheism – Creating God in The Internet Age by Alexander Bard & Jan Söderqvist from 2014 and Emergentism: A Religion of Complexity for the Metamodern World by Brendan Graham Dempsey (2022). \n\nMichael J. Pearce has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience. Practicing artist Leonel Moura, in turn, attributes to his \"artbots\" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n \n \n \n \n Bejan, Adrian; Zane, J. P. (2012). Design in Nature: How the Constructal Law Governs Evolution in Biology, Physics, Technology, and Social Organizations. Doubleday.\n\nFurther reading\n\n Alexander, V. N. (2011). The Biologist’s Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature and Nature. Litchfield Park AZ: Emergent Publications.\n \n \n \n Chalmers, David J. (2002). \"Strong and Weak Emergence\" Republished in P. Clayton and P. Davies, eds. (2006) The Re-Emergence of Emergence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\n Philip Clayton & Paul Davies (eds.) (2006). The Re-Emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion Oxford: Oxford University Press.\n Felipe Cucker and Stephen Smale (2007), The Japanese Journal of Mathematics, The Mathematics of Emergence\n \n \n Hoffmann, Peter M. \"Life's Ratchet: How Molecular Machines Extract Order from Chaos\" (2012), Basic Books.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Ignazio Licata & Ammar Sakaji (eds) (2008). Physics of Emergence and Organization, , World Scientific and Imperial College Press.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n Solé, Ricard and Goodwin, Brian (2000) Signs of life: how complexity pervades biology, Basic Books, New York\n Jakub Tkac & Jiri Kroc (2017), Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence (Software) (PDF) Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence \"Video - Simulation of DRX\"\n \n \n architectureofemergence.com\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n The Emergent Universe: An interactive introduction to emergent phenomena, from ant colonies to Alzheimer's.\n Exploring Emergence: An introduction to emergence using CA and Conway's Game of Life from the MIT Media Lab\n ISCE group: Institute for the Study of Coherence and Emergence.\n Towards modeling of emergence: lecture slides from Helsinki University of Technology\n Biomimetic Architecture – Emergence applied to building and construction\n Studies in Emergent Order: Studies in Emergent Order (SIEO) is an open-access journal\n Emergence\n Emergence – How Stupid Things Become Smart Together – YouTube video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell\n DIEP: Dutch Institute for Emergent Phenomena\n\n \nCategory:Concepts in metaphysics\nCategory:Metaphysics of mind\nCategory:Pattern formation\nCategory:Concepts in the philosophy of mind\nCategory:Holism\nCategory:Ontology\nCategory:Philosophy of physics", "title": "Emergence" }, { "text": "In the semiotic theories of Jakob von Uexküll and Thomas A. Sebeok, umwelt (plural: umwelten; from the German Umwelt meaning \"environment\" or \"surroundings\") is the \"biological foundations that lie at the very center of the study of both communication and signification in the human [and non-human] animal\". The term is usually translated as \"self-centered world\". Uexküll theorised that organisms can have different umwelten, even though they share the same environment. The term umwelt, together with companion terms Umgebung (an Umwelt as seen by another observer) and Innenwelt (the mapping of the self to the world of objects), have special relevance for cognitive philosophers, roboticists and cyberneticians because they offer a potential solution to the conundrum of the infinite regress of the Cartesian Theater.\n\nDiscussion\n\nEach functional component of an umwelt has a meaning that represents the organism's model of the world. These functional components correspond approximately to perceptual features, as described by Anne Treisman. It is also the semiotic world of the organism, including all the meaningful aspects of the world for any particular organism. It can be water, food, shelter, potential threats or points of reference for navigation. An organism creates and reshapes its own umwelt when it interacts with the world. This is termed a 'functional circle'. The umwelt theory states that the mind and the world are inseparable because it is the mind that interprets the world for the organism. Because of the individuality and uniqueness of the history of every single organism, the umwelten of different organisms differ. When two umwelten interact, this creates a semiosphere.\n\nAs a term, umwelt also unites all the semiotic processes of an organism into a whole. Internally, an organism is the sum of its parts operating in functional circles and, to survive, all the parts must work cooperatively. This is termed the \"collective umwelt\" which models the organism as a centralised system from the cellular level upward. This requires the semiosis of any one part to be continuously connected to any other semiosis operating within the same organism. If anything disrupts this process, the organism will not operate efficiently.\n\nUexküll's writings show a specific interest in the various worlds that he believed to exist ('conceptually') from the point of view of the umwelt of different creatures such as ticks, sea urchins, amoebae, jellyfish, and sea worms.\n\nThe biosemiotic turn in Jakob von Uexküll's analysis occurs in his discussion of the animal's relationship with its environment. The umwelt is for him an environment-world which is, according to Agamben, \"constituted by a more or less broad series of elements [called] 'carriers of significance' or 'marks' which are the only things that interest the animal\". Agamben goes on to paraphrase Uexküll's example of the tick, saying:\n\"...this eyeless animal finds the way to her watchpoint [at the top of a tall blade of grass] with the help of only its skin’s general sensitivity to light. The approach of her prey becomes apparent to this blind and deaf bandit only through her sense of smell. The odor of butyric acid, which emanates from the sebaceous follicles of all mammals, works on the tick as a signal that causes her to abandon her post (on top of the blade of grass/bush) and fall blindly downward toward her prey. If she is fortunate enough to fall on something warm (which she perceives by means of an organ sensible to a precise temperature) then she has attained her prey, the warm-blooded animal, and thereafter needs only the help of her sense of touch to find the least hairy spot possible and embed herself up to her head in the cutaneous tissue of her prey. She can now slowly suck up a stream of warm blood.\"\n\nThus, for the tick, the umwelt is reduced to only three (biosemiotic) carriers of significance: (1) the odor of butyric acid, which emanates from the sebaceous follicles of all mammals; (2) the temperature of 37°C (corresponding to the blood of all mammals); and (3) the hairy topography of mammals.\n\nCritics\nUexküll's application of the notion of \"umwelt\" to the human person has been contested. In \"Welt und Umwelt\" and \"Die Wahrheit der Dinge\", the philosopher and sociologist Josef Pieper argued that reason allows the human person to live in \"Welt\" (world) while plants and animals do indeed live in an Umwelt—a notion he traces back far beyond Uexküll to Plato, Aristotle, and Thomas Aquinas.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n \n Naming Natureby Carol Kaesuk Yoon\n \n View from the Oak by Herbert and Judith Kohl The New Press | https://thenewpress.com/books/view-from-oak\n An Immense World by Ed Yong Penguin books Vintage | https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/440513/an-immense-world-by-yong-ed/9781847926081\n\nExternal links\nUmwelt by John Deely\nUmwelt and Phenomenology \nUmwelt and semiosphere by Kalevi Kull\nPragmatism and Umwelt-theory by Alexei Sharov\nTDE-R - A Subjective Biocomputer by Charles Dyer\n\nCategory:Semiotics\nCategory:Neuroethology concepts\nCategory:Existential therapy", "title": "Umwelt" }, { "text": "A habit (or wont, as a humorous and formal term) is a routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously.\n\nThe American Journal of Psychology (1903) defined a \"habit, from the standpoint of psychology, [as] a more or less fixed way of thinking, willing, or feeling acquired through previous repetition of a mental experience.\" Habitual behavior often goes unnoticed in persons exhibiting it, because a person does not need to engage in self-analysis when undertaking routine tasks. Habits are sometimes compulsory. A 2002 daily experience study by habit researcher Wendy Wood and her colleagues found that approximately 43% of daily behaviors are performed out of habit. New behaviours can become automatic through the process of habit formation. Old habits are hard to break and new habits are hard to form because the behavioural patterns which humans repeat become imprinted in neural pathways, but it is possible to form new habits through repetition.\n\nWhen behaviors are repeated in a consistent context, there is an incremental increase in the link between the context and the action. This increases the automaticity of the behavior in that context. Features of an automatic behavior are all or some of: efficiency; lack of awareness; unintentionality; and uncontrollability.\n\nHistory \nThe word habit is pulled from the Latin words habere, which means \"have, consist of,\" and habitus, which means \"condition, or state of being.\" It also is derived from the French word habit (), which means clothes. In the 13th century, the word habit first just referred to clothing. The meaning then progressed to the more common use of the word, which is \"acquired mode of behavior.\"\n\nIn 1890, William James, a pioneering philosopher and psychologist, addressed the subject of habit in his book, The Principles of Psychology. James viewed habit as natural tendency in order to navigate life. To him, \"living creatures...are bundles of habits\" and those habits that have \"an innate tendency are called instincts.\" James also explains how habits can govern our lives. He states, \"Any sequence of mental action which has been frequently repeated tends to perpetuate itself; so that we find ourselves automatically prompted to think, feel, or do what we have been before accustomed to think, feel, or do, under like circumstances, without any consciously formed purpose, or anticipated of result.\"\n\nFormation \nHabit formation is the process by which a behavior, through regular repetition, becomes automatic or habitual. This is modeled as an increase in automaticity with the number of repetitions up to an asymptote. This process of habit formation can be slow. Lally et al. (2010) found the average time for participants to reach the asymptote of automaticity was 66 days with a range of 18–254 days.\n\nThere are 3 main components to habit formation: the context cue, behavioral repetition, and the reward. The context cue can be a prior action, time of day, location, or anything that triggers the habitual behavior. This could be anything that one's mind associates with that habit, and one will automatically let a habit come to the surface. The behavior is the actual habit that one exhibits, and the reward, such as a positive feeling, therefore continues the \"habit loop\". A habit may initially be triggered by a goal, but over time that goal becomes less necessary and the habit becomes more automatic. Intermittent or uncertain rewards have been found to be particularly effective in promoting habit learning.\n\nA variety of digital tools, online or mobile apps, have been introduced that are designed to support habit formation. For example, Habitica is a system that uses gamification, implementing strategies found in video games to real-life tasks by adding rewards such as experience and gold. However, a review of such tools suggests most are poorly designed with respect to theory and fail to support the development of automaticity.\n\nShopping habits are particularly vulnerable to change at \"major life moments\" like graduation, marriage, the birth of the first child, moving to a new home, and divorce. Some stores use purchase data to try to detect these events and take advantage of the marketing opportunity.\n\nSome habits are known as \"keystone habits,\" and these influence the formation of other habits. For example, identifying as the type of person who takes care of their body and is in the habit of exercising regularly, can also influence eating better and using credit cards less. In business, safety can be a keystone habit that influences other habits that result in greater productivity.\n\nA recent study by Adriaanse et al. (2014) found that habits mediate the relationship between self-control and unhealthy snack consumption. The results of the study empirically demonstrate that high self-control may influence the formation of habits and in turn affect behavior.\n\nGoals \nThe habit–goal interface or interaction is constrained by the particular manner in which habits are learned and represented in memory. Specifically, the associative learning underlying habits is characterized by the slow, incremental accrual of information over time in procedural memory. Habits can either benefit or hurt the goals a person sets for themselves.\n\nGoals guide habits by providing the initial outcome-oriented motivation for response repetition. In this sense, habits are often a trace of past goal pursuit. Although, when a habit forces one action, but a conscious goal pushes for another action, an oppositional context occurs. When the habit prevails over the conscious goal, a capture error has taken place.\n\nBehavior prediction is also derived from goals. Behavior prediction acknowledges the likelihood that a habit will form, but in order to form that habit, a goal must have been initially present. The influence of goals on habits is what makes a habit different from other automatic processes in the mind.\n\nThe following is a description of a classic goal devaluation experiment (from a Scientific American MIND guest blog post called Should Habits or Goals Direct Your Life? It Depends) which demonstrates the difference between goal-directed and habitual behavior: A series of elegant experiments conducted by Anthony Dickinson and colleagues in the early 1980s at the University of Cambridge in England clearly exposes the behavioral differences between goal-directed and habitual processes. Basically, in the training phase, a rat was trained to press a lever in order to receive some food. Then, in a second phase, the rat was placed in a different cage without a lever and was given the food, but it was made ill whenever it ate the food. This caused the rat to \"devalue\" the food, because it associated the food with being ill, without directly associating the action of pressing the lever with being ill. Finally, in the test phase, the rat was placed in the original cage with the lever. (To prevent additional learning, no food was delivered in the test phase.) Rats that had undergone an extensive training phase continued to press the lever in the test phase even though the food was devalued; their behavior was called habitual. Rats that had undergone a moderate training phase did not, and their behavior was called goal-directed. … [G]oal-directed behavior is explained by the rat using an explicit prediction of the consequence, or outcome, of an action to select that action. If the rat wants the food, it presses the lever, because it predicts that pressing the lever will deliver the food. If the food has been devalued, the rat will not press the lever. Habitual behavior is explained by a strong association between an action and the situation from which the action was executed. The rat presses the lever when it sees the lever, not because of the predicted outcome.\n\nNervousness \nA number of habits can be classified as nervous habits. These include nail-biting, stammering, sniffling, and banging the head. They are known as symptoms of an emotional state and are generally based upon conditions of anxiety, insecurity, inferiority, and tension. These habits are often formed at a young age and may be due to a need for attention. When trying to overcome a nervous habit it is important to resolve the cause of the nervous feeling rather than the symptom which is a habit itself or a mountain as a result one could experience anxiety. Anxiety is a disorder known for excessive and unexpected worry that negatively impacts individuals' daily life and routines.\n\nBad habits \nA bad habit is an undesirable behavior pattern. Common examples include: procrastination, fidgeting, overspending, and nail-biting. The sooner one recognizes these bad habits, the easier it is to fix them. Rather than merely attempting to eliminate a bad habit, it may be more productive to seek to replace it with a healthier coping mechanism.\n\nWill and intention \nA key factor in distinguishing a bad habit from an addiction or mental disease is willpower. If a person can easily control the behavior, then it is a habit. Good intentions can override the negative effect of bad habits, but their effect seems to be independent and additive—the bad habits remain, but are subdued rather than cancelled.\n\nElimination \n\nMany techniques exist for removing established bad habits, e.g., withdrawal of reinforcers—identifying and removing factors that trigger and reinforce the habit. The basal ganglia appears to remember the context that triggers a habit, so habits can be revived if triggers reappear. Recognizing and eliminating bad habits as soon as possible is advised. Habit elimination becomes more difficult with age because repetitions reinforce habits cumulatively over the lifespan. According to Charles Duhigg, there is a loop that includes a cue, routine, and reward for every habit. An example of a habit loop is TV program ends (cue), go to the fridge (routine), eat a snack (reward). The key to changing habits is to identify your cue and modify your routine and reward.\n\nSee also \n\n Behavioral addiction\n Fixation (psychology)\n Habitus (disambiguation)\n Self control\n Tetris effect\n Vice\n Perseverance (virtue)\n\nHabit modification approaches\n\n Behavior modification\n Cognitive behavioral therapy\n Habit reversal training\n Paradoxical intention\n\nBehaviors with habitual elements\n\n Childhood obesity\n Nail-biting\n Neurodermatitis\n Nose-picking\n Obsessive-compulsive disorder\n Procrastination\n Thumb sucking\n Bulimia\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Allen, James Sloan, ed. William James on Habit, Will, Truth, and the Meaning of Life. Frederic C. Beil, Publisher, 2014.\n Payne, Arthur F. \"The Psychology of Nervous Habits.\" American Journal of Orthodontics and Oral Surgery 25, no. 4 (1939): 324.\n\nExternal links \n\n James Rowland Angell and Addison W. Moore. (1896) \"Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Chicago: 1. Reaction-Time: A Study in Attention and Habit.\" Psychological Review 3, 245–258.\n \"Should Habits or Goals Direct Your Life? It Depends.\" (Scientific American MIND blog post)\n \n\nCategory:Habits", "title": "Habit" }, { "text": "Body schema is a concept used in several disciplines, including psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, sports medicine, and robotics. The neurologist Sir Henry Head originally defined it as a postural model of the body that actively organizes and modifies 'the impressions produced by incoming sensory impulses in such a way that the final sensation of body position, or of locality, rises into consciousness charged with a relation to something that has happened before'. As a postural model that keeps track of limb position, it plays an important role in control of action. It involves aspects of both central (brain processes) and peripheral (sensory, proprioceptive) systems. Thus, a body schema can be considered the collection of processes that registers the posture of one's body parts in space. The schema is updated during body movement. This is typically a non-conscious process, and is used primarily for spatial organization of action. It is therefore a pragmatic representation of the body’s spatial properties, which includes the length of limbs and limb segments, their arrangement, the configuration of the segments in space, and the shape of the body surface. Body schema also plays an important role in the integration and use of tools by humans.\n\nA clear differentiation of body schema from body image has developed gradually.\n\nHistory\nHenry Head, an English neurologist who conducted pioneering work into the somatosensory system and sensory nerves, together with British neurologist Gordon Morgan Holmes, first described the concept in 1911. The concept was first termed \"postural schema\" to describe the disordered spatial representation of patients following damage to the parietal lobe of the brain. Head and Holmes discussed two schemas (or schemata): one body schema for the registration of posture or movement and another body schema for the localization of stimulated locations on the body surface. \"Body schema\" became the term used for the \"organized models of ourselves\". The term and definition first suggested by Head and Holmes has endured nearly a century of research with clarifications as more has become known about neuroscience and the brain.\n\nProperties\nNeuroscientists Patrick Haggard and Daniel Wolpert have identified seven fundamental properties of the body schema. It is spatially coded, modular, adaptable, supramodal, coherent, interpersonal, and updated with movement.\n\nSpatial encoding\nThe body schema represents both position and configuration of the body as a 3-dimensional object in space. A combination of sensory information, primarily tactile and visual, contributes to the representation of the limbs in space. This integration allows for stimuli to be localized in external space with respect to the body. An example by Haggard and Wolpert shows the combination of tactile sensation of the hand with information about the joint angles of the arm, which allow for rapid movements of said arm to swat a fly.\n\nModular\nThe body schema is not represented wholly in a single region of the brain. Recent fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) studies confirm earlier results. For example, the schema for feet and hands are coded by different regions of the brain, while the fingers are represented by a separate part entirely.\n\nAdaptable\nPlastic changes to the body schema are active and continuous. For example, gradual changes to the body schema must occur over the lifetime of an individual as he or she grows and absolute and relative sizes of body parts change over his or her life span. The development of the body schema has also been shown to occur in young children. One study showed that with these children (9-, 14-, and 19-month-olds), older children handled spoons so as to optimally and comfortably grip them for use, whereas younger children tended to reach with their dominant hand, regardless of the orientation of the spoon and eventual ease of use. Short-term plasticity has been shown with the integration of tools into the body schema. The rubber hand illusion has also shown the rapid reorganization of the body schema on the timescale of seconds, showing the high level of plasticity and speed with which the body schema reorganizes. In the Illusion, participants view a dummy hand being stroked with a paintbrush, while their own hand is stroked identically. Participants may feel that the touches on their hand are coming from the dummy hand, and even that the dummy hand is, in some way, their own hand.\n\nSupramodal\nBy its nature, body schema integrates proprioceptive, (the sense of the relative position of neighbouring parts of one's body), and tactile information to maintain a three-dimensional body representation. However, other sensory information, particularly visual, can be in the same representation of the body. This simultaneous participation means there are combined representations within the body schema, which suggests the involvement of a process to translate primary information (e.g. visual, tactile, etc.) into a single sensory modality or an abstract, amodal form.\n\nCoherent\nThe body schema, to function properly, must be able to maintain coherent organization continuously. To do so, it must be able to resolve any differences between sensory inputs. Resolving these inter-sensory inconsistencies can result in interesting sensations, such as those experienced during the Rubber Hand Illusion.\n\nInterpersonal\nIt is thought that an individual's body schema is used to represent both one's own body and the bodies of others. Mirror neurons are thought to play a role in the interpersonal characteristics of body schema. Interpersonal projection of one's body schema plays an important role in successfully imitating motions such as hand gestures, especially while maintaining the handedness and location of the gesture, but not necessarily copying the exact motion itself.\n\nUpdated with movement\nA working body schema must be able to interactively track the movements and positions of body parts in space. Neurons in the premotor cortex may contribute to this function. A class of neuron in the premotor cortex is multisensory. Each of these multisensory neurons responds to tactile stimuli and also to visual stimuli. The neuron has a tactile receptive field (responsive region on the body surface) typically on the face, arms, or hands. The same neuron also responds to visual stimuli in the space near the tactile receptive field. For example, if a neuron's tactile receptive field covers the arm, the same neuron will respond to visual stimuli in the space near the arm. As shown by Graziano and colleagues, the visual receptive field will update with arm movement, translating through space as the arm moves. Similar body-part-centered neuronal receptive fields relate to the face. These neurons apparently monitor the location of body parts and the location of nearby objects with respect to body parts. Similar neuronal properties may also be important for the ability to incorporate external objects into the body schema, such as in tool use.\n\nExtended body schema\nThe idea of the extended body schema is that, aside from the proprioceptive, visual, and sensory components that contribute to making a mental conception of one's body, the same processes that contribute to a body schema are also able to incorporate external objects into the mental conception of one's body. Part philosophical and part neuroscience, this concept builds upon the ideas of plasticity and adaptation to attempt to answer the question of where the body schema ends.\n\nThere is debate as to whether this concept truly exists, with one side arguing that the body schema does not extend past the body and the other side believing otherwise.\n\nSupporting arguments\nThe perspective shared by those who agree with the theory of the extended body schema follow reasoning in line with such that supports theories on tool use.\n\nIn some studies, attempts at understanding tool assimilation are used to argue for the existence of the extended body schema. In an experiment involving the use and interaction with wool objects, subjects were tested on their ability to perceive afterimages of wool objects in varying contexts. Subjects accustomed their eyes to a dark room and then were shown a brief (1 millisecond) flash of light, intending to produce an afterimage effect of their arms which they held out in front of them during the experiment. Moving an arm afterwards would make the afterimage \"fade\" or disappear as it moved, thus indicating that the feature (the arm) was being tracked and integrated into the person's body schema. To test integration of the meaningless wool objects, subjects experienced four different contexts.\n\n Subjects held the wool objects in each hand and one hand (the active hand) would move, still holding the object (the active object). \n Using the active hand, the active wool object would be dropped once an afterimage was perceived. \n Using the active hand, one would grab the active wool object once an afterimage was perceived. \n The subjects were to hold onto a mechanical device which held the wool object. Once an afterimage was perceived, a subject's active hand would cause the mechanical device to drop the wool object.\n\nIn all situations but the fourth, the subjects experienced the same \"fading\" effect as they did with their arm alone. This would thus indicate that the wool objects had been integrated into their body schema and contributes support towards the idea of the body's using proprioceptive and visual elements to create an extended body schema. The mechanical device acted as an intermediate between the subject and the active object, and the subjects' failure to detect an afterimage in that context indicates that this concept of extension is limited to being sensitive to only what the body is directly in contact with.\n\nDissenting arguments\n\nThe alternate perspective is that the body is the limit of any sort of body schema.\n\nAn example of this division is found in a study and discussion on personal and extrapersonal attention, where personal relates to the body's sense of itself (the body schema) and extrapersonal relates to all external of such. Some research supports the claim that these two categories are purely distinct and do not intermingle, contrary to what the extended body schema theory describes. Evidence for such is primarily found in subjects with unilateral neglect, such as in the case of E.D.S., who was a middle-aged man with right hemisphere brain damage. When he was tested for hemispatial neglect using traditional measures such as sentence reading and cancellation tests, E.D.S. showed few signs and upon later examination showed no signs whatsoever, leading doctors to believe he was normal. However, he constantly had issues with physical therapy because he would claim to not be able to see his left leg; upon further examination, E.D.S. was known to have a particular type of hemispatial neglect that only affected the perception of his body. The motor function of the left side of his body was negatively affected though not totally compromised, yet when attempting tasks such as shaving, he would invariably not shave the left side of his face. This led some researchers to believe that there is a distinction between personal and extrapersonal neglect, which would thus reflect a similar distinction with body schema itself.\n\nAssociated disorders\n\nDeafferentation\nThe most direct of related disorders, deafferentation occurs when sensory input from the body is reduced or absent, without affecting efferent, or motor, neurons. The most famous case of this disorder is \"IW\", who lost all sensory input from below the neck, resulting in temporary paralysis. He was forced to learn to control his movement all over again using only his conscious body image and visual feedback. As a result, when constant visual input is lost during an activity, such as walking, it becomes impossible for him to complete the task, which may result in falling, or simply stopping. IW requires constant attention to tasks to be able to complete them accurately, demonstrating how automatic and subconscious the process of integrating touch and proprioception into the body schema actually is.\n\nAutotopagnosia\nAutotopagnosia typically occurs after left parietal lesions. Patients with this disorder make errors which result from confusion between adjacent body parts. For example, a patient may point to their knee when asked to point to their hip. Because the disorder involves the body schema, localization errors may be made both on the patient’s own body and that of others. The spatial unity of the body within the body schema has been damaged such that it has incorrectly been segmented in relation to its other modular parts.\n\nPhantom limb\nPhantom limbs are a phenomenon which occurs following amputation of a limb from an individual. In 90–98% of cases, amputees report feeling all or part of the limb or body part still there, taking up space. The amputee may perceive a limb under full control, or paralyzed. A common side effect of phantom limbs is phantom limb pain. The neurophysiological mechanisms by which phantom limbs occur is still under debate. A common theory posits that the afferent neurons, since deafferented due to amputation, typically remap to adjacent cortical regions within the brain. This can cause amputees to report feeling their missing limb being touched when a seemingly unrelated part of the body is stimulated (such as if the face is touched, but the amputee also feels their missing arm being stroked in a specific location). Another facet of phantom limbs is that the efferent copy (motor feedback) responsible for reporting on position to the body schema does not attenuate quickly. Thus the missing body part may be attributed by the amputee to still be in a fixed or movable position.\n\nOthers\nAsomatognosia, somatoparaphrenia, anosognosia, anosodiaphoria, allochiria and hemispatial neglect all involve (or in some cases involve) aspects of impaired body schema. Hemispatial neglect is not uncommon because strokes sometimes cause it.\n\nTool use\n\nNot only is it necessary for the body schema to be able to integrate and form a three-dimensional representation of the body, but it also plays an important role in tool use. Studies recording neuronal activity in the intraparietal cortex in macaques have shown that, with training, the macaque body schema updates to include tools, such as those used for reaching, into the body schema. In humans, body schema plays an important role in both simple and complex tool use, far beyond that of macaques. Extensive training is also not necessary for this integration.\n\nThe mechanisms by which tools are integrated into the body schema are not fully understood. However, studies with long-term training have shown interesting phenomena. When wielding tools in both hands in a crossed posture, behavioral effects reverse in a similar way to when only hands are crossed. Thus, sensory stimuli are delivered the same way be it to the hands directly or indirectly via the tools. These studies suggest the mind incorporates the tools into the same or similar areas as it does the adjacent hands. Recent research into the short term plasticity of the body schema used individuals without any prior training with tools. These results, derived from the relation between afterimages and body schema, show that tools are incorporated into the body schema within seconds, regardless of length of training, though the results do not extend to other species besides humans.\n\nConfusion with body image\nHistorically, body schema and body image were generally lumped together, used interchangeably, or ill-defined. In science and elsewhere, the two terms are still commonly misattributed or confused. Efforts have been made to distinguish the two and define them in clear and differentiable ways. A body image consists of perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs concerning one's body. In contrast, body schema consists of sensory-motor capacities that control movement and posture.\n\nBody image may involve a person’s conscious perception of his or her own physical appearance. It is how individuals see themselves when picturing themselves in their mind, or when perceiving themselves in a mirror. Body image differs from body schema as perception differs from movement. Both may be involved in action, especially when learning new movements.\n\nSee also\n Body image (medicine)\n Peripheral neuropathy\n Schema (psychology)\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Motor cognition\nCategory:Motor control\nCategory:Cognitive science", "title": "Body schema" }, { "text": "In psychology, affordance is what the environment offers the individual. In design, affordance has a narrower meaning, it refers to possible actions that an actor can readily perceive. \n\nAmerican psychologist James J. Gibson coined the term in his 1966 book, The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems, and it occurs in many of his earlier essays. His best-known definition is from his 1979 book, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception:\n\nThe word is used in a variety of fields: perceptual psychology, cognitive psychology, environmental psychology, criminology, industrial design, human–computer interaction (HCI), interaction design, user-centered design, communication studies, instructional design, science, technology and society (STS), sports science and artificial intelligence.\n\nOriginal development \nGibson developed the concept of affordance over many years, culminating in his final book, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception in 1979. He defined an affordance as what the environment provides or furnishes the animal. Notably, Gibson compares an affordance with an ecological niche emphasizing the way niches characterize how an animal lives in its environment.\n\nThe key to understanding affordance is that it is relational and characterizes the suitability of the environment to the observer, and so, depends on their current intentions and their capabilities. For instance, a set of steps which rises high does not afford climbing to the crawling infant, yet might provide rest to a tired adult or the opportunity to move to another floor for an adult who wished to reach an alternative destination. This notion of intention/needs is critical to an understanding of affordance, as it explains how the same aspect of the environment can provide different affordances to different people, and even to the same individual at another point in time. As Gibson puts it, “Needs control the perception of affordances (selective attention) and also initiate acts.”\n\nAffordances were further studied by Eleanor J. Gibson, wife of James J. Gibson, who created her theory of perceptual learning around this concept. Her book, An Ecological Approach to Perceptual Learning and Development, explores affordances further.\n\nGibson's is the prevalent definition in cognitive psychology. According to Gibson, humans tend to alter and modify their environment so as to change its affordances to better suit them. On his view, humans change the environment to make it easier to live in (even if making it harder for other animals to live in it): to keep warm, to see at night, to rear children, and to move around. This tendency to change the environment is natural to humans, and Gibson argues that it is a mistake to treat the social world apart from the material world or the tools apart from the natural environment. He points out that manufacturing was originally done by hand as a kind of manipulation. Gibson argues that learning to perceive an affordance is an essential part of socialization.\n\nThe theory of affordances introduces a \"value-rich ecological object\". Affordances cannot be described within the value-neutral language of physics, but rather introduces notions of benefits and injuries to someone. An affordance captures this beneficial/injurious aspect of objects and relates them to the animal for whom they are well/ill-suited. During childhood development, a child learns to perceive not only the affordances for the self, but also how those same objects furnish similar affordances to another. A child can be introduced to the conventional meaning of an object by manipulating which objects command attention and demonstrating how to use the object through performing its central function. By learning how to use an artifact, a child “enters into the shared practices of society” as when they learn to use a toilet or brush their teeth. And so, by learning the affordances, or conventional meaning of an artifact, children learn the artifact's social world and further, become a member of that world.\n\nAnderson, Yamagishi and Karavia (2002) found that merely looking at an object primes the human brain to perform the action the object affords.\n\nAs perceived action possibilities \nIn 1988, Donald Norman appropriated the term affordances in the context of Human–Computer Interaction to refer to just those action possibilities that are readily perceivable by an actor. This new definition of \"action possibilities\" has now become synonymous with Gibson's work, although Gibson himself never made any reference to action possibilities in any of his writing. Through Norman's book The Design of Everyday Things, this interpretation was popularized within the fields of HCI, interaction design, and user-centered design. It makes the concept dependent not only on the physical capabilities of an actor, but also on their goals, beliefs, and past experiences. If an actor steps into a room containing an armchair and a softball, Gibson's original definition of affordances allows that the actor may throw the chair and sit on the ball, because this is objectively possible. Norman's definition of (perceived) affordances captures the likelihood that the actor will sit on the armchair and throw the softball. Effectively, Norman's affordances \"suggest\" how an object may be interacted with. For example, the size, shape, and weight of a softball make it perfect for throwing by humans, and it matches their past experience with similar objects. The focus on perceived affordances is much more pertinent to practical design problems , which may explain its widespread adoption.\n\nNorman later explained that this restriction of the term's meaning had been unintended, and in his 2013 update of The Design of Everyday Things, he added the concept \"signifiers\". In the digital age, designers were learning how to indicate what actions were possible on a smartphone's touchscreen, which didn't have the physical properties that Norman intended to describe when he used the word \"affordances\".\n\nHowever, the definition from his original book has been widely adopted in HCI and interaction design, and both meanings are now commonly used in these fields.\n\nFollowing Norman's adaptation of the concept, affordance has seen a further shift in meaning where it is used as an uncountable noun, referring to the easy discoverability of an object or system's action possibilities, as in \"this button has good affordance\". This in turn has given rise to use of the verb afford – from which Gibson's original term was derived – that is not consistent with its dictionary definition (to provide or make available): designers and those in the field of HCI often use afford as meaning \"to suggest\" or \"to invite\".\n\nThe different interpretations of affordances, although closely related, can be a source of confusion in writing and conversation if the intended meaning is not made explicit and if the word is not used consistently. Even authoritative textbooks can be inconsistent in their use of the term.\n\nWhen affordances are used to describe information and communications technology (ICT) an analogy is created with everyday objects with their attendant features and functions. Yet, ICT's features and functions derive from the product classifications of its developers and designers. This approach emphasizes an artifact’s convention to be wholly located in how it was designed to be used. In contrast, affordance theory draws attention to the fit of the technology to the activity of the user and so lends itself to studying how ICTs may be appropriated by users or even misused. One meta-analysis reviewed the evidence from a number of surveys about the extent to which the Internet is transforming or enhancing community. The studies showed that the internet is used for connectivity locally as well as globally, although the nature of its use varies in different countries. It found that internet use is adding on to other forms of communication, rather than replacing them.\n\nMechanisms and Conditions Framework of Affordances \nJenny L. Davis introduced the mechanisms and conditions framework of affordances in a 2016 article and 2020 book. The mechanisms and conditions framework shifts the orienting question from what technologies afford to how technologies afford, for whom and under what circumstances? This framework deals with the problem of binary application and presumed universal subjects in affordance analyses. The mechanisms of affordance indicate that technologies can variously request, demand, encourage, discourage, refuse, and allow social action, conditioned on users' perception, dexterity, and cultural and institutional legitimacy in relation to the technological object.\n\nThis framework adds specificity to affordances, focuses attention on relationality, and centralizes the role of values, politics, and power in affordance theory. The mechanisms and conditions framework is a tool of both socio-technical analysis and socially aware design.\n\nFalse affordances \nWilliam Gaver divided affordances into three categories: perceptible, hidden, and false.\n\n A false affordance is an apparent affordance that does not have any real function, meaning that the actor perceives possibilities for action that are nonexistent. A good example of a false affordance is a placebo button.\n Affordance is said to be hidden when there are possibilities for action, but these are not perceived by the actor. For example, it is not apparent from looking at a shoe that it could be used to open a wine bottle.\n Affordance is said to be perceptible when there is information available such that the actor perceives and can then act upon the existing affordance.\n\nThis means that, when affordances are perceptible, they offer a direct link between perception and action, and, when affordances are hidden or false, they can lead to mistakes and misunderstandings.\n\nAffordance in robotics \n\nProblems in robotics indicate that affordance is not only a theoretical concept from psychology. In object grasping and manipulation, robots need to learn the affordance of objects in the environment, i.e., to learn from visual perception and experience (a) whether objects can be manipulated, (b) to learn how to grasp an object, and (c) to learn how to manipulate objects to reach a particular goal. As an example, the hammer can be grasped, in principle, with many hand poses and approach strategies, but there is a limited set of effective contact points and their associated optimal grip for performing the goal.\n\nAffordances in language education \nBased on Gibson’s conceptualization of affordances as both the good and bad that the environment offers animals, affordances in language learning are both the opportunities and challenges that learners perceive of their environment when learning a language. Affordances, which are both learning opportunities or inhibitions, arise from the semiotic budget of the learning environment, which allows language to evolve. Positive affordances, or learning opportunities, are only effective in developing learner's language when they perceive and actively interact with their surroundings. Negative affordances, on the other hand, are crucial in exposing the learners’ weaknesses for teachers, and the learners themselves, to address their moment-to-moment needs in their learning process.\n\nSee also \n Action-specific perception\n Ambient optic array\n Default effect\n Form follows function\n Usability\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n\nA series of slides concerning theories of vision and (incidentally) the role of affordances and some interesting optical illusions concerning affordances \n\nCategory:Action (philosophy)\nCategory:Perception\nCategory:Psychological theories", "title": "Affordance" }, { "text": "Perspectivism (; also called perspectivalism) is the epistemological principle that perception of and knowledge of something are always bound to the interpretive perspectives of those observing it. While perspectivism regard all perspectives and interpretations as being of equal truth or value, it holds that no one has access to an absolute view of the world cut off from perspective. Instead, all such occurs from some point of view which in turn affects how things are perceived. Rather than attempt to determine truth by correspondence to things outside any perspective, perspectivism thus generally seeks to determine truth by comparing and evaluating perspectives among themselves. Perspectivism may be regarded as an early form of epistemological pluralism, though in some accounts includes treatment of value theory, moral psychology, and realist metaphysics.\n\nEarly forms of perspectivism have been identified in the philosophies of Protagoras, Michel de Montaigne, and Gottfried Leibniz. However, its first major statement is considered to be Friedrich Nietzsche's development of the concept in the 19th century, having built off Gustav Teichmüller's use of the term some years prior. For Nietzsche, perspectivism takes the form of a realist antimetaphysics while rejecting both the correspondence theory of truth and the notion that the truth-value of a belief always constitutes its ultimate worth-value. The perspectival conception of objectivity used by Nietzsche sees the deficiencies of each perspective as remediable by an asymptotic study of the differences between them. This stands in contrast to Platonic notions in which objective truth is seen to reside in a wholly non-perspectival domain. Despite this, perspectivism is often misinterpreted as a form of relativism or as a rejection of objectivity entirely. Though it is often mistaken to imply that no way of seeing the world can be taken as definitively true, perspectivism can instead be interpreted as holding certain interpretations (such as that of perspectivism itself) to be definitively true.\n\nDuring the 21st century, perspectivism has led a number of developments within analytic philosophy and philosophy of science, particularly under the early influence of Ronald Giere, Jay Rosenberg, Ernest Sosa, and others. This contemporary form of perspectivism, also known as scientific perspectivism, is more narrowly focused than prior forms—centering on the perspectival limitations of scientific models, theories, observations, and focused interest, while remaining more compatible for example with Kantian philosophy and correspondence theories of truth. Furthermore, scientific perspecitivism has come to address a number of scientific fields such as physics, biology, cognitive neuroscience, and medicine, as well as interdisciplinarity and philosophy of time. Studies of perspectivism have also been introduced into contemporary anthropology, initially through the influence of Eduardo Viveiros de Castro and his research into indigenous cultures of South America.\n\nThe basic principle that things are perceived differently from different perspectives (or that perspective determines one's limited and unprivileged access to knowledge) has sometimes been accounted as a rudimentary, uncontentious form of perspectivism. The basic practice of comparing contradictory perspectives to one another may also be considered one such form of perspectivism , as may the entire philosophical problem of how true knowledge is to penetrate one's perspectival limitations.\n\nPrecursors and early developments \n\nIn Western languages, scholars have found perspectivism in the philosophies of Heraclitus ( – ), Protagoras ( – ), Michel de Montaigne (1533 – 1592 CE), and Gottfried Leibniz (1646 – 1716 CE). The origins of perspectivism have also been found to lie also within Renaissance developments in philosophy of art and its artistic notion of perspective. In Asian languages, scholars have found perspectivism in Buddhist, Jain, and Daoist texts. Anthropologists have found a kind of perspectivism in the thinking of some indigenous peoples. Some theologians believe John Calvin interpreted various scriptures in a perspectivist manner.\n\nAncient Greek philosophy \n\nThe Western origins of perspectivism can be found in the pre-Socratic philosophies of Heraclitus and Protagoras. In fact, a major cornerstone of Plato's philosophy is his rejection and opposition to perspectivism—this forming a principal element of his aesthetics, ethics, epistemology, and theology. The antiperspectivism of Plato made him a central target of critique for later perspectival philosophers such as Nietzsche.\n\nMontaigne \n\nMontaigne's philosophy presents in itself a less as a doctrinaire position than as a core philosophical approach put into practice. Inasmuch as no one can occupy a God's-eye view, Montaigne holds that no one has access to a view which is totally unbiased, which does not according to its own perspective. It is instead only the underlying psychological biases which view one's own perspective as unbiased. In a passage from his \"Of Cannibals\", he writes:\n\nNietzsche \n\nIn his works, Nietzsche makes a number of statements on perspective which at times contrast each other throughout the development of his philosophy. Nietzsche's begins by challenging the underlying notions of 'viewing from nowhere', 'viewing from everywhere', and 'viewing without interpreting' as being absurdities. Instead, all is attached to some perspective, and all viewers are limited in some sense to the perspectives at their command. In The Genealogy of Morals he writes: \n\nIn this, Nietzsche takes a contextualist approach which rejects any God's-eye view of the world. This has been further linked to his notion of the death of God and the dangers of a resulting relativism. However, Nietzsche's perspectivism itself stands in sharp contrast to any such relativism. In outlining his perspectivism, Nietzsche rejects those who claim everything to be subjective, by disassembling the notion of the subject as itself a mere invention and interpretation. He further states that, since the two are mutually dependent on each other, the collapse of the God's-eye view causes also the notion of the thing-in-itself to fall apart with it. Nietzsche views this collapse to reveal, through his genealogical project, that all that has been considered non-perspectival knowledge, the entire tradition of Western metaphysics, has itself been only a perspective. His perspectivism and genealogical project are further integrated into each other in addressing the psychological drives that underlie various philosophical programs and perspectives, as a form of critique. Here, contemporary scholar Ken Gemes views Nietzsche's perspectivism to above all be a principle of moral psychology, rejecting interpretations of it as an epistemological thesis outrightly. It is through this method of critique that the deficiencies of various perspectives can be alleviated—through a critical mediation of the differences between them rather than any appeals to the non-perspectival. In a posthumously published aphorism from The Will to Power, Nietzsche writes: \n\nWhile Nietzsche does not plainly reject truth and objectivity, he does reject the notions of truth, facts, and objectivity.\n\nTruth theory and the value of truth \n\nDespite receiving much attention within contemporary philosophy, there is no academic consensus on Nietzsche's conception of truth. While his perspectivism presents a number of challenges regarding the nature of truth, its more controversial element lies in its questioning of the of truth. Contemporary scholars Steven D. Hales and Robert C. Welshon write that:\n\nLater developments \n\nIn the 20th century, perspectivism was discussed separately by José Ortega y Gasset and Karl Jaspers.\n\nOrtega \nOrtega's perspectivism, replaced his previous position that \"man is completely social\". His reversal is prominent in his work Verdad y perspectiva (\"Truth and perspective\"), where he explained that \"each man has a mission of truth\" and that what he sees of reality no other eye sees. He explained:From different positions two people see the same surroundings. However, they do not see the same thing. Their different positions mean that the surroundings are organized in a different way: what is in the foreground for one may be in the background for another. Furthermore, as things are hidden one behind another, each person will see something that the other may not.Ortega also maintained that perspective is perfected by the multiplication of its viewpoints. He noted that war transpires due to the lack of perspective and failure to see the larger contexts of the actions among nations. Ortega also cited the importance of phenomenology in perspectivism as he argued against speculation and the importance of concrete evidence in understanding truth and reality. In this discourse, he highlighted the role of \"circumstance\" in finding out the truth since it allows us to understand realities beyond ourselves.\n\nPhilosophy of science\n\nVarieties \nContemporary varieties of perspectivism include:\n Individualist perspectivism\n Collectivist perspectivism\n Transcendental perspectivism\n Theological perspectivism\n\nSee also \n\n Anekantavada, a fundamental doctrine of Jainism setting forth a pluralistic metaphysics, traceable to Mahavira (599–527 BCE)\n Blind men and an elephant\n Conceptual framework\n Consilience, the unity of knowledge\n Constructivist epistemology\n Eclecticism\n Fallibilism\n Fusion of horizons\n Integral theory (disambiguation)\n Intersubjectivity\n Metaphilosophy\n Model-dependent realism\n Moral nihilism\n Moral skepticism\n Multiperspectivalism, a current in Calvinist epistemology\n Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche\n \n Point of view (philosophy)\n Rhizome (philosophy)\n Standpoint theory\n Value pluralism\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Consensus reality\nCategory:Epistemological theories\nCategory:Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche\nCategory:Hermeneutics\nCategory:Philosophical analogies\nCategory:Philosophical theories\nCategory:Criticism of rationalism", "title": "Perspectivism" }, { "text": "Reflexivity might mean:\n\n Reflexivity (grammar)\n Reflexivity (social theory)\n Self-reflexivity (see Self-reference)\n\nSee also\n \n Reflectivism\n Reflexive (disambiguation)\n Reflexive operator algebra\n Reflexive pronoun\n Reflexive relation\n Reflexive space\n Reflexive verb\n Sesquilinear form", "title": "Reflexivity" }, { "text": "In Continental philosophy, the term invagination is used to explain a special kind of metanarrative. It was first used by Maurice Merleau-Ponty () to describe the dynamic self-differentiation of the 'flesh'. It was later used by Rosalind E. Krauss and Jacques Derrida (\"The Law of Genre\", Glyph 7, 1980); for Derrida, an invaginated text is a narrative that folds upon itself, \"endlessly swapping outside for inside and thereby producing a structure en abyme\". He applies the term to such texts as Immanuel Kant's Critique of Judgment and Maurice Blanchot's La Folie du Jour. Invagination is an aspect of différance, since according to Derrida it opens the \"inside\" to the \"other\" and denies both inside and outside a stable identity.\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Deconstruction\nCategory:Continental philosophy\nCategory:Literary concepts", "title": "Invagination (philosophy)" }, { "text": "Incarnation literally means embodied in flesh or taking on flesh. It refers to the conception and the embodiment of a deity or spirit in some earthly form or the appearance of a god as a human. If capitalized, it is the union of divinity with humanity in Jesus Christ. In its religious context the word is used to mean a god, deity, or divine being in human or animal form on Earth.\n\nAbrahamic religions\n\nChristianity\n\nThe incarnation of Christ is the central Christian doctrine that God became flesh, assumed a human nature, and became a man in the form of Jesus, the Son of God and the second person of the Trinity. This foundational Christian position holds that the divine nature of the Son of God was perfectly united with human nature in one divine Person, Jesus, making him both truly God and truly human. The theological term for this is hypostatic union: the second person of the Trinity, God the Son, became flesh when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of the Virgin Mary. Biblical passages traditionally referenced in connection with the doctrine of the Incarnation include , , and .\n\nIslam\n\nIslam completely rejects the doctrine of the incarnation (Mu'jassimā / (Tajseem) Tajsīm) of God in any form, as the concept is defined as shirk. In Islam, God is one and \"neither begets nor is begotten\".\n\nJudaism\n\nMainstream Judaism totally rejects any doctrine of an incarnation of God and absolutely rejects any concept of an incarnation of God in any form. However, some Hasidim believe in a somewhat similar concept. Menachem Mendel Schneerson, a prominent Hasidic leader, said that the Rebbe is God's essence itself put into the body of a tzadik.\n\nDruze faith\n\nHamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze faith and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts, he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is an important figure in the Druze faith whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018.\n\nBaháʼí Faith\n\nIn the Baháʼí Faith, God is not seen to be incarnated into this world and is not seen to be part of creation as he cannot be divided and does not descend to the condition of his creatures. The Manifestations of God are also not seen as an incarnation of God, but are instead understood to be like a perfect mirror reflecting the attributes of God onto this material world.\n\nBuddhism\n\nBuddhism is a nontheistic religion: it denies the concept of a creator deity or any incarnation of a creator deity. However, Buddhism does teach the rebirth doctrine and asserts that living beings are reborn, endlessly, reincarnating as devas (gods), demi-gods, human beings, animals, hungry ghosts or hellish beings, in a cycle of samsara that stops only for those who reach nirvana (nibbana).\n\nIn Tibetan Buddhism, an enlightened spiritual teacher (lama) is believed to reincarnate, and is called a tulku. According to Tulku Thond, there are three main types of tulkus. They are the emanations of buddhas, the manifestations of highly accomplished adepts, and rebirths of highly virtuous teachers or spiritual friends. There are also authentic secondary types as well which include unrecognized tulkus, blessed tulkus, and tulkus fallen from the path.\n\nHinduism\n\nIn Hinduism, incarnation refers to its rebirth doctrine, and in its theistic traditions to avatar. Avatar literally means \"descent, alight, to make one's appearance\", and refers to the embodiment of the essence of a superhuman being or a deity in another form. The word also implies \"to overcome, to remove, to bring down, to cross something\". In Hindu traditions, the \"crossing or coming down\" is symbolism, states Daniel Bassuk, of the divine descent from \"eternity into the temporal realm, from unconditioned to the conditioned, from infinitude to finitude\". An avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna (with form, attributes) embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman (soul).\n\nNeither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mentions the word avatar as a noun. The verb roots and form, such as avatarana, do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as \"action of descending\", but not as an incarnated person (avatara). The related verb avatarana is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, another as \"laying down the burden of man\" suffering from the forces of evil.\n\nThe term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu. The earliest mention of Vishnu manifested in a human form to empower the good and fight against evil, uses other terms such as the word sambhavāmi in verse 4.6 and the word tanu in verse 9.11 of the Bhagavad Gita, as well as other words such as akriti and rupa elsewhere. It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the noun version of avatar appears, where it means embodiment of a deity. The incarnation idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, and with ideas such as ansha-avatar or partial embodiments.\n\nWhile avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional. The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism.\n\nAvatar versus incarnation\nThe translation of avatar as \"incarnation\" has been questioned by Christian theologians, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect. The theological concept of Christ as an Incarnation into the womb of the Virgin Mary and by work of the Holy Spirit God, as found in Christology, presents the Christian concept of incarnation. This, state Oduyoye and Vroom, is different from the Hindu concept of avatar because avatars in Hinduism are unreal and is similar to Docetism. Sheth disagrees and states that this claim is an incorrect understanding of the Hindu concept of avatar. Avatars are true embodiments of spiritual perfection, one driven by noble goals, in Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism.\n\nSerer religion\nThe Serer religion of West Africa rejects any notions of incarnation or manifestation of the supreme deity Roog (also called Koox in the Cangin language). However, the reincarnation (ciiɗ) of the ancient Serer saints and ancestral spirits, called Pangool, is a well-held principle in Serer religion. These Pangool (singular : Fangool) act as intermediaries between the living world and the divine. When the Serers speak of incarnation, it is these Pangool they refer to, who are themselves holy by virtue of their intercession with the divine. Thaiw, Issa Laye, « La religiosité des Seereer, avant et pendant leur islamisation », in Éthiopiques, no. 54, volume 7, 2e semestre 1991 \n\n See also \n Arahitogami\n Kumari (goddess)\n List of people who have been considered deities\n Theophany\n\n Notes \n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n Daniélou, Alain (1991) [1964]. The myths and gods of India''. Inner Traditions, Vermont, USA. . pp. 164–187.\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n\nCategory:Religious belief and doctrine\nCategory:Conceptions of God", "title": "Incarnation" } ]

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[ { "text": "Gestalt psychology, gestaltism, or configurationism is a school of psychology that emerged in the early twentieth century in Austria and Germany as a theory of perception that was a rejection of basic principles of Wilhelm Wundt's and Edward Titchener's elementalist and structuralist psychology.\n\nAs used in Gestalt psychology, the German word Gestalt ( , ; meaning \"form\") is interpreted as \"pattern\" or \"configuration\". Gestalt psychologists emphasize that organisms perceive entire patterns or configurations, not merely individual components. The view is sometimes summarized using the adage, \"the whole is more than the sum of its parts.\"\n\nGestalt psychology was founded on works by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka.\n\nOrigin and history\n\nMax Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) founded Gestalt psychology in the early 20th century. The dominant view in psychology at the time was structuralism, exemplified by the work of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), and Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927). Structuralism was rooted firmly in British empiricism and was based on three closely interrelated theories: \n\"atomism,\" also known as \"elementalism,\" the view that all knowledge, even complex abstract ideas, is built from simple, elementary constituents\n\"sensationalism,\" the view that the simplest constituents—the atoms of thought—are elementary sense impressions\n\"associationism,\" the view that more complex ideas arise from the association of simpler ideas.\nTogether, these three theories give rise to the view that the mind constructs all perceptions and even abstract thoughts strictly from lower-level sensations that are related solely by being associated closely in space and time. The Gestaltists took issue with this widespread \"atomistic\" view that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements.\n\nIn contrast, the Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking psychological phenomena down into smaller parts would not lead to understanding psychology. The Gestalt psychologists believed, instead, that the most fruitful way to view psychological phenomena is as organized, structured wholes. They argued that the psychological \"whole\" has priority and that the \"parts\" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. One could say that the approach was based on a macroscopic view of psychology rather than a microscopic approach. Gestalt theories of perception are based on human nature being inclined to understand objects as an entire structure rather than the sum of its parts.\n\nWertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), a member of the School of Brentano. Von Ehrenfels introduced the concept of Gestalt to philosophy and psychology in 1890, before the advent of Gestalt psychology as such. Von Ehrenfels observed that a perceptual experience, such as perceiving a melody or a shape, is more than the sum of its sensory components. He claimed that, in addition to the sensory elements of the perception, there is something extra. Although in some sense derived from the organization of the component sensory elements, this further quality is an element in its own right. He called it Gestalt-qualität or \"form-quality.\" \n\nFor instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them that binds them together into a tune – the Gestalt-qualität. It is this Gestalt-qualität that, according to von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, while still retaining its identity. The idea of a Gestalt-qualität has roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of gestalt and figural moment, respectively.\n\nBy 1914, the first published references to Gestalt theory could be found in a footnote of Gabriele von Wartensleben's application of Gestalt theory to personality. She was a student at Frankfurt Academy for Social Sciences, who interacted deeply with Wertheimer and Köhler.\n\nThrough a series of experiments, Wertheimer discovered that a person observing a pair of alternating bars of light can, under the right conditions, experience the illusion of movement between one location and the other. He noted that this was a perception of motion absent any moving object. That is, it was pure phenomenal motion. He dubbed it phi (\"phenomenal\") motion. Wertheimer's publication of these results in 1912 marks the beginning of Gestalt psychology. In comparison to von Ehrenfels and others who had used the term \"gestalt\" earlier in various ways, Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the \"gestalt\" is perceptually primary. The gestalt defines the parts from which it is composed, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts. Wertheimer took the more radical position that \"what is given me by the melody does not arise ... as a secondary process from the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon what the whole is\", (1925/1938). In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly, in vision, one sees the form of the circle first—it is given \"im-mediately\" (i.e., its apprehension is not mediated by a process of part-summation). Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars.\n\nThe two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiments were Köhler and Koffka. Köhler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist Max Planck (1858–1947), but had taken his degree in psychology under Carl Stumpf (1848–1936). Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917, Köhler (1917/1925) published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Köhler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists, that animals can learn by \"sudden insight\" into the \"structure\" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) and Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively.\n\nThe terms \"structure\" and \"organization\" were focal for the Gestalt psychologists. Stimuli were said to have a certain structure, to be organized in a certain way, and that it is to this structural organization, rather than to individual sensory elements, that the organism responds. When an animal is conditioned, it does not simply respond to the absolute properties of a stimulus, but to its properties relative to its surroundings. To use a favorite example of Köhler's, if conditioned to respond in a certain way to the lighter of two gray cards, the animal generalizes the relation between the two stimuli rather than the absolute properties of the conditioned stimulus: it will respond to the lighter of two cards in subsequent trials even if the darker card in the test trial is of the same intensity as the lighter one in the original training trials.\n\nIn 1921, Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, Growth of the Mind. With the help of American psychologist Robert Ogden, Koffka introduced the Gestalt point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in Psychological Bulletin. It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually settling at Smith College in 1927. In 1935, Koffka published his Principles of Gestalt Psychology. This textbook laid out the Gestalt vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the Gestaltists was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science would have to accommodate not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but the facts of two other \"scientific categories\": questions of order and questions of Sinn, a German word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings.\n\nHaving survived the Nazis up to the mid-1930s, all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935. Köhler published another book, Dynamics in Psychology, in 1940 but thereafter the Gestalt movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving, Productive Thinking, was published posthumously in 1945, but Köhler was left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues.\n\nGestalt therapy\nGestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case, it is not identical to Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term \"Gestalt\" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the Gestalt psychologists would object to it; on the other hand, Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most Gestalt psychologists emphasize that Gestalt therapy is not a form of Gestalt psychology.\n\nMary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): \"What Perts has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear and often incompatible—from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is not Gestalt psychology\" With her analysis, however, she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general as a psychotherapy method.\n\nThere have been clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the psychotherapeutic field long before Perls'ian Gestalt therapy, in group psychoanalysis (Foulkes), Adlerian individual psychology, by Gestalt psychologists in psychotherapy like Erwin Levy, Abraham S. Luchins, by Gestalt psychologically oriented psychoanalysts in Italy (Canestrari and others), and there have been newer developments foremost in Europe. For example, a strictly Gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German Gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter and his colleagues in Germany, Austria (Gerhard Stemberger and colleagues) and Switzerland. Other countries, especially Italy, have seen similar developments.\n\nContributions \nGestalt psychology made many contributions to the body of psychology. The Gestaltists were the first to demonstrate empirically and document many facts about perception—including facts about the perception of movement, the perception of contour, perceptual constancy, and perceptual illusions. Wertheimer's discovery of the phi phenomenon is one example of such a contribution. In addition to discovering perceptual phenomena, the contributions of Gestalt psychology include: (a) a unique theoretical framework and methodology, (b) a set of perceptual principles, (c) a well-known set of perceptual grouping laws, (d) a theory of problem solving based on insight, and (e) a theory of memory. The following subsections discuss these contributions in turn.\n\nTheoretical framework and methodology\nThe Gestalt psychologists practiced a set of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object.\n\nThe theoretical principles are the following:\n Principle of totality—Conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a system of dynamic relationships. Wertheimer described holism as fundamental to Gestalt psychology, writing \"There are wholes, the behavior of which is not determined by that of their individual elements, but where the part-processes are themselves determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole.\" In other words, a perceptual whole is different from what one would predict based on only its individual parts. Moreover, the nature of a part depends upon the whole in which it is embedded. Köhler, for example, writes \"In psychology...we have wholes which, instead of being the sum of parts existing independently, give their parts specific functions or properties that can only be defined in relation to the whole in question.\" Thus, the maxim that the whole is more than the sum of its parts is not a precise description of the Gestaltist view. Rather, \"The whole is something else than the sum of its parts, because summing is a meaningless procedure, whereas the whole-part relationship is meaningful.\"\n\n Principle of psychophysical isomorphism – Köhler hypothesized that there is a correlation between conscious experience and cerebral activity.\n\nBased on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:\n Phenomenon experimental analysis—In relation to the Totality Principle any psychological research should take phenomena as a starting point and not be solely focused on sensory qualities.\n Biotic experiment—The Gestalt psychologists established a need to conduct real experiments that sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, what would be habitual for a subject.\n\nProperties\nThe key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.\n\nReification\n\nReification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.\n\nFor instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes disparate shapes as \"belonging\" to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.\n\nReification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as \"real\" contours.\n\nMultistability\n\nMultistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the Necker cube and Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, Gestalt psychology does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.\n\nInvariance\n\nInvariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which is immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified.\n\nEmergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.\n\nFigure-ground organization\n\nThe perceptual field (what an organism perceives) is organized. Figure-ground organization is one form of perceptual organization. Figure-ground organization is the interpretation of perceptual elements in terms of their shapes and relative locations in the layout of surfaces in the 3-D world. Figure-ground organization structures the perceptual field into a figure (standing out at the front of the perceptual field) and a background (receding behind the figure). Pioneering work on figure-ground organization was carried out by the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin. The Gestalt psychologists demonstrated that we tend to perceive as figures those parts of our perceptual fields that are convex, symmetric, small, and enclosed.\n\nPrägnanz\n\nLike figure-ground organization, perceptual grouping (sometimes called perceptual segregation) is a form of perceptual organization. Organisms perceive some parts of their perceptual fields as \"hanging together\" more tightly than others. They use this information for object detection. Perceptual grouping is the process that determines what these \"pieces\" of the perceptual field are.\n\nThe Gestaltists were the first psychologists to systematically study perceptual grouping. According to Gestalt psychologists, the fundamental principle of perceptual grouping is the law of Prägnanz. (The law of Prägnanz is also known as the law of good Gestalt.) Prägnanz is a German word that directly translates to \"pithiness\" and implies salience, conciseness, and orderliness. The law of Prägnanz says that we tend to experience things as regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple. As Koffka put it, \"Of several geometrically possible organizations that one will actually occur which possesses the best, simplest and most stable shape.\"\n\nThe law of Prägnanz implies that, as individuals perceive the world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so they can observe reality in its most simplistic form. Eliminating extraneous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This meaning created by perception implies a global regularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spatial relations. The law of good Gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness, which is what all of Gestalt theory is based on.\n\nA major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as wholes rather than as the sums of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws.\n\nGestalt psychologists attempted to discover refinements of the law of Prägnanz, and this involved writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what is often called \"gestalt laws\". Wertheimer defined a few principles that explain the ways humans perceive objects. Those principles were based on similarity, proximity, continuity. The Gestalt concept is based on perceiving reality in its simplest form. The various laws are called laws or principles, depending on the paper where they appear—but for simplicity's sake, this article uses the term laws. These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. These laws deal with the sensory modality of vision. However, there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory (Bregman – GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and 1940s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.\n\nLaw of proximity\n\nThe law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects, they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure illustrating the law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.\n\nLaw of similarity\n\nThe law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark, and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together and the light circles as grouped together, forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity.\n\nLaw of closure\n\nGestalt psychologists believed that humans tend to perceive objects as complete rather than focusing on the gaps that the object might contain. For example, a circle has good Gestalt in terms of completeness. However, we will also perceive an incomplete circle as a complete circle. That tendency to complete shapes and figures is called closure. The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.\n\nLaw of symmetry\n\nThe law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets.\n\nLaw of common fate\nThe law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that the movement of elements of an object produces paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.\n\nLaw of continuity\n\nThe law of continuity (also known as the law of good continuation) states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object. For example, the figure depicting the law of continuity shows a configuration of two crossed keys. When the image is perceived, we tend to perceive the key in the background as a single uninterrupted key instead of two separate halves of a key.\n\nLaw of past experience\nThe law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters \"L\" and \"I\" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.\n\nMusic\nAn example of the Gestalt movement in effect, as it is both a process and result, is a music sequence. People are able to recognise a sequence of perhaps six or seven notes, despite them being transposed into a different tuning or key. An early theory of gestalt grouping principles in music was composer-theorist James Tenney's Meta+Hodos (1961). Auditory Scene Analysis as developed by Albert Bregman further extends a gestalt approach to the analysis of sound perception.\n\nProblem solving and insight\nGestalt psychology contributed to the scientific study of problem solving. In fact, the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany marks the beginning of the scientific study of problem solving. Later this experimental work continued through the 1960s and early 1970s with research conducted on relatively simple (but novel for participants) laboratory tasks of problem solving.\n\nGiven Gestalt psychology's focus on the whole, it was natural for Gestalt psychologists to study problem-solving from the perspective of insight, seeking to understand the process by which organisms sometimes suddenly transition from having no idea how to solve a problem to instantly understanding the whole problem and its solution. In a famous set of experiments, Köhler gave chimpanzees some boxes and placed food high off the ground; after some time, the chimpanzees appeared to suddenly realize that they could stack the boxes on top of each other to reach the food.\n\nMax Wertheimer distinguished two kinds of thinking: productive thinking and reproductive thinking. Productive thinking is solving a problem based on insight—a quick, creative, unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction. Reproductive thinking is solving a problem deliberately based on previous experience and knowledge. Reproductive thinking proceeds algorithmically—a problem solver reproduces a series of steps from memory, knowing that they will lead to a solution—or by trial and error.\n\nKarl Duncker, another Gestalt psychologist who studied problem solving, coined the term functional fixedness for describing the difficulties in both visual perception and problem solving that arise from the fact that one element of a whole situation already has a (fixed) function that has to be changed in order to perceive something or find the solution to a problem.\n\nAbraham Luchins also studied problem solving from the perspective of Gestalt psychology. He is well known for his research on the role of mental set (Einstellung effect), which he demonstrated using a series of problems having to do with refilling water jars.\n\nAnother Gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes:\n\n Unconscious leap in thinking.\n The increased amount of speed in mental processing.\n The amount of short-circuiting that occurs in normal reasoning.\n\nViews going against the Gestalt psychology are:\nNothing-special view\n Neo-gestalt view\nThe Three-Process View\n\nFuzzy-trace theory of memory\nFuzzy-trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt psychology. Fuzzy-trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist.\n\nLegacy \n\nGestalt psychology struggled to precisely define terms like Prägnanz, to make specific behavioral predictions, and to articulate testable models of underlying neural mechanisms. It was criticized as being merely descriptive. These shortcomings led, by the mid-20th century, to growing dissatisfaction with Gestaltism and a subsequent decline in its impact on psychology. Despite this decline, Gestalt psychology has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.\n\nSupport from cybernetics and neurology \nIn the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such:\n\nA frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon which he must center a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not concerned with the detail of stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only by size and movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision and he is not distracted.\n\nThe lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human beings is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilized on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, \"fixes\" it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary movements. As a result, the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image \"marks time\" in the vicinity of this point.\n\nIn the 1990s, Andranik Tangian developed a model of artificial perception that implemented a principle of correlativity, which operationalized the Gestalt psychology laws in their interaction. The model finds structures in data without knowing the structures, similarly to segregating elements in abstract painting—like curves, contours and spots—without identifying them with known objects. The approach is based on the least complex data representations in the sense of Kolmogorov, i.e. requiring the least memory storage, which is regarded as saving the brain energy. The least complexity criterion leads to multi-level data representations in terms of generative patterns and their transformations, using proximities, similarities, symmetries, common fate grouping, continuities, etc. The idea that perception is data representation rather than \"physical\" recognition is illustrated by the effect of several voices produced by a single physical body—a loudspeaker membrane, whereas the effect of a single tone is produced by several physical bodies—organ pipes tuned as a chord and activated by a single key. It is shown that the physical causality in certain observations can be revealed through optimal data representations, and this nature–information duality is explained by the fact that both nature and information are subordinated to the same principle of efficiency. In some situations, the least complex data representations use the patterns already stored in the memory, demonstrating the dependence of perception on previous knowledge—in line with the Gestalt psychology law of past experience. Such an intelligent perception is opposed to the naïve perception that is based exclusively on direct percepts and is therefore context-dependent. The model is applied to automatic notation of music—recognition of interval structures in chords and polyphonic voices (with no reference to pitch, thereby relying on interval hearing instead of absolute hearing) as well as rhythms under variable tempo, approaching the capabilities of trained musicians. The model is also relevant to visual scene analysis and explains some modes of abstract thinking.\n\nQuantum cognition modeling\n\nSimilarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that \"similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable\" yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an \"implicate order\". The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other can depend on the order in which they are performed—a pertinent feature for psychological processes, as an experiment performed on a conscious person may influence the outcome of a subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person.\n\nUse in contemporary social psychology \nThe halo effect can be explained through the application of Gestalt theories to social information processing. The constructive theories of social cognition are applied to the expectations of individuals. They have been perceived in this manner and the person judging the individual is continuing to view them in this positive manner. Gestalt's theories of perception enforces that individual's tendency to perceive actions and characteristics as a whole rather than isolated parts, therefore humans are inclined to build a coherent and consistent impression of objects and behaviors in order to achieve an acceptable shape and form. The halo effect is what forms patterns for individuals, the halo effect being classified as a cognitive bias which occurs during impression formation. The halo effect can also be altered by physical characteristics, social status and many other characteristics. As well, the halo effect can have real repercussions on the individual's perception of reality, either negatively or positively, meaning to construct negative or positive images about other individuals or situations, something that could lead to self-fulfilling prophesies, stereotyping, or even discrimination.\n\nContemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology\n\nSome of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on Gestalt perception. Researchers continue to test hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying Gestalt principles such as the principle of similarity.\n\nOther important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology.\n\nIn some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, a textbook on visual perception states that, \"The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their 'laws' of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a 'good' or 'simple' shape, for example?\"\n\nOne historian of psychology, David J. Murray, has argued that Gestalt psychologists first discovered many principles later championed by cognitive psychology, including schemas and prototypes. Another psychologist has argued that the Gestalt psychologists made a lasting contribution by showing how the study of illusions can help scientists understand essential aspects of how the visual system normally functions, not merely how it breaks down.\n\nUse in design\n\nThe gestalt laws are used in several visual design fields, such as user interface design and cartography. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns.\n\nIn map design, principles of Prägnanz or grouping are crucial for implying a conceptual order to the portrayed geographic features, thus facilitating the intended use of the map. The Law of Similarity is employed by selecting similar map symbols for similar kinds of features or features with similar properties; the Law of Proximity is crucial to identifying geographic patterns and regions; and the Laws of Closure and Continuity allow users to recognize features that may be obscured by other features (such as when a road goes over a river).\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Gestalt psychology on Encyclopædia Britannica\n Journal \"Gestalt Theory - An International Multidisciplinary Journal\" in full text (open source)\n International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications – GTA\n\nCategory:Cognitive psychology\nCategory:Graphic design\nCategory:Holism\nCategory:Perception\nCategory:Psychological schools", "title": "Gestalt psychology" }, { "text": "Process philosophy, also ontology of becoming, or processism, is an approach in philosophy that identifies processes, changes, or shifting relationships as the only real experience of everyday living. In opposition to the classical view of change as illusory (as argued by Parmenides) or accidental (as argued by Aristotle), process philosophy posits transient occasions of change or becoming as the only fundamental things of the ordinary everyday real world.\n\nSince the time of Plato and Aristotle, classical ontology has posited ordinary world reality as constituted of enduring substances, to which transient processes are ontologically subordinate, if they are not denied. If Socrates changes, becoming sick, Socrates is still the same (the substance of Socrates being the same), and change (his sickness) only glides over his substance: change is accidental, and devoid of primary reality, whereas the substance is essential.\n\nIn physics, Ilya Prigogine distinguishes between the \"physics of being\" and the \"physics of becoming\". Process philosophy covers not just scientific intuitions and experiences, but can be used as a conceptual bridge to facilitate discussions among religion, philosophy, and science.\n\nProcess philosophy is sometimes classified as closer to continental philosophy than analytic philosophy, because it is usually only taught in continental philosophy departments. However, other sources state that process philosophy should be placed somewhere in the middle between the poles of analytic versus continental methods in contemporary philosophy.\n\nHistory\n\nIn ancient Greek thought \n\nHeraclitus proclaimed that the basic nature of all things is change.\n\nThe quotation from Heraclitus appears in Plato's Cratylus twice; in 401d as:\nTa onta ienai te panta kai menein ouden\"All entities move and nothing remains still\"and in 402a\n\nPanta chōrei kai ouden menei kai dis es ton auton potamon ouk an embaies\n\"Everything changes and nothing remains still ... and ... you cannot step twice into the same stream\"\n\nHeraclitus considered fire as the most fundamental element.\n\n\"All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and gold for goods.\"\n\nThe following is an interpretation of Heraclitus's concepts into modern terms by Nicholas Rescher.\n\n\"...reality is not a constellation of things at all, but one of processes. The fundamental \"stuff\" of the world is not material substance, but volatile flux, namely \"fire\", and all things are versions thereof (puros tropai). Process is fundamental: the river is not an object, but a continuing flow; the sun is not a thing, but an enduring fire. Everything is a matter of process, of activity, of change (panta rhei).\"\n\nAn early expression of this viewpoint is in Heraclitus's fragments. He posits strife, ἡ ἔρις (strife, conflict), as the underlying basis of all reality defined by change. The balance and opposition in strife were the foundations of change and stability in the flux of existence.\n\nNietzsche and Kierkegaard\nIn his written works, Friedrich Nietzsche proposed what has been regarded as a philosophy of becoming that encompasses a \"naturalistic doctrine intended to counter the metaphysical preoccupation with being\", and a theory of \"the incessant shift of perspectives and interpretations in a world that lacks a grounding essence\".\n\nSøren Kierkegaard posed questions of individual becoming in Christianity which were opposed to the ancient Greek philosophers' focus on the indifferent becoming of the cosmos. However, he established as much of a focus on aporia as Heraclitus and others previously had, such as in his concept of the leap of faith which marks an individual becoming. As well as this, Kierkegaard opposed his philosophy to Hegel's system of philosophy approaching becoming and difference for what he saw as a \"dialectical conflation of becoming and rationality\", making the system take upon the same trait of motionlessness as Parmenides' system.\n\nTwentieth century\nIn the early twentieth century, the philosophy of mathematics was undertaken to develop mathematics as an airtight, axiomatic system in which every truth could be derived logically from a set of axioms. In the foundations of mathematics, this project is variously understood as logicism or as part of the formalist program of David Hilbert. Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell attempted to complete, or at least facilitate, this program with their seminal book Principia Mathematica, which purported to build a logically consistent set theory on which to found mathematics. After this, Whitehead extended his interest to natural science, which he held needed a deeper philosophical basis. He intuited that natural science was struggling to overcome a traditional ontology of timeless material substances that does not suit natural phenomena. According to Whitehead, material is more properly understood as 'process'. In 1929, he produced the most famous work of process philosophy, Process and Reality, continuing the work begun by Hegel but describing a more complex and fluid dynamic ontology.\n\nProcess thought describes truth as \"movement\" in and through substance (Hegelian truth), rather than substances as fixed concepts or \"things\" (Aristotelian truth). Since Whitehead, process thought is distinguished from Hegel in that it describes entities that arise or coalesce in becoming, rather than being simply dialectically determined from prior posited determinates. These entities are referred to as complexes of occasions of experience. It is also distinguished in being not necessarily conflictual or oppositional in operation. Process may be integrative, destructive or both together, allowing for aspects of interdependence, influence, and confluence, and addressing coherence in universal as well as particular developments, i.e., those aspects not befitting Hegel's system. Additionally, instances of determinate occasions of experience, while always ephemeral, are nonetheless seen as important to define the type and continuity of those occasions of experience that flow from or relate to them.\n\nWhitehead's Process and Reality\nAlfred North Whitehead began teaching and writing on process and metaphysics when he joined Harvard University in 1924.\n\nIn his book Science and the Modern World (1925), Whitehead noted that the human intuitions and experiences of science, aesthetics, ethics, and religion influence the worldview of a community, but that in the last several centuries science dominates Western culture. Whitehead sought a holistic, comprehensive cosmology that provides a systematic descriptive theory of the world which can be used for the diverse human intuitions gained through ethical, aesthetic, religious, and scientific experiences, and not just the scientific.\n\nWhitehead's influences were not restricted to philosophers or physicists or mathematicians. He was influenced by the French philosopher Henri Bergson (1859–1941), whom he credits along with William James and John Dewey in the preface to Process and Reality.\n\nProcess metaphysics\n\nFor Whitehead, metaphysics is about logical frameworks for the conduct of discussions of the character of the world. It is not directly and immediately about facts of nature, but only indirectly so, in that its task is to explicitly formulate the language and conceptual presuppositions that are used to describe the facts of nature. Whitehead thinks that discovery of previously unknown facts of nature can in principle call for reconstruction of metaphysics.\n\nThe process metaphysics elaborated in Process and Reality posits an ontology which is based on the two kinds of existence of an entity, that of actual entity and that of abstract entity or abstraction, also called 'object'.\n\nActual entity is a term coined by Whitehead to refer to the entities that really exist in the natural world. For Whitehead, actual entities are spatiotemporally extended events or processes. An actual entity is how something is happening, and how its happening is related to other actual entities. The actually existing world is a multiplicity of actual entities overlapping one another.\n\nThe ultimate abstract principle of actual existence for Whitehead is creativity. Creativity is a term coined by Whitehead to show a power in the world that allows the presence of an actual entity, a new actual entity, and multiple actual entities. Creativity is the principle of novelty. It is manifest in what can be called 'singular causality'. This term may be contrasted with the term 'nomic causality'. An example of singular causation is that I woke this morning because my alarm clock rang. An example of nomic causation is that alarm clocks generally wake people in the morning. Aristotle recognizes singular causality as efficient causality. For Whitehead, there are many contributory singular causes for an event. A further contributory singular cause of my being awoken by my alarm clock this morning was that I was lying asleep near it till it rang.\n\nAn actual entity is a general philosophical term for an utterly determinate and completely concrete individual particular of the actually existing world or universe of changeable entities considered in terms of singular causality, about which categorical statements can be made. Whitehead's most far-reaching and radical contribution to metaphysics is his invention of a better way of choosing the actual entities. Whitehead chooses a way of defining the actual entities that makes them all alike, qua actual entities, with a single exception.\n\nFor example, for Aristotle, the actual entities were the substances, such as Socrates. Besides Aristotle's ontology of substances, another example of an ontology that posits actual entities is in the monads of Leibniz, which are said to be 'windowless'.\n\nWhitehead's actual entities\n\nFor Whitehead's ontology of processes as defining the world, the actual entities exist as the only fundamental elements of reality.\n\nThe actual entities are of two kinds, temporal and atemporal.\n\nWith one exception, all actual entities for Whitehead are temporal and are occasions of experience (which are not to be confused with consciousness). An entity that people commonly think of as a simple concrete object, or that Aristotle would think of as a substance, is, in this ontology, considered to be a temporally serial composite of indefinitely many overlapping occasions of experience. A human being is thus composed of indefinitely many occasions of experience.\n\nThe one exceptional actual entity is at once both temporal and atemporal: God. He is objectively immortal, as well as being immanent in the world. He is objectified in each temporal actual entity; but He is not an eternal object.\n\nThe occasions of experience are of four grades. The first grade comprises processes in a physical vacuum such as the propagation of an electromagnetic wave or gravitational influence across empty space. The occasions of experience of the second grade involve just inanimate matter; \"matter\" being the composite overlapping of occasions of experience from the previous grade. The occasions of experience of the third grade involve living organisms. Occasions of experience of the fourth grade involve experience in the mode of presentational immediacy, which means more or less what are often called the qualia of subjective experience. So far as we know, experience in the mode of presentational immediacy occurs in only more evolved animals. That some occasions of experience involve experience in the mode of presentational immediacy is the one and only reason why Whitehead makes the occasions of experience his actual entities; for the actual entities must be of the ultimately general kind. Consequently, it is inessential that an occasion of experience have an aspect in the mode of presentational immediacy; occasions of the grades one, two, and three, lack that aspect.\n\nThere is no mind-matter duality in this ontology, because \"mind\" is simply seen as an abstraction from an occasion of experience which has also a material aspect, which is of course simply another abstraction from it; thus the mental aspect and the material aspect are abstractions from one and the same concrete occasion of experience. The brain is part of the body, both being abstractions of a kind known as persistent physical objects, neither being actual entities. Though not recognized by Aristotle, there is biological evidence, written about by Galen, that the human brain is an essential seat of human experience in the mode of presentational immediacy. We may say that the brain has a material and a mental aspect, all three being abstractions from their indefinitely many constitutive occasions of experience, which are actual entities.\n\nTime, causality, and process\nInherent in each actual entity is its respective dimension of time. Potentially, each Whiteheadean occasion of experience is causally consequential on every other occasion of experience that precedes it in time, and has as its causal consequences every other occasion of experience that follows it in time; thus it has been said that Whitehead's occasions of experience are 'all window', in contrast to Leibniz's 'windowless' monads. In time defined relative to it, each occasion of experience is causally influenced by prior occasions of experiences, and causally influences future occasions of experience. An occasion of experience consists of a process of prehending other occasions of experience, reacting to them. This is the process in process philosophy.\n\nSuch process is never deterministic. Consequently, free will is essential and inherent to the universe.\n\nThe causal outcomes obey the usual well-respected rule that the causes precede the effects in time. Some pairs of processes cannot be connected by cause-and-effect relations, and they are said to be spatially separated. This is in perfect agreement with the viewpoint of the Einstein theory of special relativity and with the Minkowski geometry of spacetime. It is clear that Whitehead respected these ideas, as may be seen for example in his 1919 book An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge as well as in Process and Reality. In this view, time is relative to an inertial reference frame, different reference frames defining different versions of time.\n\nAtomicity\n\nThe actual entities, the occasions of experience, are logically atomic in the sense that an occasion of experience cannot be cut and separated into two other occasions of experience. This kind of logical atomicity is perfectly compatible with indefinitely many spatio-temporal overlaps of occasions of experience. One can explain this kind of atomicity by saying that an occasion of experience has an internal causal structure that could not be reproduced in each of the two complementary sections into which it might be cut. Nevertheless, an actual entity can completely contain each of indefinitely many other actual entities.\n\nAnother aspect of the atomicity of occasions of experience is that they do not change. An actual entity is what it is. An occasion of experience can be described as a process of change, but it is itself unchangeable.\n\nThe reader should bear in mind that the atomicity of the actual entities is of a simply logical or philosophical kind, thoroughly different in concept from the natural kind of atomicity that describes the atoms of physics and chemistry.\n\nTopology\n\nWhitehead's theory of extension was concerned with the spatio-temporal features of his occasions of experience. Fundamental to both Newtonian and to quantum theoretical mechanics is the concept of momentum. The measurement of a momentum requires a finite spatiotemporal extent. Because it has no finite spatiotemporal extent, a single point of Minkowski space cannot be an occasion of experience, but is an abstraction from an infinite set of overlapping or contained occasions of experience, as explained in Process and Reality. Though the occasions of experience are atomic, they are not necessarily separate in extension, spatiotemporally, from one another. Indefinitely many occasions of experience can overlap in Minkowski space.\n\nNexus is a term coined by Whitehead to show the network actual entity from the universe. In the universe of actual entities spread actual entity. Actual entities are clashing with each other and form other actual entities. The birth of an actual entity based on an actual entity, actual entities around him referred to as nexus.\n\nAn example of a nexus of temporally overlapping occasions of experience is what Whitehead calls an enduring physical object, which corresponds closely with an Aristotelian substance. An enduring physical object has a temporally earliest and a temporally last member. Every member (apart from the earliest) of such a nexus is a causal consequence of the earliest member of the nexus, and every member (apart from the last) of such a nexus is a causal antecedent of the last member of the nexus. There are indefinitely many other causal antecedents and consequences of the enduring physical object, which overlap, but are not members, of the nexus. No member of the nexus is spatially separate from any other member. Within the nexus are indefinitely many continuous streams of overlapping nexūs, each stream including the earliest and the last member of the enduring physical object. Thus an enduring physical object, like an Aristotelian substance, undergoes changes and adventures during the course of its existence.\n\nIn some contexts, especially in the theory of relativity in physics, the word 'event' refers to a single point in Minkowski or in Riemannian space-time. A point event is not a process in the sense of Whitehead's metaphysics. Neither is a countable sequence or array of points. A Whiteheadian process is most importantly characterized by extension in space-time, marked by a continuum of uncountably many points in a Minkowski or a Riemannian space-time. The word 'event', indicating a Whiteheadian actual entity, is not being used in the sense of a point event.\n\nWhitehead's abstractions\n\nWhitehead's abstractions are conceptual entities that are abstracted from or derived from and founded upon his actual entities. Abstractions are themselves not actual entities. They are the only entities that can be real but are not actual entities. This statement is one form of Whitehead's 'ontological principle'.\n\nAn abstraction is a conceptual entity that refers to more than one single actual entity. Whitehead's ontology refers to importantly structured collections of actual entities as nexuses of actual entities. Collection of actual entities into a nexus emphasizes some aspect of those entities, and that emphasis is an abstraction, because it means that some aspects of the actual entities are emphasized or dragged away from their actuality, while other aspects are de-emphasized or left out or left behind.\n\n'Eternal object' is a term coined by Whitehead. It is an abstraction, a possibility, or pure potential. It can be ingredient into some actual entity. It is a principle that can give a particular form to an actual entity.\n\nWhitehead admitted indefinitely many eternal objects. An example of an eternal object is a number, such as the number 'two'. Whitehead held that eternal objects are abstractions of a very high degree of abstraction. Many abstractions, including eternal objects, are potential ingredients of processes.\n\nRelation between actual entities and abstractions stated in the ontological principle\n\nFor Whitehead, besides its temporal generation by the actual entities which are its contributory causes, a process may be considered as a concrescence of abstract ingredient eternal objects. God enters into every temporal actual entity.\n\nWhitehead's ontological principle is that whatever reality pertains to an abstraction is derived from the actual entities upon which it is founded or of which it is comprised.\n\nCausation and concrescence of a process\nConcrescence is a term coined by Whitehead to show the process of jointly forming an actual entity that was without form, but about to manifest itself into an entity Actual full (satisfaction) based on datums or for information on the universe. The process of forming an actual entity is the case based on the existing datums. Concretion process can be regarded as subjectification process.\n\nDatum is a term coined by Whitehead to show the different variants of information possessed by actual entity. In process philosophy, datum is obtained through the events of concrescence. Every actual entity has a variety of datum.\n\nCommentary on Whitehead and on process philosophy\nWhitehead is not an idealist in the strict sense. Whitehead's thought may be regarded as related to the idea of panpsychism (also known as panexperientialism, because of Whitehead's emphasis on experience).\n\nOn God \nWhitehead's philosophy is complex, subtle, and nuanced; and in order to comprehend his thinking regarding what is commonly referred to by many religions as \"God\", it is recommended that one read from Process and Reality Corrected Edition (1978), wherein regarding \"God\" the authors elaborate Whitehead's conception.\n\nHe is the unconditioned actuality of conceptual feeling at the base of things; so that by reason of this primordial actuality, there is an order in the relevance of eternal objects to the process of creation. [...] The particularities of the actual world presuppose it; while it merely presupposes the general metaphysical character of creative advance, of which it is the primordial exemplification. [emphasis in original]\n\nProcess philosophy, might be considered according to some theistic forms of religion to give God a special place in the universe of occasions of experience. Regarding Whitehead's use of the term \"occasions\" in reference to \"God\", Process and Reality Corrected Edition explains:\n\n'Actual entities' - also termed 'actual occasions' - are the final real things of which the world is made up. There is no going behind actual entities to find anything more real. They differ among themselves: God is an actual entity, and so is the most trivial puff of existence in far-off empty space. But, though there are gradations of importance, and diversities of function, yet in the principles which actuality exemplifies all are on the same level. The final facts are, all alike, actual entities; and these actual entities are drops of experience, complex and interdependent.\n\nIt also can be assumed within some forms of theology that a God encompasses all the other occasions of experience but also transcends them and this might lead to it being argued that Whitehead endorses some form of panentheism. Since, it is argued theologically, that \"free will\" is inherent to the nature of the universe, Whitehead's God is not omnipotent in Whitehead's metaphysics. God's role is to offer enhanced occasions of experience. God participates in the evolution of the universe by offering possibilities, which may be accepted or rejected. Whitehead's thinking here has given rise to process theology, whose prominent advocates include Charles Hartshorne, John B. Cobb, Jr., and Hans Jonas, who was also influenced by the non-theological philosopher Martin Heidegger. However, other process philosophers have questioned Whitehead's theology, seeing it as a regressive Platonism.\n\nWhitehead enumerated three essential natures of God. The primordial nature of God consists of all potentialities of existence for actual occasions, which Whitehead dubbed eternal objects. God can offer possibilities by ordering the relevance of eternal objects. The consequent nature of God prehends everything that happens in reality. As such, God experiences all of reality in a sentient manner. The last nature is the superjective. This is the way in which God's synthesis becomes a sense-datum for other actual entities. In some sense, God is prehended by existing actual entities.\n\nLegacy and applications\n\nBiology \nIn plant morphology, Rolf Sattler developed a process morphology (dynamic morphology) that overcomes the structure/process (or structure/function) dualism that is commonly taken for granted in biology. According to process morphology, structures such as leaves of plants do not have processes, they are processes.\n\nIn evolution and in development, the nature of the changes of biological objects are considered by many authors to be more radical than in physical systems. In biology, changes are not just changes of state in a pre-given space, instead the space and more generally the mathematical structures required to understand object change over time.\n\nEcology \nWith its perspective that everything is interconnected, that all life has value, and that non-human entities are also experiencing subjects, process philosophy has played an important role in discourse on ecology and sustainability. The first book to connect process philosophy with environmental ethics was John B. Cobb, Jr.'s 1971 work, Is It Too Late: A Theology of Ecology. In a more recent book (2018) edited by John B. Cobb, Jr. and Wm. Andrew Schwartz, Putting Philosophy to Work: Toward an Ecological Civilization contributors explicitly explore the ways in which process philosophy can be put to work to address the most urgent issues facing our world today, by contributing to a transition toward an ecological civilization. That book emerged from the largest international conference held on the theme of ecological civilization (Seizing an Alternative: Toward an Ecological Civilization) which was organized by the Center for Process Studies in June 2015. The conference brought together roughly 2,000 participants from around the world and featured such leaders in the environmental movement as Bill McKibben, Vandana Shiva, John B. Cobb, Jr., Wes Jackson, and Sheri Liao. The notion of ecological civilization is often affiliated with the process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead—especially in China.\n\nMathematics \n\nIn the philosophy of mathematics, some of Whitehead's ideas re-emerged in combination with cognitivism as the cognitive science of mathematics and embodied mind theses.\n\nSomewhat earlier, exploration of mathematical practice and quasi-empiricism in mathematics from the 1950s to 1980s had sought alternatives to metamathematics in social behaviours around mathematics itself: for instance, Paul Erdős's simultaneous belief in Platonism and a single \"big book\" in which all proofs existed, combined with his personal obsessive need or decision to collaborate with the widest possible number of other mathematicians. The process, rather than the outcomes, seemed to drive his explicit behaviour and odd use of language, as if the synthesis of Erdős and collaborators in seeking proofs, creating sense-datum for other mathematicians, was itself the expression of a divine will. Certainly, Erdős behaved as if nothing else in the world mattered, including money or love, as emphasized in his biography The Man Who Loved Only Numbers.\n\nMedicine \n\nSeveral fields of science and especially medicine seem to make liberal use of ideas in process philosophy, notably the theory of pain and healing of the late 20th century. The philosophy of medicine began to deviate somewhat from scientific method and an emphasis on repeatable results in the very late 20th century by embracing population thinking, and a more pragmatic approach to issues in public health, environmental health and especially mental health. In this latter field, R. D. Laing, Thomas Szasz and Michel Foucault were instrumental in moving medicine away from emphasis on \"cures\" and towards concepts of individuals in balance with their society, both of which are changing, and against which no benchmarks or finished \"cures\" were very likely to be measurable.\n\nPsychology \n\nIn psychology, the subject of imagination was again explored more extensively since Whitehead, and the question of feasibility or \"eternal objects\" of thought became central to the impaired theory of mind explorations that framed postmodern cognitive science. A biological understanding of the most eternal object, that being the emerging of similar but independent cognitive apparatus, led to an obsession with the process \"embodiment\", that being, the emergence of these cognitions. Like Whitehead's God, especially as elaborated in J. J. Gibson's perceptual psychology emphasizing affordances, by ordering the relevance of eternal objects (especially the cognitions of other such actors), the world becomes. Or, it becomes simple enough for human beings to begin to make choices, and to prehend what happens as a result. These experiences may be summed in some sense but can only approximately be shared, even among very similar cognitions with identical DNA. An early explorer of this view was Alan Turing who sought to prove the limits of expressive complexity of human genes in the late 1940s, to put bounds on the complexity of human intelligence and so assess the feasibility of artificial intelligence emerging. Since 2000, Process Psychology has progressed as an independent academic and therapeutic discipline: In 2000, Michel Weber created the Whitehead Psychology Nexus: an open forum dedicated to the cross-examination of Alfred North Whitehead's process philosophy and the various facets of the contemporary psychological field.\n\nPhilosophy of movement \nThe philosophy of movement is a sub-area within process philosophy that treats processes as movements. It studies processes as flows, folds, and fields in historical patterns of centripetal, centrifugal, tensional, and elastic motion. See Thomas Nail's philosophy of movement and process materialism.\n\nSee also\nConcepts\nActual idealism\nAnicca, the Buddhist doctrine that all is \"transient, evanescent, inconstant\"\nPanta rhei, Heraclitus's concept that \"everything flows\"\nDialectic\nDialectical monism\nElisionism\nHolomovement\nPancreativism\nSalishan languages#Nounlessness\nSpeculative realism\n\nPeople\nJohn B. Cobb\nDavid Ray Griffin\nArthur Peacocke\nMichel Weber\nArran Gare\nJoseph A. Bracken\nMilič Čapek\nWilmon Henry Sheldon\nThomas Nail\nIain McGilchrist\nEugene Gendlin\nTina Röck\nCharles Hartshorne\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nAcademia pages of the Center for Philosophical Practice.\n\nWhitehead Research Project\nProcess and Reality. Part V. Final Interpretation\nWolfgang Sohst: Prozessontologie. Ein systematischer Entwurf der Entstehung von Existenz (Berlin 2009)\n Critique of a Metaphysics of Process (Antwerp 2012)\n\n \nCategory:Holism\nCategory:Subfields of metaphysics\nCategory:Religion and science", "title": "Process philosophy" }, { "text": "Embodied cognition is the theory that many features of cognition, whether human or otherwise, are shaped by aspects of an organism's entire body. Sensory and motor systems are seen as fundamentally integrated with cognitive processing. The cognitive features include high-level mental constructs (such as concepts and categories) and performance on various cognitive tasks (such as reasoning or judgment). The bodily aspects involve the motor system, the perceptual system, the bodily interactions with the environment (situatedness), and the assumptions about the world built into the organism's functional structure.\n\nThe embodied mind thesis challenges other theories, such as cognitivism, computationalism, and Cartesian dualism. It is closely related to the extended mind thesis, situated cognition, and enactivism. The modern version depends on insights drawn from up to date research in psychology, linguistics, cognitive science, dynamical systems, artificial intelligence, robotics, animal cognition, plant cognition, and neurobiology.\n\nTheory\n\nProponents of the embodied cognition thesis emphasize the active and significant role the body plays in the shaping of cognition and in the understanding of an agent's mind and cognitive capacities. In philosophy, embodied cognition holds that an agent's cognition, rather than being the product of mere (innate) abstract representations of the world, is strongly influenced by aspects of an agent's body beyond the brain itself. An embodied model of cognition opposes the disembodied Cartesian model, according to which all mental phenomena are non-physical and, therefore, not influenced by the body. With this opposition the embodiment thesis intends to reintroduce an agent's bodily experiences into any account of cognition. It is a rather broad thesis and encompasses both weak and strong variants of embodiment. In an attempt to reconcile cognitive science with human experience, the enactive approach to cognition defines \"embodiment\" as follows: \n\nThis double sense attributed to the embodiment thesis emphasizes the many aspects of cognition that researchers in different fields—such as philosophy, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, psychology, and neuroscience—are involved with. This general characterization of embodiment faces some difficulties: a consequence of this emphasis on the body, experience, culture, context, and the cognitive mechanisms of an agent in the world is that often distinct views and approaches to embodied cognition overlap. The theses of extended cognition and situated cognition, for example, are usually intertwined and not always carefully separated. And since each of the aspects of the embodiment thesis is endorsed to different degrees, embodied cognition should be better seen \"as a research program rather than a well-defined unified theory\".\n\nSome authors explain the embodiment thesis by arguing that cognition depends on an agent's body and its interactions with a determined environment. From this perspective, cognition in real biological systems is not an end in itself, it is constrained by the system's goals and capacities. Such constraints do not mean cognition is set by adaptive behavior (or autopoiesis) alone, but instead that cognition requires \"some kind of information processing... the transformation or communication of incoming information\". The acquiring of such information involves the agent's \"exploration and modification of the environment\". \n\nAnother approach to understanding embodied cognition comes from a narrower characterization of the embodiment thesis. The following narrower view of embodiment avoids any compromises to external sources other than the body and allows differentiating between embodied cognition, extended cognition, and situated cognition. Thus, the embodiment thesis can be specified as follows: \n\nThis thesis points out the core idea that an agent's body plays a significant role in shaping different features of cognition, such as perception, attention, memory, reasoning—among others. Likewise, these features of cognition depend on the kind of body an agent has. The thesis omits direct mention of some aspects of the \"more encompassing biological, psychological and cultural context\" included in the enactive definition, making it possible to separate embodied cognition, extended cognition, and situated cognition.\n\nIn contrast to the embodiment thesis, the extended mind thesis limits cognitive processing neither to the brain nor even to the body, it extends it outward into the agent's world. Situated cognition emphasizes that this extension is not just a matter of including resources outside the head but stressing the role of probing and changing interactions with the agent's world. Cognition is situated in that it is inherently dependent upon the cultural and social contexts within which it takes place.\n\nThis conceptual reframing of cognition as an activity influenced by the body has had significant implications. For instance, the view of cognition inherited by most contemporary cognitive neuroscience is internalist in nature. An agent's behavior along with his capacity to maintain (accurate) representations of the surrounding environment were considered as the product of \"powerful brains that can maintain the world models and devise plans\". From this perspective, cognizing was conceived as something that an isolated brain did. In contrast, accepting the role the body plays during cognitive processes allows us to account for a more encompassing view of cognition. This shift in perspective within neuroscience suggests that successful behavior in real-world scenarios demands the integration of several sensorimotor and cognitive (as well as affective) capacities of an agent. Thus, cognition emerges in the relationship between an agent and the affordances provided by the environment rather than in the brain alone.\n\nIn 2002, a collection of positive characterizations summarizing what the embodiment thesis entails for cognition were offered. Margaret Wilson argues that the general outlook of embodied cognition \"displays an interesting co-variation of multiple observations and houses a number of different claims: (1) cognition is situated; (2) cognition is time-pressured; (3) we off-load cognitive work onto the environment; (4) the environment is part of the cognitive system; (5) cognition is for action; (6) offline cognition is bodily-based\". According to Wilson, the first three and the fifth claim appear to be at least partially true, while the fourth claim is deeply problematic in that all things that have an impact on the elements of a system are not necessarily considered part of the system. The sixth claim has received the least attention in the literature on embodied cognition, yet it might be the most significant of the six claims as it shows how certain human cognitive capabilities, that previously were thought to be highly abstract, now appear to be leaning towards an embodied approach for their explanation. Wilson also describes at least five main (abstract) categories that combine both sensory and motor skills (or sensorimotor functions). The first three are working memory, episodic memory, and implicit memory; the fourth is mental imagery, and finally, the fifth concerns reasoning and problem—solving.\n\nHistory \n\nThe theory of embodied cognition, along with the multiple aspects it comprises, can be regarded as the imminent result of an intellectual skepticism towards the flourishment of the disembodied theory of mind put forth by René Descartes in the 17th century. According to Cartesian dualism, the mind is entirely distinct from the body and can be successfully explained and understood without reference to the body or to its processes.\n\nResearch has been done to identify the set of ideas that would establish what could be considered as the early stages of embodied cognition around inquiries regarding the mind-body-soul relation and vitalism in the German tradition from 1740 to 1920. The modern approach and definition of embodied cognition has a relatively short history. Intellectual underpinnings of embodied cognition can be traced back to the influence of philosophy and, more specifically, the phenomenological tradition, psychology, and connectionism in the 20th century.\n\nPhenomenologists such as Edmund Husserl (1850–1938), Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1962) served as a source of inspiration for what would later be known as the embodiment thesis. They stood up against the mechanistic and disembodied approach to the explanation of the mind by emphasizing the fact that there are aspects of human experiences (consciousness, cognition) that cannot simply be explained by a model of the mind as computation of inner symbols. From a phenomenological standpoint, such aspects remain unaccountable if, as in Cartesian dualism, they are not \"deeply rooted in the physical nuts-and-bolts of the interacting agent\". Maurice Merleau-Ponty in his Phenomenology of Perception , for example, rejects the cartesian idea that people's primary mode of being in the world is thinking and proposes corporeity , that is, the body itself as the primary site for knowing the world, and perception as the medium and the pre-reflective foundation of experience. So stated, the body is the primary condition for experience since it comprises a collection of active meanings about the world and its objects. The body also provides the first-person perspective (a point of view) with which one experiences the world and opens up multiple possibilities for being.\n\nThe appreciation of the phenomenological mindset allows us to not overlook the influence that phenomenology's speculative but systematic reflection on the mind-body-world relation had in the growth and development of the core ideas which embodied cognition comprises. From a phenomenological perspective \"all cognition is embodied, interactive, and embedded in dynamically changing environments\". These constitute the set of beliefs which proponents of embodied cognition such as Francisco Varela, Eleonor Rosch, and Evan Thompson will revise later on and seek to reintroduce in the scientific study of cognition under the name of enaction. Enactivism reclaims the importance of considering the biodynamics of the living organism to understand cognition by gathering ideas from fields such as biology, psychoanalysis, Buddhism, and phenomenology. According to this enactive approach, organisms obtain knowledge or develop their cognitive capacities through a perception–action relationship with a mutually determining environment.\n\nThis basic idea of (qualitative) experience as the product of an individual's active perception–action interactions with its surrounding is also traceable to the American contextualist or pragmatist tradition in works such as Art As Experience by John Dewey. For Dewey, experiences affect people's personal lives as they are the by-product of continuous and commutative interactions of a biological and organic self (an incarnated body) with the world. These lived (corporeal) experiences should serve as the foundation to build upon.\n\nOn the bases of empirical grounds, and in opposition to those philosophical traditions that belittled the importance of the body to understand cognition, research on embodiment have demonstrated the relationship between cognition and bodily process. Thus, understanding cognition requires to consider and investigate the sensory and motor mechanism that enables it. George Lakoff, for example, holds that reasoning and language, arise from the nature of bodily experiences and, thus, even people's own metaphors have bodily references.\n\nSince the 1950s, encouraged by progress in informatics, researchers began to create digital models of the processes by which sensory input is selected by the brain, stored in the memory, connected to existing knowledge and used for elaboration. These traditional computationalists views of cognition that were typical in the 1950s–1980s are now considered implausible because there is no continuity with the cognitive skills that would have been demanded and developed by the ancestors of the human species. Some researchers argue that this algorithmic focus on mental activities ignores the fact that human beings engage with evolutionary pressures using their entire bodies. Margaret Wilson considers the embodied cognition perspective as fundamentally an evolutionary one, viewing cognition as a set of abilities that built upon, and still reflects, the structure of physical bodies and how human brains evolved to manage those bodies. The theory of evolution emphasises that thanks to their bipedal gait, early humans did not need their 'forepaws' for locomotion, facilitating them to manipulate the environment with the aid of tools. One researcher goes even further, positing that the multiple opportunities provided by human hands shape people's concepts of the mind. One example is that people often conceive cognitive processes in manual terms, such as 'grasping an idea'.\n\nJ.J. Gibson (1904–1979) developed his theory on ecological psychology that entirely contradicted the computationalist idea of understanding the mind as information processing which by that time had permeated psychology—both in theory and practice. Gibson particularly disagreed with the way his contemporaries understood the nature of perception. Computationalist perspectives, for example, consider perceptual objects as an unreliable source of information upon which the mind must do some sort of inference. Gibson view perceptual processes as the product of the relation between a moving agent and its relationship with a specific environment. Similarly, Varela and colleague's argue that both cognition and the environment are not pre-given; instead, they are enacted or brought forth by the agent's history of sensorimotor and structurally coupled activities.\n\nConnectionism also put forth a critique to the computationalist commitments yet granting the possibility of some sort of non-symbolic computational processes to take place. According to the connectionist thesis, cognition as a biological phenomenon can be explained and understood through the interaction and dynamics of artificial neural networks (ANNs). Given the traces of abstraction that remain in the inputs and outputs through which connectionist neural networks carry its computations, connectionism is said to be not so far from computationalism and unable to cope with both the challenge of dealing with the details involved during perceiving and acting and explaining higher level cognition. Likewise, connectionism's take on cognition is biologically inspired by the behavior and interaction of single neurons, yet its connections to the embodiment thesis in general, and to perception–action interactions in particular, are not clearly outlined or straightforward.\n\nBy early 2000, O'Regan, J. K. and Noë, A. provided empirical evidence against the computationalist mindset arguing that although cortical maps exist in the brain and their patterns of activation give rise to perceptual experiences, they alone are unable to fully explain the subjective character of experience. Namely, it is unclear how internal representations generate conscious perception. Given this ambiguity, O'Regan, J. K. and Nöe, A. put forth what would later be known as \"sensorimotor contingencies\" (SMCs) in an attempt to understand the changing character of sensations as actors act in the world. According to the SMC theory, \n\nEver since the late 20th century and recognizing the significant role the body plays for cognition, the embodied cognition theory has gained (an ever increasing) popularity, it has been the subject of multiple articles in different research areas, and the mainstream approach to what Shapiro and Spaulding call the \"embodied make-over\". A consequence of this widespread acceptance of the embodiment thesis is the emergence of 4E features of cognition (embodied, embedded, enacted, and extended cognition). Under 4E, cognition is no longer thought of as being instantiated in or by a single organism, rather:\n\nScope\n\nEmbodied cognition argues that several factors both internal and external (such as the body and the environment) play a role in the development of an agent's cognitive capacities, just as mental constructs (such as thoughts and desires) are said to influence an agent's bodily actions. For this reason, embodied cognition is considered as a wide-ranging research program, rather than a well-defined and unified theory. A scientific approach to embodied cognition reaches, inspires, and brings together ideas from several research areas, each with its own take on embodiment yet in a joint effort to (methodically) investigate embodied cognition.\n\nResearch on embodied cognition comprises a variety of fields within the sciences such as linguistics, neuroscience, (cognitive) psychology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, robotics, etc. For this reason, contemporary developments on embodied cognition can be regarded as the embodied make-over of cognitive science offering new ways to look at the nature, structure, and mechanisms of cognition. Embodying cognition requires the different features of cognition such as perception, language, memory, learning, reasoning, emotion, self-regulation, and its social aspects to be revisited and investigated through lens of embodiment in order to ground its theoretical and methodological underpinnings.\n\nEmbodied cognition has gained the attention and interest of classical cognitive science (along with all sciences it comprises) to incorporate embodiment ideas into its research. In linguistics, George Lakoff (a cognitive scientist and linguist) and his collaborators Mark Johnson, Mark Turner, and Rafael E. Núñez have promoted and expanded the embodiment thesis based on developments within the field of cognitive science. Their research have provided evidence suggesting that people use their understanding of familiar physical objects, actions, and situations to understand other domains. All cognition is based on the knowledge that comes from the body and other disciplines are mapped onto humans' embodied knowledge using a combination of conceptual metaphor, image schema and prototypes.\n\nThe conceptual metaphors research have argued that people use metaphors all over to be in charge of the conceptual level; in other words, they map one conceptual state into another one. Therefore, research have stated that there is a single metaphor behind various definitions. Several examples of conceptual metaphors from different fields were collected to explain how metaphors relate to other metaphors and often refer to body aspects. The most common example given to this explanation is when the people describe the concept of love, associating this love metaphor with physically embodied journey experiences. Another example of the language and embodiment of Lakoff and Mark Turner is visual metaphors. Accordingly, they argue that the positioning of these visual metaphors for upright and forward-moving creatures depends on body type and the characteristics of the body's interaction with the environment.\n\nAnother study from 2000 focused on the \"image schema\" to investigate how people understand abstract concepts. Accordingly, abstract concepts are understood by considering basic physical situations. Abstract concepts, whose basic physical states are considered, then interpreted by using sensory-motor and perceptual skills. Thus, it is shown that there is a spatial reasoning process that requires using the body even in reasoning over abstract concepts. In this context, the image schema is seen as a conceptual metaphor form. For example, spatial reasoning skills and the visual cortex tend to be used to understand a mathematical concept consisting of imaginary numbers that are purely abstract. Thus, it has been shown how important the body plays in the image schema as in the conceptual metaphor in the interpretation of concepts.\n\nAnother important factor in understanding linguistic categories is prototypes. Eleanor Rosch argued that prototypes play an important role in people's cognition. According to her research, prototypes are the most typical members of a category, and she explains this with an example from birds. The robin, for example, is a prototypical bird while the penguin is not a prototypical bird which shows that objects that are prototypical are more easily categorized, and therefore, people can find answers by reasoning about the categories they encounter through these prototypes. Another study identified basic level categories that exemplify this situation in a more structured way. Accordingly, basic level categories are categories that can be associated with basic physical motions; they are made up of prototypes that can be easily visualized. These prototypes are used for reasoning about general categories. On the other hand, Lakoff emphasizes that what is important in prototype theory, rather than class or type characteristics, is that the feature of the categories people use is a bodily experience. Thus, as seen in the general of these approaches, it can be said that the most basic feature in understanding and interpreting linguistic concepts and categories is whether the concept or category has been experienced bodily.\n\nNeuroscientists Gerald Edelman, António Damásio and others have outlined the connection between the body, individual structures in the brain and aspects of the mind such as consciousness, emotion, self-awareness and will. Biology has also inspired Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana, Francisco Varela, Eleanor Rosch and Evan Thompson to develop a closely related version of the idea, which they call enactivism. The motor theory of speech perception proposed by Alvin Liberman and colleagues at the Haskins Laboratories argues that the identification of words is embodied in perception of the bodily movements by which spoken words are made. \nIn related work at Haskins, Paul Mermelstein, Philip Rubin, Louis Goldstein, and colleagues developed articulatory synthesis tools for computationally modeling the physiology and aeroacoustics of the vocal tract, demonstrating how cognition and perception of speech can be shaped by biological constraints. This was extended into the audio-visual domain by the \"talking heads\" approach of Eric Vatikiotis-Bateson, Rubin, and other colleagues.\n\nThe concept of embodiment has been inspired by research in cognitive neuroscience, such as the proposals of Gerald Edelman concerning how mathematical and computational models such as neuronal group selection and neural degeneracy result in emergent categorization. From a neuroscientific perspective, the embodied cognition theory examines the interaction of sensorimotor, cognitive, and affective neurological systems. The embodied mind thesis is compatible with some views of cognition promoted in neuropsychology, such as the theories of consciousness of Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, Gerald Edelman, and Antonio Damasio. It is also supported by a broad and ever-increasing collection of empirical studies within neuroscience. By examining brain activity with neuroimaging techniques, researchers have found indications of embodiment. In an Electroencephalography (EEG) study researchers showed that in line with the embodied cognition, sensorimotor contingency and common coding theses, sensory and motor processes in the brain are not sequentially separated, they are strongly coupled. Considering the interaction of the sensorimotor and cognitive system, a study from 2005 stresses how crucial sensorimotor cortices are for semantic comprehension of body–action terms and sentences. A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study from 2004 showed that passively read action words, such as lick, pick or kick, led to a somatotopic neuronal activity in or adjacent to brain regions associated with actual movement of the respective body parts. Using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a study in 2005 stated that the activity of the motor system is coupled to auditory action-related sentences. When the participants listened to hand–or foot-related sentences, the motor evoked potentials (MEPs) recorded from the hand and foot muscles were reduced. These two exemplary studies indicate a relationship between cognitively understanding words referring to sensorimotor concepts and activation of sensorimotor cortices. Along the lines of embodiment, neuroimaging techniques serve to show interactions of the sensory and motor system.\n\nNext to neuroimaging studies, behavioral studies also provides evidence supporting the embodied cognition theory. Abstract higher cognitive concepts such as the \"importance\" of an object or an issue also seem to stand in relation to the sensorimotor system. People estimate objects to be heavier when they are told that they are important or hold important information in contrast to unimportant information. Similarly, weight affects the way people invest physical and cognitive effort when dealing with concrete or abstract issues. For example, more importance is assigned to decision–making procedures when holding heavier clipboards. What this suggest is that the physical effort invested in concrete objects leads to more cognitive effort when dealing with abstract concepts.\n\nThe work of cognitive neuroscientists such as Francisco Varela and Walter Freeman seeks to explain embodied and situated cognition in terms of dynamical systems theory and neurophenomenology, rejecting the idea that the brain merely uses representations to cognise (a position also espoused by Gerhard Werner). There are several neuroscientific approaches to explain cognition from an embodied perspective as well as multiple methods such as neuroimaging techniques, behavioral experiments, and dynamical models that can be employed to support and further investigate embodied cognition.\n\nIn the field of Robotics researchers such as Rodney Brooks, Hans Moravec and Rolf Pfeifer have argued that true artificial intelligence can only be achieved by machines that have sensory and motor skills and are connected to the world through a body. The insights of these robotics researchers have in turn inspired philosophers like Andy Clark and Hendriks-Jansen.\n\nIn the light of these, a body is essential for cognition and, therefore, for intelligent behavior since the interaction between the body and the environment is fundamental for developing cognitive abilities. This type of knowledge is grounded in physical embodiment–the relationship humans have with their bodies. It is the concept of \"the idea that the mind is not only connected to the body but that the body influences the mind\". Embodied artificial intelligence and robotics is a method of applying this principle to artificial systems.\n\nTraditional artificial intelligence involves a computational approach. This primary computational paradigm evolved to the embodied perspective with embodied cognition studies and brought more interdisciplinary research topics to artificial intelligence. Embodied perspective brings a necessity of working with the physical world and systems which came alongside robotics. Robotics are essential for the embodied artificial perspective because computers and robots are different. Computers define the inputs; robots can interact with the physical world via their own body. Researchers working on embodied AI is moving away from an algorithm-driven approach to the robots to interact with the physical world. Embodied Artificial intelligence tries to figure out how biological systems work first, then construct basic rules of intelligent behavior, and finally apply that knowledge to create artificial systems, robots, or intelligent devices. Embodied artificial intelligence has a large scale of applications and research. For instance, the embodied artificial approach can be seen in micro- and nano-mechatronic systems and evolvable hardware, top-down bio-synthetic systems research, bottom-up chemo-synthetic systems, and biochemical systems. The majority of embodied artificial intelligence focuses on robot training and autonomous vehicles technologies. Autonomous vehicles have a significant interest in embodied artificial intelligence applications because this technology allows driving and making possible judgments based on what they see as humans do.\n\nThese applications demonstrate that embodied cognition brought a broader perspective to artificial intelligence and robotics. Without question, the applications of embodied artificial intelligence keep evolving with the help of twenty-first-century technology.\n\nPerception \n\nTraditional neuropsychological research widely acknowledged that when an internal representation of the outside world is activated somewhere in the brain, it leads to a perceptual experience. Embodied cognition challenges this claim by stating that the existence of cortical maps in the brain fails to explain and account for the subjective character of people's perceptual experiences. For example, they cannot sufficiently explain the apparent stability of the visual world despite eye movements, the filling-in of the blind spot, the \"change blindness\", and other such visual illusions that unveil the (seemingly) imperfections of the visual system. From an embodied cognition perspective, perception is not a passive reception of (incomplete) sensory inputs for which the brain must compensate to provide us with a coherent picture. The brain interprets the outside world based on an individual's intentions, memories, and emotions, as well as the environment and the specific situation the individual is in. Perception involves more complex processes than simply receiving inputs (or visual stimuli) from the external world to output actions in response to them. Perception is an active process conducted by a perceiving agent (a perceiver), it entails an engaged perceiver and is influenced by the agent's experiences and intentions, his bodily states, and the interaction between the agent's body and the environment around it.\n\nOne example of such active interaction between perception and the body is the case that distance perception can be influenced by bodily states. The way people view the outside world can differ depending on the physical resources that individuals have such as fitness, age, or glucose levels. For instance, in one study, people with chronic pain who are less capable of moving around perceived given distances as further than healthy people did. Another study shows that intended actions can affect processing in visual search, with more orientation errors for pointing than for grasping. Because orientation is important when grasping an object, the plan to grasp an object is thought to improve orientation accuracy. This shows how actions, the body's interaction with the environment, can contribute to the visual processing of task-relevant information.\n\nPerception also influences the perspective individuals to take on a particular situation and the type of judgments they make. For instance, researchers have shown that people will significantly more likely take the perspective of another person (e.g., a person in a picture) instead of their own when making judgements about objects in a photograph. This means that the presence of people (as compared to only objects) in a visual scene affects the perspective a viewer takes when making judgements on, for example, relations between objects in the scene. Some researchers state that these results suggest a \"disembodied\" cognition given the fact that people take the perspective of others instead of their own and make judgments accordingly.\n\nLanguage\n\nEmbodied cognition views on language describes how when humans comprehend words, sensorimotor areas are involved in interacting with the objects and entities the words refer to. \nFirst experimental studies of the impact of body’s sex, age and constitution (temperament) on language perception and use emerged in 1995-99 and expanded from 2010s \n\nThe embodiment effect initially was called \"projection through capacities” and emerged as a tendency of people attribute meaning to common adjectives and abstract and neutral nouns depending on their endurance, tempo, plasticity, emotionality, sex or age. For example, in these studies males with stronger motor-physical endurance estimated abstractions describing people-, work/reality- and time-related concepts in more positive terms than males with a weaker endurance. Females with stronger social or physical endurance estimated social attractors in more positive terms than weaker females. Both male and female temperament groups with higher sociability showed a universal positive bias in their estimations of social concepts, in comparison to participants with lower sociability. \n\nOver the last years, behavioral and neural evidence has shown that the process of language comprehension activates motor simulations and involves motor systems. Some researchers have investigated mirror neurons to illustrate the link between the mirror neuron systems and language suggesting that some aspects of language (such as part of semantics and phonology) can be embodied in the sensorimotor system represented by mirror neurons.\n\nIt is well known that language has a multi-component structure, one of which is language comprehension. Research on embodied cognition shows that language comprehension involves the motor system. In addition, various studies explain that understanding linguistic explanations of actions is based on a simulation of the action described. These action simulations also include evaluation of the motor system. A study in which university students evaluated language comprehension and motor system with a pendulum swinging task while performing a \"sentence judgment task\" found significant changes in functions containing performable sentences.\n\nAnother study used the mirror neurons perspective to illustrate the relationship between the motor system and several language components. Because mirror neurons are one of the essential parts of the motor system, researchers compared monkeys and humans in an anatomical framework; specifically, they made the comparison with respect to Broca's area. Another study concerning the role of mirror neurons during learning via language usage stated that activations occurred in Broca's area even when participants watched other people's conversations without hearing the sounds. An fMRI study examining the relationship of mirror neurons in humans with linguistic materials has shown that there are activations in the premotor cortex and Broca's area when reading or listening to sentences associated with actions. According to these findings, researchers state that there is a connection between the motor system and language. They also argue that the motor system together with mirror neurons mechanisms can process certain aspects of language.\n\n, literature mainly focuses on the relation between language and embodied cognition on a motor system, more precisely by mirror neuron explanations. This relationship also extends to cognitive capabilities which involve a variety of language components. Studies have examined how embodied and extended cognition can help to reconceptualize and ground second language acquisition. The nature of language acquisition extends cognitive capability itself due to the fact that it has multiple components which have embodied representations associated with language processing and provide a ground concept for language.\n\nMemory\n\nThe body has an essential role in shaping the mind. So, the mind must be understood in the context of its relationship with a physical body that interacts in the world. These interactions can also be cognitive activities in everyday life, such as driving, chatting, imagining the placement of items in a room. These cognitive activities are limited by memory capacity. The relationships between memory and embodied cognition have been demonstrated in studies in different fields and through various tasks. In general, studies on embodied cognition and memory investigate how manipulations on the body cause changes in memory performance, or vice versa, manipulations through memory tasks subsequently lead to bodily changes. Researchers has drawn attention to the relationship between memory and action from an embodied cognition approach where memory is defined as integrated patterns of actions limited by the body. On the one hand, embodied cognition sees action preparation as a fundamental function of cognition. On the other hand, memory plays a role in tasks that do not occur in the present but involve remembering actions and information from the past and imagining events that may or may not happen in the future. Glenberg blurs this apparent dichotomy by arguing that there is a reciprocal relationship between memory, action, and perception. Accordingly, manipulations that can take place in the body or movement can lead to changes in memory.\n\nResearchers have also investigated the influence of body position on ease of recall in an autobiographical memory study to examine the effect of embodied cognition on memory performance. Participants were asked to take positions compatible or incompatible with their original body position of the remembered event during a recall event. Researchers found out that participants given compatible body positions compared to incompatible body positions showed faster responses in recalling memories during the experiment. Thus, they concluded that body position facilitates access to autobiographical memories. The relationship between memory and body has also emphasised that memory systems depend on the body's experiences with the world. This is particularly evident in episodic memory because this type of memories in the episodic memory system are defined by their content and are remembered as experienced by the person who is remembering. Research has also investigated the relationship between embodiment and memory by recalling collective and personal memories indicating how embodiment enriches the understanding of memory. Embodied memory research through the recalling of personal traumas and violent memories has reported that people who have experienced trauma or violence re-feel their experiences in their narratives throughout their lives. In addition, memories that threaten a person's life by directly affecting the body, such as injury and physical violence, recreate similar reactions again in the body while remembering the event. For example, people can report feeling smells, sounds, and movements when remembering childhood trauma memories. A proper evaluation of those memories and the corresponding physical and physiological phenomena associated with them could describe how those set of recalled memories are embodied.\n\nNew perspectives on the neural structure and memory processes underlying embodied cognition, episodic memory, recall, and recognition have also been explored. As experiences are received, neural states are reenacted in action, perception, and introspection systems. Perception includes sensory modalities; motor modalities include movement; and introspection includes emotional, mental, and motivational states. All of these modalities altogether constitute different aspects that shape experiences. Therefore, cognitive processes applied to memory support the action that is appropriate for a particular situation, not by remembering what the situation is, but by remembering the relationship of the action to that situation. For example, remembering and identifying the party one attended the previous day is said to be related to the body because the sensory-motor aspects of the event that is being recalled (i.e., the party), along with the details of what happened, are being reconstructed.\n\nLearning\n\nResearch on embodied cognition and learning suggests that learning could occur and be triggered by perception-action interactions of the body with the surrounding environment. An embodied cognitive approach to child development provides insights into how infants attain spatial knowledge and develop spatial skills that allow them to (successfully) interact with the world around them. Most infants learn to walk in the first 18 months of life, which draws on ample new opportunities for exploring things around them. In this exploration, infants learn spatial relations, and by carrying objects from one place to another, they may also learn affordances such as \"transportability\". Thereafter, new phases in exploration may occur through which infants can discover other even more elaborate affordances. According to Eleanor Gibson, exploration takes an essential place in cognitive development. For example, infants explore whatever is in their vicinity by seeing, mouthing, or touching it before learning to reach objects nearby. Then, infants learn to crawl, which enables them to seek out objects beyond reaching distance, learn basic spatial relations between themselves, objects, and others, and get an understanding of depth and distance. This development of motor skills through the exploration of the physical and social world seems to play a central role in visual-spatial cognition.\n\nEmbodied perception-action experience may serve as a tool for learning that extends across the life span, from infancy to adulthood. Research on the role of action in early as well as educational learning contexts demonstrates the importance of embodiment for learning. In one experiment, three-month-old infants who were not skilled in reaching were trained to reach for objects with velcro-covered mittens instead. Afterward, the assessments and comparison with the control group showed that infants can rapidly form goal-based action representations and view others' actions as goal-directed. Further research indicates that mere observational experience by infants does not produce these results. Similarly, research has shown how action and bodily movements can be used as scaffolds for learning. A study investigating whether infants at high risk for developing autism spectrum disorders (ASD) could benefit from action scaffolded interventions (reaching experiences) during early development indicates an increase in grasping activity following training. And thus, it provides evidence about the possibility for high-risk of ASD infants to learn and respond to action-based treatment interventions. Another study investigates how teaching methods can benefit from embodiment and proposes that a professor's movements and gestures contribute to learning by growing students' embodied experiences in the classroom, leading to an increased capacity to recall.\n\nThe action-based language theory (ABL) states that aspects of embodiment are also relevant for language learning and acquisition. ABL proposes that the brain exploits the same mechanisms used in motor control for language learning. When adults, for example, call attention to an object and an infant follows the lead and attends to said object, canonical neurons are activated and affordances of an object become available to the infant. Simultaneously, hearing the articulation of the object's name leads to the activation of speech mirror mechanisms in infants. This chain of events allows for Hebbian learning of the meaning of verbal labels by linking the speech and action controllers, which get activated in this scenario.\n\nThe role of gestures in learning is another example of the importance of embodiment for cognition. Gestures can aid, facilitate and enhance learning performance, or compromise it when the gestures are restricted or meaningless to the content that is being transmitted. In a study using the Tower of Hanoi (TOH) puzzle, participants were divided into two groups. In the first part of the experiment, the smallest disks used in TOH were the lightest and could be moved using just one hand. For the second part, this was reversed for one group (switch group) so that the smallest disks were the heaviest, and participants needed both hands to move them. The disks remained the same for the other group (no-switch group). After the experiment ended, participants were asked to explain their solution while researchers monitored their gestures when describing their solution. The results showed that using gestures affected the performance of the switch group in the second part of the experiment. The more they used one-handed gestures to depict their solution in the first part of the experiment, the worse they performed in the second part.\n\nA study investigating the role of gestures in second language learning states that learning the vocabulary with self-performed gestures increases learning outcomes. The enduring benefits continued even after two and six months post-learning. In addition, the same study also investigated the neural correlates of learning a second language with gestures. The results indicate that left premotor areas and the superior temporal sulcus (a brain region responsible for visual processing of biological motion) were activated during learning with gestures. Similarly, an fMRI study showed that children who learned to solve mathematical problems using a speech and gesture strategy were more likely to have activation in motor regions of the brain. The activation of motor regions occurred during scans in which children were not using gestures to solve the problems. These findings indicate that learning with gestures creates a neural trace of the motor system that goes beyond the learning phase and activates when children engage with problems they learned to solve with gestures.\n\nEmbodied cognition has also been linked to both reading and writing. Research shows that physical and perceptual engagements congruent with the content of the reading material can boost reading comprehension. Findings also suggest that the benefits accrued from handwriting as compared to typing in letter recognition and written communication result from the more embodied nature of handwriting.\n\nReasoning\nExperiments investigating the relation between motor processes and high-level reasoning have suggested that bodily action and sensorimotor experience are linked to various aspects of reasoning. A study indicated that even though most individuals recruit visual processes when presented with spatial problems such as mental rotation tasks, motor experts (such as wrestlers) favor motor processes over visual encoding to manipulate the objects mentally, showing higher overall performance. Results indicate that motor experts' performance drops once the (hand) movement is inhibited. A related study showed that motor experts use similar processes for the mental rotation of body parts and polygons, whereas non-experts treated these stimuli differently. These results were not due to underlying confounds, as demonstrated by a training study that showed mental rotation improvements after a one-year motor training compared with controls. Similar patterns were also found in working memory tasks, with the ability to remember movements being significantly disrupted by a secondary verbal task in controls and by a motor task in motor experts, suggesting the involvement of different mechanisms to encode movements based on either verbal or on motor processes.\n\nThe role of motor experience in reasoning has also been investigated through gestures. The Gesture as Simulated Action theory (GSA) provides a framework for understanding how gestures manifest their connection. According to GSA, gestures result from the embodied simulation of actions and sensorimotor states. Consequently, gesturing while expressing or reasoning ideas shows that embodied processes are involved in producing them. More significantly, gesturing heightens focus and increases activation of motor and perceptual information. Gestures are said to have a casual role in reasoning as gesturing leads to increased motor and perceptual information flow during the reasoning process. This does not necessarily translate into more effective reasoning, as such information is sometimes irrelevant for a specific problem. The effects of gestures on reasoning are not limited only to speakers; they convey information that also affects listeners' reasoning. For example, listeners could produce similar simulations to those of the speaker by attending to the speaker's gestures.\n\nMore evidence for the embodied role of gestures during reasoning comes from studies on mathematical and geometric reasoning. Studies indicate that gestures and, more particularly, dynamic depictive gestures (i.e., gestures used to represent and show the transformation of objects) are linked to better performance in snap judgment (intuition), insight, and mathematical reasoning for proof. Additionally, the use of dynamic depictive gestures are associated with better mathematical reasoning, and thus, directing learners to use such gestures facilitates justification and proof activities.\n\nEmbodied cognition theory has been applied in behavioral law and economics theory to enlighten reasoning and decision-making processes involving risk and time, decisions, and judgment. Research has shown that the idea that mental processes are grounded in bodily states is not being captured in the standard view of human rationality and the link between them could be useful for understanding and predicting human actions that seem irrational. The concept of \"embodied rationality\" results from expanding such ideas into law and highlights how findings stemming from embodied cognition offer a more encompassing insight into human behavior and rationality.\n\nEmotion\n\nEmbodied cognition theories have provided rigorous accounts of emotion and the processing of information about emotion. In this respect, experiencing and re-experiencing an emotion involve overlapping mental processes. Research has shown that one re-experiences emotion through the interconnections of the neurons that were active during the original experience. During the re-experience process, a partial multimodal reenactment of the experience is produced. One reason why only parts of the original neural populations are reactivated is that attention is selectively focused on certain aspects of the experience that are most salient and important for the individual.\n\nThe first theory of embodiment effect on emotions is known as James–Lange theory, after 19th century scientists William James and Carl Lange. They pointed out that physiological arousal prior events generates a disposition to experience emotions, and so emotions are not just reactions to these events but are also reflections of dispositional body's states \n\nRe-experience of emotion is produced in the originally implicated sensory-motor systems as if the individual were there, in the very situation, the very emotional state, or with the very object of thought. For example, the embodiment of anger might involve muscle tension used to strike, the enervation of certain facial muscles to frown, etc. Such simulation is backed by a specialized mirror neuron or a \"mirror neuron system\", which maps the correspondences between the observed and performed actions. A remaining issue is the lack of consensus about the exact location of the mirror neurons, whether they constitute a system, and whether there actually are mirror neurons.\n\nTheories of embodiment propose that the processing of emotional states and the concepts used to refer to them are partly based on one's own perceptual, motor, and somatosensory systems. Research has shown, through manipulations of facial expressions and posture under controlled laboratory settings, how the embodiment of a person's emotion casually affects the way emotional information is processed. Similar studies have evidenced that nodding the head while listening to persuasive messages led to more positive attitudes toward the message than when shaking the head. When people are led to adopt certain bodily positions indirectly associated with different feelings such as fear, anger, and sadness, these corporeal postures are said to modulate the experienced affect. In a series of experiments on the neurobiological basis of language, researchers investigated the role of embodiment in emotional language through electromyographic (EMG) measurements of specific muscle regions. They found that action verbs that refer to positive emotional expressions (e.g., to smile) elicit smile muscle activation as compared to mere positive adjectives unrelated to actions (e.g., funny). Further research found that action verb stimuli also yield muscle activation and shape judgment only when muscle activation is not inhibited. Thus, these results suggest that language is embodied rather than symbolic.\n\nGiven the significant role emotions (e.g., fear and hope) play in an individual's life, research has been done linking embodiment, motivation, and behavior to investigate the intrinsic tendencies to act towards or away from a given stimulus. The approach and avoidance conflict (AAC) or approach and avoidance task (AAT) describes a natural behavioral bias to approach pleasant stimuli and avoid unpleasant ones (congruent response) faster than approaching unpleasant stimuli and avoiding pleasant ones (incongruent responses).\n\nThe AAT has been investigated in different scenarios and with different types of stimuli such as words and images. A study focusing on the AAT on embodied cognition, for example, examined people's response to positive and negative words presented on the center of a screen by moving them away or towards the center. The study concludes that participants moved the given positive words towards the center of the screen while moving the negative words away from the center of the screen. In conformity with the AAT, participants showed an approach effect for positive words and avoidance effects for negative words. In a 2021 study on emotional or affective priming, the AAT was used to demonstrate the interaction between emotions and visual exploration. Pictures of news pages were presented on the computer screen and eye movements were measured. Researchers found out that the participants' harmonious bodily interaction during the emotional preparation process shows that their interest in the image's content displayed on the computer screen increased. These findings demonstrate the effect of emotional priming in the approach and avoidance behavior. A study on the behavioral aspects of the AAT suggests that there is an embodied component that is crucial to it. To investigate the role of gestures in AAT, participants were asked to react to positive and negative stimuli by either pressing a (far or near) button on a response pad; or by pushing forward or pulling backward a joystick. Researchers reported a significant response time advantage for the congruent responses when performed with the joystick and none when performed with the response pad. The fact that participants are faster at responding to the stimuli with the joystick seems to suggest the role of a crucial embodied component. In contrast to the response pad, the joystick couples more naturally with the body (hand) for the performance of the action and facilitates the gesture of approaching or avoiding positive or negative stimuli.\n\nEvolutionary psychologists view emotion as an important self-regulatory aspect of embodied cognition, and emotion as a motivator towards goal-relevant action. Emotion helps drive adaptive behavior. The evolutionary perspective considers both spoken and written language as forms of embodied cognition. Pacing and non-verbal communication reflect embodied cognition in spoken language. Technical aspects of written language (such as italics, all caps, and emoticons) promote an inner voice and thereby a sense of feeling rather than thinking about a written message. At least some abstract words are said to be semantically grounded in emotional knowledge; they are \"embodied\". Whereas the meanings of the words \"eye\" and \"grasp\" can be explained to a degree, by pointing to objects and actions, those of \"beauty\" and \"freedom\" can not. Abstract terms show a strong tendency to be semantically linked to knowledge about emotions. In addition, abstract words strongly activate the anterior cingulate cortex, a site known to be relevant for emotion processing. Motor system activation for emotion-expressing body parts was found when adults processed abstract emotion words, indicating that, for one important class of abstract concepts, semantic grounding in emotion-expressing action can partly explain the meaning–symbol link.\n\nSelf-regulation\n\nThe basic idea underlying findings on embodied cognition is that cognition is composed of experiences that are multimodal and spread throughout the body, not in a way that amodal semantic nodes are stored purely in the mind. In line with this idea of embodied cognition, the body itself can also be involved in self-regulation.\n\nSelf-regulation can be defined as the capacity of organisms to successfully implement goal-consistent responses despite distracting or countervailing influences. Most people undergo a dilemma when they encounter immediate pains to gain long-term benefits. When facing this dilemma, the body can help augment willpower by evoking nonconscious willpower-strengthening goals that boost people's ongoing conscious attempts to facilitate their pursuit of long-term goals.\n\nIn a study, the effect of muscle-firming on donating money to Haiti was investigated. The participants either held the pen to fill out the donation sheet in their fingers (\"control conditions\") or in their hands (\"muscle-firming\" condition). Significantly, more participants of the \"muscle-firming\" group donated money than of the control group. One can therefore deduce that firming one's muscles can help to get over their physical aversion to viewing the devastation in Haiti and spending money. Similarly, physical or environmental cues signal the energetic costs of action and, subsequently, influence willingness to engage in additional volitional action. Studies have also shown that exposure to physical or conceptual thirst or dryness-related cues reduces perceived energy and, successively, decreases self-regulation These studies suggest that embodied cognition can play a role in self-regulation.\n\nSome suggest that the embodied mind serves self-regulatory processes by combining movement and cognition to reach a goal. Thus, the embodied mind has a facilitative effect. To navigate the social world, one must approach helpful resources such as friends and avoid dangers like foes. Facial expression can be a signal for evaluation of whether a person is desirable or dangerous. Embodied cognition can aid in clarifying others' emotions when emotional signals may be ambiguous. In a study, participants were able to identify expression shifts faster when they mimicked them in contrast to participants holding a pen in their mouths that froze their facial muscles, therefore, unable to mimic facial expressions. Other goal-relevant actions may be encouraged by embodied cognition, as evidenced by the automated approach and avoidance of certain environmental cues. Embodied cognition is also influenced by the situation. If one moves in a way previously associated with danger, the body may require a higher level of information processing than if the body moves in a way associated with a benign situation. The studies above may suggest that embodied cognition could serve a functional purpose by assisting in self-regulatory processes.\n\nSocial cognition\n\nIn social psychology, and more specifically in social cognition, research focuses on how people interact and influence one another. In the context of embodiment, research in social cognition investigates how the presence of people and interactions between them affects each other's thoughts, feelings, and behavior. More precisely, social cognition proposes that thoughts, feelings, and behavior are grounded in sensorimotor experiences and bodily states.\n\nIn the field of phenomenology, Merleau-Ponty's intercorporeity means that when meeting a person, one initially experiences the other person via their bodily expressions, which has an impact before cognitive reflections. This phenomenon is investigated in social psychology and is known as nonverbal synchrony. Synchrony during social interaction arises spontaneously and is often independent of conscious information processing.\n\nIn a dyadic social interaction study from 2014, same-sex participants interacted verbally in \"cooperative\", \"competitive\", and \"fun task\" conditions. The focus of this study was to investigate the connection between the participants' affectivity and nonverbal synchrony. Results showed that positive emotions were associated with positive synchrony while negative emotions were associated negatively. Other findings describe a causal relation between synchrony and emotions with synchrony leading to affect rather than vice versa. In a similar study, same-sex participant pairs were instructed to alternate asking certain questions and to progressively self-disclose. Results show that people spontaneously move together in space and synchronize their movement, enhancing the quality of interaction (embodied rapport). Self-disclosure and behavioral synchrony correlate with positive emotions towards another person. These two exemplary studies describe how nonverbal, behavioral synchrony of bodily movements influences the psychological experience of the interaction between people. These findings support the embodiment thesis idea of bodily experiences affecting people's psychological and emotional states.\n\nOne aspect of social cognition concerns perspective-taking, which consists in perceiving a situation from another person’s point of view. Two categories of perspective-taking include visual and spatial perspective-taking. Visual perspective-taking (VPT) is defined as viewing a situation from another person’s point of view and understanding how they see the world. Spatial perspective-taking (SPT) involves the ability to access what spatial information another viewer is perceiving, such as the orientation of objects in relation to each other. Accordingly, VPT has two different levels. VPT1 refers to understanding what is in someone else’s point of view; VPT2 entails adopting this point of view and understanding how the world is represented from this point of view. Both levels are grounded and situated, yet it is only VPT2 that is embodied; it is only VPT2 that relies on deliberate movement simulation. In the case of SPT, research has shown that not only the presence of another person in the position of potential actions on objects leads to SPT in participants, but also phrasing the query in terms of actions increases the number of people who participate in SPT. The embodiment of SPT is also dependent on sex and social skills. Males and people with lower social skills are said to have lower levels of embodiment in SPT as compared to females and people with higher social skills.\n\nResearch suggests that aging affects social cognition and perspective-taking. In one study, four experiments evaluated implicit and explicit VPT as well as executive and social cognition measures in healthy young and older adults. Congruency effect (the detrimental effect of congruency of the alternative perspective on response time and accuracy) was detected in both egocentric and allocentric conditions in explicit VPT1 and VPT2. Incongruencies in VPT1 less influenced older adults. In VPT2, older adults showed a more significant congruency effect and influence of allocentric perspective during egocentric judgment. These results could explain the impairment of older adults in social tasks that rely on perspective-taking.\n\nSensorimotor contingencies\nAs a part of the embodied cognition theory, proponents suggest that an organism's sensory and the motor systems are dynamically integrated. This idea is known as sensorimotor coupling which allows sensory information to be efficiently used during action. Similarly, the concept of sensorimotor contingencies (SMCs) states that the quality of perception is determined by the knowledge of how sensory information changes when one acts in the world. As an example, to look underneath an object, one has to bend down, shift one's head, and change the gaze direction. Proponents of the SMCs theory argue that every stimulus modality / sensory modality such as light, sound pressure, etc. follow specific rules (i.e. sensorimotor contingencies) that govern those changes of sensory information. Consequentially, since those rules differ between modalities, also the qualitative experience of them differs. There are multiple examples that highlight the distinction between SMCs of different modalities. An instance of an SMC distinct for the visual percept is the expansion of the flow pattern on the retina when the body moves forward and the analogous contraction when the body moves backward. In contrast, auditory SMCs are affected by head rotations which change the temporal asynchrony of a received signal between the right and the left ear. This movement mainly affects the amplitude and not the frequency of the sensory input.\n\nSupport for the SMCs theory is brought forward by studies on sensory substitution, sensory augmentation, and research on the field of robotics. Research on sensory substitution and sensory substitution devices investigates the replacement of one modality by another (e.g. visual information replaced by tactile information). The core idea is that sensorimotor contingencies of one modality are transmitted via another modality. Sensory augmentation aims for the perception of a new sense via already existing perceptual channels. In this case, sensory augmentation allows for new sensorimotor contingencies to be formed. In the field of robotics, researchers investigate, for example, how visual SMCs are learned on a neural level with the help of a robotic arm and dynamic neural fields.\n\nApplications \n\nOver the past years, embodied cognition research has gradually redeemed the scientific study of bodily experiences and simultaneously laid a theoretical and empirical foundation across multiple disciplines. Principles and findings underlying embodied cognition have begun to be transferred and applied in several fields ranging from education, robotics, clinical settings, social psychology, sports, to music.\n\nEducation \n\nEmbodied cognition findings have been translated into an overhaul of educational and teaching practices in favor of embodied learning and teaching methods. In particular, such embodied practices feature prominently in science education. For example, Energy Theater is a method for teaching about energy dynamics based on the embodied interaction theory. In this method, participants each play the role of a unit of energy, and together, they enact the transformation and transfer of energy in specific scenarios.\n\nThe Human Orrery is another embodied educational method in which students learn about the solar system through enactment. In this method, the position of the planets is marked by disks, and the participants enact the role of the planets by moving on their orbits.\n\nIn a survey from 2020, researchers analyzed several frameworks that bring embodied cognition theory into clever classroom practices for the teaching and learning of mathematics. The embodied design-based research program identifies and classifies at least two forms of embodied designs: perception and action-based designs. In perception-based designs, the target is a/b concepts such as likelihood, slope, and proportional equivalence in geometrical similitude. The first step in this design involves asking students to use their naïve worldview to judge a set of material presented to them by their teacher, which affirms their naïve worldview. Afterward, teachers provide students with appropriate media and attempt to guide them to build models by following the formal procedure. In action-based designs, learners are presented with sensorimotor problems. Abrahamson and colleagues developed the \"Mathematical Imagery Trainer\" platform to explore this design. In one particular version of this platform, designed to teach proportions to learners, they moved two cursors with both hands to turn a screen green. The screen would only turn green when the height of right and left hands from the base had a particular ratio. Once learners discovered the strategy to solve this problem, the grid and numerals are added to the screen to shift learners from a qualitative to a quantitative understanding of the concept at hand.\n\nOverall, embodied cognition has served as a new framework for exploring the learning process and developing new educational practices. The older educational methods are slowly being replaced or complemented by the new approaches inspired by embodied cognition theory.\n\nAI and robotics \nEmbodied cognition has significantly impacted artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics; it has contributed to the drastic changes AI has been through over the last years. Insights from embodied cognition have allowed researchers to build more dynamic robots with more fluid and more expressive motions facilitating better performance in complex scenarios.\n\nShakey the robot is a well-known milestone in AI; it was one of the first approaches to building mobile robots capable of reasoning about their own actions and performing specific tasks in a determined environment. Shakey had a relatively simple body and followed commands by itself, melding logical reasoning with physical action to navigate in a room. A limitation was that Shakey’s architecture (Lisp) relied heavily on symbolic computational principles that, consequently, demanded that it iterate through long command sequences to perform a particular action. Thus, Shakey was slow and could take days to complete particular tasks. Besides, Shakey’s performance was constrained by a highly controlled environment.\n\nEmbodied AI tries not to overlook or underestimate the \"body\" when creating AI systems. It poses that future research should move towards systems that incorporate embodied perspectives. The body as a contributor to states of the mind is seen as more than a mere follower of (algorithmic) instructions. Embodiment is said to shape intelligent information processing because \"intelligence is fundamentally a result of embodied interaction which exploits structure in the world\".\n\nEmbodied AI gave birth to situated robotic perspectives that included more versatile AI architectures. Situated robotics are based on an incremental approach to AI and reliance on parallel activity producers that interface effectively with action and perception. Unlike traditional robots, situated robots perform better in complex and dynamic environments that create unpredictable situations for robots most of the time. The behavior of these robots changes according to their environment so that they can deal with incredibility in various situations. For instance, social situations are rife with unpredictability, and social robots need to be able to predict all sorts of behaviors—human or otherwise. In this vein, Jun Tani’s lab has introduced an abstract brain model called PV-RNN, based on the principle of free energy, and has incorporated a meta-prior in it. While a high meta-prior leads to a confident behavior generation in robots and ignores the behavior of other robots, robots with a low meta-prior adapt to the behaviour of other robots and avoid generating their own behavioral pattern.\n\nInstances of situated robots include aerial robots developed by companies such as senseFly, which produces fixed-wing autonomous drones for professional use, owned by Parrot SA, and Flyability, which builds drones for the inspection and exploration of indoor and confined spaces. They rely on the research of Dario Floreano's laboratory on mini-robots and evolutionary robotics.\n\nAnother example of situated robots is Atlas. Built in 2013 by Boston Dynamics, Atlas is an anthropomorphic robot with a height of 1.5 m and a weight of 89 kg that can move with agility and diversity in various situations. The algorithms of Atlas allow for the complex and dynamic interaction between its body and the environment. The movement of Atlas is driven by perception and has evolved over time from on-fly adjustment to perceiving its environment.\n\nClinical settings \n\nThe procedures and methods of investigation in clinical neuropsychology have been directly influenced by localization and computational approaches to cognition. These techniques have made numerous contributions to the development of clinical practice. Embodied cognition broadens the scope of clinical practice by providing a more comprehensive view of cognitive processes under both normal and pathological conditions by highlighting the role of the body and sensory-motor experience in cognition. Thereby, challenging the integration of embodied cognitive practices in clinical assessment and diagnosis processes. For instance, there exist a number of interventions and therapies which are incorporating the ability of the body to influence cognitive states to aid individuals with psychological difficulties. An example is the already established use of behavioral treatments for children’s disorders such as autism. Another example of embodied integrative therapies involves sensorimotor retraining as well as stimulation techniques to prevent, reduce, or release pain associated with phantom limbs. Also, fields of psychotherapy (body oriented psychotherapy and somatic psychology), which are prominent in Europe and encompasses embodied interventions such as dance and movement therapy, have begun to receive more empirical support. One of the most common integrative treatments of mental illness to the western psychosocial sphere is via mindfulness practices and exercise.\n\nSport \nEmbodied cognitive perspectives can inform and impact motor skill research in the fields of sport and sport psychology. Studies have shown that the embodiment thesis comes into action through many ways in sport such as sport-related action-specific perception, understanding, prediction, judgement, training, and language comprehension. From an embodied cognition perspective, a study examined the relationship between previous motor and visual experience and the current officiating experience of expert judges and referees. It was reported that sports judges who had performed the judged tasks and/or had experience observing others perform the specific tasks would achieve better in judging a specific sport activity compared to someone without this motor and observational experience. In another study, reading comprehension and memory were shown to be improved if the subject would simultaneously read the description of certain physical activity (e.g basketball actions) and perform physical manipulations that were consistent with them. The action-based theory of reading comprehension states that the sensory system and motor system are involved during the process of understanding, imagining, and remembering an action described in a story, as if the reader was actually perceiving or executing that action. These and similar studies show the influence of embodied cognition in sport and sport psychology.\n\nMusic \n\nEmbodied music cognition is a paradigm that puts forward the idea that bodily interactions with music significantly affect music cognition. Researchers proposed that musical emotions, meaning, and the feelings evoked by listening to music, are the vehicle for the embodiment of abstract thoughts. Thus music has a specific cognitive function that allows for this possibility. Researcher have suggested embodied music cognition occurs at two levels: the surface level and the primary level. The surface level includes psychomotor activities of a music performer, visible bodily reactions to music, and rhythmic entrainment. The primary level of embodied music cognition is the tonal/temporal encoding of it; it commands the surface level.\n\nThe research on embodied music cognition focuses on two main trends: exploring embodiment and expanding the concept of embodiment in music. The first trend includes studies investigating bodily articulation and gesturing in relation to music. Embodied music cognition considers musical experiences from an action and perception viewpoint. One can observe that many people move when they listen to music; in many cultures there is no clear distinction between music and dance. Through the different movements of the body, it is assumed that people are able to give meaning to music. This perspective is different from the traditional approach to music cognition, which bases musical meaning on merely perception-based analysis of musical structure. Through the measurement of sounds, movement, human physiology, and computational modeling, embodied music cognition is constantly building up reliable knowledge about the role of the human body in musical meaning formation. Embodied music cognition is potentially applicable to better understand the role of music in social interactions. Multiple studies show that children move more synchronously with music when they dance as a group.\n\nThe second trend includes studies that strive to connect embodied music cognition to other research fields such as neurology and psychology. For example, a study showed that people who have Parkinson’s disease and are primed by music instead of metronomes beeps are capable of both entertainment and control. The study suggests that using the body to produce timed sequences of action, particularly when music is used as a pacing cue, allows people who have Parkinson’s disease to achieve similar performance levels as healthy individuals.\n\nSocial psychology \nThe embodiment has also important potential applications in social psychology, where researchers have studied how people's own bodily states influence their understanding and interaction with others. Researchers have provided evidence demonstrating the influence of bodily states on social judgments and social behavior. They described that people's experiences with physical temperature per se can influence their perceptions of and prosocial behavior toward other people, without their awareness. When people engage in motor movements that symbolized a particular social category, it primes the use of such category in social judgment.\n\nActivists have tried to combine social psychology research with principles of embodiment to further their goals. For instance, virtual reality (VR) has been used in what is called virtual reality therapy to invoke empathy in viewers. The New York Times created a VR project to display the experience of child refugees called \"The Displaced\". By grounding users in the experience of child refugees from different countries, this project triggered strong empathy in viewers. In the \"6 x 9\" project, Guardian has used VR to replicate the experience of solitary confinement in American prisons. \"Notes on Blindness: Into Darkness\" released in 2016, an exploration of the sensory, emotional, psychological experience of blindness using VR.\n\nControversy\n\nResearch on embodied cognition is extremely broad, covering a wide range of concepts. Methods to study how human cognition is embodied vary from experiment to experiment based on the operational definition used by researchers. The evidence supporting embodiment abounds within the different sciences, yet the interpretation of results and their significance are still disputed and researchers continue looking for appropriate ways to study and explain embodied cognition.\n\nResearch with preverbal infants\n\nResearchers have suggested that pre-verbal infants may be considered an ideal and naturalistic case for studying embodied cognition, especially embodied social cognition since they utilise symbols less than adults do. Some researchers have criticised this notion since it may be impossible to know which stage of a preverbal infant is supposed to be the \"ideal model\" for embodied social cognition, as infant cognition changes dramatically throughout the preverbal period. A 9-month-old has reached a different developmental stage than a 2-month-old.\n\nAnother major issue is whether or not a particular ability reflects an embodied mode of processing. Looking-time, for example, is said to likely be a better measure of embodied cognition than reaching because infants that age lack certain fine motor skills. Infants may first develop a passive mode of embodied cognition before they develop the active mode involving fine motor movements. Researchers have described how this is problematic in that there is no apparent reason to suppose that the abilities described through looking-time paradigm reflect embodied processing. For the distinction between embodied and symbolic modes of processing to be useful in generating testable experimental hypotheses, it must be clear what sort of evidence could, at least in principle, allow a researcher to determine whether or not any particular ability is embodied.\n\nReplication crisis and misinterpretation \nA methodological phenomenon in the sciences is the replication crisis. Inside the field of embodied cognition, it indicates that certain findings have failed to be reproduced with the same results as the originals. Such studies have in common the embodiment idea that bodily experiences influence cognitive processes that are typically considered as mental. For example, power posing which is classified under embodied cognition because it states that having a person physically expand their body increases their confidence, failed to be replicated in several cases. Similarly, studies indicating that weight sensations activate concepts of importance, which in turn may affect morality-related variables, has also failed to be replicated. Researchers also could not replicate the previous findings claiming that holding a warm cup creates a sense of interpersonal warmth.\n\nResearchers failing to replicate the same results does not prove cognition is unaffected/uninfluenced by the body. There are still plenty of findings within the topic of embodied cognition that are scientifically sound. Some researchers state that many of the failed attempts to replicate embodiment findings are due to priming. And many cases of facilitative movements of the body due to priming may be incorrectly labeled as evidence of embodied cognition. The pencil-in-teeth study evidencing embodied cognition may be considered the result of priming. Researchers could have deduced that the quicker responses to positive sentences by participants engaging their smiling muscles indicated embodied cognition. Opponents argue that the effects obtained during this experiment were primed or facilitated by the engagement of certain facial muscles. Priming (pencil in teeth, lips) may causally induce certain perceptual-motor activity that, in turn, induces certain cognitive processes, without the perceptual-motor activity constituting cognitive processing.\n\nSee also \n\nAction-specific perception\nActive inference\nBlue Brain Project\nCognitive biology\nCognitive linguistics\nCognitive neuropsychology\nCognitive neuroscience\nCognitive science\nConceptual blending\nConceptual metaphor\nEcological psychology\nEmbodied bilingual language\nEmbodied cognitive science\nEmbodied embedded cognition\nEmbodied music cognition\nEmbodied phenomenology\nEnactivism\nExtended cognition\nExtended mind thesis\nExternalism\nFeeling\nImage schema\nMetaphors We Live By\nMoravec's paradox\nMotor cognition\nNeuroconstructivism\nNeuropsychology\nNeurophenomenology\nPhilosophy of mind\nPlant cognition\nWhere Mathematics Comes From\nWomen, Fire, and Dangerous Things\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n*\n\nExternal links \n Volume 9, Issue 2 – Janus Head, a special issue of Janus Head: Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature, Continental Philosophy, Phenomenological Psychology and the Arts. Guest edited by Shaun Gallagher.\nEmbodiment and Experientialism from the Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (pdf)\nEmbodied Cognition: A Field Guide (pdf) – from an Artificial Intelligence perspective\n Where the Action Is by Paul Dourish- for applications to human-computer interaction.\n Pragmatism, Ideology, and Embodiment: William James and the Philosophical Foundations of Embodiment by Tim Rohrer\n Society for the Scientific Study of Embodiment\n Embodied Cognition – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n 2001 Summary of how the embodiment hypothesis of cognitive linguistics has begun to interact with theories of embodiment in fields ranging from cognitive anthropology to cognitive neuroscience\n Goddard College's Embodiment Studies Web Resources\n Embodiment Resources – for those researching into embodiment, particularly as it relates to phenomenology, sociology and cognitive neuroscience.\n EUCog – European Network for the Advancement of Artificial Cognitive Systems, Interaction and Robotics Many references here to up to date research on embodiment and enaction\n Milestones:SHAKEY: The World’s First Mobile Intelligent Robot, 1972\n SenseFly\n\nCategory:Cognitive science\nCategory:Enactive cognition\nCategory:Philosophy of artificial intelligence\nCategory:Mind–body problem\nCategory:Concepts in the philosophy of mind", "title": "Embodied cognition" }, { "text": "Enactivism is a position in cognitive science that argues that cognition arises through a dynamic interaction between an acting organism and its environment. It claims that the environment of an organism is brought about, or enacted, by the active exercise of that organism's sensorimotor processes. \"The key point, then, is that the species brings forth and specifies its own domain of problems ...this domain does not exist \"out there\" in an environment that acts as a landing pad for organisms that somehow drop or parachute into the world. Instead, living beings and their environments stand in relation to each other through mutual specification or codetermination\" (p. 198). \"Organisms do not passively receive information from their environments, which they then translate into internal representations. Natural cognitive systems...participate in the generation of meaning ...engaging in transformational and not merely informational interactions: they enact a world.\" These authors suggest that the increasing emphasis upon enactive terminology presages a new era in thinking about cognitive science. How the actions involved in enactivism relate to age-old questions about free will remains a topic of active debate.\n\nThe term 'enactivism' is close in meaning to 'enaction', defined as \"the manner in which a subject of perception creatively matches its actions to the requirements of its situation\". The introduction of the term enaction in this context is attributed to Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch in The Embodied Mind (1991), who proposed the name to \"emphasize the growing conviction that cognition is not the representation of a pre-given world by a pre-given mind but is rather the enactment of a world and a mind on the basis of a history of the variety of actions that a being in the world performs\". This was further developed by Thompson and others, to place emphasis upon the idea that experience of the world is a result of mutual interaction between the sensorimotor capacities of the organism and its environment. However, some writers maintain that there remains a need for some degree of the mediating function of representation in this new approach to the science of the mind.\n\nThe initial emphasis of enactivism upon sensorimotor skills has been criticized as \"cognitively marginal\", but it has been extended to apply to higher level cognitive activities, such as social interactions. \"In the enactive view,... knowledge is constructed: it is constructed by an agent through its sensorimotor interactions with its environment, co-constructed between and within living species through their meaningful interaction with each other. In its most abstract form, knowledge is co-constructed between human individuals in socio-linguistic interactions...Science is a particular form of social knowledge construction...[that] allows us to perceive and predict events beyond our immediate cognitive grasp...and also to construct further, even more powerful scientific knowledge.\"\n\nEnactivism is closely related to situated cognition and embodied cognition, and is presented as an alternative to cognitivism, computationalism, and Cartesian dualism.\n\nPhilosophical aspects\n\nEnactivism is one of a cluster of related theories sometimes known as the 4Es. As described by Mark Rowlands, mental processes are:\n Embodied involving more than the brain, including a more general involvement of bodily structures and processes.\n Embedded functioning only in a related external environment.\n Enacted involving not only neural processes, but also things an organism does.\n Extended into the organism's environment.\n\nEnactivism proposes an alternative to dualism as a philosophy of mind, in that it emphasises the interactions between mind, body and the environment, seeing them all as inseparably intertwined in mental processes. The self arises as part of the process of an embodied entity interacting with the environment in precise ways determined by its physiology. In this sense, individuals can be seen to \"grow into\" or arise from their interactive role with the world.\n\"Enaction is the idea that organisms create their own experience through their actions. Organisms are not passive receivers of input from the environment, but are actors in the environment such that what they experience is shaped by how they act.\"\n\nIn The Tree of Knowledge Maturana & Varela proposed the term enactive \"to evoke the view of knowledge that what is known is brought forth, in contraposition to the more classical views of either cognitivism or connectionism. They see enactivism as providing a middle ground between the two extremes of representationalism and solipsism. They seek to \"confront the problem of understanding how our existence-the praxis of our living- is coupled to a surrounding world which appears filled with regularities that are at every instant the result of our biological and social histories.... to find a via media: to understand the regularity of the world we are experiencing at every moment, but without any point of reference independent of ourselves that would give certainty to our descriptions and cognitive assertions. Indeed the whole mechanism of generating ourselves, as describers and observers tells us that our world, as the world which we bring forth in our coexistence with others, will always have precisely that mixture of regularity and mutability, that combination of solidity and shifting sand, so typical of human experience when we look at it up close.\"[Tree of Knowledge, p. 241] Another important notion relating to enactivism is autopoiesis. The word refers to a system that is able to reproduce and maintain itself. Maturana & Varela describe that \"This was a word without a history, a word that could directly mean what takes place in the dynamics of the autonomy proper to living systems\" Using the term autopoiesis, they argue that any closed system that has autonomy, self-reference and self-construction (or, that has autopoietic activities) has cognitive capacities. Therefore, cognition is present in all living systems. This view is also called autopoietic enactivism.\n\nRadical enactivism is another form of enactivist view of cognition. Radical enactivists often adopt a thoroughly non-representational, enactive account of basic cognition. Basic cognitive capacities mentioned by Hutto and Myin include perceiving, imagining and remembering. They argue that those forms of basic cognition can be explained without positing mental representations. With regard to complex forms of cognition such as language, they think mental representations are needed, because there needs explanations of content. In human being's public practices, they claim that \"such intersubjective practices and sensitivity to the relevant norms comes with the mastery of the use of public symbol systems\" (2017, p. 120), and so \"as it happens, this appears only to have occurred in full form with construction of sociocultural cognitive niches in the human lineage\" (2017, p. 134). They conclude that basic cognition as well as cognition in simple organisms such as bacteria are best characterized as non-representational.\n\nEnactivism also addresses the hard problem of consciousness, referred to by Thompson as part of the explanatory gap in explaining how consciousness and subjective experience are related to brain and body. \"The problem with the dualistic concepts of consciousness and life in standard formulations of the hard problem is that they exclude each other by construction\". Instead, according to Thompson's view of enactivism, the study of consciousness or phenomenology as exemplified by Husserl and Merleau-Ponty is to complement science and its objectification of the world. \"The whole universe of science is built upon the world as directly experienced, and if we want to subject science itself to rigorous scrutiny and arrive at a precise assessment of its meaning and scope, we must begin by reawakening the basic experience of the world of which science is the second-order expression\" (Merleau-Ponty, The phenomenology of perception as quoted by Thompson, p. 165). In this interpretation, enactivism asserts that science is formed or enacted as part of humankind's interactivity with its world, and by embracing phenomenology \"science itself is properly situated in relation to the rest of human life and is thereby secured on a sounder footing.\"\n\nEnaction has been seen as a move to conjoin representationalism with phenomenalism, that is, as adopting a constructivist epistemology, an epistemology centered upon the active participation of the subject in constructing reality. However, 'constructivism' focuses upon more than a simple 'interactivity' that could be described as a minor adjustment to 'assimilate' reality or 'accommodate' to it. Constructivism looks upon interactivity as a radical, creative, revisionist process in which the knower constructs a personal 'knowledge system' based upon their experience and tested by its viability in practical encounters with their environment. Learning is a result of perceived anomalies that produce dissatisfaction with existing conceptions.\n\nShaun Gallagher also points out that pragmatism is a forerunner of enactive and extended approaches to cognition. According to him, enactive conceptions of cognition can be found in many pragmatists such as Charles Sanders Peirce and John Dewey. For example, Dewey says that \"The brain is essentially an organ for effecting the reciprocal adjustment to each other of the stimuli received from the environment and responses directed upon it\" (1916, pp. 336–337). This view is fully consistent with enactivist arguments that cognition is not just a matter of brain processes and brain is one part of the body consisting of the dynamical regulation. Robert Brandom, a neo-pragmatist, comments that \"A founding idea of pragmatism is that the most fundamental kind of intentionality (in the sense of directedness towards objects) is the practical involvement with objects exhibited by a sentient creature dealing skillfully with its world\" (2008, p. 178).\n\nHow does constructivism relate to enactivism? From the above remarks it can be seen that Glasersfeld expresses an interactivity between the knower and the known quite acceptable to an enactivist, but does not emphasize the structured probing of the environment by the knower that leads to the \"perturbation relative to some expected result\" that then leads to a new understanding. It is this probing activity, especially where it is not accidental but deliberate, that characterizes enaction, and invokes affect, that is, the motivation and planning that lead to doing and to fashioning the probing, both observing and modifying the environment, so that \"perceptions and nature condition one another through generating one another.\" The questioning nature of this probing activity is not an emphasis of Piaget and Glasersfeld.\n\nSharing enactivism's stress upon both action and embodiment in the incorporation of knowledge, but giving Glasersfeld's mechanism of viability an evolutionary emphasis, is evolutionary epistemology. Inasmuch as an organism must reflect its environment well enough for the organism to be able to survive in it, and to be competitive enough to be able to reproduce at sustainable rate, the structure and reflexes of the organism itself embody knowledge of its environment. This biology-inspired theory of the growth of knowledge is closely tied to universal Darwinism, and is associated with evolutionary epistemologists such as Karl Popper, Donald T. Campbell, Peter Munz, and Gary Cziko. According to Munz, \"an organism is an embodied theory about its environment... Embodied theories are also no longer expressed in language, but in anatomical structures or reflex responses, etc.\"\n\nOne objection to enactive approaches to cognition is the so-called \"scale-up objection\". According to this objection, enactive theories only have limited value because they cannot \"scale up\" to explain more complex cognitive capacities like human thoughts. Those phenomena are extremely difficult to explain without positing representation. But recently, some philosophers are trying to respond to such objection. For example, Adrian Downey (2020) provides a non-representational account of Obsessive-compulsive disorder, and then argues that ecological-enactive approaches can respond to the \"scaling up\" objection.\n\nPsychological aspects\nMcGann & others argue that enactivism attempts to mediate between the explanatory role of the coupling between cognitive agent and environment and the traditional emphasis on brain mechanisms found in neuroscience and psychology. In the interactive approach to social cognition developed by De Jaegher & others, the dynamics of interactive processes are seen to play significant roles in coordinating interpersonal understanding, processes that in part include what they call participatory sense-making. Recent developments of enactivism in the area of social neuroscience involve the proposal of The Interactive Brain Hypothesis where social cognition brain mechanisms, even those used in non-interactive situations, are proposed to have interactive origins.\n\nEnactive views of perception\nIn the enactive view, perception \"is not conceived as the transmission of information but more as an exploration of the world by various means. Cognition is not tied into the workings of an 'inner mind', some cognitive core, but occurs in directed interaction between the body and the world it inhabits.\"\n\nAlva Noë in advocating an enactive view of perception sought to resolve how we perceive three-dimensional objects, on the basis of two-dimensional input. He argues that we perceive this solidity (or 'volumetricity') by appealing to patterns of sensorimotor expectations. These arise from our agent-active 'movements and interaction' with objects, or 'object-active' changes in the object itself. The solidity is perceived through our expectations and skills in knowing how the object's appearance would change with changes in how we relate to it. He saw all perception as an active exploration of the world, rather than being a passive process, something which happens to us.\n\nNoë's idea of the role of 'expectations' in three-dimensional perception has been opposed by several philosophers, notably by Andy Clark. Clark points to difficulties of the enactive approach. He points to internal processing of visual signals, for example, in the ventral and dorsal pathways, the two-streams hypothesis. This results in an integrated perception of objects (their recognition and location, respectively) yet this processing cannot be described as an action or actions. In a more general criticism, Clark suggests that perception is not a matter of expectations about sensorimotor mechanisms guiding perception. Rather, although the limitations of sensorimotor mechanisms constrain perception, this sensorimotor activity is drastically filtered to fit current needs and purposes of the organism, and it is these imposed 'expectations' that govern perception, filtering for the 'relevant' details of sensorimotor input (called \"sensorimotor summarizing\").\n\nThese sensorimotor-centered and purpose-centered views appear to agree on the general scheme but disagree on the dominance issue – is the dominant component peripheral or central. Another view, the closed-loop perception one, assigns equal a-priori dominance to the peripheral and central components. In closed-loop perception, perception emerges through the process of inclusion of an item in a motor-sensory-motor loop, i.e., a loop (or loops) connecting the peripheral and central components that are relevant to that item. The item can be a body part (in which case the loops are in steady-state) or an external object (in which case the loops are perturbed and gradually converge to a steady state). These enactive loops are always active, switching dominance by the need.\n\nAnother application of enaction to perception is analysis of the human hand. The many remarkably demanding uses of the hand are not learned by instruction, but through a history of engagements that lead to the acquisition of skills. According to one interpretation, it is suggested that \"the hand [is]...an organ of cognition\", not a faithful subordinate working under top-down instruction, but a partner in a \"bi-directional interplay between manual and brain activity.\" According to Daniel Hutto: \"Enactivists are concerned to defend the view that our most elementary ways of engaging with the world and others - including our basic forms of perception and perceptual experience - are mindful in the sense of being phenomenally charged and intentionally directed, despite being non-representational and content-free.\" Hutto calls this position 'REC' (Radical Enactive Cognition): \"According to REC, there is no way to distinguish neural activity that is imagined to be genuinely content involving (and thus truly mental, truly cognitive) from other non-neural activity that merely plays a supporting or enabling role in making mind and cognition possible.\"\n\nParticipatory sense-making\n\nHanne De Jaegher and Ezequiel Di Paolo (2007) have extended the enactive concept of sense-making into the social domain. The idea takes as its departure point the process of interaction between individuals in a social encounter. De Jaegher and Di Paolo argue that the interaction process itself can take on a form of autonomy (operationally defined). This allows them to define social cognition as the generation of meaning and its transformation through interacting individuals.\n\nThe notion of participatory sense-making has led to the proposal that interaction processes can sometimes play constitutive roles in social cognition (De Jaegher, Di Paolo, Gallagher, 2010). It has been applied to research in social neuroscience and autism.\n\nIn a similar vein, \"an inter-enactive approach to agency holds that the behavior of agents in a social situation unfolds not only according to their individual abilities and goals, but also according to the conditions and constraints imposed by the autonomous dynamics of the interaction process itself\". According to Torrance, enactivism involves five interlocking themes related to the question \"What is it to be a (cognizing, conscious) agent?\" It is:\n1. to be a biologically autonomous (autopoietic) organism\n2. to generate significance or meaning, rather than to act via...updated internal representations of the external world\n3. to engage in sense-making via dynamic coupling with the environment\n4. to 'enact' or 'bring forth' a world of significances by mutual co-determination of the organism with its enacted world\n5. to arrive at an experiential awareness via lived embodiment in the world.\n\nTorrance adds that \"many kinds of agency, in particular the agency of human beings, cannot be understood separately from understanding the nature of the interaction that occurs between agents.\" That view introduces the social applications of enactivism. \"Social cognition is regarded as the result of a special form of action, namely social interaction...the enactive approach looks at the circular dynamic within a dyad of embodied agents.\"\n \nIn cultural psychology, enactivism is seen as a way to uncover cultural influences upon feeling, thinking and acting. Baerveldt and Verheggen argue that \"It appears that seemingly natural experience is thoroughly intertwined with sociocultural realities.\" They suggest that the social patterning of experience is to be understood through enactivism, \"the idea that the reality we have in common, and in which we find ourselves, is neither a world that exists independently from us, nor a socially shared way of representing such a pregiven world, but a world itself brought forth by our ways of communicating and our joint action....The world we inhabit is manufactured of 'meaning' rather than 'information'.\n\nLuhmann attempted to apply Maturana and Varela's notion of autopoiesis to social systems. \"A core concept of social systems theory is derived from biological systems theory: the concept of autopoiesis. Chilean biologist Humberto Maturana come up with the concept to explain how biological systems such as cells are a product of their own production.\" \"Systems exist by way of operational closure and this means that they each construct themselves and their own realities.\"\n\nEducational aspects\nThe first definition of enaction was introduced by psychologist Jerome Bruner, who introduced enaction as 'learning by doing' in his discussion of how children learn, and how they can best be helped to learn. He associated enaction with two other ways of knowledge organization: Iconic and Symbolic.\n\n\"Any domain of knowledge (or any problem within that domain of knowledge) can be represented in three ways: by a set of actions appropriate for achieving a certain result (enactive representation); by a set of summary images or graphics that stand for a concept without defining it fully (iconic representation); and by a set of symbolic or logical propositions drawn from a symbolic system that is governed by rules or laws for forming and transforming propositions (symbolic representation)\"\nThe term 'enactive framework' was elaborated upon by Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana.\n\nSriramen argues that enactivism provides \"a rich and powerful explanatory theory for learning and being.\" and that it is closely related to both the ideas of cognitive development of Piaget, and also the social constructivism of Vygotsky. Piaget focused on the child's immediate environment, and suggested cognitive structures like spatial perception emerge as a result of the child's interaction with the world. According to Piaget, children construct knowledge, using what they know in new ways and testing it, and the environment provides feedback concerning the adequacy of their construction. In a cultural context, Vygotsky suggested that the kind of cognition that can take place is not dictated by the engagement of the isolated child, but is also a function of social interaction and dialogue that is contingent upon a sociohistorical context. Enactivism in educational theory \"looks at each learning situation as a complex system consisting of teacher, learner, and context, all of which frame and co-create the learning situation.\" Enactivism in education is very closely related to situated cognition, which holds that \"knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used.\" This approach challenges the \"separating of what is learned from how it is learned and used.\"\n\nArtificial intelligence aspects\n\nThe ideas of enactivism regarding how organisms engage with their environment have interested those involved in robotics and man-machine interfaces. The analogy is drawn that a robot can be designed to interact and learn from its environment in a manner similar to the way an organism does, and a human can interact with a computer-aided design tool or data base using an interface that creates an enactive environment for the user, that is, all the user's tactile, auditory, and visual capabilities are enlisted in a mutually explorative engagement, capitalizing upon all the user's abilities, and not at all limited to cerebral engagement. In these areas it is common to refer to affordances as a design concept, the idea that an environment or an interface affords opportunities for enaction, and good design involves optimizing the role of such affordances.\n\nThe activity in the AI community has influenced enactivism as a whole. Referring extensively to modeling techniques for evolutionary robotics by Beer, the modeling of learning behavior by Kelso, and to modeling of sensorimotor activity by Saltzman, McGann, De Jaegher, and Di Paolo discuss how this work makes the dynamics of coupling between an agent and its environment, the foundation of enactivism, \"an operational, empirically observable phenomenon.\" That is, the AI environment invents examples of enactivism using concrete examples that, although not as complex as living organisms, isolate and illuminate basic principles.\n\nMathematical formalisms \n\nEnactive cognition has been formalised in order to address subjectivity in artificial general intelligence.\n\nA mathematical formalism of AGI is an agent proven to maximise a measure of intelligence. Prior to 2022, the only such formalism was AIXI, which maximised “the ability to satisfy goals in a wide range of environments”. In 2015 Jan Lieke and Marcus Hutter showed that \"Legg-Hutter intelligence is measured with respect to a fixed UTM. AIXI is the most intelligent policy if it uses the same UTM\", a result which \"undermines all existing optimality properties for AIXI\", rendering them subjective.\n\nThis problem stems from AIXI's use of compression as a proxy for intelligence, which requires that cognition take place in isolation from the environment in which goals are pursued. AIXI runs on one universal turing machine (UTM), while the measure of intelligence (the environment) runs on another. Michael Timothy Bennett argued this formalises Mind–body dualism, which is what renders claims regarding AIXI’s behaviour moot without knowing the UTM the environment runs on as well. Bennett’s argument was that if cognition is a function A, the UTM is a function B and reality is a function C, then AIXI is the best choice of A to maximise the performance of the composed function C(B(A)). Unfortunately, C(B(A)) depends upon B(A), not upon A alone. To formalise enactive cognition, the formalisation of agent and environment as separate mathematical objects had to be abandoned. Instead, Bennett formalised an arbitrary task, integrating agency with the environment as a single object D. Subsequently both cognition and the reality within which it takes place were characterised as software, meaning instead of C(B(A)), cognition was formalised in terms of B(D) (or B(C(A)) as the original formulation had it). This classified all sensorimotor activity as software, and the universe as the interpreter, relying on pancomputationalism.\n\nAs a result, an alternative proxy for intelligence called weakness was identified and shown to outperform compression in terms of the \"ability to complete a wide range of tasks\" and equivalently \"ability to generalise\", meaning that if enactivism holds and Mind–body dualism does not, then compression is not necessary or sufficient for intelligence, calling into question widely held views on intelligence (see also Hutter Prize). This formalisation of enactive cognition has also been used to provide a mechanistic explanation of symbol emergence in terms of modelling the intent of other agents. This is built upon the Mirror Symbol Hypothesis, which posits that sets of sensorimotor activities form symbols in the manner of perceptual symbol systems (see Lawrence W. Barsalou), though the characterisation of symbols as perceptual was abandoned. As these symbols must be present both in the act of undertaking an action and of observing it, they arguably explain the ability to empathise (conditional upon the ability to model other-directed intentionality ).\n\nSee also\n\nAction-specific perception\nAutopoesis\nBiosemiotics\nCognitive science\nCognitive psychology\nComputational theory of mind\nConnectivism\nCultural psychology\nDistributed cognition\nEmbodied cognition\nEmbodied embedded cognition\nEnactive interfaces\nExtended cognition\nExtended mind\nExternalism#Enactivism and embodied cognition\nMind–body problem\nPhenomenology (philosophy)\nPractopoiesis\nRepresentationalism\nSituated cognition\nSocial cognition\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n \n \n Di Paolo, E. A., Rohde, M. and De Jaegher, H., (2010). Horizons for the Enactive Mind: Values, Social Interaction, and Play. In J. Stewart, O. Gapenne and E. A. Di Paolo (eds), Enaction: Towards a New Paradigm for Cognitive Science, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 33 – 87. \nGallagher, Shaun (2017). Enactivist Interventions: Rethinking the Mind. Oxford University Press. \n Hutto, D. D. (Ed.) (2006). Radical Enactivism: Intentionality, phenomenology, and narrative. In R. D. Ellis & N. Newton (Series Eds.), Consciousness & Emotion, vol. 2. \n McGann, M. & Torrance, S. (2005). Doing it and meaning it (and the relationship between the two). In R. D. Ellis & N. Newton, Consciousness & Emotion, vol. 1: Agency, conscious choice, and selective perception. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. \nMerleau-Ponty, Maurice (2005). Phenomenology of Perception. Routledge. (Originally published 1945)\nNoë, Alva (2010). Out of Our Heads: Why You Are Not Your Brain, and Other Lessons from the Biology of Consciousness. Hill and Wang.\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n Slides related to a chapter on haptic perception (recognition through touch): \n \n An overview of the rationale and means and methods for the study of representations that the learner constructs in his/her attempt to understand knowledge in a given field. See in particular §1.2.1.4 Toward social representations (p. 24)\n An extensive but uncritical introduction to the work of Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana\n Entire journal issue on enactivism's status and current debates.\n\n \nCategory:Action (philosophy)\nCategory:Behavioral neuroscience\nCategory:Cognitive science\nCategory:Consciousness\nCategory:Educational psychology\nCategory:Emergence\nCategory:Epistemology of science\nCategory:Knowledge representation\nCategory:Metaphysics of mind\nCategory:Motor cognition\nCategory:Neuropsychology\nCategory:Perception\nCategory:Philosophical theories\nCategory:Philosophy of psychology\nCategory:Psychological concepts\nCategory:Psychological theories\nCategory:Sociology of knowledge", "title": "Enactivism" }, { "text": "Difference is a key concept of philosophy, denoting the process or set of properties by which one entity is distinguished from another within a relational field or a given conceptual system. In the Western philosophical system, difference is traditionally viewed as being opposed to identity, following the Principles of Leibniz, and in particular, his Law of the identity of indiscernibles. In structuralist and poststructuralist accounts, however, difference is understood to be constitutive of both meaning and identity. In other words, because identity (particularly, personal identity) is viewed in non-essentialist terms as a construct, and because constructs only produce meaning through the interplay of differences (see below), it is the case that for both structuralism and poststructuralism, identity cannot be said to exist without difference.\n\nDifference in Leibniz's law\nGottfried Leibniz's Principle of the identity of indiscernibles states that two things are identical if and only if they share the same and only the same properties. This is a principle which defines identity rather than difference, although it established the tradition in logic and analytical philosophy of conceiving of identity and difference as oppositional.\n\nKant's critique\nIn his Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant argues that it is necessary to distinguish between the thing in itself and its appearance. Even if two objects have completely the same properties, if they are at two different places at the same time, they are numerically different:\n\nDifference in structuralism \nStructural linguistics, and subsequently structuralism proper, are founded on the idea that meaning can only be produced differentially in signifying systems (such as language). This concept first came to prominence in the structuralist writings of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and was developed for the analysis of social and mental structures by French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. The former was concerned to question the prevailing view of meaning \"inhering\" in words, or the idea that language is a nomenclature bearing a one-to-one correspondence to the real. Instead, Saussure argues that meaning arises through differentiation of one sign from another, or even of one phoneme from another:In language there are only differences. Even more important: a difference generally implies positive terms between which the difference is set up; but in language there are only differences without positive terms. Whether we take the signified or the signifier, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system. The idea or phonic substance that a sign contains is of less importance than the other signs that surround it. ... A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas; but the pairing of a certain number of acoustical signs with as many cuts made from the mass thought engenders a system of values.\nIn his Structural Anthropology, Claude Lévi-Strauss applied this concept to the anthropological study of mental structures, kinship and belief systems, examining the way in which social meaning emerges through a series of structural oppositions between paired/opposed kinship groups, for example, or between basic oppositional categories (such as friend and enemy, life and death, or in a later volume, the raw and the cooked).\n\nDifference and in poststructuralism\n\nThe French philosopher Jacques Derrida both extended and profoundly critiqued structuralist thought on the processes by which meaning is produced through the interplay of difference in language, and in particular, writing. Whereas structuralist linguistics had recognized that meaning is differential, much structuralist thought, such as narratology, had become too focused on identifying and producing a typology of the fixed differential structures and binary oppositions at work in any given system. In his work, Derrida sought to show how the differences on which any signifying system depends are not fixed, but get caught up and entangled with each other. Writing itself becomes the prototype of this process of entanglement, and in Of Grammatology (1967) and \"\" (in Margins of Philosophy, 1972) Derrida shows how the concept of writing (as the paradoxical absence or de-presencing of the living voice) has been subordinated to the desired \"full presence\" of speech within the Western philosophical tradition. His early thought on the relationship between writing and difference is collected in his book of essays entitled Writing and Difference (1967).\n\nElsewhere, Derrida coined the term (a deliberate misspelling of ) in order to provide a conceptual hook for his thinking on the meaning processes at work within writing/language. This neologism is a play on the two meanings of the French word : to differ and to defer. Derrida thereby argues that meaning does not arise out of fixed differences between static elements in a structure, but that the meanings produced in language and other signifying systems are always partial, provisional and infinitely deferred along a chain of differing/deferring signifiers. At the same time, the word itself performs this entanglement and confusion of differential meanings, for it depends on a minimal difference (the substitution of the letter \"a\" for the letter \"e\") which cannot be apprehended in oral speech, since the suffixes \"-ance\" and \"-ence\" have the same pronunciation in French. The \"phonemic\" (non-)difference between and can only be observed in writing, hence producing differential meaning only in a partial, deferred and entangled manner.\n\n has been defined as \"the non-originary, constituting-disruption of presence\": spatially, it differs, creating spaces, ruptures, and differences and temporally, it defers, delaying presence from ever being fully attained. Derrida's criticism of essentialist ontology draws on the differential ontology of Friedrich Nietzsche (who introduced the concept of , \"difference\", in his unpublished manuscripts (KSA 11:35[58], p. 537)) and Emmanuel Levinas (who proposed an ethics of the Other). \n\nIn a similar vein, Gilles Deleuze's Difference and Repetition (1968) was an attempt to think difference as having an ontological privilege over identity, inverting the traditional relationship between those two concepts and implying that identities are only produced through processes of differentiation.\n\nSee also\n Nominalism#Indian philosophy\n Deconstruction\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:Logic\nCategory:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz\nCategory:Immanuel Kant\nCategory:Continental philosophy\nCategory:Structuralism\nCategory:Deconstruction\nCategory:Post-structuralism\nCategory:Difference\nCategory:French philosophers\nCategory:Metaphysical properties\nCategory:Identity (philosophy)", "title": "Difference (philosophy)" }, { "text": "Virtuality is a concept in philosophy elaborated by French thinker Gilles Deleuze.\n\nOverview\nDeleuze used the term virtual to refer to an aspect of reality that is ideal, but nonetheless real. An example of this is the meaning, or sense, of a proposition that is not a material aspect of that proposition (whether written or spoken) but is nonetheless an attribute of that proposition. In Bergsonism, Deleuze writes that \"virtual\" is not opposed to \"real\" but opposed to \"actual\", whereas \"real\" is opposed to \"possible\".Deleuze identifies the virtual, considered as a continuous multiplicity, with Bergson's \"duration\": \"it is the virtual insofar as it is actualized, in the course of being actualized, it is inseparable from the movement of its actualization.\"\n\nDeleuze argues that Henri Bergson developed \"the notion of the virtual to its highest degree\" and that he based his entire philosophy on it.Both Henri Bergson, and Deleuze himself build their conception of the virtual in reference to a quotation in which writer Marcel Proust defines a virtuality, memory as \"real but not actual, ideal but not abstract\".\n\nReception\nAnother core meaning has been elicited by Denis Berthier, in his 2004 book Méditations sur le réel et le virtuel (\"Meditations on the real and the virtual\"), based on uses in science (virtual image), technology (virtual world), and etymology (derivation from virtue—Latin virtus). At the same ontological level as \"the possible\" (i.e. ideally-possible) abstractions, representations, or imagined \"fictions\", the actually-real \"material\", or the actually-possible \"probable\", the \"virtual\" is \"ideal-real\". It is what is not real, but displays the full qualities of the real—in a plainly actual (i.e., not potential)—way. The prototypical case is a reflection in a mirror: it is already there, whether or not one can see it; it is not waiting for any kind of actualization. This definition allows one to understand that real effects may be issued from a virtual object, so that our perception of it and our whole relation to it, are fully real, even if it is not. This explains how virtual reality can be used to cure phobias. \n\nBrian Massumi shows the political implications of this. According to Massumi in \"Parables for the Virtual\", the virtual is something \"inaccessible to the senses\" and can be felt in its effects. His definition goes on to explain virtuality through the use of a topological figure, in which stills of all of the steps in its transformation superposed would create a virtual image. Its virtuality lies in its inability to be seen or properly diagramed, yet can be figured in the imagination.\n\nHowever, note that the writers above all use terms such as \"possible\", \"potential\" and \"real\" in different ways and relate the virtual to these other terms differently. Deleuze regards the opposite of the virtual as the actual. Rob Shields argues that the opposite of the virtual is the material for there are other actualities such as a probability (e.g., \"risks\" are actual dangers that have not yet materialized but there is a \"probability\" that they will).\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n Deleuze, Gilles. 1966. Bergsonism. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. NY: Zone, 1991. .\n ---. 2002a. Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953-1974. Trans. David Lapoujade. Ed. Michael Taormina. Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents ser. Los Angeles and New York: Semiotext(e), 2004. .\n ---. 2002b. \"The Actual and the Virtual.\" In Dialogues II. Rev. ed. Trans. Eliot Ross Albert. New York and Chichester: Columbia UP. 148-152. .\n Christine Buci-Glucksmann, La folie du voir: Une esthétique du virtuel, Galilée, 2002\n Massumi, Brian. 2002. Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation. Post-Contemporary Interventions ser. Durham and London: Duke UP. .\n \"Origins of Virtualism: An Interview with Frank Popper conducted by Joseph Nechvatal\", CAA Art Journal, Spring 2004, pp. 62–77\n Frank Popper, From Technological to Virtual Art, Leonardo Books, MIT Press, 2007\n Rob Shields, The Virtual Routledge 2003.\n Rob Shields \"Virtualities\", Theory, Culture & Society 23:2-3. 2006. pp. 284–86.\n\nCategory:Reality\nCategory:Gilles Deleuze\nCategory:Metaphysical properties", "title": "Virtuality (philosophy)" }, { "text": "In physics, a field is a physical quantity, represented by a scalar, vector, or tensor, that has a value for each point in space and time. For example, on a weather map, the surface temperature is described by assigning a number to each point on the map; the temperature can be considered at a certain point in time or over some interval of time, to study the dynamics of temperature change. A surface wind map, assigning an arrow to each point on a map that describes the wind speed and direction at that point, is an example of a vector field, i.e. a 1-dimensional (rank-1) tensor field. Field theories, mathematical descriptions of how field values change in space and time, are ubiquitous in physics. For instance, the electric field is another rank-1 tensor field, while electrodynamics can be formulated in terms of two interacting vector fields at each point in spacetime, or as a single-rank 2-tensor field.\n\nIn the modern framework of the quantum theory of fields, even without referring to a test particle, a field occupies space, contains energy, and its presence precludes a classical \"true vacuum\". This has led physicists to consider electromagnetic fields to be a physical entity, making the field concept a supporting paradigm of the edifice of modern physics. \"The fact that the electromagnetic field can possess momentum and energy makes it very real ... a particle makes a field, and a field acts on another particle, and the field has such familiar properties as energy content and momentum, just as particles can have.\" In practice, the strength of most fields diminishes with distance, eventually becoming undetectable. For instance the strength of many relevant classical fields, such as the gravitational field in Newton's theory of gravity or the electrostatic field in classical electromagnetism, is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source (i.e., they follow Gauss's law). \n\nA field can be classified as a scalar field, a vector field, a spinor field or a tensor field according to whether the represented physical quantity is a scalar, a vector, a spinor, or a tensor, respectively. A field has a consistent tensorial character wherever it is defined: i.e. a field cannot be a scalar field somewhere and a vector field somewhere else. For example, the Newtonian gravitational field is a vector field: specifying its value at a point in spacetime requires three numbers, the components of the gravitational field vector at that point. Moreover, within each category (scalar, vector, tensor), a field can be either a classical field or a quantum field, depending on whether it is characterized by numbers or quantum operators respectively. In this theory an equivalent representation of field is a field particle, for instance a boson.\n\nHistory\nTo Isaac Newton, his law of universal gravitation simply expressed the gravitational force that acted between any pair of massive objects. When looking at the motion of many bodies all interacting with each other, such as the planets in the Solar System, dealing with the force between each pair of bodies separately rapidly becomes computationally inconvenient. In the eighteenth century, a new quantity was devised to simplify the bookkeeping of all these gravitational forces. This quantity, the gravitational field, gave at each point in space the total gravitational acceleration which would be felt by a small object at that point. This did not change the physics in any way: it did not matter if all the gravitational forces on an object were calculated individually and then added together, or if all the contributions were first added together as a gravitational field and then applied to an object.\n\nThe development of the independent concept of a field truly began in the nineteenth century with the development of the theory of electromagnetism. In the early stages, André-Marie Ampère and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb could manage with Newton-style laws that expressed the forces between pairs of electric charges or electric currents. However, it became much more natural to take the field approach and express these laws in terms of electric and magnetic fields; in 1849 Michael Faraday became the first to coin the term \"field\".\n\nThe independent nature of the field became more apparent with James Clerk Maxwell's discovery that waves in these fields propagated at a finite speed. Consequently, the forces on charges and currents no longer just depended on the positions and velocities of other charges and currents at the same time, but also on their positions and velocities in the past.\n\nMaxwell, at first, did not adopt the modern concept of a field as a fundamental quantity that could independently exist. Instead, he supposed that the electromagnetic field expressed the deformation of some underlying medium—the luminiferous aether—much like the tension in a rubber membrane. If that were the case, the observed velocity of the electromagnetic waves should depend upon the velocity of the observer with respect to the aether. Despite much effort, no experimental evidence of such an effect was ever found; the situation was resolved by the introduction of the special theory of relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905. This theory changed the way the viewpoints of moving observers were related to each other. They became related to each other in such a way that velocity of electromagnetic waves in Maxwell's theory would be the same for all observers. By doing away with the need for a background medium, this development opened the way for physicists to start thinking about fields as truly independent entities.\n\nIn the late 1920s, the new rules of quantum mechanics were first applied to the electromagnetic field. In 1927, Paul Dirac used quantum fields to successfully explain how the decay of an atom to a lower quantum state led to the spontaneous emission of a photon, the quantum of the electromagnetic field. This was soon followed by the realization (following the work of Pascual Jordan, Eugene Wigner, Werner Heisenberg, and Wolfgang Pauli) that all particles, including electrons and protons, could be understood as the quanta of some quantum field, elevating fields to the status of the most fundamental objects in nature. That said, John Wheeler and Richard Feynman seriously considered Newton's pre-field concept of action at a distance (although they set it aside because of the ongoing utility of the field concept for research in general relativity and quantum electrodynamics).\n\nClassical fields\n\nThere are several examples of classical fields. Classical field theories remain useful wherever quantum properties do not arise, and can be active areas of research. Elasticity of materials, fluid dynamics and Maxwell's equations are cases in point.\n\nSome of the simplest physical fields are vector force fields. Historically, the first time that fields were taken seriously was with Faraday's lines of force when describing the electric field. The gravitational field was then similarly described.\n\nNewtonian gravitation\n\nA classical field theory describing gravity is Newtonian gravitation, which describes the gravitational force as a mutual interaction between two masses.\n\nAny body with mass M is associated with a gravitational field g which describes its influence on other bodies with mass. The gravitational field of M at a point r in space corresponds to the ratio between force F that M exerts on a small or negligible test mass m located at r and the test mass itself:\n \nStipulating that m is much smaller than M ensures that the presence of m has a negligible influence on the behavior of M.\n\nAccording to Newton's law of universal gravitation, F(r) is given by\n\nwhere is a unit vector lying along the line joining M and m and pointing from M to m. Therefore, the gravitational field of M is\n\nThe experimental observation that inertial mass and gravitational mass are equal to an unprecedented level of accuracy leads to the identity that gravitational field strength is identical to the acceleration experienced by a particle. This is the starting point of the equivalence principle, which leads to general relativity.\n\nBecause the gravitational force F is conservative, the gravitational field g can be rewritten in terms of the gradient of a scalar function, the gravitational potential Φ(r):\n\nElectromagnetism\n\nMichael Faraday first realized the importance of a field as a physical quantity, during his investigations into magnetism. He realized that electric and magnetic fields are not only fields of force which dictate the motion of particles, but also have an independent physical reality because they carry energy.\n\nThese ideas eventually led to the creation, by James Clerk Maxwell, of the first unified field theory in physics with the introduction of equations for the electromagnetic field. The modern version of these equations is called Maxwell's equations.\n\nElectrostatics\n\nA charged test particle with charge q experiences a force F based solely on its charge. We can similarly describe the electric field E so that . Using this and Coulomb's law tells us that the electric field due to a single charged particle is\n \n\nThe electric field is conservative, and hence can be described by a scalar potential, V(r):\n\nMagnetostatics\n\nA steady current I flowing along a path ℓ will create a field B, that exerts a force on nearby moving charged particles that is quantitatively different from the electric field force described above. The force exerted by I on a nearby charge q with velocity v is\n \nwhere B(r) is the magnetic field, which is determined from I by the Biot–Savart law:\n\nThe magnetic field is not conservative in general, and hence cannot usually be written in terms of a scalar potential. However, it can be written in terms of a vector potential, A(r):\n\nElectrodynamics\n\nIn general, in the presence of both a charge density ρ(r, t) and current density J(r, t), there will be both an electric and a magnetic field, and both will vary in time. They are determined by Maxwell's equations, a set of differential equations which directly relate E and B to ρ and J.\n\nAlternatively, one can describe the system in terms of its scalar and vector potentials V and A. A set of integral equations known as retarded potentials allow one to calculate V and A from ρ and J, and from there the electric and magnetic fields are determined via the relations\n \n \n\nAt the end of the 19th century, the electromagnetic field was understood as a collection of two vector fields in space. Nowadays, one recognizes this as a single antisymmetric 2nd-rank tensor field in spacetime.\n\nGravitation in general relativity\n\nEinstein's theory of gravity, called general relativity, is another example of a field theory. Here the principal field is the metric tensor, a symmetric 2nd-rank tensor field in spacetime. This replaces Newton's law of universal gravitation.\n\nWaves as fields\nWaves can be constructed as physical fields, due to their finite propagation speed and causal nature when a simplified physical model of an isolated closed system is set . They are also subject to the inverse-square law.\n\nFor electromagnetic waves, there are optical fields, and terms such as near- and far-field limits for diffraction. In practice though, the field theories of optics are superseded by the electromagnetic field theory of Maxwell.\n\nQuantum fields\n\nIt is now believed that quantum mechanics should underlie all physical phenomena, so that a classical field theory should, at least in principle, permit a recasting in quantum mechanical terms; success yields the corresponding quantum field theory. For example, quantizing classical electrodynamics gives quantum electrodynamics. Quantum electrodynamics is arguably the most successful scientific theory; experimental data confirm its predictions to a higher precision (to more significant digits) than any other theory. The two other fundamental quantum field theories are quantum chromodynamics and the electroweak theory.\n\nIn quantum chromodynamics, the color field lines are coupled at short distances by gluons, which are polarized by the field and line up with it. This effect increases within a short distance (around 1 fm from the vicinity of the quarks) making the color force increase within a short distance, confining the quarks within hadrons. As the field lines are pulled together tightly by gluons, they do not \"bow\" outwards as much as an electric field between electric charges.\n\nThese three quantum field theories can all be derived as special cases of the so-called standard model of particle physics. General relativity, the Einsteinian field theory of gravity, has yet to be successfully quantized. However an extension, thermal field theory, deals with quantum field theory at finite temperatures, something seldom considered in quantum field theory.\n\nIn BRST theory one deals with odd fields, e.g. Faddeev–Popov ghosts. There are different descriptions of odd classical fields both on graded manifolds and supermanifolds.\n\nAs above with classical fields, it is possible to approach their quantum counterparts from a purely mathematical view using similar techniques as before. The equations governing the quantum fields are in fact PDEs (specifically, relativistic wave equations (RWEs)). Thus one can speak of Yang–Mills, Dirac, Klein–Gordon and Schrödinger fields as being solutions to their respective equations. A possible problem is that these RWEs can deal with complicated mathematical objects with exotic algebraic properties (e.g. spinors are not tensors, so may need calculus for spinor fields), but these in theory can still be subjected to analytical methods given appropriate mathematical generalization.\n\nField theory\nField theory usually refers to a construction of the dynamics of a field, i.e., a specification of how a field changes with time or with respect to other independent physical variables on which the field depends. Usually this is done by writing a Lagrangian or a Hamiltonian of the field, and treating it as a classical or quantum mechanical system with an infinite number of degrees of freedom. The resulting field theories are referred to as classical or quantum field theories.\n\nThe dynamics of a classical field are usually specified by the Lagrangian density in terms of the field components; the dynamics can be obtained by using the action principle.\n\nIt is possible to construct simple fields without any prior knowledge of physics using only mathematics from multivariable calculus, potential theory and partial differential equations (PDEs). For example, scalar PDEs might consider quantities such as amplitude, density and pressure fields for the wave equation and fluid dynamics; temperature/concentration fields for the heat/diffusion equations. Outside of physics proper (e.g., radiometry and computer graphics), there are even light fields. All these previous examples are scalar fields. Similarly for vectors, there are vector PDEs for displacement, velocity and vorticity fields in (applied mathematical) fluid dynamics, but vector calculus may now be needed in addition, being calculus for vector fields (as are these three quantities, and those for vector PDEs in general). More generally problems in continuum mechanics may involve for example, directional elasticity (from which comes the term tensor, derived from the Latin word for stretch), complex fluid flows or anisotropic diffusion, which are framed as matrix-tensor PDEs, and then require matrices or tensor fields, hence matrix or tensor calculus. The scalars (and hence the vectors, matrices and tensors) can be real or complex as both are fields in the abstract-algebraic/ring-theoretic sense.\n\nIn a general setting, classical fields are described by sections of fiber bundles and their dynamics is formulated in the terms of jet manifolds (covariant classical field theory).\n\nIn modern physics, the most often studied fields are those that model the four fundamental forces which one day may lead to the Unified Field Theory.\n\nSymmetries of fields \nA convenient way of classifying a field (classical or quantum) is by the symmetries it possesses. Physical symmetries are usually of two types:\n\nSpacetime symmetries\n\nFields are often classified by their behaviour under transformations of spacetime. The terms used in this classification are:\n scalar fields (such as temperature) whose values are given by a single variable at each point of space. This value does not change under transformations of space.\n vector fields (such as the magnitude and direction of the force at each point in a magnetic field) which are specified by attaching a vector to each point of space. The components of this vector transform between themselves contravariantly under rotations in space. Similarly, a dual (or co-) vector field attaches a dual vector to each point of space, and the components of each dual vector transform covariantly.\n tensor fields, (such as the stress tensor of a crystal) specified by a tensor at each point of space. Under rotations in space, the components of the tensor transform in a more general way which depends on the number of covariant indices and contravariant indices.\n spinor fields (such as the Dirac spinor) arise in quantum field theory to describe particles with spin which transform like vectors except for one of their components; in other words, when one rotates a vector field 360 degrees around a specific axis, the vector field turns to itself; however, spinors would turn to their negatives in the same case.\n\nInternal symmetries\n\nFields may have internal symmetries in addition to spacetime symmetries. In many situations, one needs fields which are a list of spacetime scalars: (φ1, φ2, ... φN). For example, in weather prediction these may be temperature, pressure, humidity, etc. In particle physics, the color symmetry of the interaction of quarks is an example of an internal symmetry, that of the strong interaction. Other examples are isospin, weak isospin, strangeness and any other flavour symmetry.\n\nIf there is a symmetry of the problem, not involving spacetime, under which these components transform into each other, then this set of symmetries is called an internal symmetry. One may also make a classification of the charges of the fields under internal symmetries.\n\nStatistical field theory\n\nStatistical field theory attempts to extend the field-theoretic paradigm toward many-body systems and statistical mechanics. As above, it can be approached by the usual infinite number of degrees of freedom argument.\n\nMuch like statistical mechanics has some overlap between quantum and classical mechanics, statistical field theory has links to both quantum and classical field theories, especially the former with which it shares many methods. One important example is mean field theory.\n\nContinuous random fields\nClassical fields as above, such as the electromagnetic field, are usually infinitely differentiable functions, but they are in any case almost always twice differentiable. In contrast, generalized functions are not continuous. When dealing carefully with classical fields at finite temperature, the mathematical methods of continuous random fields are used, because thermally fluctuating classical fields are nowhere differentiable. Random fields are indexed sets of random variables; a continuous random field is a random field that has a set of functions as its index set. In particular, it is often mathematically convenient to take a continuous random field to have a Schwartz space of functions as its index set, in which case the continuous random field is a tempered distribution.\n\nWe can think about a continuous random field, in a (very) rough way, as an ordinary function that is almost everywhere, but such that when we take a weighted average of all the infinities over any finite region, we get a finite result. The infinities are not well-defined; but the finite values can be associated with the functions used as the weight functions to get the finite values, and that can be well-defined. We can define a continuous random field well enough as a linear map from a space of functions into the real numbers.\n\nSee also \n\n Conformal field theory\n Covariant Hamiltonian field theory\n Field strength\n History of the philosophy of field theory\n Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of a field\n Scalar field theory\n Velocity field\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n \n Landau, Lev D. and Lifshitz, Evgeny M. (1971). Classical Theory of Fields (3rd ed.). London: Pergamon. . Vol. 2 of the Course of Theoretical Physics.\n\nExternal links \n\n Particle and Polymer Field Theories\n\nCategory:Mathematical physics\nCategory:Theoretical physics\nCategory:Physical quantities", "title": "Field (physics)" }, { "text": "Hylomorphism is a philosophical doctrine developed by the Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, which conceives every physical entity or being (ousia) as a compound of matter (potency) and immaterial form (act), with the generic form as immanently real within the individual. The word is a 19th-century term formed from the Greek words ὕλη (hyle: \"wood, matter\") and μορφή (morphē: \"form\"). Hylomorphic theories of physical entities have been undergoing a revival in contemporary philosophy.\n\nAristotle's concept of matter \n\nThe Ancient Greek language originally had no word for matter in general, as opposed to raw material suitable for some specific purpose or other, so Aristotle adapted the word for \"wood\" to this purpose. The idea that everything physical is made of the same basic substance holds up well under modern science, although it may be thought of more in terms of energy or matter/energy.\n\nThe Latin equivalent of the hyle concept – and later its medieval version – also emerged from Aristotle's notion. The Greek term's Latin equivalent was silva, which literally meant woodland or forest. However, Latin thinkers opted for a word that had a technical sense (rather than literal meaning). This emphasized silva as that of which a thing is made, but one that remained a substratum with changed form. The word materia was chosen instead to indicate a meaning not in handicraft but in the passive role that mother (mater) plays in conception.\n\nAristotle's concept of hyle is the principle that correlates with shape and this can be demonstrated in the way the philosopher described hyle, saying it is that which receives form or definiteness, that which is formed. It can also be the material cause underlying a change in Aristotelian philosophy. Aristotle explained that \"By hyle I mean that which in itself is neither a particular thing nor of a certain quantity nor assigned to any other of the categories by which being is determined.\" This means that hyle is brought into existence not due to its being its agent or its own actuality but only when form attaches to it. It has been described as a plenum or a field, a conceptualization that opposed Democritus' atomistic ontology. It is maintained that the Aristotelian concept should not be understood as a \"stuff\" since there is, for example, hyle that is intellectual as well as sensible hyle found in the body.\n\nFor Aristotle, hyle is composed of four elements – fire, water, air, and earth – but these were not considered pure substances since matter and form exist in a combination of hot, moist, dry, and cold so that everything is united to form the elements.\n\nAristotle defines matter as \"that out of which\" something is made. For example, letters are the matter of syllables. Thus, \"matter\" is a relative term: an object counts as matter relative to something else. For example, clay is matter relative to a brick because a brick is made of clay, whereas bricks are matter relative to a brick house. Change is analyzed as a material transformation: matter is what undergoes a change of form. For example, consider a lump of bronze that's shaped into a statue. Bronze is the matter, and this matter loses one form (morphe) (that of a lump) and gains a new form (that of a statue). According to Aristotle's theory of perception, we perceive an object by receiving its form (eidos) with our sense organs. Thus, forms include complex qualia such as colors, textures, and flavors, not just shapes.\n\nBody–soul hylomorphism\n\nBasic theory\n\nAristotle applies his theory of hylomorphism to living things. He defines a soul as that which makes a living thing alive. Life is a property of living things, just as knowledge and health are. Therefore, a soul is a form—that is, a specifying principle or cause—of a living thing. Furthermore, Aristotle says that a soul is related to its body as form to matter.\n\nHence, Aristotle argues, there is no problem in explaining the unity of body and soul, just as there is no problem in explaining the unity of wax and its shape. Just as a wax object consists of wax with a certain shape, so a living organism consists of a body with the property of life, which is its soul. On the basis of his hylomorphic theory, Aristotle rejects the Pythagorean doctrine of metempsychosis, ridiculing the notion that just any soul could inhabit just any body.\n\nAccording to Timothy Robinson, it is unclear whether Aristotle identifies the soul with the body's structure. According to one interpretation of Aristotle, a properly organized body is already alive simply by virtue of its structure. However, according to another interpretation, the property of life—that is, the soul—is something in addition to the body's structure. Robinson uses the analogy of a car to explain this second interpretation. A running car is running not only because of its structure but also because of the activity in its engine. Likewise, according to this second interpretation, a living body is alive not only because of its structure but also because of an additional property: the soul, which a properly organized body needs in order to be alive. John Vella uses Frankenstein's monster to illustrate the second interpretation: the corpse lying on Frankenstein's table is already a fully organized human body, but it is not yet alive; when Frankenstein activates his machine, the corpse gains a new property, the property of life, which Aristotle would call the soul.\n\nLiving bodies\nSome scholars have pointed out a problem facing Aristotle's theory of soul-body hylomorphism. They argue that a living thing's matter is its body and the body needs a soul in order to be alive. Similarly, a bronze sphere's matter is bronze, which needs roundness in order to be a sphere. Now, bronze remains the same bronze after ceasing to be a sphere. Therefore, it seems that a body should remain the same body after death. \n\nBronze however is not alive and changing its shape does not involve a substantial change. Moreover, Aristotle explicitly denies that a body remains a body after death. A corpse is only equivocally a body because Aristotle states that a body that has lost its soul is no longer potentially alive. To lose the potentiality of life is to be a corpse. Living bodies are thus a composite of soul and matter: the body lives insofar as its soul is actualizing its matter. The body and soul are not two distinct things but as one substance. That is why Aristotle defines the body as having life potentially and the substantial form as the potential body's life source. Aristotelians need to take care not to use the word \"body\" equivocally to refer to both living things and corpses. \n\nThe soul as the body's substantial form enables personal identity to persist over time. Consider the fact that a living body is constantly replacing old matter with new. A five-year-old body consists of different matter than does the same person's seventy-year-old body. If the five-year-old body and the seventy-year-old body consist of different matter, then what makes them the same body? The answer is that the same soul has been animating matter into that person's body. Because the five-year-old and the seventy-year-old bodies share a soul—that is, the person's life—we can identify them both as the body. Apart from the soul, we cannot identify what collection of matter is the body. Therefore, a person's body is no longer that person's body after it dies.\n\nIntellect\n\nAristotle says that the intellect (nous), the ability to think, has no bodily organ (in contrast with other psychological abilities, such as sense-perception and imagination). Aristotle distinguishes between two types of intellect. These are traditionally called the \"passive intellect\" and the \"active (or agent) intellect\". The passive intellect is like clay; it can become anything and is subject to change. The function of the active intellect is to use forms abstracted from physical things to activate the passive intellect to acts of understanding. Passive intellect is also the storehouse of understood ideas. Aristotle says that the \"active (or agent) intellect\" is not mixed with the body and suggests that it can exist apart from it.\n\nTeleology and ethics\n\nAristotle holds a teleological worldview: he sees the universe as inherently purposeful. Basically, Aristotle claims that potentiality exists for the sake of actuality. Thus, matter exists for the sake of receiving its form, as an organism has sight for the sake of seeing. Now, each thing has certain potentialities as a result of its form. Because of its form, a snake has the potential to slither; we can say that the snake ought to slither. The more a thing achieves its potential, the more it succeeds in achieving its purpose.\n\nAristotle bases his ethical theory on this teleological worldview. Because of his form, a human being has certain abilities. Hence, his purpose in life is to exercise those abilities as well and as fully as possible. Now, the most characteristic human ability, which is not included in the form of any other organism, is the ability to think. The ability to deliberate makes it possible to choose the course of action that reason deems best--even if it is emotionally undesirable. Contemporary Aristotelians tend to stress exercising freedom and acting wisely as the best way to live. Yet, Aristotle argued that the best type of happiness is virtuously contemplating God and the second best is acting in accord with moral virtue. Either way, for Aristotle the best human life is a life lived rationally.\n\nLegacy\n\nUniversal hylomorphism\nThe Neoplatonic philosopher Avicebron (a.k.a.Solomon Ibn Gabirol) proposed a Neoplatonic version of this Aristotelian concept, according to which all things, including soul and intellect, are composed of matter and form.\n\nMedieval modifications\nThomas Aquinas emphasized the act/potency understanding of form/matter whereby form activates the potency of matter and existence activates souls. The angels are accordingly composites of esse (potentiality) and existence (actuality) that activates immateriali souls, while God alone is per se existence, pure act without any potencies. \n\nMedieval theologians, newly exposed to Aristotle's philosophy, applied hylomorphism to Christian doctrines such as the transubstantiation of the Eucharist's bread and wine into the body and blood of Jesus. Theologians such as Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas developed Christian applications of hylomorphism.\n\nAristotle's texts on the agent intellect have given rise to diverse interpretations. Some following Averroes (Ibn Rusd 1126-1198) argue that Aristotle equated the active intellect with a divine being who infuses concepts into the passive intellect to aid human understanding. Others following Aquinas (1225-74) argue that the Neo-platonic interpretation is a mistake: the active intellect is actually part of the human soul. The controversy matters insofar as the Neo-platonic interpretation of Aristotle holds that he rejected personal immortality, while the Thomistic interpretation holds that Aristotle used the agent intellect to establish personal immortality. Others interpret Aristotle as arguing that a person's ability to think (unlike his other psychological abilities) belongs to some incorporeal organ distinct from his body. This would amount to a form of dualism. However, according to some scholars, it would not be a full-fledged Cartesian dualism. This interpretation creates what Robert Pasnau has called the \"mind-soul problem\": if the intellect belongs to an entity distinct from the body, and the soul is the form of the body, then how is the intellect part of the soul? Yet, another interpretation distinguishes the passive intellect and the agent intellect and considers the passive intellect to be a property of the body, while the agent intellect is a substance distinct from the body. Some proponents of this interpretation think that each person has his own agent intellect, which presumably separates from the body at death. Others interpret the agent intellect as a single divine being, perhaps the unmoved mover, Aristotle's God. Still others argue that Aristotle held that an individual form is capable of having properties of its own. According to this interpretation, the soul is a property of the body, but the ability to think is a property of the soul itself, not of the body. If that is the case, then the soul is the body's form and yet thinking need not involve any bodily organ.\n\nSubstantial form, accidental form, and prime matter\n\nMedieval philosophers who used Aristotelian concepts frequently distinguished between substantial forms and accidental forms. A substance necessarily possesses at least one substantial form. It may also possess a variety of accidental forms. For Aristotle, a \"substance\" (ousia) is an individual thing—for example, an individual man or an individual horse. Within every physical substance, the substantial form determines what kind of thing the physical substance is by actualizing prime matter as individualized by the causes of that thing's coming to be. For instance, the chick comes to be when the substantial form of chickens actualizes the hen's egg and that actualization is possible insofar as that egg is in potency to being actualized both as a chicken due to the receptivity of its prime matter to the substantial form of chickens and into a chick with certain colored feathers due to the individualization of the egg given by its parents. So while the individualized matter determines individualized properties, the substantial form determines essential properties. The substantial form of substance S consists of S's essence and its essential properties (the properties that S needs in order to be the kind of substance that S is). Substantial change destroys the ability of a substantial form to actualize individualized prime matter without affecting prime matter's ability to be actualized by a new substantial form. When the wolf eats the chick, the chick's rearranged matter becomes part of the wolf and animated by the wolf's substantial form. \n\nIn contrast, S's accidental forms are S's non-essential properties, properties that S can lose or gain without changing into a different kind of substance. The chick can lose its feathers due to parasites without ceasing to be an individual chicken.\n\nPlurality vs. unity of substantial form\nMany medieval theologians and philosophers followed Aristotle in seeing a living being's soul as that being's form—specifically, its substantial form. However, they disagreed about whether X's soul is X's only substantial form. Some medieval thinkers argued that X's soul is X's only substantial form animating the entire body of X. In contrast, other medieval thinkers argued that a living being contains at least two substantial forms—(1) the shape and structure of its body, and (2) its soul, which makes its body alive.\n\nThomistic hylomorphism\nThomas Aquinas claimed that X's soul was X's only substantial form, although X also had numerous accidental forms that accounted for X's nonessential features. Aquinas defined a substantial form as that which makes X's matter constitute X, which in the case of a human being is also able to transcend the limitations of matter and establish both the rational capacity and natural immortality of human beings. Nevertheless, Aquinas did not claim that human persons were their disembodied souls because the human soul is essentially a substantial form activating matter into the body. He held that a proper human being is a composite of the rational soul and matter (both prime matter and individualized matter). So a soul separated from its body does not become an angel but retains its orientation to animate matter, while a corpse from which the soul has departed is not actually or potentially a human being.\n\nEleonore Stump describes Aquinas' theory of the soul in terms of \"configuration\". The body is matter that is \"configured\", i.e. structured, while the soul is a \"configured configurer\". In other words, the soul is itself a configured thing, but it also configures the body. A dead body is merely matter that was once configured by the soul. It does not possess the configuring capacity of a human being.\n\nAquinas believed that rational capacity was a property of the soul alone, not of any bodily organ. However, he did believe that the brain had some basic cognitive function. Aquinas’ attribution of rational capacity to the immaterial soul allowed him to claim that disembodied souls could retain their rational capacity as his identification of the soul's individual act of existence allowed him to claim that personal immortality is natural for human beings. Aquinas was also adamant that disembodied souls were in an unnatural state and that the perfection of heaven includes God miraculously enabling the soul to function once again as a substantial form by reanimating matter into a living body as promised by the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead.\n\nModern physics\nThe idea of hylomorphism can be said to have been reintroduced to the world when Werner Heisenberg invented his duplex world of quantum mechanics. In his 1958 text Physics and Philosophy, Heisenberg states:\n\nA hylomorphic interpretation of Bohmian mechanics has been suggested, in which the cosmos is a single substance that is composed of both material particles and a substantial form. There is also a hylomorphic interpretation of the collapse of the wave function.\n\nSee also\n\n Endurantism\n \"Hylotheism\"\n Hylozoism\n Inherence\n Materialism\n Moderate realism\n Substance theory\n Tripartitism\n Vitalism\n\nNotes\n\nSources\n Aristotle.\n Metaphysics\n Nicomachean Ethics\n On the Soul.\n Physics\n Caston, Victor.\n \"Aristotle's Psychology\". A Companion to Ancient Philosophy. Ed. Mary Gill and Pierre Pellegrin. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2006. 316-46.\n \"Aristotle's Two Intellects: A Modest Proposal\". Phronesis 44.3 (1999): 199-227.\n Cross, Richard. The Physics of Duns Scotus. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998.\n Eberl, Jason T. \"Aquinas on the Nature of Human Beings.\" The Review of Metaphysics 58.2 (November 2004): 333-65.\n Gilson, Étienne. The Philosophy of St. Bonaventure. Trans. F. J. Sheed. NY: Sheed & Ward, 1938.\n Irwin, Terence. Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1990.\n Keck, David. Angels & Angelology in the Middle Ages. NY: Oxford UP, 1998.\n Kenny, Anthony. Aquinas on Mind. London: Routledge, 1993.\n Leftow, Brian.\n \"Souls Dipped in Dust.\" Soul, Body, and Survival: Essays on the Metaphysics of Human Persons. Ed. Kevin Corcoran. NY: Cornell UP, 2001. 120-38.\n \"Soul, Mind, and Brain.\" The Waning of Materialism. Ed. Robert C. Koons and George Bealer. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010. 395-417.\n McEvilley, Thomas. The Shape of Ancient Thought. NY: Allworth, 2002.\n Mendell, Henry. \"Aristotle and Mathematics\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 26 March 2004. Stanford University. 2 July 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/>.\n Normore, Calvin. \"The Matter of Thought\". Representation and Objects of Thought in Medieval Philosophy. Ed. Henrik Lagerlund. Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007. 117-133.\n Pasnau, Robert. Thomas Aquinas on Human Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001.\n Robinson, Timothy. Aristotle in Outline. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1995.\n Simondon, Gilbert (2003). L’Individuation à la lumière des notions de forme et d’information [1958]. Paris: Jérôme Millon.\n Shields, Christopher.\n \"A Fundamental Problem about Hylomorphism\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 29 June 2009 <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/suppl1.html>.\n Aristotle. London: Routledge, 2007.\n \"Some Recent Approaches to Aristotle's De Anima\". De Anima: Books II and III (With Passages From Book I). Trans. W.D. Hamlyn. Oxford: Clarendon, 1993. 157-81.\n \"Soul as Subject in Aristotle's De Anima\". Classical Quarterly 38.1 (1988): 140-49.\n Stump, Eleanore.\n \"Non-Cartesian Substance Dualism and Materialism without Reductionism.\" Faith and Philosophy 12.4 (October 1995): 505-31.\n \"Resurrection, Reassembly, and Reconstitution: Aquinas on the Soul.\" Die Menschliche Seele: Brauchen Wir Den Dualismus. Ed. B. Niederbacher and E. Runggaldier. Frankfurt, 2006. 151-72.\n Vella, John. Aristotle: A Guide for the Perplexed. NY: Continuum, 2008.\n\nExternal links\n hylomorphism (philosophy) -- Encyclopædia Britannica\n\nCategory:Aristotelianism\nCategory:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics\nCategory:Substance theory\nCategory:Philosophy of Aristotle\nCategory:Scotism\nCategory:Theories in ancient Greek philosophy", "title": "Hylomorphism" }, { "text": "The term autopoiesis () refers to a system capable of producing and maintaining itself by creating its own parts.\nThe term was introduced in the 1972 publication Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living by Chilean biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela to define the self-maintaining chemistry of living cells. \n\nThe concept has since been applied to the fields of cognition, systems theory, architecture and sociology. Niklas Luhmann briefly introduced the concept of autopoiesis to organizational theory.\n\nOverview\nIn their 1972 book Autopoiesis and Cognition, Chilean biologists Maturana and Varela described how they invented the word autopoiesis.\n\nThey explained that,\n\nThey described the \"space defined by an autopoietic system\" as \"self-contained\", a space that \"cannot be described by using dimensions that define another space. When we refer to our interactions with a concrete autopoietic system, however, we project this system on the space of our manipulations and make a description of this projection.\"\n\nMeaning\n\nAutopoiesis was originally presented as a system description that was said to define and explain the nature of living systems. A canonical example of an autopoietic system is the biological cell. The eukaryotic cell, for example, is made of various biochemical components such as nucleic acids and proteins, and is organized into bounded structures such as the cell nucleus, various organelles, a cell membrane and cytoskeleton. These structures, based on an internal flow of molecules and energy, produce the components which, in turn, continue to maintain the organized bounded structure that gives rise to these components.\n\nAn autopoietic system is to be contrasted with an allopoietic system, such as a car factory, which uses raw materials (components) to generate a car (an organized structure) which is something other than itself (the factory). However, if the system is extended from the factory to include components in the factory's \"environment\", such as supply chains, plant / equipment, workers, dealerships, customers, contracts, competitors, cars, spare parts, and so on, then as a total viable system it could be considered to be autopoietic.\n\nOf course, cells also require raw materials (nutrients), and produce numerous products -waste products, the extracellular matrix, intracellular messaging molecules, etc.\n\nAutopoiesis in biological systems can be viewed as a network of constraints that work to maintain themselves. This concept has been called organizational closure or constraint closure and is closely related to the study of autocatalytic chemical networks where constraints are reactions required to sustain life.\n\nThough others have often used the term as a synonym for self-organization, Maturana himself stated he would \"[n]ever use the notion of self-organization ... Operationally it is impossible. That is, if the organization of a thing changes, the thing changes\". Moreover, an autopoietic system is autonomous and operationally closed, in the sense that there are sufficient processes within it to maintain the whole. Autopoietic systems are \"structurally coupled\" with their medium, embedded in a dynamic of changes that can be recalled as sensory-motor coupling. This continuous dynamic is considered as a rudimentary form of knowledge or cognition and can be observed throughout life-forms.\n\nAn application of the concept of autopoiesis to sociology can be found in Niklas Luhmann's Systems Theory, which was subsequently adapted by Bob Jessop in his studies of the capitalist state system. Marjatta Maula adapted the concept of autopoiesis in a business context. The theory of autopoiesis has also been applied in the context of legal systems by not only Niklas Luhmann, but also Gunther Teubner. Patrik Schumacher has applied the term to refer to the 'discursive self-referential making of architecture.' \n\nIn the context of textual studies, Jerome McGann argues that texts are \"autopoietic mechanisms operating as self-generating feedback systems that cannot be separated from those who manipulate and use them\". Citing Maturana and Varela, he defines an autopoietic system as \"a closed topological space that 'continuously generates and specifies its own organization through its operation as a system of production of its own components, and does this in an endless turnover of components, concluding that \"Autopoietic systems are thus distinguished from allopoietic systems, which are Cartesian and which 'have as the product of their functioning something different from themselves. Coding and markup appear allopoietic\", McGann argues, but are generative parts of the system they serve to maintain, and thus language and print or electronic technology are autopoietic systems.\n\nThe philosopher Slavoj Žižek, in his discussion of Hegel, argues:\n\nRelation to complexity\nAutopoiesis can be defined as the ratio between the complexity of a system and the complexity of its environment.\n\nAutopoiesis has been proposed as a potential mechanism of abiogenesis, by which molecules evolved into more complex cells that could support the development of life.\n\nComparison with other theories of life \n\nAutopoiesis is just one of several current theories of life, including the chemoton of Tibor Gánti, the hypercycle of Manfred Eigen and Peter Schuster,\n\n the (M,R) systems of Robert Rosen, and the autocatalytic sets of Stuart Kauffman, similar to an earlier proposal by Freeman Dyson. \nAll of these (including autopoiesis) found their original inspiration in Erwin Schrödinger's book What is Life? but at first they appear to have little in common with one another, largely because the authors did not communicate with one another, and none of them made any reference in their principal publications to any of the other theories. Nonetheless, there are more similarities than may be obvious at first sight, for example between Gánti and Rosen. Until recently there have been almost no attempts to compare the different theories and discuss them together.\n\nRelation to cognition\nAn extensive discussion of the connection of autopoiesis to cognition is provided by Evan Thompson in his 2007 publication, Mind in Life. The basic notion of autopoiesis as involving constructive interaction with the environment is extended to include cognition. Initially, Maturana defined cognition as behavior of an organism \"with relevance to the maintenance of itself\". However, computer models that are self-maintaining but non-cognitive have been devised, so some additional restrictions are needed, and the suggestion is that the maintenance process, to be cognitive, involves readjustment of the internal workings of the system in some metabolic process. On this basis it is claimed that autopoiesis is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for cognition. Thompson wrote that this distinction may or may not be fruitful, but what matters is that living systems involve autopoiesis and (if it is necessary to add this point) cognition as well. It can be noted that this definition of 'cognition' is restricted, and does not necessarily entail any awareness or consciousness by the living system.\n\nRelation to consciousness\nThe connection of autopoiesis to cognition, or if necessary, of living systems to cognition, is an objective assessment ascertainable by observation of a living system.\n\nOne question that arises is about the connection between cognition seen in this manner and consciousness. The separation of cognition and consciousness recognizes that the organism may be unaware of the substratum where decisions are made. What is the connection between these realms? Thompson refers to this issue as the \"explanatory gap\", and one aspect of it is the hard problem of consciousness, how and why we have qualia.\n\nA second question is whether autopoiesis can provide a bridge between these concepts. Thompson discusses this issue from the standpoint of enactivism. An autopoietic cell actively relates to its environment. Its sensory responses trigger motor behavior governed by autopoiesis, and this behavior (it is claimed) is a simplified version of a nervous system behavior. The further claim is that real-time interactions like this require attention, and an implication of attention is awareness.\n\nCriticism\n\nThere are multiple criticisms of the use of the term in both its original context, as an attempt to define and explain the living, and its various expanded usages, such as applying it to self-organizing systems in general or social systems in particular. Critics have argued that the concept and its theory fail to define or explain living systems and that, because of the extreme language of self-referentiality it uses without any external reference, it is really an attempt to give substantiation to Maturana's radical constructivist or solipsistic epistemology, or what Danilo Zolo has called instead a \"desolate theology\". An example is the assertion by Maturana and Varela that \"We do not see what we do not see and what we do not see does not exist\".\n\nAccording to Razeto-Barry, the influence of Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living in mainstream biology has proven to be limited. Razeto-Barry believes that autopoiesis is not commonly used as the criterion for life.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n – general introduction to the ideas behind autopoiesis\n \n \n —an adaptation of autopoiesis to language.\n —Luhmann's adaptation of autopoiesis to social systems\n —biologist view of autopoiesis\n\n \n —the main published reference on autopoiesis\n —a book on the autopoiesis concept in many different areas\n \n — draws on systems theory and cognitive science to introduce autopoiesis to literary studies\n —one of the original papers on the concept of autopoiesis.\n \n —cognitive systems perspective on autopoiesis\n\nExternal links \n\n The Observer Web: Autopoiesis and Enaction: a website with more explanations\n Several papers on autopoietic theory are available through archonic.net\n A mindmap-collection of links and papers visualized by Ragnar Heil\n Autopoiesis and knowledge in the organization by Aquiles Limone, Luis E. Bastias\n\nCategory:Cybernetics\nCategory:Systems theory\nCategory:Enactive cognition\nCategory:Consciousness studies\nCategory:Self-replication\nCategory:Management cybernetics\nCategory:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics\nCategory:Biological hypotheses", "title": "Autopoiesis" }, { "text": "In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when a complex entity has properties or behaviors that its parts do not have on their own, and emerge only when they interact in a wider whole.\n\nEmergence plays a central role in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry.\n\nIn philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called emergentism.\n\nIn philosophy\n\nPhilosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the etiology of a system's properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. Nicolai Hartmann (1882–1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a categorial novum (new category).\n\nDefinitions\nThis concept of emergence dates from at least the time of Aristotle. The many scientists and philosophers who have written on the concept include John Stuart Mill (Composition of Causes, 1843) and Julian Huxley (1887–1975).\n\nThe philosopher G. H. Lewes coined the term \"emergent\" in 1875, distinguishing it from the merely \"resultant\":\n\nEvery resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.\n\nStrong and weak emergence\nUsage of the notion \"emergence\" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of \"weak emergence\" and \"strong emergence\". One paper discussing this division is Weak Emergence, by philosopher Mark Bedau. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flock of starlings in flight or a school of fish, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not, a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated, analysed or reduced.\n\nSome common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive.\n\nWeak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at a fundamental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a reductionist analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are scale dependent: they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.\n\nBedau notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that consciousness is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional philosophical questions about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign.\n\nStrong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system upon its components; qualities produced this way are irreducible to the system's constituent parts. The whole is other than the sum of its parts. It is argued then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. Physics lacks well-established examples of strong emergence, unless it is interpreted as the impossibility in practice to explain the whole in terms of the parts. Practical impossibility may be a more useful distinction than one in principle, since it is easier to determine and quantify, and does not imply the use of mysterious forces, but simply reflects the limits of our capability.\n\nViability of strong emergence\nSome thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:\n\nStrong emergence can be criticized for leading to causal overdetermination. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? Jaegwon Kim says:\n\nIf M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny downward causation. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call physicalism into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.\n\nObjective or subjective quality\nCrutchfield regards the properties of complexity and organization of any system as subjective qualities determined by the observer.\n\nDefining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer’s notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer’s chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.\n\nThe low entropy of an ordered system can be viewed as an example of subjective emergence: the observer sees an ordered system by ignoring the underlying microstructure (i.e. movement of molecules or elementary particles) and concludes that the system has a low entropy.\nOn the other hand, chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can also be seen as subjective emergent, while at a microscopic scale the movement of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.\n\nIn science\nIn physics, emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.\n\nAn emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity.\n\nAccording to Laughlin, for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details.\n\nNovelist Arthur Koestler used the metaphor of Janus (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or holistic vs. reductionistic) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence. Theoretical physicist PW Anderson states it this way:\n\nMeanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. Renormalization methods in theoretical physics enable physicists to study critical phenomena that are not tractable as the combination of their parts. In 2009, Gu et al. presented a class of infinite physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties. More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. These results concern infinite systems, finite systems being considered computable. However, macroscopic concepts which only apply in the limit of infinite systems, such as phase transitions and the renormalization group, are important for understanding and modeling real, finite physical systems. Gu et al. concluded that\n\nIn humanity\n\nHuman beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure. An early argument (1904–05) for the emergence of social formations can be found in Max Weber's most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Recently, the emergence of a new social system is linked with the emergence of order from nonlinear relationships among multiple interacting units, where multiple interacting units are individual thoughts, consciousness, and actions.\n\nIn linguistics, the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of stylometry to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014). It has also been argued that the structure and regularity of language grammar, or at least language change, is an emergent phenomenon. While each speaker merely tries to reach their own communicative goals, they use language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed. In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances.\n\nEconomic trends and patterns which emerge are studied intensively by technical analysts.Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include SEED-SCALE, appreciative inquiry, Future Search, the world cafe or knowledge cafe, Open Space Technology, and others (Holman, 2010). In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed SEED-SCALE to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that self-assemble in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.\n\nIn technology\nThe bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the Universal Dielectric Response (UDR), can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems. Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, TCP flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a phase transition. Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications simulate emergent behavior. One example is Boids, which mimics the swarming behavior of birds.\n\nIn religion and art\nIn religion, emergence grounds expressions of religious naturalism and syntheism in which a sense of the sacred is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more complex forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in The Sacred Emergence of Nature by Ursula Goodenough & Terrence Deacon and Beyond Reductionism: Reinventing the Sacred by Stuart Kauffman, both from 2006, as well as Syntheism – Creating God in The Internet Age by Alexander Bard & Jan Söderqvist from 2014 and Emergentism: A Religion of Complexity for the Metamodern World by Brendan Graham Dempsey (2022). \n\nMichael J. Pearce has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience. Practicing artist Leonel Moura, in turn, attributes to his \"artbots\" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n \n \n \n \n Bejan, Adrian; Zane, J. P. (2012). Design in Nature: How the Constructal Law Governs Evolution in Biology, Physics, Technology, and Social Organizations. Doubleday.\n\nFurther reading\n\n Alexander, V. N. (2011). The Biologist’s Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature and Nature. Litchfield Park AZ: Emergent Publications.\n \n \n \n Chalmers, David J. (2002). \"Strong and Weak Emergence\" Republished in P. Clayton and P. Davies, eds. (2006) The Re-Emergence of Emergence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\n Philip Clayton & Paul Davies (eds.) (2006). The Re-Emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion Oxford: Oxford University Press.\n Felipe Cucker and Stephen Smale (2007), The Japanese Journal of Mathematics, The Mathematics of Emergence\n \n \n Hoffmann, Peter M. \"Life's Ratchet: How Molecular Machines Extract Order from Chaos\" (2012), Basic Books.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Ignazio Licata & Ammar Sakaji (eds) (2008). Physics of Emergence and Organization, , World Scientific and Imperial College Press.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n Solé, Ricard and Goodwin, Brian (2000) Signs of life: how complexity pervades biology, Basic Books, New York\n Jakub Tkac & Jiri Kroc (2017), Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence (Software) (PDF) Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence \"Video - Simulation of DRX\"\n \n \n architectureofemergence.com\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n The Emergent Universe: An interactive introduction to emergent phenomena, from ant colonies to Alzheimer's.\n Exploring Emergence: An introduction to emergence using CA and Conway's Game of Life from the MIT Media Lab\n ISCE group: Institute for the Study of Coherence and Emergence.\n Towards modeling of emergence: lecture slides from Helsinki University of Technology\n Biomimetic Architecture – Emergence applied to building and construction\n Studies in Emergent Order: Studies in Emergent Order (SIEO) is an open-access journal\n Emergence\n Emergence – How Stupid Things Become Smart Together – YouTube video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell\n DIEP: Dutch Institute for Emergent Phenomena\n\n \nCategory:Concepts in metaphysics\nCategory:Metaphysics of mind\nCategory:Pattern formation\nCategory:Concepts in the philosophy of mind\nCategory:Holism\nCategory:Ontology\nCategory:Philosophy of physics", "title": "Emergence" }, { "text": "In the semiotic theories of Jakob von Uexküll and Thomas A. Sebeok, umwelt (plural: umwelten; from the German Umwelt meaning \"environment\" or \"surroundings\") is the \"biological foundations that lie at the very center of the study of both communication and signification in the human [and non-human] animal\". The term is usually translated as \"self-centered world\". Uexküll theorised that organisms can have different umwelten, even though they share the same environment. The term umwelt, together with companion terms Umgebung (an Umwelt as seen by another observer) and Innenwelt (the mapping of the self to the world of objects), have special relevance for cognitive philosophers, roboticists and cyberneticians because they offer a potential solution to the conundrum of the infinite regress of the Cartesian Theater.\n\nDiscussion\n\nEach functional component of an umwelt has a meaning that represents the organism's model of the world. These functional components correspond approximately to perceptual features, as described by Anne Treisman. It is also the semiotic world of the organism, including all the meaningful aspects of the world for any particular organism. It can be water, food, shelter, potential threats or points of reference for navigation. An organism creates and reshapes its own umwelt when it interacts with the world. This is termed a 'functional circle'. The umwelt theory states that the mind and the world are inseparable because it is the mind that interprets the world for the organism. Because of the individuality and uniqueness of the history of every single organism, the umwelten of different organisms differ. When two umwelten interact, this creates a semiosphere.\n\nAs a term, umwelt also unites all the semiotic processes of an organism into a whole. Internally, an organism is the sum of its parts operating in functional circles and, to survive, all the parts must work cooperatively. This is termed the \"collective umwelt\" which models the organism as a centralised system from the cellular level upward. This requires the semiosis of any one part to be continuously connected to any other semiosis operating within the same organism. If anything disrupts this process, the organism will not operate efficiently.\n\nUexküll's writings show a specific interest in the various worlds that he believed to exist ('conceptually') from the point of view of the umwelt of different creatures such as ticks, sea urchins, amoebae, jellyfish, and sea worms.\n\nThe biosemiotic turn in Jakob von Uexküll's analysis occurs in his discussion of the animal's relationship with its environment. The umwelt is for him an environment-world which is, according to Agamben, \"constituted by a more or less broad series of elements [called] 'carriers of significance' or 'marks' which are the only things that interest the animal\". Agamben goes on to paraphrase Uexküll's example of the tick, saying:\n\"...this eyeless animal finds the way to her watchpoint [at the top of a tall blade of grass] with the help of only its skin’s general sensitivity to light. The approach of her prey becomes apparent to this blind and deaf bandit only through her sense of smell. The odor of butyric acid, which emanates from the sebaceous follicles of all mammals, works on the tick as a signal that causes her to abandon her post (on top of the blade of grass/bush) and fall blindly downward toward her prey. If she is fortunate enough to fall on something warm (which she perceives by means of an organ sensible to a precise temperature) then she has attained her prey, the warm-blooded animal, and thereafter needs only the help of her sense of touch to find the least hairy spot possible and embed herself up to her head in the cutaneous tissue of her prey. She can now slowly suck up a stream of warm blood.\"\n\nThus, for the tick, the umwelt is reduced to only three (biosemiotic) carriers of significance: (1) the odor of butyric acid, which emanates from the sebaceous follicles of all mammals; (2) the temperature of 37°C (corresponding to the blood of all mammals); and (3) the hairy topography of mammals.\n\nCritics\nUexküll's application of the notion of \"umwelt\" to the human person has been contested. In \"Welt und Umwelt\" and \"Die Wahrheit der Dinge\", the philosopher and sociologist Josef Pieper argued that reason allows the human person to live in \"Welt\" (world) while plants and animals do indeed live in an Umwelt—a notion he traces back far beyond Uexküll to Plato, Aristotle, and Thomas Aquinas.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n \n Naming Natureby Carol Kaesuk Yoon\n \n View from the Oak by Herbert and Judith Kohl The New Press | https://thenewpress.com/books/view-from-oak\n An Immense World by Ed Yong Penguin books Vintage | https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/440513/an-immense-world-by-yong-ed/9781847926081\n\nExternal links\nUmwelt by John Deely\nUmwelt and Phenomenology \nUmwelt and semiosphere by Kalevi Kull\nPragmatism and Umwelt-theory by Alexei Sharov\nTDE-R - A Subjective Biocomputer by Charles Dyer\n\nCategory:Semiotics\nCategory:Neuroethology concepts\nCategory:Existential therapy", "title": "Umwelt" }, { "text": "A habit (or wont, as a humorous and formal term) is a routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously.\n\nThe American Journal of Psychology (1903) defined a \"habit, from the standpoint of psychology, [as] a more or less fixed way of thinking, willing, or feeling acquired through previous repetition of a mental experience.\" Habitual behavior often goes unnoticed in persons exhibiting it, because a person does not need to engage in self-analysis when undertaking routine tasks. Habits are sometimes compulsory. A 2002 daily experience study by habit researcher Wendy Wood and her colleagues found that approximately 43% of daily behaviors are performed out of habit. New behaviours can become automatic through the process of habit formation. Old habits are hard to break and new habits are hard to form because the behavioural patterns which humans repeat become imprinted in neural pathways, but it is possible to form new habits through repetition.\n\nWhen behaviors are repeated in a consistent context, there is an incremental increase in the link between the context and the action. This increases the automaticity of the behavior in that context. Features of an automatic behavior are all or some of: efficiency; lack of awareness; unintentionality; and uncontrollability.\n\nHistory \nThe word habit is pulled from the Latin words habere, which means \"have, consist of,\" and habitus, which means \"condition, or state of being.\" It also is derived from the French word habit (), which means clothes. In the 13th century, the word habit first just referred to clothing. The meaning then progressed to the more common use of the word, which is \"acquired mode of behavior.\"\n\nIn 1890, William James, a pioneering philosopher and psychologist, addressed the subject of habit in his book, The Principles of Psychology. James viewed habit as natural tendency in order to navigate life. To him, \"living creatures...are bundles of habits\" and those habits that have \"an innate tendency are called instincts.\" James also explains how habits can govern our lives. He states, \"Any sequence of mental action which has been frequently repeated tends to perpetuate itself; so that we find ourselves automatically prompted to think, feel, or do what we have been before accustomed to think, feel, or do, under like circumstances, without any consciously formed purpose, or anticipated of result.\"\n\nFormation \nHabit formation is the process by which a behavior, through regular repetition, becomes automatic or habitual. This is modeled as an increase in automaticity with the number of repetitions up to an asymptote. This process of habit formation can be slow. Lally et al. (2010) found the average time for participants to reach the asymptote of automaticity was 66 days with a range of 18–254 days.\n\nThere are 3 main components to habit formation: the context cue, behavioral repetition, and the reward. The context cue can be a prior action, time of day, location, or anything that triggers the habitual behavior. This could be anything that one's mind associates with that habit, and one will automatically let a habit come to the surface. The behavior is the actual habit that one exhibits, and the reward, such as a positive feeling, therefore continues the \"habit loop\". A habit may initially be triggered by a goal, but over time that goal becomes less necessary and the habit becomes more automatic. Intermittent or uncertain rewards have been found to be particularly effective in promoting habit learning.\n\nA variety of digital tools, online or mobile apps, have been introduced that are designed to support habit formation. For example, Habitica is a system that uses gamification, implementing strategies found in video games to real-life tasks by adding rewards such as experience and gold. However, a review of such tools suggests most are poorly designed with respect to theory and fail to support the development of automaticity.\n\nShopping habits are particularly vulnerable to change at \"major life moments\" like graduation, marriage, the birth of the first child, moving to a new home, and divorce. Some stores use purchase data to try to detect these events and take advantage of the marketing opportunity.\n\nSome habits are known as \"keystone habits,\" and these influence the formation of other habits. For example, identifying as the type of person who takes care of their body and is in the habit of exercising regularly, can also influence eating better and using credit cards less. In business, safety can be a keystone habit that influences other habits that result in greater productivity.\n\nA recent study by Adriaanse et al. (2014) found that habits mediate the relationship between self-control and unhealthy snack consumption. The results of the study empirically demonstrate that high self-control may influence the formation of habits and in turn affect behavior.\n\nGoals \nThe habit–goal interface or interaction is constrained by the particular manner in which habits are learned and represented in memory. Specifically, the associative learning underlying habits is characterized by the slow, incremental accrual of information over time in procedural memory. Habits can either benefit or hurt the goals a person sets for themselves.\n\nGoals guide habits by providing the initial outcome-oriented motivation for response repetition. In this sense, habits are often a trace of past goal pursuit. Although, when a habit forces one action, but a conscious goal pushes for another action, an oppositional context occurs. When the habit prevails over the conscious goal, a capture error has taken place.\n\nBehavior prediction is also derived from goals. Behavior prediction acknowledges the likelihood that a habit will form, but in order to form that habit, a goal must have been initially present. The influence of goals on habits is what makes a habit different from other automatic processes in the mind.\n\nThe following is a description of a classic goal devaluation experiment (from a Scientific American MIND guest blog post called Should Habits or Goals Direct Your Life? It Depends) which demonstrates the difference between goal-directed and habitual behavior: A series of elegant experiments conducted by Anthony Dickinson and colleagues in the early 1980s at the University of Cambridge in England clearly exposes the behavioral differences between goal-directed and habitual processes. Basically, in the training phase, a rat was trained to press a lever in order to receive some food. Then, in a second phase, the rat was placed in a different cage without a lever and was given the food, but it was made ill whenever it ate the food. This caused the rat to \"devalue\" the food, because it associated the food with being ill, without directly associating the action of pressing the lever with being ill. Finally, in the test phase, the rat was placed in the original cage with the lever. (To prevent additional learning, no food was delivered in the test phase.) Rats that had undergone an extensive training phase continued to press the lever in the test phase even though the food was devalued; their behavior was called habitual. Rats that had undergone a moderate training phase did not, and their behavior was called goal-directed. … [G]oal-directed behavior is explained by the rat using an explicit prediction of the consequence, or outcome, of an action to select that action. If the rat wants the food, it presses the lever, because it predicts that pressing the lever will deliver the food. If the food has been devalued, the rat will not press the lever. Habitual behavior is explained by a strong association between an action and the situation from which the action was executed. The rat presses the lever when it sees the lever, not because of the predicted outcome.\n\nNervousness \nA number of habits can be classified as nervous habits. These include nail-biting, stammering, sniffling, and banging the head. They are known as symptoms of an emotional state and are generally based upon conditions of anxiety, insecurity, inferiority, and tension. These habits are often formed at a young age and may be due to a need for attention. When trying to overcome a nervous habit it is important to resolve the cause of the nervous feeling rather than the symptom which is a habit itself or a mountain as a result one could experience anxiety. Anxiety is a disorder known for excessive and unexpected worry that negatively impacts individuals' daily life and routines.\n\nBad habits \nA bad habit is an undesirable behavior pattern. Common examples include: procrastination, fidgeting, overspending, and nail-biting. The sooner one recognizes these bad habits, the easier it is to fix them. Rather than merely attempting to eliminate a bad habit, it may be more productive to seek to replace it with a healthier coping mechanism.\n\nWill and intention \nA key factor in distinguishing a bad habit from an addiction or mental disease is willpower. If a person can easily control the behavior, then it is a habit. Good intentions can override the negative effect of bad habits, but their effect seems to be independent and additive—the bad habits remain, but are subdued rather than cancelled.\n\nElimination \n\nMany techniques exist for removing established bad habits, e.g., withdrawal of reinforcers—identifying and removing factors that trigger and reinforce the habit. The basal ganglia appears to remember the context that triggers a habit, so habits can be revived if triggers reappear. Recognizing and eliminating bad habits as soon as possible is advised. Habit elimination becomes more difficult with age because repetitions reinforce habits cumulatively over the lifespan. According to Charles Duhigg, there is a loop that includes a cue, routine, and reward for every habit. An example of a habit loop is TV program ends (cue), go to the fridge (routine), eat a snack (reward). The key to changing habits is to identify your cue and modify your routine and reward.\n\nSee also \n\n Behavioral addiction\n Fixation (psychology)\n Habitus (disambiguation)\n Self control\n Tetris effect\n Vice\n Perseverance (virtue)\n\nHabit modification approaches\n\n Behavior modification\n Cognitive behavioral therapy\n Habit reversal training\n Paradoxical intention\n\nBehaviors with habitual elements\n\n Childhood obesity\n Nail-biting\n Neurodermatitis\n Nose-picking\n Obsessive-compulsive disorder\n Procrastination\n Thumb sucking\n Bulimia\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Allen, James Sloan, ed. William James on Habit, Will, Truth, and the Meaning of Life. Frederic C. Beil, Publisher, 2014.\n Payne, Arthur F. \"The Psychology of Nervous Habits.\" American Journal of Orthodontics and Oral Surgery 25, no. 4 (1939): 324.\n\nExternal links \n\n James Rowland Angell and Addison W. Moore. (1896) \"Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Chicago: 1. Reaction-Time: A Study in Attention and Habit.\" Psychological Review 3, 245–258.\n \"Should Habits or Goals Direct Your Life? It Depends.\" (Scientific American MIND blog post)\n \n\nCategory:Habits", "title": "Habit" }, { "text": "Body schema is a concept used in several disciplines, including psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, sports medicine, and robotics. The neurologist Sir Henry Head originally defined it as a postural model of the body that actively organizes and modifies 'the impressions produced by incoming sensory impulses in such a way that the final sensation of body position, or of locality, rises into consciousness charged with a relation to something that has happened before'. As a postural model that keeps track of limb position, it plays an important role in control of action. It involves aspects of both central (brain processes) and peripheral (sensory, proprioceptive) systems. Thus, a body schema can be considered the collection of processes that registers the posture of one's body parts in space. The schema is updated during body movement. This is typically a non-conscious process, and is used primarily for spatial organization of action. It is therefore a pragmatic representation of the body’s spatial properties, which includes the length of limbs and limb segments, their arrangement, the configuration of the segments in space, and the shape of the body surface. Body schema also plays an important role in the integration and use of tools by humans.\n\nA clear differentiation of body schema from body image has developed gradually.\n\nHistory\nHenry Head, an English neurologist who conducted pioneering work into the somatosensory system and sensory nerves, together with British neurologist Gordon Morgan Holmes, first described the concept in 1911. The concept was first termed \"postural schema\" to describe the disordered spatial representation of patients following damage to the parietal lobe of the brain. Head and Holmes discussed two schemas (or schemata): one body schema for the registration of posture or movement and another body schema for the localization of stimulated locations on the body surface. \"Body schema\" became the term used for the \"organized models of ourselves\". The term and definition first suggested by Head and Holmes has endured nearly a century of research with clarifications as more has become known about neuroscience and the brain.\n\nProperties\nNeuroscientists Patrick Haggard and Daniel Wolpert have identified seven fundamental properties of the body schema. It is spatially coded, modular, adaptable, supramodal, coherent, interpersonal, and updated with movement.\n\nSpatial encoding\nThe body schema represents both position and configuration of the body as a 3-dimensional object in space. A combination of sensory information, primarily tactile and visual, contributes to the representation of the limbs in space. This integration allows for stimuli to be localized in external space with respect to the body. An example by Haggard and Wolpert shows the combination of tactile sensation of the hand with information about the joint angles of the arm, which allow for rapid movements of said arm to swat a fly.\n\nModular\nThe body schema is not represented wholly in a single region of the brain. Recent fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) studies confirm earlier results. For example, the schema for feet and hands are coded by different regions of the brain, while the fingers are represented by a separate part entirely.\n\nAdaptable\nPlastic changes to the body schema are active and continuous. For example, gradual changes to the body schema must occur over the lifetime of an individual as he or she grows and absolute and relative sizes of body parts change over his or her life span. The development of the body schema has also been shown to occur in young children. One study showed that with these children (9-, 14-, and 19-month-olds), older children handled spoons so as to optimally and comfortably grip them for use, whereas younger children tended to reach with their dominant hand, regardless of the orientation of the spoon and eventual ease of use. Short-term plasticity has been shown with the integration of tools into the body schema. The rubber hand illusion has also shown the rapid reorganization of the body schema on the timescale of seconds, showing the high level of plasticity and speed with which the body schema reorganizes. In the Illusion, participants view a dummy hand being stroked with a paintbrush, while their own hand is stroked identically. Participants may feel that the touches on their hand are coming from the dummy hand, and even that the dummy hand is, in some way, their own hand.\n\nSupramodal\nBy its nature, body schema integrates proprioceptive, (the sense of the relative position of neighbouring parts of one's body), and tactile information to maintain a three-dimensional body representation. However, other sensory information, particularly visual, can be in the same representation of the body. This simultaneous participation means there are combined representations within the body schema, which suggests the involvement of a process to translate primary information (e.g. visual, tactile, etc.) into a single sensory modality or an abstract, amodal form.\n\nCoherent\nThe body schema, to function properly, must be able to maintain coherent organization continuously. To do so, it must be able to resolve any differences between sensory inputs. Resolving these inter-sensory inconsistencies can result in interesting sensations, such as those experienced during the Rubber Hand Illusion.\n\nInterpersonal\nIt is thought that an individual's body schema is used to represent both one's own body and the bodies of others. Mirror neurons are thought to play a role in the interpersonal characteristics of body schema. Interpersonal projection of one's body schema plays an important role in successfully imitating motions such as hand gestures, especially while maintaining the handedness and location of the gesture, but not necessarily copying the exact motion itself.\n\nUpdated with movement\nA working body schema must be able to interactively track the movements and positions of body parts in space. Neurons in the premotor cortex may contribute to this function. A class of neuron in the premotor cortex is multisensory. Each of these multisensory neurons responds to tactile stimuli and also to visual stimuli. The neuron has a tactile receptive field (responsive region on the body surface) typically on the face, arms, or hands. The same neuron also responds to visual stimuli in the space near the tactile receptive field. For example, if a neuron's tactile receptive field covers the arm, the same neuron will respond to visual stimuli in the space near the arm. As shown by Graziano and colleagues, the visual receptive field will update with arm movement, translating through space as the arm moves. Similar body-part-centered neuronal receptive fields relate to the face. These neurons apparently monitor the location of body parts and the location of nearby objects with respect to body parts. Similar neuronal properties may also be important for the ability to incorporate external objects into the body schema, such as in tool use.\n\nExtended body schema\nThe idea of the extended body schema is that, aside from the proprioceptive, visual, and sensory components that contribute to making a mental conception of one's body, the same processes that contribute to a body schema are also able to incorporate external objects into the mental conception of one's body. Part philosophical and part neuroscience, this concept builds upon the ideas of plasticity and adaptation to attempt to answer the question of where the body schema ends.\n\nThere is debate as to whether this concept truly exists, with one side arguing that the body schema does not extend past the body and the other side believing otherwise.\n\nSupporting arguments\nThe perspective shared by those who agree with the theory of the extended body schema follow reasoning in line with such that supports theories on tool use.\n\nIn some studies, attempts at understanding tool assimilation are used to argue for the existence of the extended body schema. In an experiment involving the use and interaction with wool objects, subjects were tested on their ability to perceive afterimages of wool objects in varying contexts. Subjects accustomed their eyes to a dark room and then were shown a brief (1 millisecond) flash of light, intending to produce an afterimage effect of their arms which they held out in front of them during the experiment. Moving an arm afterwards would make the afterimage \"fade\" or disappear as it moved, thus indicating that the feature (the arm) was being tracked and integrated into the person's body schema. To test integration of the meaningless wool objects, subjects experienced four different contexts.\n\n Subjects held the wool objects in each hand and one hand (the active hand) would move, still holding the object (the active object). \n Using the active hand, the active wool object would be dropped once an afterimage was perceived. \n Using the active hand, one would grab the active wool object once an afterimage was perceived. \n The subjects were to hold onto a mechanical device which held the wool object. Once an afterimage was perceived, a subject's active hand would cause the mechanical device to drop the wool object.\n\nIn all situations but the fourth, the subjects experienced the same \"fading\" effect as they did with their arm alone. This would thus indicate that the wool objects had been integrated into their body schema and contributes support towards the idea of the body's using proprioceptive and visual elements to create an extended body schema. The mechanical device acted as an intermediate between the subject and the active object, and the subjects' failure to detect an afterimage in that context indicates that this concept of extension is limited to being sensitive to only what the body is directly in contact with.\n\nDissenting arguments\n\nThe alternate perspective is that the body is the limit of any sort of body schema.\n\nAn example of this division is found in a study and discussion on personal and extrapersonal attention, where personal relates to the body's sense of itself (the body schema) and extrapersonal relates to all external of such. Some research supports the claim that these two categories are purely distinct and do not intermingle, contrary to what the extended body schema theory describes. Evidence for such is primarily found in subjects with unilateral neglect, such as in the case of E.D.S., who was a middle-aged man with right hemisphere brain damage. When he was tested for hemispatial neglect using traditional measures such as sentence reading and cancellation tests, E.D.S. showed few signs and upon later examination showed no signs whatsoever, leading doctors to believe he was normal. However, he constantly had issues with physical therapy because he would claim to not be able to see his left leg; upon further examination, E.D.S. was known to have a particular type of hemispatial neglect that only affected the perception of his body. The motor function of the left side of his body was negatively affected though not totally compromised, yet when attempting tasks such as shaving, he would invariably not shave the left side of his face. This led some researchers to believe that there is a distinction between personal and extrapersonal neglect, which would thus reflect a similar distinction with body schema itself.\n\nAssociated disorders\n\nDeafferentation\nThe most direct of related disorders, deafferentation occurs when sensory input from the body is reduced or absent, without affecting efferent, or motor, neurons. The most famous case of this disorder is \"IW\", who lost all sensory input from below the neck, resulting in temporary paralysis. He was forced to learn to control his movement all over again using only his conscious body image and visual feedback. As a result, when constant visual input is lost during an activity, such as walking, it becomes impossible for him to complete the task, which may result in falling, or simply stopping. IW requires constant attention to tasks to be able to complete them accurately, demonstrating how automatic and subconscious the process of integrating touch and proprioception into the body schema actually is.\n\nAutotopagnosia\nAutotopagnosia typically occurs after left parietal lesions. Patients with this disorder make errors which result from confusion between adjacent body parts. For example, a patient may point to their knee when asked to point to their hip. Because the disorder involves the body schema, localization errors may be made both on the patient’s own body and that of others. The spatial unity of the body within the body schema has been damaged such that it has incorrectly been segmented in relation to its other modular parts.\n\nPhantom limb\nPhantom limbs are a phenomenon which occurs following amputation of a limb from an individual. In 90–98% of cases, amputees report feeling all or part of the limb or body part still there, taking up space. The amputee may perceive a limb under full control, or paralyzed. A common side effect of phantom limbs is phantom limb pain. The neurophysiological mechanisms by which phantom limbs occur is still under debate. A common theory posits that the afferent neurons, since deafferented due to amputation, typically remap to adjacent cortical regions within the brain. This can cause amputees to report feeling their missing limb being touched when a seemingly unrelated part of the body is stimulated (such as if the face is touched, but the amputee also feels their missing arm being stroked in a specific location). Another facet of phantom limbs is that the efferent copy (motor feedback) responsible for reporting on position to the body schema does not attenuate quickly. Thus the missing body part may be attributed by the amputee to still be in a fixed or movable position.\n\nOthers\nAsomatognosia, somatoparaphrenia, anosognosia, anosodiaphoria, allochiria and hemispatial neglect all involve (or in some cases involve) aspects of impaired body schema. Hemispatial neglect is not uncommon because strokes sometimes cause it.\n\nTool use\n\nNot only is it necessary for the body schema to be able to integrate and form a three-dimensional representation of the body, but it also plays an important role in tool use. Studies recording neuronal activity in the intraparietal cortex in macaques have shown that, with training, the macaque body schema updates to include tools, such as those used for reaching, into the body schema. In humans, body schema plays an important role in both simple and complex tool use, far beyond that of macaques. Extensive training is also not necessary for this integration.\n\nThe mechanisms by which tools are integrated into the body schema are not fully understood. However, studies with long-term training have shown interesting phenomena. When wielding tools in both hands in a crossed posture, behavioral effects reverse in a similar way to when only hands are crossed. Thus, sensory stimuli are delivered the same way be it to the hands directly or indirectly via the tools. These studies suggest the mind incorporates the tools into the same or similar areas as it does the adjacent hands. Recent research into the short term plasticity of the body schema used individuals without any prior training with tools. These results, derived from the relation between afterimages and body schema, show that tools are incorporated into the body schema within seconds, regardless of length of training, though the results do not extend to other species besides humans.\n\nConfusion with body image\nHistorically, body schema and body image were generally lumped together, used interchangeably, or ill-defined. In science and elsewhere, the two terms are still commonly misattributed or confused. Efforts have been made to distinguish the two and define them in clear and differentiable ways. A body image consists of perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs concerning one's body. In contrast, body schema consists of sensory-motor capacities that control movement and posture.\n\nBody image may involve a person’s conscious perception of his or her own physical appearance. It is how individuals see themselves when picturing themselves in their mind, or when perceiving themselves in a mirror. Body image differs from body schema as perception differs from movement. Both may be involved in action, especially when learning new movements.\n\nSee also\n Body image (medicine)\n Peripheral neuropathy\n Schema (psychology)\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Motor cognition\nCategory:Motor control\nCategory:Cognitive science", "title": "Body schema" }, { "text": "In psychology, affordance is what the environment offers the individual. In design, affordance has a narrower meaning, it refers to possible actions that an actor can readily perceive. \n\nAmerican psychologist James J. Gibson coined the term in his 1966 book, The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems, and it occurs in many of his earlier essays. His best-known definition is from his 1979 book, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception:\n\nThe word is used in a variety of fields: perceptual psychology, cognitive psychology, environmental psychology, criminology, industrial design, human–computer interaction (HCI), interaction design, user-centered design, communication studies, instructional design, science, technology and society (STS), sports science and artificial intelligence.\n\nOriginal development \nGibson developed the concept of affordance over many years, culminating in his final book, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception in 1979. He defined an affordance as what the environment provides or furnishes the animal. Notably, Gibson compares an affordance with an ecological niche emphasizing the way niches characterize how an animal lives in its environment.\n\nThe key to understanding affordance is that it is relational and characterizes the suitability of the environment to the observer, and so, depends on their current intentions and their capabilities. For instance, a set of steps which rises high does not afford climbing to the crawling infant, yet might provide rest to a tired adult or the opportunity to move to another floor for an adult who wished to reach an alternative destination. This notion of intention/needs is critical to an understanding of affordance, as it explains how the same aspect of the environment can provide different affordances to different people, and even to the same individual at another point in time. As Gibson puts it, “Needs control the perception of affordances (selective attention) and also initiate acts.”\n\nAffordances were further studied by Eleanor J. Gibson, wife of James J. Gibson, who created her theory of perceptual learning around this concept. Her book, An Ecological Approach to Perceptual Learning and Development, explores affordances further.\n\nGibson's is the prevalent definition in cognitive psychology. According to Gibson, humans tend to alter and modify their environment so as to change its affordances to better suit them. On his view, humans change the environment to make it easier to live in (even if making it harder for other animals to live in it): to keep warm, to see at night, to rear children, and to move around. This tendency to change the environment is natural to humans, and Gibson argues that it is a mistake to treat the social world apart from the material world or the tools apart from the natural environment. He points out that manufacturing was originally done by hand as a kind of manipulation. Gibson argues that learning to perceive an affordance is an essential part of socialization.\n\nThe theory of affordances introduces a \"value-rich ecological object\". Affordances cannot be described within the value-neutral language of physics, but rather introduces notions of benefits and injuries to someone. An affordance captures this beneficial/injurious aspect of objects and relates them to the animal for whom they are well/ill-suited. During childhood development, a child learns to perceive not only the affordances for the self, but also how those same objects furnish similar affordances to another. A child can be introduced to the conventional meaning of an object by manipulating which objects command attention and demonstrating how to use the object through performing its central function. By learning how to use an artifact, a child “enters into the shared practices of society” as when they learn to use a toilet or brush their teeth. And so, by learning the affordances, or conventional meaning of an artifact, children learn the artifact's social world and further, become a member of that world.\n\nAnderson, Yamagishi and Karavia (2002) found that merely looking at an object primes the human brain to perform the action the object affords.\n\nAs perceived action possibilities \nIn 1988, Donald Norman appropriated the term affordances in the context of Human–Computer Interaction to refer to just those action possibilities that are readily perceivable by an actor. This new definition of \"action possibilities\" has now become synonymous with Gibson's work, although Gibson himself never made any reference to action possibilities in any of his writing. Through Norman's book The Design of Everyday Things, this interpretation was popularized within the fields of HCI, interaction design, and user-centered design. It makes the concept dependent not only on the physical capabilities of an actor, but also on their goals, beliefs, and past experiences. If an actor steps into a room containing an armchair and a softball, Gibson's original definition of affordances allows that the actor may throw the chair and sit on the ball, because this is objectively possible. Norman's definition of (perceived) affordances captures the likelihood that the actor will sit on the armchair and throw the softball. Effectively, Norman's affordances \"suggest\" how an object may be interacted with. For example, the size, shape, and weight of a softball make it perfect for throwing by humans, and it matches their past experience with similar objects. The focus on perceived affordances is much more pertinent to practical design problems , which may explain its widespread adoption.\n\nNorman later explained that this restriction of the term's meaning had been unintended, and in his 2013 update of The Design of Everyday Things, he added the concept \"signifiers\". In the digital age, designers were learning how to indicate what actions were possible on a smartphone's touchscreen, which didn't have the physical properties that Norman intended to describe when he used the word \"affordances\".\n\nHowever, the definition from his original book has been widely adopted in HCI and interaction design, and both meanings are now commonly used in these fields.\n\nFollowing Norman's adaptation of the concept, affordance has seen a further shift in meaning where it is used as an uncountable noun, referring to the easy discoverability of an object or system's action possibilities, as in \"this button has good affordance\". This in turn has given rise to use of the verb afford – from which Gibson's original term was derived – that is not consistent with its dictionary definition (to provide or make available): designers and those in the field of HCI often use afford as meaning \"to suggest\" or \"to invite\".\n\nThe different interpretations of affordances, although closely related, can be a source of confusion in writing and conversation if the intended meaning is not made explicit and if the word is not used consistently. Even authoritative textbooks can be inconsistent in their use of the term.\n\nWhen affordances are used to describe information and communications technology (ICT) an analogy is created with everyday objects with their attendant features and functions. Yet, ICT's features and functions derive from the product classifications of its developers and designers. This approach emphasizes an artifact’s convention to be wholly located in how it was designed to be used. In contrast, affordance theory draws attention to the fit of the technology to the activity of the user and so lends itself to studying how ICTs may be appropriated by users or even misused. One meta-analysis reviewed the evidence from a number of surveys about the extent to which the Internet is transforming or enhancing community. The studies showed that the internet is used for connectivity locally as well as globally, although the nature of its use varies in different countries. It found that internet use is adding on to other forms of communication, rather than replacing them.\n\nMechanisms and Conditions Framework of Affordances \nJenny L. Davis introduced the mechanisms and conditions framework of affordances in a 2016 article and 2020 book. The mechanisms and conditions framework shifts the orienting question from what technologies afford to how technologies afford, for whom and under what circumstances? This framework deals with the problem of binary application and presumed universal subjects in affordance analyses. The mechanisms of affordance indicate that technologies can variously request, demand, encourage, discourage, refuse, and allow social action, conditioned on users' perception, dexterity, and cultural and institutional legitimacy in relation to the technological object.\n\nThis framework adds specificity to affordances, focuses attention on relationality, and centralizes the role of values, politics, and power in affordance theory. The mechanisms and conditions framework is a tool of both socio-technical analysis and socially aware design.\n\nFalse affordances \nWilliam Gaver divided affordances into three categories: perceptible, hidden, and false.\n\n A false affordance is an apparent affordance that does not have any real function, meaning that the actor perceives possibilities for action that are nonexistent. A good example of a false affordance is a placebo button.\n Affordance is said to be hidden when there are possibilities for action, but these are not perceived by the actor. For example, it is not apparent from looking at a shoe that it could be used to open a wine bottle.\n Affordance is said to be perceptible when there is information available such that the actor perceives and can then act upon the existing affordance.\n\nThis means that, when affordances are perceptible, they offer a direct link between perception and action, and, when affordances are hidden or false, they can lead to mistakes and misunderstandings.\n\nAffordance in robotics \n\nProblems in robotics indicate that affordance is not only a theoretical concept from psychology. In object grasping and manipulation, robots need to learn the affordance of objects in the environment, i.e., to learn from visual perception and experience (a) whether objects can be manipulated, (b) to learn how to grasp an object, and (c) to learn how to manipulate objects to reach a particular goal. As an example, the hammer can be grasped, in principle, with many hand poses and approach strategies, but there is a limited set of effective contact points and their associated optimal grip for performing the goal.\n\nAffordances in language education \nBased on Gibson’s conceptualization of affordances as both the good and bad that the environment offers animals, affordances in language learning are both the opportunities and challenges that learners perceive of their environment when learning a language. Affordances, which are both learning opportunities or inhibitions, arise from the semiotic budget of the learning environment, which allows language to evolve. Positive affordances, or learning opportunities, are only effective in developing learner's language when they perceive and actively interact with their surroundings. Negative affordances, on the other hand, are crucial in exposing the learners’ weaknesses for teachers, and the learners themselves, to address their moment-to-moment needs in their learning process.\n\nSee also \n Action-specific perception\n Ambient optic array\n Default effect\n Form follows function\n Usability\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n\nA series of slides concerning theories of vision and (incidentally) the role of affordances and some interesting optical illusions concerning affordances \n\nCategory:Action (philosophy)\nCategory:Perception\nCategory:Psychological theories", "title": "Affordance" }, { "text": "Perspectivism (; also called perspectivalism) is the epistemological principle that perception of and knowledge of something are always bound to the interpretive perspectives of those observing it. While perspectivism regard all perspectives and interpretations as being of equal truth or value, it holds that no one has access to an absolute view of the world cut off from perspective. Instead, all such occurs from some point of view which in turn affects how things are perceived. Rather than attempt to determine truth by correspondence to things outside any perspective, perspectivism thus generally seeks to determine truth by comparing and evaluating perspectives among themselves. Perspectivism may be regarded as an early form of epistemological pluralism, though in some accounts includes treatment of value theory, moral psychology, and realist metaphysics.\n\nEarly forms of perspectivism have been identified in the philosophies of Protagoras, Michel de Montaigne, and Gottfried Leibniz. However, its first major statement is considered to be Friedrich Nietzsche's development of the concept in the 19th century, having built off Gustav Teichmüller's use of the term some years prior. For Nietzsche, perspectivism takes the form of a realist antimetaphysics while rejecting both the correspondence theory of truth and the notion that the truth-value of a belief always constitutes its ultimate worth-value. The perspectival conception of objectivity used by Nietzsche sees the deficiencies of each perspective as remediable by an asymptotic study of the differences between them. This stands in contrast to Platonic notions in which objective truth is seen to reside in a wholly non-perspectival domain. Despite this, perspectivism is often misinterpreted as a form of relativism or as a rejection of objectivity entirely. Though it is often mistaken to imply that no way of seeing the world can be taken as definitively true, perspectivism can instead be interpreted as holding certain interpretations (such as that of perspectivism itself) to be definitively true.\n\nDuring the 21st century, perspectivism has led a number of developments within analytic philosophy and philosophy of science, particularly under the early influence of Ronald Giere, Jay Rosenberg, Ernest Sosa, and others. This contemporary form of perspectivism, also known as scientific perspectivism, is more narrowly focused than prior forms—centering on the perspectival limitations of scientific models, theories, observations, and focused interest, while remaining more compatible for example with Kantian philosophy and correspondence theories of truth. Furthermore, scientific perspecitivism has come to address a number of scientific fields such as physics, biology, cognitive neuroscience, and medicine, as well as interdisciplinarity and philosophy of time. Studies of perspectivism have also been introduced into contemporary anthropology, initially through the influence of Eduardo Viveiros de Castro and his research into indigenous cultures of South America.\n\nThe basic principle that things are perceived differently from different perspectives (or that perspective determines one's limited and unprivileged access to knowledge) has sometimes been accounted as a rudimentary, uncontentious form of perspectivism. The basic practice of comparing contradictory perspectives to one another may also be considered one such form of perspectivism , as may the entire philosophical problem of how true knowledge is to penetrate one's perspectival limitations.\n\nPrecursors and early developments \n\nIn Western languages, scholars have found perspectivism in the philosophies of Heraclitus ( – ), Protagoras ( – ), Michel de Montaigne (1533 – 1592 CE), and Gottfried Leibniz (1646 – 1716 CE). The origins of perspectivism have also been found to lie also within Renaissance developments in philosophy of art and its artistic notion of perspective. In Asian languages, scholars have found perspectivism in Buddhist, Jain, and Daoist texts. Anthropologists have found a kind of perspectivism in the thinking of some indigenous peoples. Some theologians believe John Calvin interpreted various scriptures in a perspectivist manner.\n\nAncient Greek philosophy \n\nThe Western origins of perspectivism can be found in the pre-Socratic philosophies of Heraclitus and Protagoras. In fact, a major cornerstone of Plato's philosophy is his rejection and opposition to perspectivism—this forming a principal element of his aesthetics, ethics, epistemology, and theology. The antiperspectivism of Plato made him a central target of critique for later perspectival philosophers such as Nietzsche.\n\nMontaigne \n\nMontaigne's philosophy presents in itself a less as a doctrinaire position than as a core philosophical approach put into practice. Inasmuch as no one can occupy a God's-eye view, Montaigne holds that no one has access to a view which is totally unbiased, which does not according to its own perspective. It is instead only the underlying psychological biases which view one's own perspective as unbiased. In a passage from his \"Of Cannibals\", he writes:\n\nNietzsche \n\nIn his works, Nietzsche makes a number of statements on perspective which at times contrast each other throughout the development of his philosophy. Nietzsche's begins by challenging the underlying notions of 'viewing from nowhere', 'viewing from everywhere', and 'viewing without interpreting' as being absurdities. Instead, all is attached to some perspective, and all viewers are limited in some sense to the perspectives at their command. In The Genealogy of Morals he writes: \n\nIn this, Nietzsche takes a contextualist approach which rejects any God's-eye view of the world. This has been further linked to his notion of the death of God and the dangers of a resulting relativism. However, Nietzsche's perspectivism itself stands in sharp contrast to any such relativism. In outlining his perspectivism, Nietzsche rejects those who claim everything to be subjective, by disassembling the notion of the subject as itself a mere invention and interpretation. He further states that, since the two are mutually dependent on each other, the collapse of the God's-eye view causes also the notion of the thing-in-itself to fall apart with it. Nietzsche views this collapse to reveal, through his genealogical project, that all that has been considered non-perspectival knowledge, the entire tradition of Western metaphysics, has itself been only a perspective. His perspectivism and genealogical project are further integrated into each other in addressing the psychological drives that underlie various philosophical programs and perspectives, as a form of critique. Here, contemporary scholar Ken Gemes views Nietzsche's perspectivism to above all be a principle of moral psychology, rejecting interpretations of it as an epistemological thesis outrightly. It is through this method of critique that the deficiencies of various perspectives can be alleviated—through a critical mediation of the differences between them rather than any appeals to the non-perspectival. In a posthumously published aphorism from The Will to Power, Nietzsche writes: \n\nWhile Nietzsche does not plainly reject truth and objectivity, he does reject the notions of truth, facts, and objectivity.\n\nTruth theory and the value of truth \n\nDespite receiving much attention within contemporary philosophy, there is no academic consensus on Nietzsche's conception of truth. While his perspectivism presents a number of challenges regarding the nature of truth, its more controversial element lies in its questioning of the of truth. Contemporary scholars Steven D. Hales and Robert C. Welshon write that:\n\nLater developments \n\nIn the 20th century, perspectivism was discussed separately by José Ortega y Gasset and Karl Jaspers.\n\nOrtega \nOrtega's perspectivism, replaced his previous position that \"man is completely social\". His reversal is prominent in his work Verdad y perspectiva (\"Truth and perspective\"), where he explained that \"each man has a mission of truth\" and that what he sees of reality no other eye sees. He explained:From different positions two people see the same surroundings. However, they do not see the same thing. Their different positions mean that the surroundings are organized in a different way: what is in the foreground for one may be in the background for another. Furthermore, as things are hidden one behind another, each person will see something that the other may not.Ortega also maintained that perspective is perfected by the multiplication of its viewpoints. He noted that war transpires due to the lack of perspective and failure to see the larger contexts of the actions among nations. Ortega also cited the importance of phenomenology in perspectivism as he argued against speculation and the importance of concrete evidence in understanding truth and reality. In this discourse, he highlighted the role of \"circumstance\" in finding out the truth since it allows us to understand realities beyond ourselves.\n\nPhilosophy of science\n\nVarieties \nContemporary varieties of perspectivism include:\n Individualist perspectivism\n Collectivist perspectivism\n Transcendental perspectivism\n Theological perspectivism\n\nSee also \n\n Anekantavada, a fundamental doctrine of Jainism setting forth a pluralistic metaphysics, traceable to Mahavira (599–527 BCE)\n Blind men and an elephant\n Conceptual framework\n Consilience, the unity of knowledge\n Constructivist epistemology\n Eclecticism\n Fallibilism\n Fusion of horizons\n Integral theory (disambiguation)\n Intersubjectivity\n Metaphilosophy\n Model-dependent realism\n Moral nihilism\n Moral skepticism\n Multiperspectivalism, a current in Calvinist epistemology\n Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche\n \n Point of view (philosophy)\n Rhizome (philosophy)\n Standpoint theory\n Value pluralism\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Consensus reality\nCategory:Epistemological theories\nCategory:Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche\nCategory:Hermeneutics\nCategory:Philosophical analogies\nCategory:Philosophical theories\nCategory:Criticism of rationalism", "title": "Perspectivism" }, { "text": "Reflexivity might mean:\n\n Reflexivity (grammar)\n Reflexivity (social theory)\n Self-reflexivity (see Self-reference)\n\nSee also\n \n Reflectivism\n Reflexive (disambiguation)\n Reflexive operator algebra\n Reflexive pronoun\n Reflexive relation\n Reflexive space\n Reflexive verb\n Sesquilinear form", "title": "Reflexivity" }, { "text": "In Continental philosophy, the term invagination is used to explain a special kind of metanarrative. It was first used by Maurice Merleau-Ponty () to describe the dynamic self-differentiation of the 'flesh'. It was later used by Rosalind E. Krauss and Jacques Derrida (\"The Law of Genre\", Glyph 7, 1980); for Derrida, an invaginated text is a narrative that folds upon itself, \"endlessly swapping outside for inside and thereby producing a structure en abyme\". He applies the term to such texts as Immanuel Kant's Critique of Judgment and Maurice Blanchot's La Folie du Jour. Invagination is an aspect of différance, since according to Derrida it opens the \"inside\" to the \"other\" and denies both inside and outside a stable identity.\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Deconstruction\nCategory:Continental philosophy\nCategory:Literary concepts", "title": "Invagination (philosophy)" }, { "text": "Incarnation literally means embodied in flesh or taking on flesh. It refers to the conception and the embodiment of a deity or spirit in some earthly form or the appearance of a god as a human. If capitalized, it is the union of divinity with humanity in Jesus Christ. In its religious context the word is used to mean a god, deity, or divine being in human or animal form on Earth.\n\nAbrahamic religions\n\nChristianity\n\nThe incarnation of Christ is the central Christian doctrine that God became flesh, assumed a human nature, and became a man in the form of Jesus, the Son of God and the second person of the Trinity. This foundational Christian position holds that the divine nature of the Son of God was perfectly united with human nature in one divine Person, Jesus, making him both truly God and truly human. The theological term for this is hypostatic union: the second person of the Trinity, God the Son, became flesh when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of the Virgin Mary. Biblical passages traditionally referenced in connection with the doctrine of the Incarnation include , , and .\n\nIslam\n\nIslam completely rejects the doctrine of the incarnation (Mu'jassimā / (Tajseem) Tajsīm) of God in any form, as the concept is defined as shirk. In Islam, God is one and \"neither begets nor is begotten\".\n\nJudaism\n\nMainstream Judaism totally rejects any doctrine of an incarnation of God and absolutely rejects any concept of an incarnation of God in any form. However, some Hasidim believe in a somewhat similar concept. Menachem Mendel Schneerson, a prominent Hasidic leader, said that the Rebbe is God's essence itself put into the body of a tzadik.\n\nDruze faith\n\nHamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze faith and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts, he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is an important figure in the Druze faith whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018.\n\nBaháʼí Faith\n\nIn the Baháʼí Faith, God is not seen to be incarnated into this world and is not seen to be part of creation as he cannot be divided and does not descend to the condition of his creatures. The Manifestations of God are also not seen as an incarnation of God, but are instead understood to be like a perfect mirror reflecting the attributes of God onto this material world.\n\nBuddhism\n\nBuddhism is a nontheistic religion: it denies the concept of a creator deity or any incarnation of a creator deity. However, Buddhism does teach the rebirth doctrine and asserts that living beings are reborn, endlessly, reincarnating as devas (gods), demi-gods, human beings, animals, hungry ghosts or hellish beings, in a cycle of samsara that stops only for those who reach nirvana (nibbana).\n\nIn Tibetan Buddhism, an enlightened spiritual teacher (lama) is believed to reincarnate, and is called a tulku. According to Tulku Thond, there are three main types of tulkus. They are the emanations of buddhas, the manifestations of highly accomplished adepts, and rebirths of highly virtuous teachers or spiritual friends. There are also authentic secondary types as well which include unrecognized tulkus, blessed tulkus, and tulkus fallen from the path.\n\nHinduism\n\nIn Hinduism, incarnation refers to its rebirth doctrine, and in its theistic traditions to avatar. Avatar literally means \"descent, alight, to make one's appearance\", and refers to the embodiment of the essence of a superhuman being or a deity in another form. The word also implies \"to overcome, to remove, to bring down, to cross something\". In Hindu traditions, the \"crossing or coming down\" is symbolism, states Daniel Bassuk, of the divine descent from \"eternity into the temporal realm, from unconditioned to the conditioned, from infinitude to finitude\". An avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna (with form, attributes) embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman (soul).\n\nNeither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mentions the word avatar as a noun. The verb roots and form, such as avatarana, do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as \"action of descending\", but not as an incarnated person (avatara). The related verb avatarana is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, another as \"laying down the burden of man\" suffering from the forces of evil.\n\nThe term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu. The earliest mention of Vishnu manifested in a human form to empower the good and fight against evil, uses other terms such as the word sambhavāmi in verse 4.6 and the word tanu in verse 9.11 of the Bhagavad Gita, as well as other words such as akriti and rupa elsewhere. It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the noun version of avatar appears, where it means embodiment of a deity. The incarnation idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, and with ideas such as ansha-avatar or partial embodiments.\n\nWhile avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional. The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism.\n\nAvatar versus incarnation\nThe translation of avatar as \"incarnation\" has been questioned by Christian theologians, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect. The theological concept of Christ as an Incarnation into the womb of the Virgin Mary and by work of the Holy Spirit God, as found in Christology, presents the Christian concept of incarnation. This, state Oduyoye and Vroom, is different from the Hindu concept of avatar because avatars in Hinduism are unreal and is similar to Docetism. Sheth disagrees and states that this claim is an incorrect understanding of the Hindu concept of avatar. Avatars are true embodiments of spiritual perfection, one driven by noble goals, in Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism.\n\nSerer religion\nThe Serer religion of West Africa rejects any notions of incarnation or manifestation of the supreme deity Roog (also called Koox in the Cangin language). However, the reincarnation (ciiɗ) of the ancient Serer saints and ancestral spirits, called Pangool, is a well-held principle in Serer religion. These Pangool (singular : Fangool) act as intermediaries between the living world and the divine. When the Serers speak of incarnation, it is these Pangool they refer to, who are themselves holy by virtue of their intercession with the divine. Thaiw, Issa Laye, « La religiosité des Seereer, avant et pendant leur islamisation », in Éthiopiques, no. 54, volume 7, 2e semestre 1991 \n\n See also \n Arahitogami\n Kumari (goddess)\n List of people who have been considered deities\n Theophany\n\n Notes \n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n Daniélou, Alain (1991) [1964]. The myths and gods of India''. Inner Traditions, Vermont, USA. . pp. 164–187.\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n\nCategory:Religious belief and doctrine\nCategory:Conceptions of God", "title": "Incarnation" } ]

[ "The text does not provide information on whether Merleau-Ponty created art.", "The distinctions made by Merleau-Ponty are between spoken language (le langage parle), or secondary expression, and speaking language (le langage parlant), or primary expression. Spoken language refers to our linguistic baggage, our cultural heritage, and the relationships between signs and significations. Speaking language is characterized as language in the act of producing sense, or the moment where thought arises and becomes meaningful. \n\nAnother distinction that Merleau-Ponty makes is in the notion of style in art, which he separates from Andre Malraux's three conceptions of style. According to Merleau-Ponty, Malraux uses style in a highly subjective sense to project the artist's individuality, in a metaphysical or mystical sense to express the \"Spirit of Painting\", and to categorize an artistic school or movement. Merleau-Ponty disagrees with these notions, arguing that style represents a demand from perception and involves aspects of historicity and intersubjectivity. He suggests that style arises from the interaction between different fields of being and contributes to consciousness.", "The distinction between primary and secondary modes of expression, or spoken and speaking language (le langage parle et le langage parlant), is what is sometimes repeated according to the context provided.", "Merleau-Ponty's primary and secondary modes of expression, or spoken and speaking language, are defined as follows:\n\n1. Spoken language (le langage parle), or secondary expression, is derived from our linguistic background, cultural heritage, and the set of relationships between signs and meanings. \n\n2. Speaking language (le langage parlant), or primary expression, is language in the process of producing a sense, or at the advent of a thought, the moment it becomes an advent of sense. This refers to language that is actively involved in the creation of meaning.\n", "Other interesting aspects of this article include Merleau-Ponty's exploration of the nature of production, the reception of expressions, intentionality, perception, links between freedom and external conditions, and how these overlap with an analysis of action. His observation on the notion of style in art, particularly how he distinguishes himself from Andre Malraux's conception, is also noteworthy. More specifically, Merleau-Ponty disputes Malraux's use of style for individual projection, metaphysical context, or categorization of an artistic school or movement; he instead views style as a demand related to the primacy of perception, encompassing aspects of historicity and intersubjectivity. Lastly, the presentation of style as a product of interaction between two or more fields of being that contributes to consciousness is also an intriguing point.", "The text does not provide information on whether Merleau-Ponty created art or if it was based on language and speaking.", "The text does not provide information on Merleau-Ponty's most well-known contribution to the art world.", "The text does not provide information on who influenced Merleau-Ponty's views the most." ]

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[ "What was Guggenheim collecting?", "Why was she doing this?", "What else is notable about her collection?", "Where there any other exhibitions?", "What else did she do?", "What else is significant about this time?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ 284, 348, 1137, 1335, 1636, 1772 ], "texts": [ "she purchased as much abstract and Surrealist art as possible.", "Her first gallery was called Guggenheim Jeune, the name being ingeniously chosen to associate the epitome of a gallery,", "The Cocteau exhibition was followed by exhibitions on Wassily Kandinsky (his first one-man-show in England),", "Peggy Guggenheim also held group exhibitions of sculpture and collage, with the participation of the now classic moderns Antoine Pevsner,", "She also greatly admired the work of John Tunnard (1900-1971) and is credited with his discovery in mainstream international modernism.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Marguerite \"Peggy\" Guggenheim ( ; August 26, 1898 – December 23, 1979) was an American art collector, bohemian and socialite. Born to the wealthy New York City Guggenheim family, she was the daughter of Benjamin Guggenheim, who went down with the Titanic in 1912, and the niece of Solomon R. Guggenheim, who established the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation. Guggenheim collected art in Europe and America primarily between 1938 and 1946. She exhibited this collection as she built it; in 1949, she settled in Venice, where she lived and exhibited her collection for the rest of her life. The Peggy Guggenheim Collection is a modern art museum on the Grand Canal in Venice, Italy, and is one of the most visited attractions in Venice.\n\nEarly life\nGuggenheim's parents were of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Her mother, Florette Seligman (1870–1937), was a member of the Seligman family. When she turned 21 in 1919, Guggenheim inherited US$2.5 million, equivalent to US$ million in . Guggenheim's father, Benjamin Guggenheim, a member of the Guggenheim family, who died in the sinking of the Titanic, had not amassed the fortune of his siblings; therefore her inheritance was far less than that of her cousins. She also had a sister, Barbara Hazel Guggenheim, who became a painter and art collector.\n\nShe first worked as a clerk in an avant-garde bookstore, the Sunwise Turn, in mid-town Manhattan, where she became enamored of the members of the bohemian artistic community. In 1920 she went to live in Paris, France. Once there, she became friendly with avant-garde writers and artists, many of whom were living in poverty in the Montparnasse quarter of the city. Man Ray photographed her, and was, along with Constantin Brâncuși and Marcel Duchamp, a friend whose art she was eventually to promote.\n\nShe became close friends with writer Natalie Barney and artist Romaine Brooks and was a regular at Barney's salon. She met Djuna Barnes during this time, and in time became her friend and patron. Barnes wrote her best-known novel, Nightwood, while staying at the Devon country house, Hayford Hall, that Guggenheim had rented for two summers.\n\nGuggenheim urged Emma Goldman to write her autobiography and helped to secure funds for her to live in Saint-Tropez, France, while writing her two volume Living My Life. Guggenheim wrote her own autobiography entitled Out of This Century, later revised and re-published as Confessions of an Art Addict which was released in 1946 and is now published with Harper Collins.\n\nCollecting, before World War II\n\nIn January 1938, Guggenheim opened a gallery for modern art in London featuring Jean Cocteau drawings in its first show, and began to collect works of art. Guggenheim often purchased at least one object from each of her exhibitions at the gallery. After the outbreak of World War II, she purchased as much abstract and Surrealist art as possible.\n\nHer first gallery was called Guggenheim Jeune, the name ingeniously chosen to associate her gallery with both the epitome of a gallery, the French Bernheim-Jeune, and with the name of her own well-known family. The gallery on 30 Cork Street, next to Roland Penrose's and E. L. T. Mesens' show-case for the Surrealist movement, proved to be successful, thanks to many friends who gave advice and who helped to run the gallery. Marcel Duchamp, whom she had known since the early 1920s, when she lived in Paris with her first husband Laurence Vail, had introduced Guggenheim to the art world; it was through him that she met many artists during her frequent visits to Paris. He taught her about contemporary art and styles, and he conceived several of the exhibitions held at Guggenheim Jeune.\n\nThe Cocteau exhibition was followed by exhibitions of Wassily Kandinsky (his first one-man-show in England), Yves Tanguy, Wolfgang Paalen and several other well-known and some lesser-known artists. Peggy Guggenheim also held group exhibitions of sculpture and collage, with the participation of the now-classic moderns Antoine Pevsner, Henry Moore, Henri Laurens, Alexander Calder, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Constantin Brâncuși, John Ferren, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and Kurt Schwitters. She also greatly admired the work of John Tunnard (1900–1971) and is credited with his discovery in mainstream international modernism.\n\nPlans for a museum\nWhen Guggenheim realized that her gallery, although well received, had made a loss of £600 in the first year, she decided to spend her money in a more practical way. A museum for contemporary arts was exactly the institution she could see herself supporting. Most certainly on her mind also were the adventures in New York City of her uncle, Solomon R. Guggenheim, who, with the help and encouragement of artist Baroness Hilla von Rebay, had created the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation two years earlier. The main aim of this foundation had been to collect and to further the production of abstract art, resulting in the opening of the Museum of Non-Objective Painting (known as the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum after 1952) in Manhattan during 1939. Guggenheim closed Guggenheim Jeune with a farewell party on 22 June 1939, at which colour portrait photographs by Gisèle Freund were projected on the walls. She started making plans for a Museum of Modern Art in London together with the English art historian and art critic Herbert Read. She set aside $40,000 for the museum's running costs. However, these funds were soon overstretched by the organisers' ambitions.\n\nIn August 1939, Guggenheim left for Paris to negotiate loans of artworks for the first exhibition. In her luggage was a list drawn up by Herbert Read for this occasion. Shortly after her departure the Second World War broke out, and the events following 1 September 1939 made her abandon the scheme, willingly or not. She then \"decided now to buy paintings by all the painters who were on Herbert Read's list. Having plenty of time and all the museum's funds at my disposal, I put myself on a regime to buy one picture a day.\" When finished, she had acquired 10 Picassos, 40 Ernsts, eight Mirós, four Magrittes, four Ferrens, three Man Rays, three Dalís, one Klee, one Wolfgang Paalen and one Chagall, among others. In the meantime, she had also made new plans and in April 1940 had rented a large space in the Place Vendôme as a new home for her museum.\n\nA few days before the Germans reached Paris, Guggenheim had to abandon her plans for a Paris museum, and fled to the south of France, from where, after months of safeguarding her collection and artist friends, she left Europe for New York in the summer of 1941. There, in the following year, she opened a new gallery—which actually was in part a museum—at 30 West 57th Street. It was called The Art of This Century. Three of the four galleries were dedicated to Cubist and Abstract art, Surrealism and Kinetic art, with only the fourth, the front room, being a commercial gallery. Guggenheim held other important shows — such as the Exhibition by 31 Women, the first documented all-female art exhibition in the United States of America — at the gallery. This 1943 month-long exhibition gathered together artists ranging from notable figures like Frida Kahlo, Gypsy Rose Lee, Meret Oppenheim, Leonora Carrington, and Louise Nevelson, to others who were unknown artists in New York. \n\nHer interest in new art was instrumental in advancing the careers of several important modern artists, including the American painters Jackson Pollock and William Congdon, the Austrian surrealist Wolfgang Paalen, the sound poet Ada Verdun Howell and the German painter Max Ernst, whom she married in December 1941. She had assembled her collection in only seven years.\n\nThe collection, after World War II\n\nFollowing World War II – and her 1946 divorce from Max Ernst – she closed The Art of This Century Gallery in 1947, and returned to Europe, deciding to live in Venice, Italy. In 1948, she was invited to exhibit her collection in the disused Greek Pavilion of the Venice Biennale and in 1949 established herself in the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni ('unfinished palazzo of the lions') on the Grand Canal.\n\nHer collection became one of the few European collections of modern art to promote a significant number of works by Americans. In the 1950s she promoted the art of two local painters, Edmondo Bacci and Tancredi Parmeggiani. By the early 1960s, Guggenheim had almost stopped collecting art and began to concentrate on presenting what she already owned. She loaned out her collection to museums in Europe and in 1969 to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City, which was named after her uncle. Eventually, she decided to donate her home and her collection to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, a gift which was concluded inter vivos in 1976, before her death in 1979.\n\nThe Peggy Guggenheim Collection is one of the most important museums in Italy for European and American art of the first half of the 20th century. Pieces in her collection embrace Cubism, Surrealism and abstract expressionism.\n\nGuggenheim lived in Venice until her death in Camposampiero near Padua, Italy, after a stroke. Her ashes are interred in the garden (later the Nasher Sculpture Garden) of her home, the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni (inside the Peggy Guggenheim Collection), next to her dogs.\n\nPrivate life\nAccording to both Guggenheim and her biographer Anton Gill, it was believed that while living in Europe, she had \"slept with 1,000 men\". She claimed to have had affairs with numerous artists and writers, and in return many artists and others have claimed affairs with her. When asked by conductor Thomas Schippers how many husbands she had, she replied, \"You mean my own, or other people's?\" In her autobiography, Peggy provides the names of some of these lovers, including Yves Tanguy, Roland Penrose and E. L. T. Mesens.\n\nHer first marriage was to Laurence Vail, a Dada sculptor and writer with whom she had two children, Michael Cedric Sindbad Vail (1923–1986) and Pegeen Vail Guggenheim (1925–1967). They divorced in about 1928 following his affair with writer Kay Boyle, whom he later married. Soon after her first marriage dissolved, she had an affair with John Ferrar Holms, a writer with writer's block who had been a war hero. Starting in December 1939, she and Samuel Beckett had a brief but intense affair, and he encouraged her to turn exclusively to modern art. She married her second husband, painter Max Ernst, in 1941 and divorced him in 1946. Among her eight grandchildren is Karole Vail, who was appointed director of the Peggy Guggenheim Collection in 2017.\n\nPortrayal in popular culture\n Guggenheim was portrayed by Amy Madigan in the movie Pollock (2000), directed by and starring Ed Harris, based on the life of Jackson Pollock.\n A play by Lanie Robertson based on Guggenheim's life, Woman Before a Glass, opened at the Promenade Theatre on Broadway, New York on March 10, 2005. This one-woman show focuses on Guggenheim's later life. Mercedes Ruehl played Guggenheim and received an Obie Award for her performance. In May 2011, the Abingdon Theater Arts Complex in New York featured a revival of this play, starring veteran stage actress Judy Rosenblatt, directed by Austin Pendleton.\n In Bethan Roberts' first play for radio, My Own Private Gondolier, Guggenheim's troubled daughter, Pegeen, leaves her three children behind when she travels to Venice to spend the summer with her mother. The play was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on October 19, 2010; Guggenheim was played by Fiona Shaw; Pegeen was played by Hattie Morahan.\n In April 2015, a new documentary film, Peggy Guggenheim: Art Addict, began premiering at film festivals, including the San Francisco Jewish Film Festival on July 26, 2015.\n Guggenheim is a minor character in the narrative non-fiction Leonora in the Morning Light, by Michaela Carter, published in 2021\n Kay Boyle's semi-autobiographical novel My Next Bride includes a fictionalized portrayal of Guggenheim.\n Guggenheim was portrayed by Jodhi May in the 2023 Netflix TV series Transatlantic.\n\nReferences\nNotes\n\nSources\n\nFurther reading\n Davidson, Susan and Philip Rylands, eds. (2005). \"Peggy Guggenheim & Fredrick Kiesler: The Story of Art of This Century\" (exhibition catalogue), Venice: Peggy Guggenheim Collection \n Dearborn, Mary V. Affairs of the Art: Mistress of Modernism, The Life of Peggy Guggenheim (Houghton Mifflin, 2004, )\n \n \n Weld, Jacqueline Bograd. Peggy, the Wayward Guggenheim (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1986)\n\nExternal links\n \n \"Peggy Guggenheim: Mistress of Modernism\" by Helen Gent, Marie Claire, 19 June 2009\n \n\nCategory:American art collectors\nCategory:Philanthropists from New York (state)\nCategory:American socialites\nCategory:Museum founders\nCategory:1898 births\nCategory:1979 deaths\nPeggy Guggenheim\nCategory:Jewish American art collectors\nCategory:Jewish American philanthropists\nCategory:American people of Dutch-Jewish descent\nCategory:American people of German-Jewish descent\nCategory:American people of Swiss-Jewish descent\nCategory:American expatriates in France\nCategory:American emigrants to Italy\nCategory:American founders\nCategory:People from New York City\nCategory:People from Venice\nCategory:20th-century art collectors\nCategory:20th-century American women\nCategory:Max Ernst\nCategory:American art dealers\nCategory:Women art dealers\nCategory:Women art collectors", "title": "Peggy Guggenheim" } ]

[ "Guggenheim was collecting works of art, specifically abstract and Surrealist art.", "The text does not provide a specific reason why Guggenheim was collecting works of art.", "Notably, Guggenheim often purchased at least one object from each of her exhibitions at her gallery. Among the artists whose works she collected were well-known figures like Wassily Kandinsky, Yves Tanguy, Wolfgang Paalen, and others, as well as lesser-known artists. She held group exhibitions of sculpture and collage, with the participation of classic moderns such as Antoine Pevsner, Henry Moore, Henri Laurens, Alexander Calder, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Constantin Brancusi, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and Kurt Schwitters. She also greatly admired and is credited with the discovery of John Tunnard's work in mainstream international modernism.", "Yes, other than the inaugural exhibition featuring Jean Cocteau's drawings, Guggenheim Jeune hosted exhibitions on Wassily Kandinsky, Yves Tanguy, Wolfgang Paalen, and several other well-known and some lesser-known artists. Group exhibitions of sculpture and collage were also held, with the participation of various classic modern artists.", "Besides collecting art and running the Guggenheim Jeune gallery, Peggy Guggenheim also played a role in discovering and promoting the work of artist John Tunnard in mainstream international modernism.", "During this time, World War II broke out, and in response, Guggenheim began to purchase as much abstract and Surrealist art as possible. Also, her gallery, Guggenheim Jeune, was located next to the London Gallery, which was a showcase for the Surrealist movement, suggesting an interesting confluence of art scenes during this period." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What type of museum did peggy plan to open?", "Was she successful in her plans?", "When did the foundation start?", "Was there anything of note that came from the foundation?", "How large was the collection of abstract art?", "What other art did she acquire?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 173 ], [ 493 ], [ 474 ], [ 493 ], [ 1712 ], [ 1817 ] ], "texts": [ [ "A museum for contemporary arts was exactly the institution she could see herself supporting." ], [ "The main aim of this foundation had been to collect and to further the production of abstract art," ], [ "two years earlier." ], [ "The main aim of this foundation had been to collect and to further the production of abstract art, resulting in the opening of the Museum of Non-objective Painting" ], [ "When finished, she had acquired ten Picassos, forty Ernsts, eight Miros, four Magrittes, three Man Rays," ], [ "three Dalis, one Klee, one Wolfgang Paalen and one Chagall among others." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 173, 493, 474, 493, 1712, 1817 ], "texts": [ "A museum for contemporary arts was exactly the institution she could see herself supporting.", "The main aim of this foundation had been to collect and to further the production of abstract art,", "two years earlier.", "The main aim of this foundation had been to collect and to further the production of abstract art, resulting in the opening of the Museum of Non-objective Painting", "When finished, she had acquired ten Picassos, forty Ernsts, eight Miros, four Magrittes, three Man Rays,", "three Dalis, one Klee, one Wolfgang Paalen and one Chagall among others." ] }

[ { "text": "Marguerite \"Peggy\" Guggenheim ( ; August 26, 1898 – December 23, 1979) was an American art collector, bohemian and socialite. Born to the wealthy New York City Guggenheim family, she was the daughter of Benjamin Guggenheim, who went down with the Titanic in 1912, and the niece of Solomon R. Guggenheim, who established the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation. Guggenheim collected art in Europe and America primarily between 1938 and 1946. She exhibited this collection as she built it; in 1949, she settled in Venice, where she lived and exhibited her collection for the rest of her life. The Peggy Guggenheim Collection is a modern art museum on the Grand Canal in Venice, Italy, and is one of the most visited attractions in Venice.\n\nEarly life\nGuggenheim's parents were of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Her mother, Florette Seligman (1870–1937), was a member of the Seligman family. When she turned 21 in 1919, Guggenheim inherited US$2.5 million, equivalent to US$ million in . Guggenheim's father, Benjamin Guggenheim, a member of the Guggenheim family, who died in the sinking of the Titanic, had not amassed the fortune of his siblings; therefore her inheritance was far less than that of her cousins. She also had a sister, Barbara Hazel Guggenheim, who became a painter and art collector.\n\nShe first worked as a clerk in an avant-garde bookstore, the Sunwise Turn, in mid-town Manhattan, where she became enamored of the members of the bohemian artistic community. In 1920 she went to live in Paris, France. Once there, she became friendly with avant-garde writers and artists, many of whom were living in poverty in the Montparnasse quarter of the city. Man Ray photographed her, and was, along with Constantin Brâncuși and Marcel Duchamp, a friend whose art she was eventually to promote.\n\nShe became close friends with writer Natalie Barney and artist Romaine Brooks and was a regular at Barney's salon. She met Djuna Barnes during this time, and in time became her friend and patron. Barnes wrote her best-known novel, Nightwood, while staying at the Devon country house, Hayford Hall, that Guggenheim had rented for two summers.\n\nGuggenheim urged Emma Goldman to write her autobiography and helped to secure funds for her to live in Saint-Tropez, France, while writing her two volume Living My Life. Guggenheim wrote her own autobiography entitled Out of This Century, later revised and re-published as Confessions of an Art Addict which was released in 1946 and is now published with Harper Collins.\n\nCollecting, before World War II\n\nIn January 1938, Guggenheim opened a gallery for modern art in London featuring Jean Cocteau drawings in its first show, and began to collect works of art. Guggenheim often purchased at least one object from each of her exhibitions at the gallery. After the outbreak of World War II, she purchased as much abstract and Surrealist art as possible.\n\nHer first gallery was called Guggenheim Jeune, the name ingeniously chosen to associate her gallery with both the epitome of a gallery, the French Bernheim-Jeune, and with the name of her own well-known family. The gallery on 30 Cork Street, next to Roland Penrose's and E. L. T. Mesens' show-case for the Surrealist movement, proved to be successful, thanks to many friends who gave advice and who helped to run the gallery. Marcel Duchamp, whom she had known since the early 1920s, when she lived in Paris with her first husband Laurence Vail, had introduced Guggenheim to the art world; it was through him that she met many artists during her frequent visits to Paris. He taught her about contemporary art and styles, and he conceived several of the exhibitions held at Guggenheim Jeune.\n\nThe Cocteau exhibition was followed by exhibitions of Wassily Kandinsky (his first one-man-show in England), Yves Tanguy, Wolfgang Paalen and several other well-known and some lesser-known artists. Peggy Guggenheim also held group exhibitions of sculpture and collage, with the participation of the now-classic moderns Antoine Pevsner, Henry Moore, Henri Laurens, Alexander Calder, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Constantin Brâncuși, John Ferren, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and Kurt Schwitters. She also greatly admired the work of John Tunnard (1900–1971) and is credited with his discovery in mainstream international modernism.\n\nPlans for a museum\nWhen Guggenheim realized that her gallery, although well received, had made a loss of £600 in the first year, she decided to spend her money in a more practical way. A museum for contemporary arts was exactly the institution she could see herself supporting. Most certainly on her mind also were the adventures in New York City of her uncle, Solomon R. Guggenheim, who, with the help and encouragement of artist Baroness Hilla von Rebay, had created the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation two years earlier. The main aim of this foundation had been to collect and to further the production of abstract art, resulting in the opening of the Museum of Non-Objective Painting (known as the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum after 1952) in Manhattan during 1939. Guggenheim closed Guggenheim Jeune with a farewell party on 22 June 1939, at which colour portrait photographs by Gisèle Freund were projected on the walls. She started making plans for a Museum of Modern Art in London together with the English art historian and art critic Herbert Read. She set aside $40,000 for the museum's running costs. However, these funds were soon overstretched by the organisers' ambitions.\n\nIn August 1939, Guggenheim left for Paris to negotiate loans of artworks for the first exhibition. In her luggage was a list drawn up by Herbert Read for this occasion. Shortly after her departure the Second World War broke out, and the events following 1 September 1939 made her abandon the scheme, willingly or not. She then \"decided now to buy paintings by all the painters who were on Herbert Read's list. Having plenty of time and all the museum's funds at my disposal, I put myself on a regime to buy one picture a day.\" When finished, she had acquired 10 Picassos, 40 Ernsts, eight Mirós, four Magrittes, four Ferrens, three Man Rays, three Dalís, one Klee, one Wolfgang Paalen and one Chagall, among others. In the meantime, she had also made new plans and in April 1940 had rented a large space in the Place Vendôme as a new home for her museum.\n\nA few days before the Germans reached Paris, Guggenheim had to abandon her plans for a Paris museum, and fled to the south of France, from where, after months of safeguarding her collection and artist friends, she left Europe for New York in the summer of 1941. There, in the following year, she opened a new gallery—which actually was in part a museum—at 30 West 57th Street. It was called The Art of This Century. Three of the four galleries were dedicated to Cubist and Abstract art, Surrealism and Kinetic art, with only the fourth, the front room, being a commercial gallery. Guggenheim held other important shows — such as the Exhibition by 31 Women, the first documented all-female art exhibition in the United States of America — at the gallery. This 1943 month-long exhibition gathered together artists ranging from notable figures like Frida Kahlo, Gypsy Rose Lee, Meret Oppenheim, Leonora Carrington, and Louise Nevelson, to others who were unknown artists in New York. \n\nHer interest in new art was instrumental in advancing the careers of several important modern artists, including the American painters Jackson Pollock and William Congdon, the Austrian surrealist Wolfgang Paalen, the sound poet Ada Verdun Howell and the German painter Max Ernst, whom she married in December 1941. She had assembled her collection in only seven years.\n\nThe collection, after World War II\n\nFollowing World War II – and her 1946 divorce from Max Ernst – she closed The Art of This Century Gallery in 1947, and returned to Europe, deciding to live in Venice, Italy. In 1948, she was invited to exhibit her collection in the disused Greek Pavilion of the Venice Biennale and in 1949 established herself in the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni ('unfinished palazzo of the lions') on the Grand Canal.\n\nHer collection became one of the few European collections of modern art to promote a significant number of works by Americans. In the 1950s she promoted the art of two local painters, Edmondo Bacci and Tancredi Parmeggiani. By the early 1960s, Guggenheim had almost stopped collecting art and began to concentrate on presenting what she already owned. She loaned out her collection to museums in Europe and in 1969 to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City, which was named after her uncle. Eventually, she decided to donate her home and her collection to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, a gift which was concluded inter vivos in 1976, before her death in 1979.\n\nThe Peggy Guggenheim Collection is one of the most important museums in Italy for European and American art of the first half of the 20th century. Pieces in her collection embrace Cubism, Surrealism and abstract expressionism.\n\nGuggenheim lived in Venice until her death in Camposampiero near Padua, Italy, after a stroke. Her ashes are interred in the garden (later the Nasher Sculpture Garden) of her home, the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni (inside the Peggy Guggenheim Collection), next to her dogs.\n\nPrivate life\nAccording to both Guggenheim and her biographer Anton Gill, it was believed that while living in Europe, she had \"slept with 1,000 men\". She claimed to have had affairs with numerous artists and writers, and in return many artists and others have claimed affairs with her. When asked by conductor Thomas Schippers how many husbands she had, she replied, \"You mean my own, or other people's?\" In her autobiography, Peggy provides the names of some of these lovers, including Yves Tanguy, Roland Penrose and E. L. T. Mesens.\n\nHer first marriage was to Laurence Vail, a Dada sculptor and writer with whom she had two children, Michael Cedric Sindbad Vail (1923–1986) and Pegeen Vail Guggenheim (1925–1967). They divorced in about 1928 following his affair with writer Kay Boyle, whom he later married. Soon after her first marriage dissolved, she had an affair with John Ferrar Holms, a writer with writer's block who had been a war hero. Starting in December 1939, she and Samuel Beckett had a brief but intense affair, and he encouraged her to turn exclusively to modern art. She married her second husband, painter Max Ernst, in 1941 and divorced him in 1946. Among her eight grandchildren is Karole Vail, who was appointed director of the Peggy Guggenheim Collection in 2017.\n\nPortrayal in popular culture\n Guggenheim was portrayed by Amy Madigan in the movie Pollock (2000), directed by and starring Ed Harris, based on the life of Jackson Pollock.\n A play by Lanie Robertson based on Guggenheim's life, Woman Before a Glass, opened at the Promenade Theatre on Broadway, New York on March 10, 2005. This one-woman show focuses on Guggenheim's later life. Mercedes Ruehl played Guggenheim and received an Obie Award for her performance. In May 2011, the Abingdon Theater Arts Complex in New York featured a revival of this play, starring veteran stage actress Judy Rosenblatt, directed by Austin Pendleton.\n In Bethan Roberts' first play for radio, My Own Private Gondolier, Guggenheim's troubled daughter, Pegeen, leaves her three children behind when she travels to Venice to spend the summer with her mother. The play was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on October 19, 2010; Guggenheim was played by Fiona Shaw; Pegeen was played by Hattie Morahan.\n In April 2015, a new documentary film, Peggy Guggenheim: Art Addict, began premiering at film festivals, including the San Francisco Jewish Film Festival on July 26, 2015.\n Guggenheim is a minor character in the narrative non-fiction Leonora in the Morning Light, by Michaela Carter, published in 2021\n Kay Boyle's semi-autobiographical novel My Next Bride includes a fictionalized portrayal of Guggenheim.\n Guggenheim was portrayed by Jodhi May in the 2023 Netflix TV series Transatlantic.\n\nReferences\nNotes\n\nSources\n\nFurther reading\n Davidson, Susan and Philip Rylands, eds. (2005). \"Peggy Guggenheim & Fredrick Kiesler: The Story of Art of This Century\" (exhibition catalogue), Venice: Peggy Guggenheim Collection \n Dearborn, Mary V. Affairs of the Art: Mistress of Modernism, The Life of Peggy Guggenheim (Houghton Mifflin, 2004, )\n \n \n Weld, Jacqueline Bograd. Peggy, the Wayward Guggenheim (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1986)\n\nExternal links\n \n \"Peggy Guggenheim: Mistress of Modernism\" by Helen Gent, Marie Claire, 19 June 2009\n \n\nCategory:American art collectors\nCategory:Philanthropists from New York (state)\nCategory:American socialites\nCategory:Museum founders\nCategory:1898 births\nCategory:1979 deaths\nPeggy Guggenheim\nCategory:Jewish American art collectors\nCategory:Jewish American philanthropists\nCategory:American people of Dutch-Jewish descent\nCategory:American people of German-Jewish descent\nCategory:American people of Swiss-Jewish descent\nCategory:American expatriates in France\nCategory:American emigrants to Italy\nCategory:American founders\nCategory:People from New York City\nCategory:People from Venice\nCategory:20th-century art collectors\nCategory:20th-century American women\nCategory:Max Ernst\nCategory:American art dealers\nCategory:Women art dealers\nCategory:Women art collectors", "title": "Peggy Guggenheim" } ]

[ "Peggy Guggenheim planned to open a museum for contemporary arts.", "Yes, Peggy Guggenheim was successful in her plans. She opened a new gallery, which was in part a museum, in New York. It was called The Art of This Century Gallery. However, her initial plan to open a museum in Paris had to be abandoned due to the breakout of the Second World War.", "The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, started by Peggy Guggenheim's uncle, was created two years prior to Peggy closing her own gallery in 1939. Therefore, it can be inferred that the foundation started around 1937. The context does not provide specific information on when Peggy Guggenheim's own museum plans began.", "Yes, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, started by Peggy Guggenheim's uncle, had as its main aim to collect and further the production of abstract art. This resulted in the opening of the Museum of Non-objective Painting (which was renamed The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum from 1952 onwards) in 1939 in Manhattan.", "The context does not provide specific information on the size of the abstract art collection in the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation or Museum.", "Apart from abstract art, Peggy Guggenheim also acquired ten works by Picasso, forty by Ernst, eight by Miro, four by Magritte, three by Man Ray, three by Dali, one by Klee, one by Wolfgang Paalen, and one by Chagall, among others. These works spanned a variety of styles including Cubism, Surrealism, and Kinetic art." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_20c1c5d2fb2d47d8ab5679defff7dfd1_1_q#0", "C_20c1c5d2fb2d47d8ab5679defff7dfd1_1_q#1", "C_20c1c5d2fb2d47d8ab5679defff7dfd1_1_q#2", "C_20c1c5d2fb2d47d8ab5679defff7dfd1_1_q#3", "C_20c1c5d2fb2d47d8ab5679defff7dfd1_1_q#4", "C_20c1c5d2fb2d47d8ab5679defff7dfd1_1_q#5", "C_20c1c5d2fb2d47d8ab5679defff7dfd1_1_q#6" ]

[ "When was the role cast?", "Who got that role?", "Did she stay for the duration of the show?", "who replaced Eileen?", "what year was this?", "Did Eileen ever return?", "did she stay in that role til the present?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 0, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 0 ], [ 0 ], [ 109 ], [ 146 ], [ 352 ], [ 1337 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Eileen Davidson originated the role of Ashley Abbott in June 1982," ], [ "Eileen Davidson" ], [ "Eileen Davidson originated the role of Ashley Abbott in June 1982, until her first exit on December 2, 1988." ], [ "The role was immediately recast with Brenda Epperson," ], [ "Brenda Epperson, who portrayed Ashley for seven years from December 5, 1988" ], [ "Davidson returning on March 19, 1999." ], [ "Davidson made her onscreen exit on August 3, 2012." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 0, 0, 109, 146, 352, 1337 ], "texts": [ "Eileen Davidson originated the role of Ashley Abbott in June 1982,", "Eileen Davidson", "Eileen Davidson originated the role of Ashley Abbott in June 1982, until her first exit on December 2, 1988.", "The role was immediately recast with Brenda Epperson,", "Brenda Epperson, who portrayed Ashley for seven years from December 5, 1988", "Davidson returning on March 19, 1999.", "Davidson made her onscreen exit on August 3, 2012." ] }

[]

[ "The role was originated by Eileen Davidson in June 1982.", "Eileen Davidson originated the role of Ashley Abbott.", "No, Eileen Davidson did not stay for the entire duration of the show. She had multiple exits and returns throughout the show's run.", "Brenda Epperson replaced Eileen Davidson after her first exit, and later Shari Shattuck assumed the role after Brenda Epperson left.", "Brenda Epperson replaced Eileen Davidson in 1988 and Shari Shattuck assumed the role in 1996.", "Yes, Eileen Davidson returned to the role of Ashley Abbott several times. Her first return was on March 19, 1999. She also returned to The Young and the Restless on September 25, 2008, and again in September 2014 after signing a two-year contract.", "The text does not provide information on whether Eileen Davidson stayed in the role of Ashley Abbott until the present." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What is interesting about her character?", "What else happened with her character?", "Why did Newman gas lighted her?", "Was she involved in any romances in the show?", "Why was it a shock for their relationship?", "Did she any other relationships on the show?", "Why did Jack want to remove his wife Gloria Abbott?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1056 ], [ 1897 ], [ 1178 ], [ 848 ], [ 907 ], [ 1111 ], [ 2478 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Davidson opined that a storyline in which Victor's son Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) gas lighted a pregnant Ashley in" ], [ "Following the death of John, Jack works desperately to remove his wife Gloria Abbott (" ], [ "was payback for Ashley stealing Victor's sperm years ago" ], [ "Her relationship with Brad Carlton (Don Diamont) came as a shock," ], [ "shock, due to Brad being beneath her socially." ], [ "Adam Newman (" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1056, 1897, 1178, 848, 907, 1111, 2478 ], "texts": [ "Davidson opined that a storyline in which Victor's son Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) gas lighted a pregnant Ashley in", "Following the death of John, Jack works desperately to remove his wife Gloria Abbott (", "was payback for Ashley stealing Victor's sperm years ago", "Her relationship with Brad Carlton (Don Diamont) came as a shock,", "shock, due to Brad being beneath her socially.", "Adam Newman (", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Ashley is a dynamic and headstrong character. She is known for being both \"sassy\" and an \"honorable heroine\". However, she is also recognized for her unluckiness and long-term suffering, often becoming a victim in her storylines. Despite these setbacks, Ashley is seen as a \"smart woman\" with a \"level head\" and business acumen, and she retains a strong dedication to her work and family. Yet, her passion for the family business has cost her personal relationships.", "Ashley broke up with Cole Howard due to her dedication to the family business, Jabot Cosmetics. Her relationship with Brad Carlton, a man beneath her social standing, was also surprising. Ashley has had a troubled storyline with Victor's son, Adam Newman; Adam gaslighted her when she was pregnant in 2009, which some saw as karma for Ashley's prior decision to steal Victor's sperm in order to conceive Abby. During another storyline, after the death of her father John, her brother Jack was determined to remove his wife from their family. However, despite her own dislike for Gloria Abbott, Ashley believed in respecting her father's wishes and doing the right thing.", "Adam Newman gaslighted Ashley as she was going through a hysterical pregnancy after losing her unborn child, which was seen as a form of payback for an earlier incident where Ashley had stolen Victor Newman's sperm to conceive a child, Abby. According to actress Davidson, Ashley's actions in stealing Victor's sperm had resulted in a loss of viewer respect for her character and a desire to see her face consequences. Thus, the gaslighting storyline in which Adam tormented her was in part about \"making Ashley pay\" for her past actions.", "Yes, over her duration on the series, Ashley has been involved in a number of different romantic relationships. Her marriage to Cole Howard ended due to her dedication to their family business, Jabot Cosmetics. She also had a surprising relationship with Brad Carlton, a man who was socially beneath her, and their decision to get married was met with uncertainty. Another notable storyline involved Victor Newman, from whom she stole his sperm in order to conceive their child, Abby.", "Ashley's relationship with Brad Carlton was shocking because he was considered to be socially beneath her.", "Yes, Ashley has been involved in multiple relationships throughout the series. Along with Brad Carlton and Cole Howard, another significant relationship was with Victor Newman. Ashley stole Victor's sperm in an attempt to conceive a child, a decision that led to significant viewer backlash and resulted in a storyline where she was gaslighted by Victor's son, Adam Newman.", "The text does not provide a specific reason as to why Jack wanted to remove his wife Gloria Abbott from the family." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What did Vladimir do in the United States?", "Did he do other work after that?", "Did he like this job?", "Did he stay at Wellesley?", "What happened after 1948?", "Did he like teaching Russian?", "How long did he teach for?", "What did he do after leaving those jobs?", "Did anything interesting happen while writing Lolita?", "What else did Vera do?", "Did anything else happen?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 131 ], [ 233 ], [ 430 ], [ 590 ], [ 829 ], [ 1195 ], [ 1490 ], [ 1619 ], [ 1762 ], [ 1981 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The Nabokovs settled in Manhattan and Vladimir began volunteer work as an entomologist at the American Museum of Natural History." ], [ "Nabokov joined the staff of Wellesley College in 1941 as resident lecturer in comparative literature." ], [ "The position, created specifically for him, provided an income and free time to write creatively and pursue his lepidoptery." ], [ "The Nabokovs resided in Wellesley, Massachusetts, during the 1941-42 academic year. In September 1942 they moved to Cambridge where they lived until June 1948." ], [ "Following a lecture tour through the United States, Nabokov returned to Wellesley for the 1944-45 academic year as a lecturer in Russian." ], [ "Wellesley's one-man Russian Department, offering courses in Russian language and literature. His classes were popular," ], [ "Nabokov left Wellesley in 1948 to teach Russian and European literature at Cornell University, where he taught until 1959." ], [ "Nabokov wrote Lolita while travelling on butterfly-collection trips in the western United States that he undertook every summer." ], [ "Vera acted as \"secretary, typist, editor, proofreader, translator and bibliographer; his agent, business manager, legal counsel and chauffeur;" ], [ "his research assistant, teaching assistant and professorial understudy\"; when Nabokov attempted to burn unfinished drafts of Lolita," ], [ "In June 1953 Nabokov and his family went to Ashland, Oregon. There he finished Lolita and began writing the novel Pnin." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 131, 233, 430, 590, 829, 1195, 1490, 1619, 1762, 1981 ], "texts": [ "The Nabokovs settled in Manhattan and Vladimir began volunteer work as an entomologist at the American Museum of Natural History.", "Nabokov joined the staff of Wellesley College in 1941 as resident lecturer in comparative literature.", "The position, created specifically for him, provided an income and free time to write creatively and pursue his lepidoptery.", "The Nabokovs resided in Wellesley, Massachusetts, during the 1941-42 academic year. In September 1942 they moved to Cambridge where they lived until June 1948.", "Following a lecture tour through the United States, Nabokov returned to Wellesley for the 1944-45 academic year as a lecturer in Russian.", "Wellesley's one-man Russian Department, offering courses in Russian language and literature. His classes were popular,", "Nabokov left Wellesley in 1948 to teach Russian and European literature at Cornell University, where he taught until 1959.", "Nabokov wrote Lolita while travelling on butterfly-collection trips in the western United States that he undertook every summer.", "Vera acted as \"secretary, typist, editor, proofreader, translator and bibliographer; his agent, business manager, legal counsel and chauffeur;", "his research assistant, teaching assistant and professorial understudy\"; when Nabokov attempted to burn unfinished drafts of Lolita,", "In June 1953 Nabokov and his family went to Ashland, Oregon. There he finished Lolita and began writing the novel Pnin." ] }

[ { "text": "A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life. It involves more than just basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or curriculum vitae (résumé), a biography presents a subject's life story, highlighting various aspects of their life, including intimate details of experience, and may include an analysis of the subject's personality.\n\nBiographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Works in diverse media, from literature to film, form the genre known as biography.\n\nAn authorized biography is written with the permission, cooperation, and at times, participation of a subject or a subject's heirs. An autobiography is written by the person themselves, sometimes with the assistance of a collaborator or ghostwriter.\n\nHistory \nAt first, biographical writings were regarded merely as a subsection of history with a focus on a particular individual of historical importance. The independent genre of biography as distinct from general history writing, began to emerge in the 18th century and reached its contemporary form at the turn of the 20th century.\n\nHistorical biography \n\nBiography is the earliest literary genre in history. According to Egyptologist Miriam Lichtheim, writing took its first steps toward literature in the context of the private tomb funerary inscriptions. These were commemorative biographical texts recounting the careers of deceased high royal officials. The earliest biographical texts are from the 26th century BC.\n\nIn the 21st century BC, another famous biography was composed in Mesopotamia about Gilgamesh. One of the five versions could be historical.\n\nFrom the same region a couple of centuries later, according to another famous biography, departed Abraham. He and his 3 descendants became subjects of ancient Hebrew biographies whether fictional or historical.\n\nOne of the earliest Roman biographers was Cornelius Nepos, who published his work Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae (\"Lives of outstanding generals\") in 44 BC. Longer and more extensive biographies were written in Greek by Plutarch, in his Parallel Lives, published about 80 A.D. In this work famous Greeks are paired with famous Romans, for example, the orators Demosthenes and Cicero, or the generals Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar; some fifty biographies from the work survive. Another well-known collection of ancient biographies is De vita Caesarum (\"On the Lives of the Caesars\") by Suetonius, written about AD 121 in the time of the emperor Hadrian. Meanwhile, in the eastern imperial periphery, Gospel described the life of Jesus.\n\nIn the early Middle Ages (AD 400 to 1450), there was a decline in awareness of the classical culture in Europe. During this time, the only repositories of knowledge and records of the early history in Europe were those of the Roman Catholic Church. Hermits, monks, and priests used this historic period to write biographies. Their subjects were usually restricted to the church fathers, martyrs, popes, and saints. Their works were meant to be inspirational to the people and vehicles for conversion to Christianity (see Hagiography). One significant secular example of a biography from this period is the life of Charlemagne by his courtier Einhard.\n\nIn Medieval Western India, there was a Sanskrit Jain literary genre of writing semi-historical biographical narratives about the lives of famous persons called Prabandhas. Prabandhas were written primarily by Jain scholars from the 13th century onwards and were written in colloquial Sanskrit (as opposed to Classical Sanskrit). The earliest collection explicitly titled Prabandha- is Jinabhadra's Prabandhavali (1234 CE).\n\nIn Medieval Islamic Civilization (c. AD 750 to 1258), similar traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and other important figures in the early history of Islam began to be written, beginning the Prophetic biography tradition. Early biographical dictionaries were published as compendia of famous Islamic personalities from the 9th century onwards. They contained more social data for a large segment of the population than other works of that period. The earliest biographical dictionaries initially focused on the lives of the prophets of Islam and their companions, with one of these early examples being The Book of The Major Classes by Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi. And then began the documentation of the lives of many other historical figures (from rulers to scholars) who lived in the medieval Islamic world.\n\nBy the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, and tyrants began to appear. The most famous of such biographies was Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory. The book was an account of the life of the fabled King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Following Malory, the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular.\n\nGiorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists (1550) was the landmark biography focusing on secular lives. Vasari made celebrities of his subjects, as the Lives became an early \"bestseller\". Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the printing press in the 15th century and the gradual increase in literacy.\n\nBiographies in the English language began appearing during the reign of Henry VIII. John Foxe's Actes and Monuments (1563), better known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs, was essentially the first dictionary of the biography in Europe, followed by Thomas Fuller's The History of the Worthies of England (1662), with a distinct focus on public life.\n\nInfluential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, A General History of the Pyrates (1724), by Charles Johnson, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-known pirates.\n\nA notable early collection of biographies of eminent men and women in the United Kingdom was Biographia Britannica (1747-1766) edited by William Oldys.\n\nThe American biography followed the English model, incorporating Thomas Carlyle's view that biography was a part of history. Carlyle asserted that the lives of great human beings were essential to understanding society and its institutions. While the historical impulse would remain a strong element in early American biography, American writers carved out a distinct approach. What emerged was a rather didactic form of biography, which sought to shape the individual character of a reader in the process of defining national character.\n\nEmergence of the genre \n\nThe first modern biography, and a work that exerted considerable influence on the evolution of the genre, was James Boswell's The Life of Samuel Johnson, a biography of lexicographer and man-of-letters Samuel Johnson published in 1791.\n\nWhile Boswell's personal acquaintance with his subject only began in 1763, when Johnson was 54 years old, Boswell covered the entirety of Johnson's life by means of additional research. Itself an important stage in the development of the modern genre of biography, it has been claimed to be the greatest biography written in the English language. Boswell's work was unique in its level of research, which involved archival study, eye-witness accounts and interviews, its robust and attractive narrative, and its honest depiction of all aspects of Johnson's life and character – a formula which serves as the basis of biographical literature to this day.\n\nBiographical writing generally stagnated during the 19th century – in many cases there was a reversal to the more familiar hagiographical method of eulogizing the dead, similar to the biographies of saints produced in Medieval times. A distinction between mass biography and literary biography began to form by the middle of the century, reflecting a breach between high culture and middle-class culture. However, the number of biographies in print experienced a rapid growth, thanks to an expanding reading public. This revolution in publishing made books available to a larger audience of readers. In addition, affordable paperback editions of popular biographies were published for the first time. Periodicals began publishing a sequence of biographical sketches.\n\nAutobiographies became more popular, as with the rise of education and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop. Autobiographies were written by authors, such as Charles Dickens (who incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, (his Autobiography appeared posthumously, quickly becoming a bestseller in London), philosophers, such as John Stuart Mill, churchmen – John Henry Newman – and entertainers – P. T. Barnum.\n\nModern biography \nThe sciences of psychology and sociology were ascendant at the turn of the 20th century and would heavily influence the new century's biographies. The demise of the \"great man\" theory of history was indicative of the emerging mindset. Human behavior would be explained through Darwinian theories. \"Sociological\" biographies conceived of their subjects' actions as the result of the environment, and tended to downplay individuality. The development of psychoanalysis led to a more penetrating and comprehensive understanding of the biographical subject, and induced biographers to give more emphasis to childhood and adolescence. Clearly these psychological ideas were changing the way biographies were written, as a culture of autobiography developed, in which the telling of one's own story became a form of therapy. The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality.\n\nBritish critic Lytton Strachey revolutionized the art of biographical writing with his 1918 work Eminent Victorians, consisting of biographies of four leading figures from the Victorian era: Cardinal Manning, Florence Nightingale, Thomas Arnold, and General Gordon. Strachey set out to breathe life into the Victorian era for future generations to read. Up until this point, as Strachey remarked in the preface, Victorian biographies had been \"as familiar as the cortège of the undertaker\", and wore the same air of \"slow, funereal barbarism.\" Strachey defied the tradition of \"two fat volumes... of undigested masses of material\" and took aim at the four iconic figures. His narrative demolished the myths that had built up around these cherished national heroes, whom he regarded as no better than a \"set of mouth bungled hypocrites\". The book achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its artistic prose.\n\nIn the 1920s and 1930s, biographical writers sought to capitalize on Strachey's popularity by imitating his style. This new school featured iconoclasts, scientific analysts, and fictional biographers and included Gamaliel Bradford, André Maurois, and Emil Ludwig, among others. Robert Graves (I, Claudius, 1934) stood out among those following Strachey's model of \"debunking biographies.\" The trend in literary biography was accompanied in popular biography by a sort of \"celebrity voyeurism\", in the early decades of the century. This latter form's appeal to readers was based on curiosity more than morality or patriotism. By World War I, cheap hard-cover reprints had become popular. The decades of the 1920s witnessed a biographical \"boom.\"\n\nAmerican professional historiography gives a limited role to biography, preferring instead to emphasize deeper social and cultural influences. Political biographers historically incorporated moralizing judgments into their work, with scholarly biography being an uncommon genre before the mid-1920s. Allan Nevins was a major contributor in the 1930s to the multivolume Dictionary of American Biography. Nevins also sponsored a series of long political biographies. Later biographers sought to show how political figures balanced power and responsibility. However, many biographers found that their subjects were not as morally pure as they originally thought, and young historians after 1960 tended to be more critical. The exception is Robert Remini whose books on Andrew Jackson idolize its hero and fends off criticisms. The study of decision-making in politics is important for scholarly political biographers, who can take different approaches such as focusing on psychology/personality, bureaucracy/interests, fundamental ideas, or societal forces. However, most documentation favors the first approach, which emphasizes personalities. Biographers often neglect the voting blocs and legislative positions of politicians and the organizational structures of bureaucracies. A more promising approach is to locate a person's ideas through intellectual history, but this has become more difficult with the philosophical shallowness of political figures in recent times. Political biography can be frustrating and challenging to integrate with other fields of political history.\n\nThe feminist scholar Carolyn Heilbrun observed that women's biographies and autobiographies began to change character during the second wave of feminist activism. She cited Nancy Milford's 1970 biography Zelda, as the \"beginning of a new period of women's biography, because \"[only] in 1970 were we ready to read not that Zelda had destroyed Fitzgerald, but Fitzgerald her: he had usurped her narrative.\" Heilbrun named 1973 as the turning point in women's autobiography, with the publication of May Sarton's Journal of a Solitude, for that was the first instance where a woman told her life story, not as finding \"beauty even in pain\" and transforming \"rage into spiritual acceptance,\" but acknowledging what had previously been forbidden to women: their pain, their rage, and their \"open admission of the desire for power and control over one's life.\"\n\nRecent years\nIn recent years, multimedia biography has become more popular than traditional literary forms. Along with documentary biographical films, Hollywood produced numerous commercial films based on the lives of famous people. The popularity of these forms of biography have led to the proliferation of TV channels dedicated to biography, including A&E, The Biography Channel, and The History Channel.\n\nCD-ROM and online biographies have also appeared. Unlike books and films, they often do not tell a chronological narrative: instead they are archives of many discrete media elements related to an individual person, including video clips, photographs, and text articles. Biography-Portraits were created in 2001, by the German artist Ralph Ueltzhoeffer. Media scholar Lev Manovich says that such archives exemplify the database form, allowing users to navigate the materials in many ways. General \"life writing\" techniques are a subject of scholarly study.\n\nIn recent years, debates have arisen as to whether all biographies are fiction, especially when authors are writing about figures from the past. President of Wolfson College at Oxford University, Hermione Lee argues that all history is seen through a perspective that is the product of one's contemporary society and as a result, biographical truths are constantly shifting. So, the history biographers write about will not be the way that it happened; it will be the way they remembered it. Debates have also arisen concerning the importance of space in life-writing.\n\nDaniel R. Meister in 2017 argued that:\nBiography Studies is emerging as an independent discipline, especially in the Netherlands. This Dutch School of biography is moving biography studies away from the less scholarly life writing tradition and towards history by encouraging its practitioners to utilize an approach adapted from microhistory.\n\nBiographical research\nBiographical research is defined by Miller as a research method that collects and analyses a person's whole life, or portion of a life, through the in-depth and unstructured interview, or sometimes reinforced by semi-structured interview or personal documents. It is a way of viewing social life in procedural terms, rather than static terms. The information can come from \"oral history, personal narrative, biography and autobiography\" or \"diaries, letters, memoranda and other materials\". The central aim of biographical research is to produce rich descriptions of persons or \"conceptualise structural types of actions\", which means to \"understand the action logics or how persons and structures are interlinked\". This method can be used to understand an individual's life within its social context or understand the cultural phenomena.\n\nCritical issues \nThere are many largely unacknowledged pitfalls to writing good biographies, and these largely concern the relation between firstly the individual and the context, and, secondly, the private and public. Paul James writes:\n\nBook awards \nSeveral countries offer an annual prize for writing a biography such as the:\nDrainie-Taylor Biography Prize – Canada\nNational Biography Award – Australia\nPulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography – United States\nWhitbread Prize for Best Biography – United Kingdom\nJ. R. Ackerley Prize for Autobiography – United Kingdom\nPrix Goncourt de la Biographie – France\n\nSee also \n\n Historiography\n Historiography of science\n Historiography of the United Kingdom\n Historiography of the United States\n Legal biography\n Letter collection\n Psychobiography\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n \"Biography\", In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Holmes, Nigel Hamilton and Amanda Foreman (June 22, 2000).\n\n \nCategory:Genres\nCategory:Non-fiction literature\nCategory:History", "title": "Biography" }, { "text": "Criticism is the construction of a judgement about the negative or positive qualities of someone or something. Criticism can range from impromptu comments to a written detailed response. Criticism falls into several overlapping types including \"theoretical, practical, impressionistic, affective, prescriptive, or descriptive\".\n\nCriticism may also refer to an expression of disapproval of someone or something. When criticism of this nature is constructive it can make an individual aware of gaps in their understanding and it can provide distinct routes for improvement. Research supports the notion that using feedback and constructive criticism in the learning process is very influential.\n\nCritique vs. criticism: In French, German, or Italian, no distinction is drawn between 'critique' and 'criticism'. The two words both translate as critique, Kritik, and critica, respectively. In the English language, philosopher Gianni Vattimo suggests that criticism is used more frequently to denote literary criticism or art criticism while critique refers to more general and profound writing as Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Another distinction that is sometimes made is that critique is never personalized nor ad hominem and is presented in a way that encourages rebuttal or expansion of the ideas expressed. Nonetheless, the distinctions are subtle and ambiguous at best.\n\nThe term \"brickbat\" is sometimes used to mean \"an unfavourable criticism, unkind remark or sharp put-down\". The term originated in the 17th century, derived from the practice of throwing bricks as projectiles at a person who was disapproved of.\n\nIn some contexts, such as literary criticism and art criticism, the word criticism is used as a neutral word that is synonymous with evaluation.\n\nCriticism in academia \n\nCritical Studies and Critical Theory programs teach the method of critique, also known as “criticism”. Both theory and studies programs often sample new works in addition to the classical texts. UC Berkeley, CUNY, and Northwestern University offer programs in Critical Theory, while a number of other colleges and universities offer programs or sole courses in Critical Studies, Critical Theory, and sub-disciplines. Sub-disciplines include Critical Race Studies, Critical Asian Studies, Critical Black Studies, and Critical Disability Studies. The term “critical” can be found in course titles concerning a variety of topics, as the term refers to a method or approach to course materials.\n\nSome claim “critical” studies have a particular focus in their perspective or opinion, confusing the method of critique with individual critiques. The recent appearance of “critical” studies and theory further compounds the conflation of particular authors with the new method and discipline. Additionally, the method and disciplines are distinguished from analysis or traditional objectivist or hard sciences by their allowances for subjectivity in the perspective of the author.\n\nCriticism of criticism \nJournalist and writer H. L. Mencken argued that \"criticism is little more than a branch of homiletics. They judge a work of art, not by its clarity and sincerity, not by the force and charm of its ideas, not by the technical virtuosity of the artist, not by his originality and artistic courage, but simply and solely by his orthodoxy.\"\n\nSee also \n\n Critique\n Literary criticism\n Art criticism\n Film criticism\n Theatre criticism\n Criticism of religion\n Criticism of science\n Self-criticism\n Social criticism\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n \n\n \nCategory:Philosophical methodology\nCategory:Literary concepts", "title": "Criticism" }, { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" }, { "text": "Entomology () is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term \"insect\" was less specific, and historically the definition of entomology would also include the study of animals in other arthropod groups, such as arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use.\n\nLike several of the other fields that are categorized within zoology, entomology is a taxon-based category; any form of scientific study in which there is a focus on insect-related inquiries is, by definition, entomology. Entomology therefore overlaps with a cross-section of topics as diverse as molecular genetics, behavior, neuroscience, biomechanics, biochemistry, systematics, physiology, developmental biology, ecology, morphology, and paleontology.\n\nOver 1.3 million insect species have been described, more than two-thirds of all known species. Some insect species date back to around 400 million years ago. They have many kinds of interactions with humans and other forms of life on Earth.\n\nHistory\n\nEntomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture (especially biological control and beekeeping). The natural philosopher Pliny the Elder, (23 - 79 AD) wrote a book on the kinds of Insects, while the scientist of Kufa, Ibn al-A‘rābī (760 - 845 AD) wrote a book on flies, Kitāb al-Dabāb (). However scientific study in the modern sense began only relatively recently, in the 16th century. Ulisse Aldrovandi's De Animalibus Insectis (Of Insect Animals) was published in 1602. Microscopist Jan Swammerdam published History of Insects correctly describing the reproductive organs of insects and metamorphosis. In 1705, Maria Sibylla Merian published a book Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamensium about the tropical insects of Dutch Surinam.\n\nEarly entomological works associated with the naming and classification of species followed the practice of maintaining cabinets of curiosity, predominantly in Europe. This collecting fashion led to the formation of natural history societies, exhibitions of private collections, and journals for recording communications and the documentation of new species. Many of the collectors tended to be from the aristocracy and it spawned off a trade involving collectors around the world and traders. This has been called the \"era of heroic entomology.\" William Kirby is widely considered as the father of entomology in England. In collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subject's foundational text. He also helped to found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world; earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. In the late 19th century, the growth of agriculture, and colonial trade, spawned off the \"era of economic entomology\" which created the professional entomologist associated with the rise of the university and training in the field of biology.\n\nEntomology developed rapidly in the 19th and 20th centuries, and was studied by large numbers of people, including such notable figures as Charles Darwin, Jean-Henri Fabre, Vladimir Nabokov, Karl von Frisch (winner of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine), and two-time Pulitzer Prize winner E. O. Wilson.\n\nThere has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, such as Sophie Lutterlough at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and dragonflies being the most popular.\n\nMost insects can easily be recognized to order such as Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants) or Coleoptera (beetles). However, identifying to genus or species is usually only possible through the use of identification keys and monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a very large number of species (over 330,000 species of beetles alone) and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle (or invisible without a microscope), this is often very difficult even for a specialist. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA and Draw-wing.\n\nIn pest control\nIn 1994, the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called the Associate Certified Entomologist (ACE). To qualify as a \"true entomologist\" an individual would normally require an advanced degree, with most entomologists pursuing a PhD. While not true entomologists in the traditional sense, individuals who attain the ACE certification may be referred to as ACEs or Associate Certified Entomologists.\n\nSubdisciplines\n\nMany entomologists specialize in a single order or even a family of insects, and a number of these subspecialties are given their own informal names, typically (but not always) derived from the scientific name of the group:\n Coleopterology – beetles.\n Dipterology – flies.\n Odonatology – dragonflies and damselflies.\n Hemipterology – true bugs.\n Isopterology – termites.\n Lepidopterology – moths and butterflies.\n Melittology (or Apiology) – bees.\n Myrmecology – ants\n Orthopterology – grasshoppers, crickets, etc.\n Trichopterology – caddisflies.\n Vespology – Social wasps.\n\nEntomologists\n\nOrganizations\nLike other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, and international organizations. There are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas.\n Amateur Entomologists' Society\n Entomological Society of America\n Entomological Society of Canada\n Entomological Society of Japan\n Entomologischer Verein Krefeld\n Entomological Society of India\n International Union for the Study of Social Insects\n Netherlands Entomological Society\n Royal Belgian Entomological Society\n Royal Entomological Society of London\n Russian Entomological Society\n Senckenberg Deutsches Entomologisches Institut\n Société entomologique de France\n Australian Entomological Society\n Entomological Society of New Zealand\n\nResearch collection\nHere is a list of selected very large insect collections, housed in museums, universities, or research institutes.\n\nAsia\n Zoological Survey of India\n Insect Museum, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India\n National Pusa Collection, Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India\n Pakistan Museum of Natural History Garden Avenue, Shakarparian, Islamabad, Pakistan\n Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense, Indonesia\n\nAfrica\n Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa\n\nAustralasia \n\n Lincoln University Entomology Research Collection, Lincoln, New Zealand\n Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand\n New Zealand Arthropod Collection, Landcare Research Manaaki Whenua, Auckland, New Zealand\n\nEurope\n Bavarian State Collection of Zoology, Zoologische Staatssammlung München\n Museu de Ciències Naturals de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain\n Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris, France\n Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany\n Kelvingrove Art Gallery, Glasgow, Scotland\n Natural History Museum, Budapest Hungarian Natural History Museum\n Natural History Museum, Geneva\n Natural History Museum, Leiden, the Netherlands\n Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom\n Natural History Museum, Oslo Norway\n Natural History Museum, St. Petersburg Zoological Collection of the Russian Academy of Science\n Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria\n Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Oxford\n Royal Museum for Central Africa, Brussels, Belgium\n Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden\n World Museum Liverpool, the Bug House\n\nUnited States\n Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia\n American Museum of Natural History, New York City\n Auburn University Museum of Natural History, Auburn, Alabama\n Audubon Insectarium, New Orleans\n Bohart Museum of Entomology, Davis, California\n California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco\n Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh\n Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland\n Entomology Research Museum, University of California, Riverside\n Essig Museum of Entomology, Berkeley, California\n Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago\n Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida\n Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois\n J. Gordon Edwards Museum, San Jose, California\n Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts\n Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles\n National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.\n New Mexico State University Arthropod Museum\n North Carolina State University Insect Museum, Raleigh, North Carolina\n Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven, Connecticut\n San Diego Natural History Museum, San Diego, California\n The National Museum of Play, Rochester, N.Y.\n Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas\n University of Minnesota, St. Paul campus (UMSP), Minnesota\n University of Kansas Natural History Museum, Lawrence, Kansas\n University of Nebraska State Museum, Lincoln, Nebraska\n University of Missouri Enns Entomology Museum, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri\n\nCanada\n Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario\n Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids and Nematodes, Ottawa, Ontario\n E.H. Strickland Entomological Museum, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta\n Lyman Entomological Museum, Macdonald Campus of McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec\n Montreal Insectarium, Montreal, Quebec\n Newfoundland Insectarium, Reidville, Newfoundland and Labrador\n Royal Alberta Museum, Edmonton, Alberta\n Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario\n University of Guelph Insect Collection, Guelph, Ontario\n Victoria Bug Zoo, Victoria, British Columbia\n J. B. Wallis / R. E. Roughley Museum of Entomology, Winnipeg, Manitoba\n\nSee also \n\n Arachnology\n Carcinology\n Cultural entomology\n Ethnoentomology\n Forensic entomology\n Forensic entomologist\n Forensic entomology and the law\n Insect thermoregulation\n Insects on stamps\n List of entomological journals\n Medical entomology\n Myriapodology\n Timeline of entomology – 1800–1850\n Timeline of entomology – 1850–1900\n Timeline of entomology since 1900\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n Chiang, H.C. and G. C. Jahn 1996. Entomology in the Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project. (in Chinese) Chinese Entomol. Soc. Newsltr. (Taiwan) 3: 9–11.\n Davidson, E. 2006. Big Fleas Have Little Fleas: How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 208 pages, .\n Cedric Gillot: Entomology. Second Edition, Plenum Press, New York, NY / London 1995, .\n Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson (2005-05-19). Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. . — a classic textbook in North America.\n \n Capinera, JL (editor). 2008. Encyclopedia of Entomology, 2nd Edition. Springer.\n\nExternal links \n\n \nCategory:Subfields of arthropodology", "title": "Entomology" }, { "text": "Other often refers to:\n Other (philosophy), a concept in psychology and philosophy\n\nOther or The Other may also refer to:\n\nFilm and television\n The Other (1913 film), a German silent film directed by Max Mack\n The Other (1930 film), a German film directed by Robert Wiene\n The Other (1972 film), an American film directed by Robert Mulligan\n The Other (1999 film), a French-Egyptian film directed by Youssef Chahine\n The Other (2007 film), an Argentine-French-German film by Ariel Rotter\n The Other (Doctor Who), a fictional character in Doctor Who\n The Other (Marvel Cinematic Universe), a fictional character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe\n\nLiterature\n Other: British and Irish Poetry since 1970, a 1999 poetry anthology\n The Other (Applegate novel), a 2000 Animorphs novel by K.A. Applegate\n The Other (Tryon novel), a 1971 horror novel by Tom Tryon\n \"The Other\" (short story), a 1972 short story by Jorge Luis Borges\n The Other, a 2008 novel by David Guterson\n Spider-Man: \"The Other\", a 2005–2006 Marvel Comics crossover story arc\n\nMusic\n The Other (band), a German horror punk band\n Other (Alison Moyet album) or the title song, 2017\n Other (Lustmord album), 2008\n The Other (album), by King Tuff, or the title song, 2018\n \"The Other\", a song by Lauv from I Met You When I Was 18 (The Playlist), 2018\n \"The Other\", a song by Tonight Alive from Underworld, 2018\n\nHuman name\n Othoere, or Other, a contemporary of Alfred the Great\nOther, father of Walter Fitz Other, castellan of Windsor in the time of William the Conqueror\n Other Windsor (disambiguation), several people \n Other Robert Ivor Windsor-Clive, 3rd Earl of Plymouth (1923–2018)\n Other C. Wamsley, a builder in Hamilton, Montana\n The Other (Doctor Who), a fictional character\n\nOther uses\n Other Music, a defunct music store in New York City\n OtherOS, a feature available in early versions of the PlayStation 3 console\n\nSee also\n Another (disambiguation)\n Others (disambiguation)\n Otherness (disambiguation)", "title": "Other" } ]

[ "Vladimir Nabokov started as a volunteer entomologist at the American Museum of Natural History, then joined the staff of Wellesley College in 1941 as resident lecturer in comparative literature. He founded Wellesley's Russian Department and taught courses in Russian language and literature. He also served as the de facto curator of lepidoptery at Harvard University's Museum of Comparative Zoology. In 1948, Nabokov left Wellesley to teach Russian and European literature at Cornell University until 1959. During this time, he also travelled on butterfly-collection trips in the west during the summer and wrote his novel, Lolita.", "The text does not provide information on any work Vladimir Nabokov did after 1959.", "The text does not provide information on whether Vladimir Nabokov liked his job.", "Nabokov stayed at Wellesley College for several years, starting from 1941 until 1948, with a brief period away following a lecture tour in the United States and a move to Cambridge. He returned to Wellesley for the 1944-45 academic year and served until the end of the 1947-48 term. However, he left Wellesley in 1948 to teach at Cornell University.", "After leaving Wellesley in 1948, Nabokov began teaching Russian and European literature at Cornell University. He taught there until 1959, and his students included future U.S. Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Nabokov also wrote Lolita during this period, traveling on butterfly-collection trips in the western United States every summer. In 1953, Nabokov and his family moved to Ashland, Oregon, where he finished Lolita and began writing the novel Pnin. In October of 1953, the family returned to Ithaca, New York, where Nabokov taught the young writer Thomas Pynchon. However, the context does not provide any information about his activities after 1959.", "The text does not provide information on whether Vladimir Nabokov enjoyed teaching Russian.", "Vladimir Nabokov began teaching at Wellesley College in 1941 and continued until 1948. After that, he moved to Cornell University where he taught from 1948 until 1959. Therefore, based on the information provided, he taught for approximately 18 years.", "The text does not provide information on what Vladimir Nabokov did after leaving his teaching positions at Wellesley College and Cornell University.", "When Vladimir Nabokov was writing Lolita, he undertook butterfly-collection trips in the western United States every summer. Additionally, when he attempted to burn unfinished drafts of Lolita, it was his wife Vera who stopped him. Vera served many roles for Nabokov, including secretary, typist, editor, proofreader, translator, bibliographer, business manager, legal counsel, chauffeur, research assistant, teaching assistant, and professorial understudy.", "Vera Nabokov performed a number of roles for Vladimir Nabokov. She acted as his secretary, typist, editor, proofreader, translator and bibliographer. She also served as his agent, business manager, legal counsel and chauffeur. Furthermore, she was his research assistant, teaching assistant and professorial understudy. When Nabokov attempted to burn unfinished drafts of his novel Lolita, it was Vera who stopped him.", "After finishing Lolita and beginning the novel Pnin while in Ashland, Oregon, Vladimir Nabokov and his family returned to Ithaca, New York on October 1, 1953. In Ithaca, he taught the young writer Thomas Pynchon. The context provided does not share further details about his activities or events." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "no", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "Why was he in Berlin", "What happened after that", "Did he write books with violent deaths", "Were there other examples as well", "Did they get back together?", "Did he marry her?", "What happened to them after they married", "What did they do after then?", "Did Vera go with him", "What did they do in Paris" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 224 ], [ 367 ], [ 1358 ], [ 1455 ], [ 1606 ], [ 1682 ], [ 1893 ], [ 2055 ], [ 2237 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In March 1922, Nabokov's father was fatally shot in Berlin by the Russian monarchist Piotr Shabelsky-Bork as he was trying to shield the real target," ], [ "This mistaken, violent death would echo again and again in Nabokov's fiction, where characters would meet their deaths under accidental terms." ], [ "(In Pale Fire, for example, one interpretation of the novel has an assassin mistakenly kill the poet John Shade, when his actual target is a fugitive European monarch." ], [ "In 1922, Nabokov became engaged to Svetlana Siewert; she broke off the engagement in early 1923," ], [ "her parents worrying that he could not provide for her. In May 1923, he met a Russian-Jewish woman, Vera Evseyevna Slonim, at a charity ball" ], [ "and married her in April 1925. Their only child, Dmitri, was born in 1934." ], [ "In 1936, Vera lost her job because of the increasingly anti-Semitic environment; also in that year the assassin of Nabokov's father was appointed second-in-command of the Russian emigre group." ], [ "Nabokov began seeking a job in the English-speaking world. In 1937, he left Germany for France, where he had a short affair with Russian emigree Irina Guadanini." ], [ "Yet the family followed him to France, making enroute their last visit to Prague, then spent time in Cannes, Menton, Cap d'Antibes, and Frejus and finally settled together in Paris." ], [ "In May 1940, the Nabokov family fled from the advancing German troops to the United States on board the SS Champlain," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 224, 367, 1358, 1455, 1606, 1682, 1893, 2055, 2237 ], "texts": [ "In March 1922, Nabokov's father was fatally shot in Berlin by the Russian monarchist Piotr Shabelsky-Bork as he was trying to shield the real target,", "This mistaken, violent death would echo again and again in Nabokov's fiction, where characters would meet their deaths under accidental terms.", "(In Pale Fire, for example, one interpretation of the novel has an assassin mistakenly kill the poet John Shade, when his actual target is a fugitive European monarch.", "In 1922, Nabokov became engaged to Svetlana Siewert; she broke off the engagement in early 1923,", "her parents worrying that he could not provide for her. In May 1923, he met a Russian-Jewish woman, Vera Evseyevna Slonim, at a charity ball", "and married her in April 1925. Their only child, Dmitri, was born in 1934.", "In 1936, Vera lost her job because of the increasingly anti-Semitic environment; also in that year the assassin of Nabokov's father was appointed second-in-command of the Russian emigre group.", "Nabokov began seeking a job in the English-speaking world. In 1937, he left Germany for France, where he had a short affair with Russian emigree Irina Guadanini.", "Yet the family followed him to France, making enroute their last visit to Prague, then spent time in Cannes, Menton, Cap d'Antibes, and Frejus and finally settled together in Paris.", "In May 1940, the Nabokov family fled from the advancing German troops to the United States on board the SS Champlain," ] }

[ { "text": "A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life. It involves more than just basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or curriculum vitae (résumé), a biography presents a subject's life story, highlighting various aspects of their life, including intimate details of experience, and may include an analysis of the subject's personality.\n\nBiographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Works in diverse media, from literature to film, form the genre known as biography.\n\nAn authorized biography is written with the permission, cooperation, and at times, participation of a subject or a subject's heirs. An autobiography is written by the person themselves, sometimes with the assistance of a collaborator or ghostwriter.\n\nHistory \nAt first, biographical writings were regarded merely as a subsection of history with a focus on a particular individual of historical importance. The independent genre of biography as distinct from general history writing, began to emerge in the 18th century and reached its contemporary form at the turn of the 20th century.\n\nHistorical biography \n\nBiography is the earliest literary genre in history. According to Egyptologist Miriam Lichtheim, writing took its first steps toward literature in the context of the private tomb funerary inscriptions. These were commemorative biographical texts recounting the careers of deceased high royal officials. The earliest biographical texts are from the 26th century BC.\n\nIn the 21st century BC, another famous biography was composed in Mesopotamia about Gilgamesh. One of the five versions could be historical.\n\nFrom the same region a couple of centuries later, according to another famous biography, departed Abraham. He and his 3 descendants became subjects of ancient Hebrew biographies whether fictional or historical.\n\nOne of the earliest Roman biographers was Cornelius Nepos, who published his work Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae (\"Lives of outstanding generals\") in 44 BC. Longer and more extensive biographies were written in Greek by Plutarch, in his Parallel Lives, published about 80 A.D. In this work famous Greeks are paired with famous Romans, for example, the orators Demosthenes and Cicero, or the generals Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar; some fifty biographies from the work survive. Another well-known collection of ancient biographies is De vita Caesarum (\"On the Lives of the Caesars\") by Suetonius, written about AD 121 in the time of the emperor Hadrian. Meanwhile, in the eastern imperial periphery, Gospel described the life of Jesus.\n\nIn the early Middle Ages (AD 400 to 1450), there was a decline in awareness of the classical culture in Europe. During this time, the only repositories of knowledge and records of the early history in Europe were those of the Roman Catholic Church. Hermits, monks, and priests used this historic period to write biographies. Their subjects were usually restricted to the church fathers, martyrs, popes, and saints. Their works were meant to be inspirational to the people and vehicles for conversion to Christianity (see Hagiography). One significant secular example of a biography from this period is the life of Charlemagne by his courtier Einhard.\n\nIn Medieval Western India, there was a Sanskrit Jain literary genre of writing semi-historical biographical narratives about the lives of famous persons called Prabandhas. Prabandhas were written primarily by Jain scholars from the 13th century onwards and were written in colloquial Sanskrit (as opposed to Classical Sanskrit). The earliest collection explicitly titled Prabandha- is Jinabhadra's Prabandhavali (1234 CE).\n\nIn Medieval Islamic Civilization (c. AD 750 to 1258), similar traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and other important figures in the early history of Islam began to be written, beginning the Prophetic biography tradition. Early biographical dictionaries were published as compendia of famous Islamic personalities from the 9th century onwards. They contained more social data for a large segment of the population than other works of that period. The earliest biographical dictionaries initially focused on the lives of the prophets of Islam and their companions, with one of these early examples being The Book of The Major Classes by Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi. And then began the documentation of the lives of many other historical figures (from rulers to scholars) who lived in the medieval Islamic world.\n\nBy the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, and tyrants began to appear. The most famous of such biographies was Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory. The book was an account of the life of the fabled King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Following Malory, the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular.\n\nGiorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists (1550) was the landmark biography focusing on secular lives. Vasari made celebrities of his subjects, as the Lives became an early \"bestseller\". Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the printing press in the 15th century and the gradual increase in literacy.\n\nBiographies in the English language began appearing during the reign of Henry VIII. John Foxe's Actes and Monuments (1563), better known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs, was essentially the first dictionary of the biography in Europe, followed by Thomas Fuller's The History of the Worthies of England (1662), with a distinct focus on public life.\n\nInfluential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, A General History of the Pyrates (1724), by Charles Johnson, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-known pirates.\n\nA notable early collection of biographies of eminent men and women in the United Kingdom was Biographia Britannica (1747-1766) edited by William Oldys.\n\nThe American biography followed the English model, incorporating Thomas Carlyle's view that biography was a part of history. Carlyle asserted that the lives of great human beings were essential to understanding society and its institutions. While the historical impulse would remain a strong element in early American biography, American writers carved out a distinct approach. What emerged was a rather didactic form of biography, which sought to shape the individual character of a reader in the process of defining national character.\n\nEmergence of the genre \n\nThe first modern biography, and a work that exerted considerable influence on the evolution of the genre, was James Boswell's The Life of Samuel Johnson, a biography of lexicographer and man-of-letters Samuel Johnson published in 1791.\n\nWhile Boswell's personal acquaintance with his subject only began in 1763, when Johnson was 54 years old, Boswell covered the entirety of Johnson's life by means of additional research. Itself an important stage in the development of the modern genre of biography, it has been claimed to be the greatest biography written in the English language. Boswell's work was unique in its level of research, which involved archival study, eye-witness accounts and interviews, its robust and attractive narrative, and its honest depiction of all aspects of Johnson's life and character – a formula which serves as the basis of biographical literature to this day.\n\nBiographical writing generally stagnated during the 19th century – in many cases there was a reversal to the more familiar hagiographical method of eulogizing the dead, similar to the biographies of saints produced in Medieval times. A distinction between mass biography and literary biography began to form by the middle of the century, reflecting a breach between high culture and middle-class culture. However, the number of biographies in print experienced a rapid growth, thanks to an expanding reading public. This revolution in publishing made books available to a larger audience of readers. In addition, affordable paperback editions of popular biographies were published for the first time. Periodicals began publishing a sequence of biographical sketches.\n\nAutobiographies became more popular, as with the rise of education and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop. Autobiographies were written by authors, such as Charles Dickens (who incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, (his Autobiography appeared posthumously, quickly becoming a bestseller in London), philosophers, such as John Stuart Mill, churchmen – John Henry Newman – and entertainers – P. T. Barnum.\n\nModern biography \nThe sciences of psychology and sociology were ascendant at the turn of the 20th century and would heavily influence the new century's biographies. The demise of the \"great man\" theory of history was indicative of the emerging mindset. Human behavior would be explained through Darwinian theories. \"Sociological\" biographies conceived of their subjects' actions as the result of the environment, and tended to downplay individuality. The development of psychoanalysis led to a more penetrating and comprehensive understanding of the biographical subject, and induced biographers to give more emphasis to childhood and adolescence. Clearly these psychological ideas were changing the way biographies were written, as a culture of autobiography developed, in which the telling of one's own story became a form of therapy. The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality.\n\nBritish critic Lytton Strachey revolutionized the art of biographical writing with his 1918 work Eminent Victorians, consisting of biographies of four leading figures from the Victorian era: Cardinal Manning, Florence Nightingale, Thomas Arnold, and General Gordon. Strachey set out to breathe life into the Victorian era for future generations to read. Up until this point, as Strachey remarked in the preface, Victorian biographies had been \"as familiar as the cortège of the undertaker\", and wore the same air of \"slow, funereal barbarism.\" Strachey defied the tradition of \"two fat volumes... of undigested masses of material\" and took aim at the four iconic figures. His narrative demolished the myths that had built up around these cherished national heroes, whom he regarded as no better than a \"set of mouth bungled hypocrites\". The book achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its artistic prose.\n\nIn the 1920s and 1930s, biographical writers sought to capitalize on Strachey's popularity by imitating his style. This new school featured iconoclasts, scientific analysts, and fictional biographers and included Gamaliel Bradford, André Maurois, and Emil Ludwig, among others. Robert Graves (I, Claudius, 1934) stood out among those following Strachey's model of \"debunking biographies.\" The trend in literary biography was accompanied in popular biography by a sort of \"celebrity voyeurism\", in the early decades of the century. This latter form's appeal to readers was based on curiosity more than morality or patriotism. By World War I, cheap hard-cover reprints had become popular. The decades of the 1920s witnessed a biographical \"boom.\"\n\nAmerican professional historiography gives a limited role to biography, preferring instead to emphasize deeper social and cultural influences. Political biographers historically incorporated moralizing judgments into their work, with scholarly biography being an uncommon genre before the mid-1920s. Allan Nevins was a major contributor in the 1930s to the multivolume Dictionary of American Biography. Nevins also sponsored a series of long political biographies. Later biographers sought to show how political figures balanced power and responsibility. However, many biographers found that their subjects were not as morally pure as they originally thought, and young historians after 1960 tended to be more critical. The exception is Robert Remini whose books on Andrew Jackson idolize its hero and fends off criticisms. The study of decision-making in politics is important for scholarly political biographers, who can take different approaches such as focusing on psychology/personality, bureaucracy/interests, fundamental ideas, or societal forces. However, most documentation favors the first approach, which emphasizes personalities. Biographers often neglect the voting blocs and legislative positions of politicians and the organizational structures of bureaucracies. A more promising approach is to locate a person's ideas through intellectual history, but this has become more difficult with the philosophical shallowness of political figures in recent times. Political biography can be frustrating and challenging to integrate with other fields of political history.\n\nThe feminist scholar Carolyn Heilbrun observed that women's biographies and autobiographies began to change character during the second wave of feminist activism. She cited Nancy Milford's 1970 biography Zelda, as the \"beginning of a new period of women's biography, because \"[only] in 1970 were we ready to read not that Zelda had destroyed Fitzgerald, but Fitzgerald her: he had usurped her narrative.\" Heilbrun named 1973 as the turning point in women's autobiography, with the publication of May Sarton's Journal of a Solitude, for that was the first instance where a woman told her life story, not as finding \"beauty even in pain\" and transforming \"rage into spiritual acceptance,\" but acknowledging what had previously been forbidden to women: their pain, their rage, and their \"open admission of the desire for power and control over one's life.\"\n\nRecent years\nIn recent years, multimedia biography has become more popular than traditional literary forms. Along with documentary biographical films, Hollywood produced numerous commercial films based on the lives of famous people. The popularity of these forms of biography have led to the proliferation of TV channels dedicated to biography, including A&E, The Biography Channel, and The History Channel.\n\nCD-ROM and online biographies have also appeared. Unlike books and films, they often do not tell a chronological narrative: instead they are archives of many discrete media elements related to an individual person, including video clips, photographs, and text articles. Biography-Portraits were created in 2001, by the German artist Ralph Ueltzhoeffer. Media scholar Lev Manovich says that such archives exemplify the database form, allowing users to navigate the materials in many ways. General \"life writing\" techniques are a subject of scholarly study.\n\nIn recent years, debates have arisen as to whether all biographies are fiction, especially when authors are writing about figures from the past. President of Wolfson College at Oxford University, Hermione Lee argues that all history is seen through a perspective that is the product of one's contemporary society and as a result, biographical truths are constantly shifting. So, the history biographers write about will not be the way that it happened; it will be the way they remembered it. Debates have also arisen concerning the importance of space in life-writing.\n\nDaniel R. Meister in 2017 argued that:\nBiography Studies is emerging as an independent discipline, especially in the Netherlands. This Dutch School of biography is moving biography studies away from the less scholarly life writing tradition and towards history by encouraging its practitioners to utilize an approach adapted from microhistory.\n\nBiographical research\nBiographical research is defined by Miller as a research method that collects and analyses a person's whole life, or portion of a life, through the in-depth and unstructured interview, or sometimes reinforced by semi-structured interview or personal documents. It is a way of viewing social life in procedural terms, rather than static terms. The information can come from \"oral history, personal narrative, biography and autobiography\" or \"diaries, letters, memoranda and other materials\". The central aim of biographical research is to produce rich descriptions of persons or \"conceptualise structural types of actions\", which means to \"understand the action logics or how persons and structures are interlinked\". This method can be used to understand an individual's life within its social context or understand the cultural phenomena.\n\nCritical issues \nThere are many largely unacknowledged pitfalls to writing good biographies, and these largely concern the relation between firstly the individual and the context, and, secondly, the private and public. Paul James writes:\n\nBook awards \nSeveral countries offer an annual prize for writing a biography such as the:\nDrainie-Taylor Biography Prize – Canada\nNational Biography Award – Australia\nPulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography – United States\nWhitbread Prize for Best Biography – United Kingdom\nJ. R. Ackerley Prize for Autobiography – United Kingdom\nPrix Goncourt de la Biographie – France\n\nSee also \n\n Historiography\n Historiography of science\n Historiography of the United Kingdom\n Historiography of the United States\n Legal biography\n Letter collection\n Psychobiography\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n \"Biography\", In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Holmes, Nigel Hamilton and Amanda Foreman (June 22, 2000).\n\n \nCategory:Genres\nCategory:Non-fiction literature\nCategory:History", "title": "Biography" }, { "text": "Criticism is the construction of a judgement about the negative or positive qualities of someone or something. Criticism can range from impromptu comments to a written detailed response. Criticism falls into several overlapping types including \"theoretical, practical, impressionistic, affective, prescriptive, or descriptive\".\n\nCriticism may also refer to an expression of disapproval of someone or something. When criticism of this nature is constructive it can make an individual aware of gaps in their understanding and it can provide distinct routes for improvement. Research supports the notion that using feedback and constructive criticism in the learning process is very influential.\n\nCritique vs. criticism: In French, German, or Italian, no distinction is drawn between 'critique' and 'criticism'. The two words both translate as critique, Kritik, and critica, respectively. In the English language, philosopher Gianni Vattimo suggests that criticism is used more frequently to denote literary criticism or art criticism while critique refers to more general and profound writing as Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Another distinction that is sometimes made is that critique is never personalized nor ad hominem and is presented in a way that encourages rebuttal or expansion of the ideas expressed. Nonetheless, the distinctions are subtle and ambiguous at best.\n\nThe term \"brickbat\" is sometimes used to mean \"an unfavourable criticism, unkind remark or sharp put-down\". The term originated in the 17th century, derived from the practice of throwing bricks as projectiles at a person who was disapproved of.\n\nIn some contexts, such as literary criticism and art criticism, the word criticism is used as a neutral word that is synonymous with evaluation.\n\nCriticism in academia \n\nCritical Studies and Critical Theory programs teach the method of critique, also known as “criticism”. Both theory and studies programs often sample new works in addition to the classical texts. UC Berkeley, CUNY, and Northwestern University offer programs in Critical Theory, while a number of other colleges and universities offer programs or sole courses in Critical Studies, Critical Theory, and sub-disciplines. Sub-disciplines include Critical Race Studies, Critical Asian Studies, Critical Black Studies, and Critical Disability Studies. The term “critical” can be found in course titles concerning a variety of topics, as the term refers to a method or approach to course materials.\n\nSome claim “critical” studies have a particular focus in their perspective or opinion, confusing the method of critique with individual critiques. The recent appearance of “critical” studies and theory further compounds the conflation of particular authors with the new method and discipline. Additionally, the method and disciplines are distinguished from analysis or traditional objectivist or hard sciences by their allowances for subjectivity in the perspective of the author.\n\nCriticism of criticism \nJournalist and writer H. L. Mencken argued that \"criticism is little more than a branch of homiletics. They judge a work of art, not by its clarity and sincerity, not by the force and charm of its ideas, not by the technical virtuosity of the artist, not by his originality and artistic courage, but simply and solely by his orthodoxy.\"\n\nSee also \n\n Critique\n Literary criticism\n Art criticism\n Film criticism\n Theatre criticism\n Criticism of religion\n Criticism of science\n Self-criticism\n Social criticism\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n \n\n \nCategory:Philosophical methodology\nCategory:Literary concepts", "title": "Criticism" }, { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" }, { "text": "Entomology () is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term \"insect\" was less specific, and historically the definition of entomology would also include the study of animals in other arthropod groups, such as arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use.\n\nLike several of the other fields that are categorized within zoology, entomology is a taxon-based category; any form of scientific study in which there is a focus on insect-related inquiries is, by definition, entomology. Entomology therefore overlaps with a cross-section of topics as diverse as molecular genetics, behavior, neuroscience, biomechanics, biochemistry, systematics, physiology, developmental biology, ecology, morphology, and paleontology.\n\nOver 1.3 million insect species have been described, more than two-thirds of all known species. Some insect species date back to around 400 million years ago. They have many kinds of interactions with humans and other forms of life on Earth.\n\nHistory\n\nEntomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture (especially biological control and beekeeping). The natural philosopher Pliny the Elder, (23 - 79 AD) wrote a book on the kinds of Insects, while the scientist of Kufa, Ibn al-A‘rābī (760 - 845 AD) wrote a book on flies, Kitāb al-Dabāb (). However scientific study in the modern sense began only relatively recently, in the 16th century. Ulisse Aldrovandi's De Animalibus Insectis (Of Insect Animals) was published in 1602. Microscopist Jan Swammerdam published History of Insects correctly describing the reproductive organs of insects and metamorphosis. In 1705, Maria Sibylla Merian published a book Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamensium about the tropical insects of Dutch Surinam.\n\nEarly entomological works associated with the naming and classification of species followed the practice of maintaining cabinets of curiosity, predominantly in Europe. This collecting fashion led to the formation of natural history societies, exhibitions of private collections, and journals for recording communications and the documentation of new species. Many of the collectors tended to be from the aristocracy and it spawned off a trade involving collectors around the world and traders. This has been called the \"era of heroic entomology.\" William Kirby is widely considered as the father of entomology in England. In collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subject's foundational text. He also helped to found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world; earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. In the late 19th century, the growth of agriculture, and colonial trade, spawned off the \"era of economic entomology\" which created the professional entomologist associated with the rise of the university and training in the field of biology.\n\nEntomology developed rapidly in the 19th and 20th centuries, and was studied by large numbers of people, including such notable figures as Charles Darwin, Jean-Henri Fabre, Vladimir Nabokov, Karl von Frisch (winner of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine), and two-time Pulitzer Prize winner E. O. Wilson.\n\nThere has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, such as Sophie Lutterlough at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and dragonflies being the most popular.\n\nMost insects can easily be recognized to order such as Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants) or Coleoptera (beetles). However, identifying to genus or species is usually only possible through the use of identification keys and monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a very large number of species (over 330,000 species of beetles alone) and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle (or invisible without a microscope), this is often very difficult even for a specialist. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA and Draw-wing.\n\nIn pest control\nIn 1994, the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called the Associate Certified Entomologist (ACE). To qualify as a \"true entomologist\" an individual would normally require an advanced degree, with most entomologists pursuing a PhD. While not true entomologists in the traditional sense, individuals who attain the ACE certification may be referred to as ACEs or Associate Certified Entomologists.\n\nSubdisciplines\n\nMany entomologists specialize in a single order or even a family of insects, and a number of these subspecialties are given their own informal names, typically (but not always) derived from the scientific name of the group:\n Coleopterology – beetles.\n Dipterology – flies.\n Odonatology – dragonflies and damselflies.\n Hemipterology – true bugs.\n Isopterology – termites.\n Lepidopterology – moths and butterflies.\n Melittology (or Apiology) – bees.\n Myrmecology – ants\n Orthopterology – grasshoppers, crickets, etc.\n Trichopterology – caddisflies.\n Vespology – Social wasps.\n\nEntomologists\n\nOrganizations\nLike other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, and international organizations. There are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas.\n Amateur Entomologists' Society\n Entomological Society of America\n Entomological Society of Canada\n Entomological Society of Japan\n Entomologischer Verein Krefeld\n Entomological Society of India\n International Union for the Study of Social Insects\n Netherlands Entomological Society\n Royal Belgian Entomological Society\n Royal Entomological Society of London\n Russian Entomological Society\n Senckenberg Deutsches Entomologisches Institut\n Société entomologique de France\n Australian Entomological Society\n Entomological Society of New Zealand\n\nResearch collection\nHere is a list of selected very large insect collections, housed in museums, universities, or research institutes.\n\nAsia\n Zoological Survey of India\n Insect Museum, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India\n National Pusa Collection, Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India\n Pakistan Museum of Natural History Garden Avenue, Shakarparian, Islamabad, Pakistan\n Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense, Indonesia\n\nAfrica\n Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa\n\nAustralasia \n\n Lincoln University Entomology Research Collection, Lincoln, New Zealand\n Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand\n New Zealand Arthropod Collection, Landcare Research Manaaki Whenua, Auckland, New Zealand\n\nEurope\n Bavarian State Collection of Zoology, Zoologische Staatssammlung München\n Museu de Ciències Naturals de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain\n Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris, France\n Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany\n Kelvingrove Art Gallery, Glasgow, Scotland\n Natural History Museum, Budapest Hungarian Natural History Museum\n Natural History Museum, Geneva\n Natural History Museum, Leiden, the Netherlands\n Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom\n Natural History Museum, Oslo Norway\n Natural History Museum, St. Petersburg Zoological Collection of the Russian Academy of Science\n Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria\n Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Oxford\n Royal Museum for Central Africa, Brussels, Belgium\n Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden\n World Museum Liverpool, the Bug House\n\nUnited States\n Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia\n American Museum of Natural History, New York City\n Auburn University Museum of Natural History, Auburn, Alabama\n Audubon Insectarium, New Orleans\n Bohart Museum of Entomology, Davis, California\n California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco\n Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh\n Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland\n Entomology Research Museum, University of California, Riverside\n Essig Museum of Entomology, Berkeley, California\n Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago\n Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida\n Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois\n J. Gordon Edwards Museum, San Jose, California\n Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts\n Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles\n National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.\n New Mexico State University Arthropod Museum\n North Carolina State University Insect Museum, Raleigh, North Carolina\n Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven, Connecticut\n San Diego Natural History Museum, San Diego, California\n The National Museum of Play, Rochester, N.Y.\n Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas\n University of Minnesota, St. Paul campus (UMSP), Minnesota\n University of Kansas Natural History Museum, Lawrence, Kansas\n University of Nebraska State Museum, Lincoln, Nebraska\n University of Missouri Enns Entomology Museum, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri\n\nCanada\n Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario\n Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids and Nematodes, Ottawa, Ontario\n E.H. Strickland Entomological Museum, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta\n Lyman Entomological Museum, Macdonald Campus of McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec\n Montreal Insectarium, Montreal, Quebec\n Newfoundland Insectarium, Reidville, Newfoundland and Labrador\n Royal Alberta Museum, Edmonton, Alberta\n Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario\n University of Guelph Insect Collection, Guelph, Ontario\n Victoria Bug Zoo, Victoria, British Columbia\n J. B. Wallis / R. E. Roughley Museum of Entomology, Winnipeg, Manitoba\n\nSee also \n\n Arachnology\n Carcinology\n Cultural entomology\n Ethnoentomology\n Forensic entomology\n Forensic entomologist\n Forensic entomology and the law\n Insect thermoregulation\n Insects on stamps\n List of entomological journals\n Medical entomology\n Myriapodology\n Timeline of entomology – 1800–1850\n Timeline of entomology – 1850–1900\n Timeline of entomology since 1900\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n Chiang, H.C. and G. C. Jahn 1996. Entomology in the Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project. (in Chinese) Chinese Entomol. Soc. Newsltr. (Taiwan) 3: 9–11.\n Davidson, E. 2006. Big Fleas Have Little Fleas: How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 208 pages, .\n Cedric Gillot: Entomology. Second Edition, Plenum Press, New York, NY / London 1995, .\n Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson (2005-05-19). Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. . — a classic textbook in North America.\n \n Capinera, JL (editor). 2008. Encyclopedia of Entomology, 2nd Edition. Springer.\n\nExternal links \n\n \nCategory:Subfields of arthropodology", "title": "Entomology" }, { "text": "Other often refers to:\n Other (philosophy), a concept in psychology and philosophy\n\nOther or The Other may also refer to:\n\nFilm and television\n The Other (1913 film), a German silent film directed by Max Mack\n The Other (1930 film), a German film directed by Robert Wiene\n The Other (1972 film), an American film directed by Robert Mulligan\n The Other (1999 film), a French-Egyptian film directed by Youssef Chahine\n The Other (2007 film), an Argentine-French-German film by Ariel Rotter\n The Other (Doctor Who), a fictional character in Doctor Who\n The Other (Marvel Cinematic Universe), a fictional character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe\n\nLiterature\n Other: British and Irish Poetry since 1970, a 1999 poetry anthology\n The Other (Applegate novel), a 2000 Animorphs novel by K.A. Applegate\n The Other (Tryon novel), a 1971 horror novel by Tom Tryon\n \"The Other\" (short story), a 1972 short story by Jorge Luis Borges\n The Other, a 2008 novel by David Guterson\n Spider-Man: \"The Other\", a 2005–2006 Marvel Comics crossover story arc\n\nMusic\n The Other (band), a German horror punk band\n Other (Alison Moyet album) or the title song, 2017\n Other (Lustmord album), 2008\n The Other (album), by King Tuff, or the title song, 2018\n \"The Other\", a song by Lauv from I Met You When I Was 18 (The Playlist), 2018\n \"The Other\", a song by Tonight Alive from Underworld, 2018\n\nHuman name\n Othoere, or Other, a contemporary of Alfred the Great\nOther, father of Walter Fitz Other, castellan of Windsor in the time of William the Conqueror\n Other Windsor (disambiguation), several people \n Other Robert Ivor Windsor-Clive, 3rd Earl of Plymouth (1923–2018)\n Other C. Wamsley, a builder in Hamilton, Montana\n The Other (Doctor Who), a fictional character\n\nOther uses\n Other Music, a defunct music store in New York City\n OtherOS, a feature available in early versions of the PlayStation 3 console\n\nSee also\n Another (disambiguation)\n Others (disambiguation)\n Otherness (disambiguation)", "title": "Other" } ]

[ "Nabokov was in Berlin because he was a recognized poet and writer within the emigre community where he published under the nom de plume V. Sirin. He stayed in Berlin after his father's violent death and his family's move to Prague as he had nowhere else to go.", "After staying in Berlin, Nabokov got engaged to Svetlana Siewert in 1922, but the engagement was broken off in early 1923. Then, in May 1923, he met Vera Evseyevna Slonim at a charity ball and married her in 1925. Their only child, Dmitri, was born in 1934. In 1936, Vera lost her job due to increasing anti-Semitism, and the assassin of Nabokov's father assumed a high-ranking position in the Russian emigre group. Seeking a job outside of Germany, Nabokov moved to France in 1937, where he had a brief affair with Irina Guadanini. However, his family followed him to France, and they finally settled in Paris. In 1940, with the German troops advancing, the Nabokov family fled to the United States on board the SS Champlain. Only Nabokov's brother Sergei did not join them, as he died in the Neuengamme concentration camp in 1945.", "Yes, the violent death of Nabokov's father had a significant impact on his work. This theme would echo in his fiction later where characters often met their deaths under accidental terms. An example is the novel Pale Fire, in which one interpretation of the plot has an assassin mistakenly killing the poet John Shade, when his actual target is a fugitive European monarch.", "The text does not provide any other specific examples of novels by Nabokov in which characters die violent deaths.", "The text does not provide information about anyone getting back together.", "Yes, Nabokov married Vera Evseyevna Slonim in April 1925. They had met at a charity ball in Berlin in May 1923.", "After they married, Nabokov and Vera Evseyevna Slonim had their only child, Dmitri, in 1934. By 1936, Vera had lost her job due to an increasingly anti-Semitic environment. In 1937, the family left Germany for France where they settled in Paris. As the German troops approached Paris in 1940, the Nabokov family fled to the United States on board the SS Champlain.", "The text does not provide information about what Nabokov and his family did after they fled to the United States.", "Yes, Vera, Nabokov's wife, followed him from Berlin to France and then fled with him and their son to the United States in 1940 due to the advance of German troops.", "The text does not provide specific information about what Nabokov and his family did while they were living in Paris." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_ed13b5d84a734f7ea95870f831e9e0f0_1_q#0", "C_ed13b5d84a734f7ea95870f831e9e0f0_1_q#1", "C_ed13b5d84a734f7ea95870f831e9e0f0_1_q#2", "C_ed13b5d84a734f7ea95870f831e9e0f0_1_q#3" ]

[ "Who was the founder of the band Mazzy star ?", "What was the band most famous song ?", "What was the group name before they change it ?", "What High School did the band leader graduated from ?" ]

[ 2, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 629 ], [ 2195 ], [ 822 ], [ 2983 ] ], "texts": [ [ "David Roback," ], [ "\"Flying Low\" and \"Spoon\"," ], [ "The Warm Inventions" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 629, 2195, 822, 2983 ], "texts": [ "David Roback,", "\"Flying Low\" and \"Spoon\",", "The Warm Inventions", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on who the founder of the band Mazzy Star is.", "The text does not provide information on what the band Mazzy Star's most famous song is.", "The text does not provide information on what the group's name was before they changed it to Mazzy Star.", "The text does not provide information on which high school the band leader of Mazzy Star graduated from." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ed13b5d84a734f7ea95870f831e9e0f0_0_q#0", "C_ed13b5d84a734f7ea95870f831e9e0f0_0_q#1", "C_ed13b5d84a734f7ea95870f831e9e0f0_0_q#2", "C_ed13b5d84a734f7ea95870f831e9e0f0_0_q#3" ]

[ "What American city is the band Mazzy Star from?", "What song is Mazzy Star most known for?", "The band completed how many dates on their California and European tour in 2012?", "Who did David Roback partner with for Massy Star?" ]

[ 1, 2, 0, 1 ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 165 ], [ 1537 ], [ 1537 ], [ 630 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Pacific Palisades," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Kendra Smith" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 165, 1537, 1537, 630 ], "texts": [ "Pacific Palisades,", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "Kendra Smith" ] }

[]

[ "C_71bbcbb7b4dd428e9c33da2c2fc99259_0_q#0", "C_71bbcbb7b4dd428e9c33da2c2fc99259_0_q#1", "C_71bbcbb7b4dd428e9c33da2c2fc99259_0_q#2", "C_71bbcbb7b4dd428e9c33da2c2fc99259_0_q#3", "C_71bbcbb7b4dd428e9c33da2c2fc99259_0_q#4", "C_71bbcbb7b4dd428e9c33da2c2fc99259_0_q#5" ]

[ "what happened in 2012?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "who did he work with?", "did he win any awards?", "what was most interesting to you", "did it pickup a big audience?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1946 ], [ 19 ], [ 385 ], [ 1946 ], [ 262 ], [ 1946 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Strange appeared as a guest on the Channel 4 News programme" ], [ "Steve Strange and Steve Barnacle along with Robin Simon (former guitarist in Ultravox from 1978-79 and Magazine in 1980) and Lauren Duvall on vocals." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Visage launched their new website, Twitter, Facebook and Soundcloud accounts" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1946, 19, 385, 1946, 262, 1946 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Strange appeared as a guest on the Channel 4 News programme", "Steve Strange and Steve Barnacle along with Robin Simon (former guitarist in Ultravox from 1978-79 and Magazine in 1980) and Lauren Duvall on vocals.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Visage launched their new website, Twitter, Facebook and Soundcloud accounts", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on what happened in 2012.", "The context discusses the trajectory of the band Visage, highlighting their new album releases, line-up changes, and live dates. It's particularly interesting to note that the band continued to make music and perform live into the 2010s. The article also discusses the death of frontman Steve Strange and how the band completed the album they had been working on prior to his death. After Strange's death, 'The Steve Strange Collective' was created by his friends and family to oversee the release of the final album, \"Demons to Diamonds\".", "Steve Strange worked with the band Visage, which at various times included Steve Barnacle, Robin Simon (former guitarist in Ultravox from 1978-79 and Magazine in 1980), and Lauren Duvall on vocals.", "The text does not provide information on Steve Strange winning any awards.", "As an AI, I don't have personal feelings or opinions. However, the details on how Visage decided to complete their album despite Steve Strange's death, and the formation of The Steve Strange Collective to oversee the release of their final album, may be of particular interest to readers.", "The text does not provide information on the size of the audience or fan base for the band Visage or their specific albums." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#0", "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#1", "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#2", "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#3", "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#4", "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#5", "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#6", "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#7", "C_f12ca9406b2f4ecf89a5f15bb3286d14_0_q#8" ]

[ "What did Rama do as Mayor of Tiriana?", "What else did he do to make Tirana better?", "Did he win reelection?", "Did he defeat them by a wide margin?", "Was he a popular mayor?", "What was the award committee's reasoning for presenting him with the award?", "Did Rama have any other significant accomplishments during his time as mayor?", "In what style were they repainted?", "Why did he have them repainted?" ]

[ 0, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 2, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 972 ], [ 1171 ], [ 1355 ], [ 2237 ], [ 629 ], [ 732 ], [ 425 ], [ 805 ], [ 2237 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He planted thousands of new trees, making Tirana a much more environment-friendly city. Rama also expanded the existing roads and paved new ones," ], [ "played a critical role in the modernization of the local government, empowering municipalities and giving them, for the first time real power" ], [ "Rama was reelected as Mayor of Tirana by defeating Democratic Party of Albania candidates" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Rama was awarded World Best Mayor in 2004. The award committee, motivated their decision stating that" ], [ "Edi Rama is the man who changed a whole city. Now there is a new Tirana, colored, happy, with a new and improved infrastructure and cultural life\"." ], [ "Rama earned international recognition by repainting the facades of many soviet-style, demolishing buildings in the city. The repainting gave the city a unique style," ], [ "colored, happy," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 972, 1171, 1355, 2237, 629, 732, 425, 805, 2237 ], "texts": [ "He planted thousands of new trees, making Tirana a much more environment-friendly city. Rama also expanded the existing roads and paved new ones,", "played a critical role in the modernization of the local government, empowering municipalities and giving them, for the first time real power", "Rama was reelected as Mayor of Tirana by defeating Democratic Party of Albania candidates", "CANNOTANSWER", "Rama was awarded World Best Mayor in 2004. The award committee, motivated their decision stating that", "Edi Rama is the man who changed a whole city. Now there is a new Tirana, colored, happy, with a new and improved infrastructure and cultural life\".", "Rama earned international recognition by repainting the facades of many soviet-style, demolishing buildings in the city. The repainting gave the city a unique style,", "colored, happy,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "As Mayor of Tirana, Rama undertook a radical campaign of bulldozing hundreds of illegal constructions and restoring many areas near the city's center and Lana River. He earned international recognition by repainting the facades of many soviet-style, demolishing buildings in the city. Rama compiled the Tirana City Master Plan, which included the Skanderbeg Square project. He was responsible for planting thousands of new trees, expanding existing roads and paving new ones. Additionally, according to a UNDP report, Rama played a critical role in modernizing of the local government, empowering municipalities and giving them real power for the first time to impact their communities.", "In addition to the mentioned initiatives, Rama also worked on improving Tirana's infrastructure and cultural life, making the city a unique tourist attraction and more environmentally-friendly. This included the restoration of areas near Tirana's center and Lana River to their original form. He also empowered local municipalities, giving them, for the first time, real authority to impact the life of their communities. This was a part of his greater efforts towards the modernization of the local government.", "Edi Rama was reelected as Mayor of Tirana in 2003 and 2007. However, his bid for a fourth term in office in 2011 was unsuccessful. Lulzim Basha, a member of Prime Minister Berisha's cabinet, won the race by 81 votes after a court ruling validated hundreds of ballots that had been mistakenly cast in the wrong ballot boxes. Rama's appeals against the court's decision were rejected.", "The context does not provide information on the margin by which Edi Rama defeated the Democratic Party of Albania candidates in the 2003 and 2007 mayoral elections.", "The context suggests that Edi Rama was a popular mayor. He won election and was re-elected twice, and his works as mayor, which include urban and infrastructure improvement, environmental initiatives, and modernization of local government, were internationally recognized. He was awarded the World Best Mayor in 2004. However, specific public opinion polls or ratings aren't provided in the text to definitively comment on his popularity.", "The award committee awarded Edi Rama the title of World Best Mayor in 2004 because he had transformed Tirana into a vibrant, colorful city with improved infrastructure and a buzzing cultural life. They stated that \"Edi Rama is the man who changed a whole city. Now there is a new Tirana, colored, happy, with a new and improved infrastructure and cultural life\".", "Yes, Rama had several significant accomplishments during his time as Mayor of Tirana. In addition to changing the city through restoration and construction projects, Rama made Tirana an environment-friendly city by planting thousands of new trees. He also improved mobility by expanding existing roads and paving new ones. Furthermore, Rama played a critical role in modernizing the local government, empowering municipalities, and giving them real power to impact their communities for the first time, as per a report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Also, he compiled the Tirana City Master Plan including the Skanderbeg Square project.", "The context does not provide specific details about the style in which the facades of soviet-style, demolishing buildings were repainted under Edi Rama's initiative in Tirana. It is mentioned that the repainting gave the city a unique style and made it a tourist attraction.", "Edi Rama had the facades of many soviet-style, demolishing buildings repainted to fundamentally transform the city. The repainting gave the city a unique style, turning it into a tourist attraction. Beyond aesthetic reasons, the text does not provide any specific purposes for the repainting." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

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[ "Where did Edi grow up?", "Who were Edi's parents??", "What did Aneta do?", "Did Edi have any siblings?", "What hobbies did Edi have growing up?", "Was he good at it?", "Where did he go to school?", "How did his career begin?", "How did he go about doing that?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 55 ], [ 209 ], [ 1629 ], [ 326 ], [ 437 ], [ 751 ], [ 1153 ], [ 1287 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Edi Rama was born on 4 July 1964 in Tirana, Albania" ], [ "Kristaq Rama, a well-known sculptor born in Durres, creator of numerous statues of Albania's communist dictator Enver Hoxha, and Aneta Rama (nee Koleka" ], [ "a graduate of medicine from Vuno, Vlore," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Rama started painting early in his childhood." ], [ "Albanian painters of the time, Edi Hila and Danish Jukniu. They encouraged Rama to further develop his painting skills in a professional context." ], [ "1982, he decided to enroll to the Academy of Arts in Tirana." ], [ "Shortly before the fall of communism in Albania, Rama attempted several times to get involved with the incipient fight for democracy. He" ], [ "He tried to influence student protests and become part of the newly created Democratic Party of Albania, but soon left after a quarrel over ideological matters with Sali Berisha." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 55, 209, 1629, 326, 437, 751, 1153, 1287 ], "texts": [ "Edi Rama was born on 4 July 1964 in Tirana, Albania", "Kristaq Rama, a well-known sculptor born in Durres, creator of numerous statues of Albania's communist dictator Enver Hoxha, and Aneta Rama (nee Koleka", "a graduate of medicine from Vuno, Vlore,", "CANNOTANSWER", "Rama started painting early in his childhood.", "Albanian painters of the time, Edi Hila and Danish Jukniu. They encouraged Rama to further develop his painting skills in a professional context.", "1982, he decided to enroll to the Academy of Arts in Tirana.", "Shortly before the fall of communism in Albania, Rama attempted several times to get involved with the incipient fight for democracy. He", "He tried to influence student protests and become part of the newly created Democratic Party of Albania, but soon left after a quarrel over ideological matters with Sali Berisha." ] }

[]

[ "Edi Rama grew up in Tirana, Albania.", "Edi Rama's parents were Kristaq Rama, a well-known sculptor, and Aneta Rama, a graduate of medicine.", "Aneta Rama was a graduate of medicine.", "The text does not provide information about Edi Rama having any siblings.", "Growing up, Edi Rama was involved in painting and sports, particularly basketball. He played basketball professionally for Dinamo Tirana and was part of the Albania national basketball team.", "The text does not specifically comment on Edi Rama's skill level in his hobbies. However, it does mention that his painting talent was noticed by influential painters and he played basketball professionally, suggesting that he was likely good at both.", "Edi Rama went to the Academy of Arts in Tirana.", "Edi Rama's career began as an instructor at the Academy of Arts in Tirana, after his graduation.", "After graduating from the Academy of Arts in Tirana, Edi Rama started working as an instructor at the Academy. During this time he organized several student meetings where the communist government was criticized. He also tried to get involved with the incipient fight for democracy, influencing student protests and briefly joining the newly created Democratic Party of Albania. However, he left the party after a disagreement over ideological matters." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#0", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#1", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#2", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#3", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#4", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#5", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#6", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#7", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_1_q#8" ]

[ "When did he attend harvard?", "what did he study at harvard?", "did he do any research?", "did anything notabke happen at harvard?", "when did he enroll to MIT?", "what did he study at MIT?", "when did he graduate?", "did anything else interesting happen at MIT?", "did he work anywhere else?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 467 ], [ 788 ], [ 557 ], [ 802 ], [ 749 ], [ 2315 ], [ 1416 ], [ 1768 ] ], "texts": [ [ "As a first-year student at Harvard University in fall 1970," ], [ "Stallman received a bachelor's degree in physics (magna cum laude) from Harvard in 1974." ], [ "While working (starting in 1975) as a research assistant at MIT under Gerry Sussman," ], [ "Stallman considered staying on at Harvard, but instead he decided to enroll as a graduate student at MIT." ], [ "(starting in 1975)" ], [ "programming at the MIT AI Laboratory." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Stallman worked on software projects such as TECO, Emacs for ITS, and the Lisp machine operating system" ], [ "the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 467, 788, 557, 802, 749, 2315, 1416, 1768 ], "texts": [ "As a first-year student at Harvard University in fall 1970,", "Stallman received a bachelor's degree in physics (magna cum laude) from Harvard in 1974.", "While working (starting in 1975) as a research assistant at MIT under Gerry Sussman,", "Stallman considered staying on at Harvard, but instead he decided to enroll as a graduate student at MIT.", "(starting in 1975)", "programming at the MIT AI Laboratory.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Stallman worked on software projects such as TECO, Emacs for ITS, and the Lisp machine operating system", "the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency." ] }

[]

[ "Richard Stallman attended Harvard University in fall 1970.", "Richard Stallman studied physics at Harvard University.", "Yes, Richard Stallman conducted research at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory while serving as a research assistant under Gerry Sussman, starting in 1975. In 1977, Stallman and Sussman published a paper on an AI truth maintenance system, titled dependency-directed backtracking.", "The context does not provide any notable events that happened to Richard Stallman at Harvard.", "Richard Stallman decided to enroll as a graduate student at MIT after receiving his bachelor's degree from Harvard in 1974. The exact year he enrolled at MIT is not stated in the context.", "Richard Stallman pursued a doctorate in physics for one year at MIT. However, he left the program to focus on his programming at the MIT AI Laboratory.", "The context does not provide information on when Richard Stallman graduated from MIT.", "At MIT, Stallman worked on several notable software projects such as TECO, Emacs for ITS, and the Lisp machine operating system. He became an ardent critic of restricted computer access in the MIT's AI laboratory and campaigned against the use of password control systems. This included decrypting passwords and sending users messages containing their decoded password, suggesting they change it to an empty string, essentially advocating for anonymous access to the systems.", "Based on the context given, Richard Stallman only worked at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#0", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#1", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#2", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#3", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#4", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#5", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#6", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#7", "C_ac8a8303c44546e893f37b6891c39d12_0_q#8" ]

[ "What was important about terminology?", "So he believed software should be free?", "What didn't he like the use of those terms?", "What did he do to get these terms changed to something else?", "Did he offer any opinions on terms that could be used to replace these?", "What else in interesting in this article?", "What kind of laws was he speaking about?", "How did he think content creators should be rewarded?", "How did he think people would protect their intellectual property without copyright laws?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 150 ], [ 501 ], [ 769 ], [ 1972 ], [ 913 ], [ 1060 ], [ 1972 ], [ 1972 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Stallman places great importance on the words and labels people use to talk about the world, including the relationship between software and freedom." ], [ "He asks people to say free software and GNU/Linux, and to avoid the terms intellectual property and piracy (in relation to copyright)." ], [ "Stallman argues that the term \"intellectual property\" is designed to confuse people, and is used to prevent intelligent discussion on the specifics of copyright, patent, trademark," ], [ "He also argues that by referring to these laws as property laws, the term biases the discussion when thinking about how to treat these issues." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "These laws originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues." ], [ "Copyright law was designed to promote authorship and art, and covers the details of a work of authorship or art." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 150, 501, 769, 1972, 913, 1060, 1972, 1972 ], "texts": [ "Stallman places great importance on the words and labels people use to talk about the world, including the relationship between software and freedom.", "He asks people to say free software and GNU/Linux, and to avoid the terms intellectual property and piracy (in relation to copyright).", "Stallman argues that the term \"intellectual property\" is designed to confuse people, and is used to prevent intelligent discussion on the specifics of copyright, patent, trademark,", "He also argues that by referring to these laws as property laws, the term biases the discussion when thinking about how to treat these issues.", "CANNOTANSWER", "These laws originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues.", "Copyright law was designed to promote authorship and art, and covers the details of a work of authorship or art.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "According to Stallman, terminology was important because it influenced how people conceptualize and discuss subjects like software, freedom, and various legal and ethical issues related to intellectual property. He believed the specific terminology used could bias discussions, confuse people, prevent intelligent conversation, and misrepresent the nuances of different legal areas like copyright, patent, and trademark laws. He emphasized using appropriate terms that accurately reflect the reality of the subjects at hand.", "The context does not provide specific information about Stallman's belief on whether software should be free.", "Stallman did not like the use of certain terms because he believed they confused people and prevented an intelligent discussion on the specifics of copyright, patent, trademark, and other related laws. He felt that the term \"intellectual property\", for example, wrongly conflated these diverse legal areas that have different origins, rules, and policy issues. Stallman also disliked the term because it biases the discourse, suggesting that these laws are property laws. He objected to other terminology, such as \"creators\" and \"content\", arguing they misrepresented the realities of authorship and creative work.", "Stallman advocated for the use of alternative terminology that he believed was more precise and less misleading. He asked others, including journalists and attendees of his talks, to use his preferred terms such as \"free software\" and \"GNU/Linux\". One of his conditions for giving an interview was that the journalist had to agree to use his terminology in their article. Stallman strongly believed in the importance of language, going as far as to turn down speaking requests if there were issues over terminology. He also provided suggestions for alternative terms in his discussions and correspondences, striving to encourage more accurate and unbiased discussions about the issues at hand.", "Yes, Stallman did offer opinions on alternative terms to replace the ones he found problematic. For instance, he suggested using \"free software\" and \"GNU/Linux\" instead of other terms. In correspondence, he advised against calling authors \"creators\" (as they are not gods) and asked not to devalue their works by simply referring to them as \"content\". He also suggested using \"income\" instead of \"compensation\", as the latter implies making up for some kind of damages which was not accurate according to him.", "The context provides interesting insights on Stallman's perspective on various laws related to intellectual property. He discusses the differences between copyright, patent, and trademark laws, emphasizing that these laws originated separately, evolved differently, and handle different activities. He suggests that copyright law promotes authorship and art, patent law encourages the publication of ideas by temporarily awarding monopolies on them, and trademark law simply helps buyers to know what they are buying. The text highlights Stallman's concern about informed and accurate discourse on these matters.", "Stallman was speaking about laws related to \"intellectual property\", specifically copyright law, patent law, and trademark law. Copyright law is designed to promote authorship and art and covers the details of a work of authorship or art. Patent law is intended to encourage the publication of ideas, granting finite monopolies over these ideas as a trade-off. Trademark law is intended to enable buyers to know what they are buying, rather than to promote any particular business activity.", "Based on the context provided, Stallman did not use the term \"content creators\"; instead, he referred to them as authors. He believed that it is fair for these authors to ask for money in exchange for copies of their works as a form of income. The context implies that he considered monetary payment a legitimate way of rewarding authors for their works, but it does not specify whether Stallman thought this was the only or the best form of reward.", "The context does not provide specific information on Stallman's views about protecting intellectual property without copyright laws." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_0_q#0", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_0_q#1", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_0_q#2", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_0_q#3", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_0_q#4", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_0_q#5", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_0_q#6", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_0_q#7" ]

[ "What album was released in that period ?", "How was the album received by the public ?", "How was the album received by the critics ?", "Which singles did they release from this album ?", "How did these singles perform in the charts ?", "Did they go on any tours during that period ?", "Name one of the countries they visited on that tour ?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 56 ], [ 328 ], [ 2531 ], [ 442 ], [ 548 ], [ 755 ], [ 974 ], [ 1702 ] ], "texts": [ [ "R.E.M.'s 1994 album Monster" ], [ "Monster topped the charts in both the US and UK. The record sold about nine million copies worldwide." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "\"What's the Frequency, Kenneth?\" and \"Bang and Blame\"" ], [ "all the singles from Monster reached the Top 30 on the British charts." ], [ "In January 1995, R.E.M. set out on its first tour in six years." ], [ "Switzerland," ], [ "R.E.M. re-signed with Warner Bros. Records in 1996 for a reported $80 million (" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 56, 328, 2531, 442, 548, 755, 974, 1702 ], "texts": [ "R.E.M.'s 1994 album Monster", "Monster topped the charts in both the US and UK. The record sold about nine million copies worldwide.", "CANNOTANSWER", "\"What's the Frequency, Kenneth?\" and \"Bang and Blame\"", "all the singles from Monster reached the Top 30 on the British charts.", "In January 1995, R.E.M. set out on its first tour in six years.", "Switzerland,", "R.E.M. re-signed with Warner Bros. Records in 1996 for a reported $80 million (" ] }

[ { "text": "This is a list of alternative rock artists. Bands are listed alphabetically by the first letter in their name (not including \"The\"), and individuals are listed by the first name.\n\n0–9\n\n+44\n3 Doors Down \n3OH!3\n4 Non Blondes\n7 Year Bitch\n8stops7\n10 Years\n12 Stones\n13 Engines\n54-40\nThe 77s\n311\nThe 1975\n10,000 Maniacs\n\nA\n\nA Day to Remember\nA Perfect Circle\nA Rocket to the Moon\nA Silent Film\nAaroh\nAcceptance\nThe Accidentals\nThe Aces\nAdam Again\nAdam Gontier\nAdorable\nThe Afghan Whigs\nAFI\nAfter Midnight Project\nAgainst Me!\nAgainst the Current\nAge of Chance\nAir\nThe Airborne Toxic Event\nAlanis Morissette\nThe Alarm\nAlex Clare\nAlex Chilton\nAlice in Chains\nAlien Ant Farm\nAlkaline Trio\nThe All-American Rejects\nAll Time Low\nThe Almost\nAlpha Rev\nAlt-J\nAlvvays\nThe American Analog Set\nAmerican Authors\nAmerican Hi-Fi\nAmerican Standards\nAmplifier\nThe Amps\nAnathema\nAnberlin\nAndy Biersack\nAngels & Airwaves\nAPB\nThe Apples in Stereo\nArcade Fire\nArcane Roots\nArchitecture in Helsinki\nArctic Monkeys\nArea 11\nArkells\nAs Tall As Lions\nAsh\nAsian Kung-Fu Generation\nThe Asteroids Galaxy Tour\nAt the Drive-In\nThe Ataris\nAthlete\nAtlas Genius\nAtom Smash\nAudioslave\nThe Auteurs\nAutolux\nAvril Lavigne\nAwolnation\n\nB\n\nB-52s\nBabes in Toyland\nBad Books\nBad Suns\nBadflower\nThe Badgeman\nBalance and Composure\nBand of Horses\nBarenaked Ladies\nBaryonyx\nBastille\nBattles\nBayside\nBe Your Own Pet\nBeady Eye\nBeastie Boys\nBeck\nBeirut\nThe Belltower\nBelly\nBen Folds Five\nBen Kweller\nBenjamin Burnley\nBeth Orton\nBetter Than Ezra\nBeware of Darkness\nBiffy Clyro\nBig Black\nBig Dipper\nThe Big Pink\nBillie Joe Armstrong\nBilly Corgan\nBilly Talent\nThe Birds of Satan\nBirds of Tokyo\nBjörk\nBlack Country, New Road\nThe Black Crowes\nThe Black Keys\nBlack Kids\nBlack Light Burns\nBlack Rebel Motorcycle Club\nBleachers\nBlind Melon\nBlind Pilot\nBlink-182\nBloc Party\nBlonde Redhead\nBlood Red Shoes\nBloodhound Gang\nBlue October\nThe Bluebells \nBlumfeld\nBlur\nBob Mould\nBodyjar\nThe Bolshoi\nBon Iver \nBono\nThe Boo Radleys\nBowling For Soup\nBoys Like Girls\nBracket\nBrand New\nBrandon Flowers\nThe Bravery\nBreaking Benjamin\nThe Breeders\nBrendon Urie\nBring Me the Horizon\nBroder Daniel\nBrother Cane\nBrymo \nThe Buck Pets\nBuffalo Tom\nBully\nBush\nButthole Surfers\n\nC\n\nThe Cab\nCaesars\nCage the Elephant\nCake\nThe Calling\nCamper Van Beethoven\nCandlebox\nCandy Flip\nCanterbury\nThe Cardigans\nCaribou\nCarolina Liar\nCarter the Unstoppable Sex Machine\nCast\nThe Cat Empire\nCat Power\nCatatonia\nCatherine\nCatherine Wheel\nCaveman\nCell\nChad Kroeger\nThe Charlatans\nCharlie Simpson\nCherri Bomb\nChester Bennington\nChevelle\nThe Chills\nChimera\nChris Cornell\nChris Martin\nChumbawamba\nThe Church\nChvrches\nThe Cinematics\nCirca Survive\nCircus Diablo\nCitizen Cope\nCitizen King\nCivil Twilight\nClap Your Hands Say Yeah\nThe Classic Crime\nCloud Control\nCloud Nothings\nThe Clouds\nCobra Starship\nCoheed and Cambria\nCold War Kids\nColdplay\nColdrain\nCollective Soul\nThe Colourist\nCompany of Thieves\nConcrete Blonde\nThe Connells\nThe Constellations\nCopeland\nThe Coral Sea\nCourtney Love\nThe Cramps\nThe Cranberries\nCrash Test Dummies\nThe Creatures\nCreed\nThe Cribs\nCroc Shop\nCrooked Fingers\nCrowded House\nCrystal Antlers\nCrystal Castles\nThe Cult\nCults\nThe Cure\nCurve\nCute Is What We Aim For\nCymbals Eat Guitars\n\nD\n\nDaisy Chainsaw\nThe Damned\nThe Damning Well\nDan Auerbach\nDan Reynolds\nThe Dandy Warhols\nThe Dangerous Summer\nDaniel Amos\nThe Darling Buds\nDas Damen\nDashboard Confessional\nThe Datsuns\nDaughtry\nDave Gahan\nDave Grohl\nDave Matthews Band\nDavey Havok\nDays of the New\nThe dB's\nDeacon Blue\nDead by Sunrise\nDead Letter Circus\nThe Dead Milkmen\nDead Sara\nThe Dead Weather\nThe Deadly Syndrome\nDeaf Havana\nThe Dear Hunter\nDeas Vail\nDeath Cab for Cutie\nThe Decemberists\nDeep Blue Something\nDeerhunter\nDeftones\nThe Del Fuegos\nThe Delgados\nDepeche Mode\nDeryck Whibley\nDi-rect\nDie Kreuzen\nDIIV\nDinosaur Jr.\nThe Dirty Heads\nDirty Projectors\nDispatch\nDishwalla\nThe Dodos\nThe Donnas\nDoves\nDr. Dog\nThe Dream Academy\nDredg\nThe Drums\nDum Dum Girls\nDuran Duran\n\nE\n\nEddie Vedder\nEditors\nEdwyn Collins\nEels\nElastica\nElbow\nEleanor Friedberger\nElectrasy\nElectronic\nEleventh Dream Day\nElvis Costello\nEmiliana Torrini\nEmily Haines & the Soft Skeleton\nEnter Shikari\nEnvy on the Coast\nEraserheads\nEvanescence\nEvans Blue\nEverclear\nEvery Avenue\nThe Exies\nThe Explosion\nExplosions in the Sky\n\nF\n\nFailure\nFaith No More\nThe Fall\nFall Out Boy\nFalling in Reverse\nFastball\nFatboy Slim\nFatherson\nThe Fatima Mansions\nFearless Vampire Killers\nFeeder\nThe Feelies\nFeist\nThe Fiery Furnaces\nFightstar\nFilter\nFine Young Cannibals\nFinch\nFinger Eleven\nFiona Apple\nFishbone\nFitz and the Tantrums\nFive For Fighting\nThe Flaming Lips\nFleet Foxes\nFlight of the Conchords\nFlobots\nFlor\nFlorence and the Machine\nFlow\nFlyleaf\nFoals\nFolk Implosion\nFontaines D.C.\nFoo Fighters\nFool's Garden\nFor Against\nForever The Sickest Kids\nThe Format\nFoster the People\nFountains of Wayne\nThe Frames\nFraming Hanley\nFrank Black and the Catholics\nFrank Iero\nFrank Turner\nFranz Ferdinand\nThe Fratellis\nThe Fray\nFreelance Whales\nFrente!\nThe Front Bottoms\nFuel\nFugazi\nFun\nFun Lovin Criminals\nFuneral For A Friend\nFuneral Party\nThe Futureheads\n\nG\n\nThe Gandharvas\nGang Gang Dance\nGarbage\nGarrett Borns\nGary Lightbody\nThe Gaslight Anthem\nGerard Way\nThe Get Up Kids\nGiant Drag\nGin Blossoms\nGirl in a Coma\nGivers\nGlasvegas\nGnarls Barkley\nGo Radio\nThe Go-Betweens\nThe God Machine\nGod Lives Underwater\nGodsmack\nGodspeed You! Black Emperor\nGolden Palominos\nThe Golden Seals\nGomez\nGoo Goo Dolls\nGood Charlotte\nThe Good, the Bad & the Queen\nGoodbye Mr Mackenzie\nGoon Moon\nGorillaz\nGotye\nGraham Coxon\nGrandaddy\ngrandson\nGrant Lee Buffalo\nGravity Kills\nGreek Fire\nGreen Day\nGreen on Red\nGreen River\nGrimes\nGrinderman\nGrizzly Bear\nGrouplove\nGuided by Voices\nGumball\nGuster\n\nH\n\nHalestorm\nHalfNoise\nHandsome Furs\nHawthorne Heights\nHayden\nHayley Williams\nThe Head and the Heart\nHeadstones\nHeather Nova\nHeatmiser\nThe Heavy\nHelium\nHellogoodbye\nHer's\nHideto Matsumoto\nHighly Suspect\nHinder\nHis Name Is Alive\nThe Hives\nHoax\nHockey\nThe Hold Steady\nHole\nThe Hollow Men\nHolly McNarland\nHello Sleepwalkers\nHoobastank\nHoodoo Gurus\nHootie and The Blowfish\nHorse Feathers\nHot Hot Heat\nHot Snakes\nThe House of Love\nThe Housemartins\nHowlin Maggie\nHozier\nHum\nHuman Drama\nHundred Reasons\nHunter Valentine\nHunters and Collectors\nHurricane No. 1\nHurts\nHüsker Dü\nHypnolovewheel\n\nI\n\nI Hate Kate\nI Love You but I've Chosen Darkness\nI Mother Earth\niamamiwhoami\nIAMX\nIan Brown\nIcicle Works\nIcon For Hire\nIda Maria\nIdeamen\nIdlewild\nI Dont Know How But They Found Me\nImagine Dragons \nImogen Heap\nIncubus\nThe Innocence Mission\nInspiral Carpets\nInstitute\nInterpol\nInto Another\nThe Invisible\nINXS\nIron & Wine\nIsaac Slade\nIslands\nIvoryline\n\nJ\n\nJack Off Jill\nJack White\nJack's Mannequin\nJaguares\nJames\nJames Blunt\nJames Bourne\nJames Iha\nJames \"The Rev\" Sullivan\nJamie N Commons\nJane's Addiction\nJanus Stark\nJars of Clay\nJarvis Cocker\nJason Loewenstein\nJawbox\nJeff Buckley\nJerry Cantrell\nJersey Budd\nThe Jesus and Mary Chain\nJesus Jones\nThe Jesus Lizard\nJet\nJill Sobule\nJimmie's Chicken Shack\nJimmy Chamberlin Complex\nJimmy Eat World\nJitters\nJoan Jett\nJoanna Newsom\nJohn Butler Trio\nJohn Frusciante\nJohnny Marr\nJoon Wolfsberg\nJonathan Davis\nJon Spencer Blues Explosion\nJosh Dun\nJoywave\nThe Joy Formidable\nJudah and the Lion\nJudybats\nJulian Casablancas\nJulian Cope\nJuliana Hatfield\nThe Juliana Hatfield Three\nThe Juliana Theory\nJulien-K\nJuliette and the Licks\nJuly Talk\nJxdn\n\nK\n\nK's Choice\nKaiser Chiefs\nKaizers Orchestra\nKaleo\nKane\nKara's Flowers\nKasabian\nKeane\nKennyHoopla\nKent\nKevin Devine\nKill Hannah\nKilldozer\nThe Killers\nKilling Joke\nThe Kills\nKimbra\nKing Charles\nKing Missile\nKings of Convenience\nKings of Leon\nKirsty MacColl\nKitchens of Distinction\nKiwi Time\nKlaxons\nKMFDM\nKnifeworld\nKnuckle Puck\nKodaline\nKongos\nThe Kooks\nKorn\nKT Tunstall\nKula Shaker\nKurt Cobain\nKutless\n\nL\n\nL7\nThe La's\nLacey Sturm\nLaFee\nThe LaFontaines\nLANY\nL'Arc-en-Ciel\nLarrikin Love\nLast Child\nLast Dinosaurs\nThe Last Shadow Puppets\nLawson\nLCD Soundsystem\nThe Lemonheads\nLess Than Jake\nLet's Active\nLetters to Cleo\nThe Levellers\nLiars\nThe Libertines\nThe Life and Times\nLifehouse\nLightning Seeds\nLIGHTS\nLilys\nLil Peep\nThe Lilac Time\nLimblifter\nThe Limousines\nLimp Bizkit\nLinkin Park\nLit\nLive\nThe Living Things\nLiz Phair\nLloyd Cole\nLo-Pro\nLocal H\nLocal Natives\nLodger\nLoop\nLostAlone\nLostprophets\nLou Barlow\nLou Reed\nLOUDspeakers\nLouis XIV\nLovehammers\nLovelytheband\nLove Among Freaks\nLove and Rockets\nLove Battery\nLove Spit Love\nLow\nLower Than Atlantis\nLucero\nThe Lucid\nThe Lumineers\nLuna\nLuscious Jackson\nLush\nLyapis Trubetskoy\nLynda Thomas\n\nM\n\nM83\nMad Season\nThe Madden Brothers\nMadina Lake\nMadrugada\nMagic Dirt\nMagnapop\nThe Maine\nMakethisrelate\nMallory Knox\nMan or Astro-man?\nManchester Orchestra\nMando Diao\nManic Street Preachers\nMansun\nManu Chao\nMarching Band\nMarco Restrepo\nMarcy Playground\nMarianas Trench\nMarilyn Manson\nMarina and the Diamonds\nMark Hoppus\nMartha and The Muffins\nThe Mars Volta\nMary's Danish\nMassive Attack\nMatchbox Twenty\nMaterial Issue\nMatt and Kim\nMatt Willis\nMatthew Good\nMatthew Good Band \nMatthew Sweet\nMaxïmo Park\nMayday\nMayday Parade\nMazzy Star\nMcLusky\nMeat Puppets\nMedicine\nMeg Myers\nThe Mekons\nMelanie Martinez\nMelissa Auf der Maur\nMelvins\nMercury Rev\nMGMT\nMichael Poulsen\nMichael Stipe\nMiddle Class Rut\nMidnight Oil\nThe Mighty Lemon Drops\nThe Mighty Mighty Bosstones\nMike Shinoda\nMiles Kane\nMilky Chance\nThe Mills\nMindless Self Indulgence\nMinistry\nMinutemen\nMiracle Legion\nMissio\nThe Mission\nMobile\nMoby\nMod Fun\nMod Sun\nModern Baseball\nModern English\nModest Mouse\nMogwai\nMoist\nMoloko\nMonaco\nMono Puff\nMonoral\nMoonbabies\nMoose\nMorcheeba\nMorning Parade\nMorningwood\nMorphine\nMorrissey\nMor ve Ötesi\nMother Love Bone\nMother Mother\nMotion City Soundtrack\nThe Mountain Goats\nThe Mowgli's\nMr Hudson\nMudhoney\nMumford & Sons\nMuse\nThe Music\nMusic for Dead Birds\nMutemath\nMuzzle\nMy Bloody Valentine\nMy Chemical Romance\nMy Darkest Days\nMy Morning Jacket\nMy Sister's Machine\nMyles Kennedy\n\nN\n\nNada Surf\nThe Naked and Famous\nName Taken\nNatalie Merchant\nThe National\nNational Velvet\nNavarone\nThe Nearly Deads\nNed's Atomic Dustbin\nNeedtobreathe\nThe Neighbourhood\nNeon Horse\nNeon Indian\nNeon Trees\nNerf Herder\nNeu Electrikk\nNeutral Milk Hotel\nNetral\nNew Empire\nNew Found Glory\nNew Model Army\nNew Order\nNew Politics\nThe New Pornographers\nNew Radicals\nNic Nassuet\nNick Cave and the Bad Seeds\nNickelback\nNico Vega\nNight Verses\nNightmare and the Cat\nNine Black Alps\nNine Inch Nails\nNine Lashes\nNirvana\nNo Devotion\nNo Doubt\nNOAH\nNoel Gallagher's High Flying Birds\nNoir Désir\nNothing But Thieves\nNude\nThe Nymphs\n\nO\n\nO.A.R.\nOasis\nThe Ocean Blue\nOcean Colour Scene\nOceansize\nOdds\nThe Offspring\n Of Mice & Men\nOf Monsters and Men\nOf Montreal\nOingo Boingo\nOK Go\nOkkervil River\nOleander\nOlenka and the Autumn Lovers\nOliver Sykes\nOliver Tree\nOne Ok Rock\nOneRepublic\nThe Operation M.D.\nOrgy\nOstava\nOur Lady Peace\nOur Last Night\nThe Owl Service\nOzma\n\nP\n\nP.O.D.\nPale Saints\nPanic! at the Disco\nPapa Roach\nParabelle\nParamore\nPassion Pit\nThe Pastels\nPatrick Monahan\nPatrick Stump\nPatti Smith\nPaul Westerberg\nPaul Weller\nPavement\nPearl Jam\nPedro the Lion\nPere Ubu\nPete Wentz\nPeter Bjorn and John\nPeter Kember (aka Sonic Boom/Spectrum)\nPeter Murphy\nPhantogram\nPhantom Planet\nPhoenix\nPierce the Veil\nPierre Bouvier\nPillar\nThe Pillows\nPinback\nPixies\nPJ Harvey\nPlacebo\nPlain White T's\nPlimsouls\nPluto\nPoe\nPoets of the Fall\nThe Pogues\nPolvo\nThe Polyphonic Spree\nPond\nPoor Old Lu\nPop Evil\nPop Will Eat Itself\nPorcupine Tree\nPorno for Pyros\nPortishead\nPortugal. The Man\nThe Posies\nPossum Dixon\nThe Postal Service\nPoster Children\nPowerman 5000\nThe Presidents of the United States of America\nThe Pretenders\nThe Pretty Reckless\nPrimal Scream\nPrimitive Radio Gods\nThe Primitives\nPrimus\nThe Proclaimers\nThe Prodigy\nThe Psychedelic Furs\nPublic Image Ltd.\nPuddle of Mudd\nPulled Apart By Horses\nPulp\nPupil\nPussy Galore\nPVRIS\nPylon\n\nQ\n\nQueens of the Stone Age\nQuicksand\nQuietdrive\n\nR\n\nR.E.M.\nRa Ra Riot\nThe Raconteurs\nRadiohead\nThe Radio Dept.\nRadio Iodine \nRadwimps \nRage Against the Machine\nThe Railway Children\nRain Parade\nRamones\nRapeman\nRatatat\nThe Raveonettes\nRay Toro\nRazorlight\nThe Ready Set\nRecovery Child\nRed Hot Chili Peppers\nRed House Painters\nThe Red Jumpsuit Apparatus\nRedd Kross\nReef\nThe Refreshments\nRegina Spektor\nRelient K\nRemy Zero\nThe Rentals\nRenegade Soundwave\nThe Replacements\nRepublica\nResidual Kid\nRevenge\nRevolverheld\nRhythm Corps\nRichard Ashcroft\nRichard Hawley\nRide\nRivers Cuomo\nRobert \"Throb\" Young\nRobyn Hitchcock\nRocket from the Crypt\nThe Rockfords\nRooney\nRoselia\nRoses Are Red\nRoyal Bliss\nRoyal Blood\nRoyal Republic\nRoyal Trux\nThe Rubens\nRun River North\nRusty Willoughby\nRyn Weaver\n\nS \n\nSafetySuit\nSahara Hotnights\nSaid the Whale\nSaint Asonia\nSaint Etienne\nSaint Motel\nSaliva\nSalt \nSam Roberts\nSambomaster\nSammy\nSaosin\nSara Craig\nSave Ferris\nSaving Abel\nSay Anything\nScanners\nScarling.\nScars on Broadway \nSCH\nSchool of Fish\nThe Score\nScott Stapp\nScott Weiland\nScreaming Jets\nScreaming Trees\nThe Script\nSeaweed\nSebadoh\nSecondhand Serenade\nSeether\nSelf\nSemisonic\nThe Servants\nSeven Mary Three\nThe Shamen\nShawn Mullins\nShe Wants Revenge\nShearwater\nShed Seven\nSheila on 7\nShellac\nShihad\nShinedown\nThe Shins\nShiny Toy Guns\nShipping News\nShort Stack\nShout Out Louds\nShudder to Think\nSia\nSick Puppies\nSigur Rós\nSilver Jews\nSilverchair\nSilverstein\nSilversun Pickups\nSimple Kid\nSimple Minds\nSimple Plan\nSinéad Lohan\nSinéad O'Connor\nSiouxsie and the Banshees\nSister Hazel\nThe Sisters of Mercy\nSix Finger Satellite\nSixpence None the Richer\nSixteen Deluxe\nSkillet\nSkindred\nSkin Yard\nSkunk Anansie\nSkye Sweetnam\nSleater-Kinney\nSleeper\nSleeper Agent\nSleeping with Sirens\nSleigh Bells\nSleep Room\nSlint\nSloan\nSlowdive\nSmash Mouth\nThe Smashing Pumpkins\nSmith Westerns\nThe Smithereens\nThe Smiths\nSmoking Popes\nSnail Mail\nSnot\nSnow Patrol\nSnowcake\nSoccer Mommy\nSocial Code\nSocial Distortion\nSoda Stereo\nSome Velvet Sidewalk\nSomething Corporate\nSon of Dork\nSonic Youth\nSons of Day\nSons of Elvis\nSorry About Your Daughter\nSort Sol\nSoul Asylum\nSoul Coughing\nSound Team\nSoundgarden\nThe Sounds\nSoup Dragons\nSouth Cry\nSpacehog\nSpacemen 3\nSparta\nSpear of Destiny\nSpiderbait\nSpin Doctors\nSpirit of the West\nSpiritualized\nSplendora\nSponge\nSponge Cola\nSpoon\nSpoons\nSqueeze\nSquirrel Nut Zippers\nSt. Vincent\nStabbing Westward\nStaind\nStarflyer 59\nThe Starlings\nStars\nStarsailor\nStarset\nState Radio\nStellar West\nStereolab\nStereophonics\nSteve Adey\nSteve Burns\nSteve Taylor\nSteve Taylor & The Perfect Foil\nThe Stone Roses\nStone Sour\nStone Temple Pilots\nStory Of The Year\nThe Stranglers\nThe Strokes\nThe Subways\nSuede\nSugar\nSugar Ray\nThe Sugarcubes\nSugarcult\nSullen\nSum 41\nSunday Driver\nThe Sundays \nSunny Day Real Estate\nSunrise Avenue\nSuper Furry Animals\nSupercar\nSuperchick\nSuperchunk\nSuperdrag\nSupergrass\nSuperheaven\nThe Superjesus\nSurrounded\nSuzanne Vega\nSwans\nSweet Water\nSweethead\nSwervedriver \nSwitchfoot\nSWMRS\nSystem of a Down\n\nT\n\nTAD\nTakida\nTaking Back Sunday\nTalk Talk\nTalk Show\nTally Hall\nTame Impala\nTapes 'n Tapes\nTappi Tíkarrass\nTaproot\nTaylor Momsen\nThe Tea Party\nTeam Sleep\nThe Tears\nTeenage Fanclub\nTegan and Sara\nThe Telescopes\nTemple of the Dog\nTerrible Things\nTest Icicles\nTexas\nTh' Faith Healers\nThat Dog\nThe The\nThe Academy Is...\nTherapy?\nThere For Tomorrow\nThey Might Be Giants\nThin White Rope\nThinking Fellers Union Local 282\nThird Day\nThird Eye Blind\nThirteen Senses\nThirty Seconds to Mars\nThis Century\nThis Picture\nThom Yorke\nThousand Foot Krutch\nThree Days Grace\nThree Fish\nThe Three O'Clock\nThrice\nThrowing Muses\nTiffany Alvord\nTiger Please\nTim McIlrath\nTinfed\nTISM\nToad the Wet Sprocket\nToadies\nTokio Hotel\nTokyo Police Club\nTomahawk\nTom DeLonge\nTom Fletcher\nTom Morello\nTom Waits\nTonic\nTonight Alive\nTool\nToo Much Joy\nTori Amos\nTracy Bonham\nTragically Hip\nTrain\nTransvision Vamp\nTrapt\nTrashcan Sinatras\nTravis\nTrent Reznor\nThe Trews\nTripping Daisy\nTroy Baker\nTse Tse Fly\nTTNG\nTuscadero\nTV on the Radio\nTweaker\nTwenty One Pilots\nTwin Atlantic\nTwo Door Cinema Club\nTyler Joseph\nTyson Ritter\n\nU\n\nU2 \nUbiquitous Synergy Seeker\nUgly Casanova\nUltra Vivid Scene\nUncle Tupelo\nUnderworld\nUnder the Influence of Giants\nUniklubi\nUnrest\nUnsane\nUnwritten Law\nUPSAHL\nUrge Overkill\nUs Amongst The Rest\nThe Used\nUverworld\n\nV\n\nThe Vaccines\nVampire Weekend\nVanessa Petruo\nThe Vaselines\nVast\nVeridia\nVersaEmerge\nVersus\nVertical Horizon\nVeruca Salt\nThe Verve\nThe Verve Pipe\nVHS or Beta\nVib Gyor\nVic Chestnutt\nVictoria Williams\nThe Vines\nViolent Femmes\nViolent Soho\nThe Virgins\nVolcano Suns\nThe Von Bondies\nVoxtrot\n\nW\n\nWakey!Wakey!\nWalk Off the Earth\nWalk the Moon\nThe Wallflowers\nWallows\nWalt Mink\nWannadies\nWarpaint\nWaterparks\nWavves\nWax on Radio\nWe Are Scientists\nWe Are the Ocean\nWe the Kings\nWeen\nThe Weakerthans\nWeathers\nThe Wedding Present\nWeeping Willows\nWeezer\nWellwater Conspiracy\nWhale\nWheatus\nWhite Lies\nThe White Stripes\nWhite Town\nWilco\nWild Strawberries\nWintersleep\nWolf Alice\nWolf Parade\nThe Wolfhounds\nThe Wombats\nThe Wonder Stuff\nWooden Shjips\nWorking for a Nuclear Free City\nWorld Party\nWZRD\n\nX\n\nX Ambassadors\n\nY\n\nYeah Yeah Yeahs\nYellowcard\nYo La Tengo\nYou Am I\nYou Me At Six\nYoung Guns\nYoung the Giant\nYoungblood Hawke\n Yungblud\n\nZ\n\nZoé\nThe Zolas\nZonic Shockum\nZox\nThe Zutons\nZvuki Mu\nZwan\n\nSee also\n\nList of alternative metal artists\nList of Britpop musicians\nList of dream pop artists\nList of gothic rock bands\nList of indie pop artists\nList of indie rock musicians\nList of industrial rock bands\nList of math rock groups\nList of post-grunge bands\nList of post-punk revival bands\nList of post-rock bands\nList of shoegazing musicians\nLists of musicians\n\nReferences\n\n \nCategory:Lists of rock musicians by subgenre\nCategory:Lists of musicians by genre\nCategory:Rock music lists", "title": "List of alternative rock artists" } ]

[ "The albums released in that period were \"Monster\" in 1994 and \"New Adventures in Hi-Fi\" in 1996.", "\"Monster\" was received well by the public as it topped the charts in both the US and UK and sold about nine million copies worldwide. However, the \"New Adventures in Hi-Fi\" album sold five million copies, which was considered a reversal of the group's commercial fortunes of the previous five years.", "The context does not provide information on how the albums were received by the critics.", "The singles they released from the \"Monster\" album were \"What's the Frequency, Kenneth?\" and \"Bang and Blame\". The context does not provide information on which singles were released from the \"New Adventures in Hi-Fi\" album.", "The singles \"What's the Frequency, Kenneth?\" and \"Bang and Blame\" from the album \"Monster\" were the band's last American Top 40 hits. All the singles from Monster reached the Top 30 on the British charts. The context does not provide information on how the singles from the \"New Adventures in Hi-Fi\" album performed on the charts.", "Yes, R.E.M. went on their first tour in six years in January 1995 after the release of the album \"Monster\". The tour was commercially successful but marred by health problems. The final three performances of this tour were filmed and released as \"Road Movie\". The context does not provide information on whether they went on tour for the \"New Adventures in Hi-Fi\" album.", "One of the countries R.E.M. visited on their tour was Switzerland.", "The article also mentions that during the Monster tour, several band members faced serious health problems. Berry collapsed on stage due to a brain aneurysm and Mills had to undergo abdominal surgery. There was also an incident where Stipe had emergency surgery to repair a hernia. Additionally, the band re-signed with Warner Bros. Records in 1996 for a rumored $80 million, which was, at the time, allegedly the largest recording contract in history. Furthermore, the band parted ways with manager Jefferson Holt amidst sexual harassment allegations, and their lawyer Bertis Downs took over managerial duties." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_1_q#0", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_1_q#1", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_1_q#2", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_1_q#3", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_1_q#4", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_1_q#5", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_1_q#6", "C_c87fee161031431bbd689ad1d2a8d4e8_1_q#7" ]

[ "Whose idea was it to form R.E.M.?", "Who were the original members?", "Did they add anyone else?", "What was their first album?", "Was it successful?", "Were there successful singles from the album?", "What record company produced the album?", "What was their second album?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 541 ], [ 373 ], [ 1166 ], [ 1806 ], [ 2140 ], [ 2259 ], [ 1966 ], [ 2259 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The quartet agreed to collaborate on several songs; Stipe later commented that \"there was never any grand plan behind any of it\"." ], [ "Stipe and Buck then met fellow University of Georgia students Mike Mills and Bill Berry," ], [ "They found a manager in Jefferson Holt," ], [ "During the summer of 1981, R.E.M. recorded its first single, \"Radio Free Europe\"," ], [ "the single garnered critical acclaim, and was listed as one of the ten best singles of the year by The New York Times." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The single was released on the local independent record label Hib-Tone" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 541, 373, 1166, 1806, 2140, 2259, 1966, 2259 ], "texts": [ "The quartet agreed to collaborate on several songs; Stipe later commented that \"there was never any grand plan behind any of it\".", "Stipe and Buck then met fellow University of Georgia students Mike Mills and Bill Berry,", "They found a manager in Jefferson Holt,", "During the summer of 1981, R.E.M. recorded its first single, \"Radio Free Europe\",", "the single garnered critical acclaim, and was listed as one of the ten best singles of the year by The New York Times.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The single was released on the local independent record label Hib-Tone", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "This is a list of alternative rock artists. Bands are listed alphabetically by the first letter in their name (not including \"The\"), and individuals are listed by the first name.\n\n0–9\n\n+44\n3 Doors Down \n3OH!3\n4 Non Blondes\n7 Year Bitch\n8stops7\n10 Years\n12 Stones\n13 Engines\n54-40\nThe 77s\n311\nThe 1975\n10,000 Maniacs\n\nA\n\nA Day to Remember\nA Perfect Circle\nA Rocket to the Moon\nA Silent Film\nAaroh\nAcceptance\nThe Accidentals\nThe Aces\nAdam Again\nAdam Gontier\nAdorable\nThe Afghan Whigs\nAFI\nAfter Midnight Project\nAgainst Me!\nAgainst the Current\nAge of Chance\nAir\nThe Airborne Toxic Event\nAlanis Morissette\nThe Alarm\nAlex Clare\nAlex Chilton\nAlice in Chains\nAlien Ant Farm\nAlkaline Trio\nThe All-American Rejects\nAll Time Low\nThe Almost\nAlpha Rev\nAlt-J\nAlvvays\nThe American Analog Set\nAmerican Authors\nAmerican Hi-Fi\nAmerican Standards\nAmplifier\nThe Amps\nAnathema\nAnberlin\nAndy Biersack\nAngels & Airwaves\nAPB\nThe Apples in Stereo\nArcade Fire\nArcane Roots\nArchitecture in Helsinki\nArctic Monkeys\nArea 11\nArkells\nAs Tall As Lions\nAsh\nAsian Kung-Fu Generation\nThe Asteroids Galaxy Tour\nAt the Drive-In\nThe Ataris\nAthlete\nAtlas Genius\nAtom Smash\nAudioslave\nThe Auteurs\nAutolux\nAvril Lavigne\nAwolnation\n\nB\n\nB-52s\nBabes in Toyland\nBad Books\nBad Suns\nBadflower\nThe Badgeman\nBalance and Composure\nBand of Horses\nBarenaked Ladies\nBaryonyx\nBastille\nBattles\nBayside\nBe Your Own Pet\nBeady Eye\nBeastie Boys\nBeck\nBeirut\nThe Belltower\nBelly\nBen Folds Five\nBen Kweller\nBenjamin Burnley\nBeth Orton\nBetter Than Ezra\nBeware of Darkness\nBiffy Clyro\nBig Black\nBig Dipper\nThe Big Pink\nBillie Joe Armstrong\nBilly Corgan\nBilly Talent\nThe Birds of Satan\nBirds of Tokyo\nBjörk\nBlack Country, New Road\nThe Black Crowes\nThe Black Keys\nBlack Kids\nBlack Light Burns\nBlack Rebel Motorcycle Club\nBleachers\nBlind Melon\nBlind Pilot\nBlink-182\nBloc Party\nBlonde Redhead\nBlood Red Shoes\nBloodhound Gang\nBlue October\nThe Bluebells \nBlumfeld\nBlur\nBob Mould\nBodyjar\nThe Bolshoi\nBon Iver \nBono\nThe Boo Radleys\nBowling For Soup\nBoys Like Girls\nBracket\nBrand New\nBrandon Flowers\nThe Bravery\nBreaking Benjamin\nThe Breeders\nBrendon Urie\nBring Me the Horizon\nBroder Daniel\nBrother Cane\nBrymo \nThe Buck Pets\nBuffalo Tom\nBully\nBush\nButthole Surfers\n\nC\n\nThe Cab\nCaesars\nCage the Elephant\nCake\nThe Calling\nCamper Van Beethoven\nCandlebox\nCandy Flip\nCanterbury\nThe Cardigans\nCaribou\nCarolina Liar\nCarter the Unstoppable Sex Machine\nCast\nThe Cat Empire\nCat Power\nCatatonia\nCatherine\nCatherine Wheel\nCaveman\nCell\nChad Kroeger\nThe Charlatans\nCharlie Simpson\nCherri Bomb\nChester Bennington\nChevelle\nThe Chills\nChimera\nChris Cornell\nChris Martin\nChumbawamba\nThe Church\nChvrches\nThe Cinematics\nCirca Survive\nCircus Diablo\nCitizen Cope\nCitizen King\nCivil Twilight\nClap Your Hands Say Yeah\nThe Classic Crime\nCloud Control\nCloud Nothings\nThe Clouds\nCobra Starship\nCoheed and Cambria\nCold War Kids\nColdplay\nColdrain\nCollective Soul\nThe Colourist\nCompany of Thieves\nConcrete Blonde\nThe Connells\nThe Constellations\nCopeland\nThe Coral Sea\nCourtney Love\nThe Cramps\nThe Cranberries\nCrash Test Dummies\nThe Creatures\nCreed\nThe Cribs\nCroc Shop\nCrooked Fingers\nCrowded House\nCrystal Antlers\nCrystal Castles\nThe Cult\nCults\nThe Cure\nCurve\nCute Is What We Aim For\nCymbals Eat Guitars\n\nD\n\nDaisy Chainsaw\nThe Damned\nThe Damning Well\nDan Auerbach\nDan Reynolds\nThe Dandy Warhols\nThe Dangerous Summer\nDaniel Amos\nThe Darling Buds\nDas Damen\nDashboard Confessional\nThe Datsuns\nDaughtry\nDave Gahan\nDave Grohl\nDave Matthews Band\nDavey Havok\nDays of the New\nThe dB's\nDeacon Blue\nDead by Sunrise\nDead Letter Circus\nThe Dead Milkmen\nDead Sara\nThe Dead Weather\nThe Deadly Syndrome\nDeaf Havana\nThe Dear Hunter\nDeas Vail\nDeath Cab for Cutie\nThe Decemberists\nDeep Blue Something\nDeerhunter\nDeftones\nThe Del Fuegos\nThe Delgados\nDepeche Mode\nDeryck Whibley\nDi-rect\nDie Kreuzen\nDIIV\nDinosaur Jr.\nThe Dirty Heads\nDirty Projectors\nDispatch\nDishwalla\nThe Dodos\nThe Donnas\nDoves\nDr. Dog\nThe Dream Academy\nDredg\nThe Drums\nDum Dum Girls\nDuran Duran\n\nE\n\nEddie Vedder\nEditors\nEdwyn Collins\nEels\nElastica\nElbow\nEleanor Friedberger\nElectrasy\nElectronic\nEleventh Dream Day\nElvis Costello\nEmiliana Torrini\nEmily Haines & the Soft Skeleton\nEnter Shikari\nEnvy on the Coast\nEraserheads\nEvanescence\nEvans Blue\nEverclear\nEvery Avenue\nThe Exies\nThe Explosion\nExplosions in the Sky\n\nF\n\nFailure\nFaith No More\nThe Fall\nFall Out Boy\nFalling in Reverse\nFastball\nFatboy Slim\nFatherson\nThe Fatima Mansions\nFearless Vampire Killers\nFeeder\nThe Feelies\nFeist\nThe Fiery Furnaces\nFightstar\nFilter\nFine Young Cannibals\nFinch\nFinger Eleven\nFiona Apple\nFishbone\nFitz and the Tantrums\nFive For Fighting\nThe Flaming Lips\nFleet Foxes\nFlight of the Conchords\nFlobots\nFlor\nFlorence and the Machine\nFlow\nFlyleaf\nFoals\nFolk Implosion\nFontaines D.C.\nFoo Fighters\nFool's Garden\nFor Against\nForever The Sickest Kids\nThe Format\nFoster the People\nFountains of Wayne\nThe Frames\nFraming Hanley\nFrank Black and the Catholics\nFrank Iero\nFrank Turner\nFranz Ferdinand\nThe Fratellis\nThe Fray\nFreelance Whales\nFrente!\nThe Front Bottoms\nFuel\nFugazi\nFun\nFun Lovin Criminals\nFuneral For A Friend\nFuneral Party\nThe Futureheads\n\nG\n\nThe Gandharvas\nGang Gang Dance\nGarbage\nGarrett Borns\nGary Lightbody\nThe Gaslight Anthem\nGerard Way\nThe Get Up Kids\nGiant Drag\nGin Blossoms\nGirl in a Coma\nGivers\nGlasvegas\nGnarls Barkley\nGo Radio\nThe Go-Betweens\nThe God Machine\nGod Lives Underwater\nGodsmack\nGodspeed You! Black Emperor\nGolden Palominos\nThe Golden Seals\nGomez\nGoo Goo Dolls\nGood Charlotte\nThe Good, the Bad & the Queen\nGoodbye Mr Mackenzie\nGoon Moon\nGorillaz\nGotye\nGraham Coxon\nGrandaddy\ngrandson\nGrant Lee Buffalo\nGravity Kills\nGreek Fire\nGreen Day\nGreen on Red\nGreen River\nGrimes\nGrinderman\nGrizzly Bear\nGrouplove\nGuided by Voices\nGumball\nGuster\n\nH\n\nHalestorm\nHalfNoise\nHandsome Furs\nHawthorne Heights\nHayden\nHayley Williams\nThe Head and the Heart\nHeadstones\nHeather Nova\nHeatmiser\nThe Heavy\nHelium\nHellogoodbye\nHer's\nHideto Matsumoto\nHighly Suspect\nHinder\nHis Name Is Alive\nThe Hives\nHoax\nHockey\nThe Hold Steady\nHole\nThe Hollow Men\nHolly McNarland\nHello Sleepwalkers\nHoobastank\nHoodoo Gurus\nHootie and The Blowfish\nHorse Feathers\nHot Hot Heat\nHot Snakes\nThe House of Love\nThe Housemartins\nHowlin Maggie\nHozier\nHum\nHuman Drama\nHundred Reasons\nHunter Valentine\nHunters and Collectors\nHurricane No. 1\nHurts\nHüsker Dü\nHypnolovewheel\n\nI\n\nI Hate Kate\nI Love You but I've Chosen Darkness\nI Mother Earth\niamamiwhoami\nIAMX\nIan Brown\nIcicle Works\nIcon For Hire\nIda Maria\nIdeamen\nIdlewild\nI Dont Know How But They Found Me\nImagine Dragons \nImogen Heap\nIncubus\nThe Innocence Mission\nInspiral Carpets\nInstitute\nInterpol\nInto Another\nThe Invisible\nINXS\nIron & Wine\nIsaac Slade\nIslands\nIvoryline\n\nJ\n\nJack Off Jill\nJack White\nJack's Mannequin\nJaguares\nJames\nJames Blunt\nJames Bourne\nJames Iha\nJames \"The Rev\" Sullivan\nJamie N Commons\nJane's Addiction\nJanus Stark\nJars of Clay\nJarvis Cocker\nJason Loewenstein\nJawbox\nJeff Buckley\nJerry Cantrell\nJersey Budd\nThe Jesus and Mary Chain\nJesus Jones\nThe Jesus Lizard\nJet\nJill Sobule\nJimmie's Chicken Shack\nJimmy Chamberlin Complex\nJimmy Eat World\nJitters\nJoan Jett\nJoanna Newsom\nJohn Butler Trio\nJohn Frusciante\nJohnny Marr\nJoon Wolfsberg\nJonathan Davis\nJon Spencer Blues Explosion\nJosh Dun\nJoywave\nThe Joy Formidable\nJudah and the Lion\nJudybats\nJulian Casablancas\nJulian Cope\nJuliana Hatfield\nThe Juliana Hatfield Three\nThe Juliana Theory\nJulien-K\nJuliette and the Licks\nJuly Talk\nJxdn\n\nK\n\nK's Choice\nKaiser Chiefs\nKaizers Orchestra\nKaleo\nKane\nKara's Flowers\nKasabian\nKeane\nKennyHoopla\nKent\nKevin Devine\nKill Hannah\nKilldozer\nThe Killers\nKilling Joke\nThe Kills\nKimbra\nKing Charles\nKing Missile\nKings of Convenience\nKings of Leon\nKirsty MacColl\nKitchens of Distinction\nKiwi Time\nKlaxons\nKMFDM\nKnifeworld\nKnuckle Puck\nKodaline\nKongos\nThe Kooks\nKorn\nKT Tunstall\nKula Shaker\nKurt Cobain\nKutless\n\nL\n\nL7\nThe La's\nLacey Sturm\nLaFee\nThe LaFontaines\nLANY\nL'Arc-en-Ciel\nLarrikin Love\nLast Child\nLast Dinosaurs\nThe Last Shadow Puppets\nLawson\nLCD Soundsystem\nThe Lemonheads\nLess Than Jake\nLet's Active\nLetters to Cleo\nThe Levellers\nLiars\nThe Libertines\nThe Life and Times\nLifehouse\nLightning Seeds\nLIGHTS\nLilys\nLil Peep\nThe Lilac Time\nLimblifter\nThe Limousines\nLimp Bizkit\nLinkin Park\nLit\nLive\nThe Living Things\nLiz Phair\nLloyd Cole\nLo-Pro\nLocal H\nLocal Natives\nLodger\nLoop\nLostAlone\nLostprophets\nLou Barlow\nLou Reed\nLOUDspeakers\nLouis XIV\nLovehammers\nLovelytheband\nLove Among Freaks\nLove and Rockets\nLove Battery\nLove Spit Love\nLow\nLower Than Atlantis\nLucero\nThe Lucid\nThe Lumineers\nLuna\nLuscious Jackson\nLush\nLyapis Trubetskoy\nLynda Thomas\n\nM\n\nM83\nMad Season\nThe Madden Brothers\nMadina Lake\nMadrugada\nMagic Dirt\nMagnapop\nThe Maine\nMakethisrelate\nMallory Knox\nMan or Astro-man?\nManchester Orchestra\nMando Diao\nManic Street Preachers\nMansun\nManu Chao\nMarching Band\nMarco Restrepo\nMarcy Playground\nMarianas Trench\nMarilyn Manson\nMarina and the Diamonds\nMark Hoppus\nMartha and The Muffins\nThe Mars Volta\nMary's Danish\nMassive Attack\nMatchbox Twenty\nMaterial Issue\nMatt and Kim\nMatt Willis\nMatthew Good\nMatthew Good Band \nMatthew Sweet\nMaxïmo Park\nMayday\nMayday Parade\nMazzy Star\nMcLusky\nMeat Puppets\nMedicine\nMeg Myers\nThe Mekons\nMelanie Martinez\nMelissa Auf der Maur\nMelvins\nMercury Rev\nMGMT\nMichael Poulsen\nMichael Stipe\nMiddle Class Rut\nMidnight Oil\nThe Mighty Lemon Drops\nThe Mighty Mighty Bosstones\nMike Shinoda\nMiles Kane\nMilky Chance\nThe Mills\nMindless Self Indulgence\nMinistry\nMinutemen\nMiracle Legion\nMissio\nThe Mission\nMobile\nMoby\nMod Fun\nMod Sun\nModern Baseball\nModern English\nModest Mouse\nMogwai\nMoist\nMoloko\nMonaco\nMono Puff\nMonoral\nMoonbabies\nMoose\nMorcheeba\nMorning Parade\nMorningwood\nMorphine\nMorrissey\nMor ve Ötesi\nMother Love Bone\nMother Mother\nMotion City Soundtrack\nThe Mountain Goats\nThe Mowgli's\nMr Hudson\nMudhoney\nMumford & Sons\nMuse\nThe Music\nMusic for Dead Birds\nMutemath\nMuzzle\nMy Bloody Valentine\nMy Chemical Romance\nMy Darkest Days\nMy Morning Jacket\nMy Sister's Machine\nMyles Kennedy\n\nN\n\nNada Surf\nThe Naked and Famous\nName Taken\nNatalie Merchant\nThe National\nNational Velvet\nNavarone\nThe Nearly Deads\nNed's Atomic Dustbin\nNeedtobreathe\nThe Neighbourhood\nNeon Horse\nNeon Indian\nNeon Trees\nNerf Herder\nNeu Electrikk\nNeutral Milk Hotel\nNetral\nNew Empire\nNew Found Glory\nNew Model Army\nNew Order\nNew Politics\nThe New Pornographers\nNew Radicals\nNic Nassuet\nNick Cave and the Bad Seeds\nNickelback\nNico Vega\nNight Verses\nNightmare and the Cat\nNine Black Alps\nNine Inch Nails\nNine Lashes\nNirvana\nNo Devotion\nNo Doubt\nNOAH\nNoel Gallagher's High Flying Birds\nNoir Désir\nNothing But Thieves\nNude\nThe Nymphs\n\nO\n\nO.A.R.\nOasis\nThe Ocean Blue\nOcean Colour Scene\nOceansize\nOdds\nThe Offspring\n Of Mice & Men\nOf Monsters and Men\nOf Montreal\nOingo Boingo\nOK Go\nOkkervil River\nOleander\nOlenka and the Autumn Lovers\nOliver Sykes\nOliver Tree\nOne Ok Rock\nOneRepublic\nThe Operation M.D.\nOrgy\nOstava\nOur Lady Peace\nOur Last Night\nThe Owl Service\nOzma\n\nP\n\nP.O.D.\nPale Saints\nPanic! at the Disco\nPapa Roach\nParabelle\nParamore\nPassion Pit\nThe Pastels\nPatrick Monahan\nPatrick Stump\nPatti Smith\nPaul Westerberg\nPaul Weller\nPavement\nPearl Jam\nPedro the Lion\nPere Ubu\nPete Wentz\nPeter Bjorn and John\nPeter Kember (aka Sonic Boom/Spectrum)\nPeter Murphy\nPhantogram\nPhantom Planet\nPhoenix\nPierce the Veil\nPierre Bouvier\nPillar\nThe Pillows\nPinback\nPixies\nPJ Harvey\nPlacebo\nPlain White T's\nPlimsouls\nPluto\nPoe\nPoets of the Fall\nThe Pogues\nPolvo\nThe Polyphonic Spree\nPond\nPoor Old Lu\nPop Evil\nPop Will Eat Itself\nPorcupine Tree\nPorno for Pyros\nPortishead\nPortugal. The Man\nThe Posies\nPossum Dixon\nThe Postal Service\nPoster Children\nPowerman 5000\nThe Presidents of the United States of America\nThe Pretenders\nThe Pretty Reckless\nPrimal Scream\nPrimitive Radio Gods\nThe Primitives\nPrimus\nThe Proclaimers\nThe Prodigy\nThe Psychedelic Furs\nPublic Image Ltd.\nPuddle of Mudd\nPulled Apart By Horses\nPulp\nPupil\nPussy Galore\nPVRIS\nPylon\n\nQ\n\nQueens of the Stone Age\nQuicksand\nQuietdrive\n\nR\n\nR.E.M.\nRa Ra Riot\nThe Raconteurs\nRadiohead\nThe Radio Dept.\nRadio Iodine \nRadwimps \nRage Against the Machine\nThe Railway Children\nRain Parade\nRamones\nRapeman\nRatatat\nThe Raveonettes\nRay Toro\nRazorlight\nThe Ready Set\nRecovery Child\nRed Hot Chili Peppers\nRed House Painters\nThe Red Jumpsuit Apparatus\nRedd Kross\nReef\nThe Refreshments\nRegina Spektor\nRelient K\nRemy Zero\nThe Rentals\nRenegade Soundwave\nThe Replacements\nRepublica\nResidual Kid\nRevenge\nRevolverheld\nRhythm Corps\nRichard Ashcroft\nRichard Hawley\nRide\nRivers Cuomo\nRobert \"Throb\" Young\nRobyn Hitchcock\nRocket from the Crypt\nThe Rockfords\nRooney\nRoselia\nRoses Are Red\nRoyal Bliss\nRoyal Blood\nRoyal Republic\nRoyal Trux\nThe Rubens\nRun River North\nRusty Willoughby\nRyn Weaver\n\nS \n\nSafetySuit\nSahara Hotnights\nSaid the Whale\nSaint Asonia\nSaint Etienne\nSaint Motel\nSaliva\nSalt \nSam Roberts\nSambomaster\nSammy\nSaosin\nSara Craig\nSave Ferris\nSaving Abel\nSay Anything\nScanners\nScarling.\nScars on Broadway \nSCH\nSchool of Fish\nThe Score\nScott Stapp\nScott Weiland\nScreaming Jets\nScreaming Trees\nThe Script\nSeaweed\nSebadoh\nSecondhand Serenade\nSeether\nSelf\nSemisonic\nThe Servants\nSeven Mary Three\nThe Shamen\nShawn Mullins\nShe Wants Revenge\nShearwater\nShed Seven\nSheila on 7\nShellac\nShihad\nShinedown\nThe Shins\nShiny Toy Guns\nShipping News\nShort Stack\nShout Out Louds\nShudder to Think\nSia\nSick Puppies\nSigur Rós\nSilver Jews\nSilverchair\nSilverstein\nSilversun Pickups\nSimple Kid\nSimple Minds\nSimple Plan\nSinéad Lohan\nSinéad O'Connor\nSiouxsie and the Banshees\nSister Hazel\nThe Sisters of Mercy\nSix Finger Satellite\nSixpence None the Richer\nSixteen Deluxe\nSkillet\nSkindred\nSkin Yard\nSkunk Anansie\nSkye Sweetnam\nSleater-Kinney\nSleeper\nSleeper Agent\nSleeping with Sirens\nSleigh Bells\nSleep Room\nSlint\nSloan\nSlowdive\nSmash Mouth\nThe Smashing Pumpkins\nSmith Westerns\nThe Smithereens\nThe Smiths\nSmoking Popes\nSnail Mail\nSnot\nSnow Patrol\nSnowcake\nSoccer Mommy\nSocial Code\nSocial Distortion\nSoda Stereo\nSome Velvet Sidewalk\nSomething Corporate\nSon of Dork\nSonic Youth\nSons of Day\nSons of Elvis\nSorry About Your Daughter\nSort Sol\nSoul Asylum\nSoul Coughing\nSound Team\nSoundgarden\nThe Sounds\nSoup Dragons\nSouth Cry\nSpacehog\nSpacemen 3\nSparta\nSpear of Destiny\nSpiderbait\nSpin Doctors\nSpirit of the West\nSpiritualized\nSplendora\nSponge\nSponge Cola\nSpoon\nSpoons\nSqueeze\nSquirrel Nut Zippers\nSt. Vincent\nStabbing Westward\nStaind\nStarflyer 59\nThe Starlings\nStars\nStarsailor\nStarset\nState Radio\nStellar West\nStereolab\nStereophonics\nSteve Adey\nSteve Burns\nSteve Taylor\nSteve Taylor & The Perfect Foil\nThe Stone Roses\nStone Sour\nStone Temple Pilots\nStory Of The Year\nThe Stranglers\nThe Strokes\nThe Subways\nSuede\nSugar\nSugar Ray\nThe Sugarcubes\nSugarcult\nSullen\nSum 41\nSunday Driver\nThe Sundays \nSunny Day Real Estate\nSunrise Avenue\nSuper Furry Animals\nSupercar\nSuperchick\nSuperchunk\nSuperdrag\nSupergrass\nSuperheaven\nThe Superjesus\nSurrounded\nSuzanne Vega\nSwans\nSweet Water\nSweethead\nSwervedriver \nSwitchfoot\nSWMRS\nSystem of a Down\n\nT\n\nTAD\nTakida\nTaking Back Sunday\nTalk Talk\nTalk Show\nTally Hall\nTame Impala\nTapes 'n Tapes\nTappi Tíkarrass\nTaproot\nTaylor Momsen\nThe Tea Party\nTeam Sleep\nThe Tears\nTeenage Fanclub\nTegan and Sara\nThe Telescopes\nTemple of the Dog\nTerrible Things\nTest Icicles\nTexas\nTh' Faith Healers\nThat Dog\nThe The\nThe Academy Is...\nTherapy?\nThere For Tomorrow\nThey Might Be Giants\nThin White Rope\nThinking Fellers Union Local 282\nThird Day\nThird Eye Blind\nThirteen Senses\nThirty Seconds to Mars\nThis Century\nThis Picture\nThom Yorke\nThousand Foot Krutch\nThree Days Grace\nThree Fish\nThe Three O'Clock\nThrice\nThrowing Muses\nTiffany Alvord\nTiger Please\nTim McIlrath\nTinfed\nTISM\nToad the Wet Sprocket\nToadies\nTokio Hotel\nTokyo Police Club\nTomahawk\nTom DeLonge\nTom Fletcher\nTom Morello\nTom Waits\nTonic\nTonight Alive\nTool\nToo Much Joy\nTori Amos\nTracy Bonham\nTragically Hip\nTrain\nTransvision Vamp\nTrapt\nTrashcan Sinatras\nTravis\nTrent Reznor\nThe Trews\nTripping Daisy\nTroy Baker\nTse Tse Fly\nTTNG\nTuscadero\nTV on the Radio\nTweaker\nTwenty One Pilots\nTwin Atlantic\nTwo Door Cinema Club\nTyler Joseph\nTyson Ritter\n\nU\n\nU2 \nUbiquitous Synergy Seeker\nUgly Casanova\nUltra Vivid Scene\nUncle Tupelo\nUnderworld\nUnder the Influence of Giants\nUniklubi\nUnrest\nUnsane\nUnwritten Law\nUPSAHL\nUrge Overkill\nUs Amongst The Rest\nThe Used\nUverworld\n\nV\n\nThe Vaccines\nVampire Weekend\nVanessa Petruo\nThe Vaselines\nVast\nVeridia\nVersaEmerge\nVersus\nVertical Horizon\nVeruca Salt\nThe Verve\nThe Verve Pipe\nVHS or Beta\nVib Gyor\nVic Chestnutt\nVictoria Williams\nThe Vines\nViolent Femmes\nViolent Soho\nThe Virgins\nVolcano Suns\nThe Von Bondies\nVoxtrot\n\nW\n\nWakey!Wakey!\nWalk Off the Earth\nWalk the Moon\nThe Wallflowers\nWallows\nWalt Mink\nWannadies\nWarpaint\nWaterparks\nWavves\nWax on Radio\nWe Are Scientists\nWe Are the Ocean\nWe the Kings\nWeen\nThe Weakerthans\nWeathers\nThe Wedding Present\nWeeping Willows\nWeezer\nWellwater Conspiracy\nWhale\nWheatus\nWhite Lies\nThe White Stripes\nWhite Town\nWilco\nWild Strawberries\nWintersleep\nWolf Alice\nWolf Parade\nThe Wolfhounds\nThe Wombats\nThe Wonder Stuff\nWooden Shjips\nWorking for a Nuclear Free City\nWorld Party\nWZRD\n\nX\n\nX Ambassadors\n\nY\n\nYeah Yeah Yeahs\nYellowcard\nYo La Tengo\nYou Am I\nYou Me At Six\nYoung Guns\nYoung the Giant\nYoungblood Hawke\n Yungblud\n\nZ\n\nZoé\nThe Zolas\nZonic Shockum\nZox\nThe Zutons\nZvuki Mu\nZwan\n\nSee also\n\nList of alternative metal artists\nList of Britpop musicians\nList of dream pop artists\nList of gothic rock bands\nList of indie pop artists\nList of indie rock musicians\nList of industrial rock bands\nList of math rock groups\nList of post-grunge bands\nList of post-punk revival bands\nList of post-rock bands\nList of shoegazing musicians\nLists of musicians\n\nReferences\n\n \nCategory:Lists of rock musicians by subgenre\nCategory:Lists of musicians by genre\nCategory:Rock music lists", "title": "List of alternative rock artists" } ]

[ "The context does not provide specific information on whose idea it was to form R.E.M.", "The original members of R.E.M. were Michael Stipe, Peter Buck, Mike Mills, and Bill Berry.", "The context does not provide information on whether any additional members were added to the original lineup of R.E.M.", "The context does not provide information on what R.E.M.'s first album was.", "The context does not provide information on the success of R.E.M.'s first album.", "The context does not provide information on any successful singles from R.E.M.'s first album.", "The context does not provide information on which record company produced R.E.M.'s first album.", "The context does not provide information on what R.E.M.'s second album was." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "no", "Yes", "no", "Yes" ]

[ "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#0", "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#1", "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#2", "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#3", "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#4", "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#5", "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#6", "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#7", "C_955bffbddac7419e80007156885b06f9_1_q#8" ]

[ "How did Buffalo Springstein form?", "How did Richard Furay get involved?", "What was Richie invited to?", "What did they do in California?", "How long did they do the California tour?", "Where else did they tour?", "Did they tour anywhere else?", "Were there any other tours?", "What other notable events happened in their early years?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 546 ], [ 593 ], [ 1679 ], [ 1710 ], [ 776 ], [ 50 ], [ 1786 ], [ 1606 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Neil Young and Stephen Stills met in 1965, at the Fourth Dimension in Thunder Bay, Ontario." ], [ "Stills invited fellow Au Go Go Singers alumnus Richie Furay" ], [ "Richie Furay and former Squires bass player Ken Koblun to come join him in California." ], [ "A few days later, they began a short tour of California" ], [ "short tour" ], [ "In early 1966 in Toronto, Young met Bruce Palmer," ], [ "Fourth Dimension in Thunder Bay, Ontario." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The new group debuted on April 11, 1966, at The Troubadour in Hollywood." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 546, 593, 1679, 1710, 776, 50, 1786, 1606 ], "texts": [ "Neil Young and Stephen Stills met in 1965, at the Fourth Dimension in Thunder Bay, Ontario.", "Stills invited fellow Au Go Go Singers alumnus Richie Furay", "Richie Furay and former Squires bass player Ken Koblun to come join him in California.", "A few days later, they began a short tour of California", "short tour", "In early 1966 in Toronto, Young met Bruce Palmer,", "Fourth Dimension in Thunder Bay, Ontario.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The new group debuted on April 11, 1966, at The Troubadour in Hollywood." ] }

[]

[ "Buffalo Springfield formed when Neil Young met Stephen Stills in 1965. After Stills' band broke up, he was encouraged by a producer to assemble a band, leading him to invite Richie Furay and Ken Koblun to join him in California. Koblun eventually left the group. Meanwhile, in Toronto, Young met Bruce Palmer and joined his group, the Mynah Birds. When their record deal was canceled due to the arrest of their singer, Young and Palmer moved to Los Angeles where they encountered Stills. Drummer Dewey Martin also joined the ensemble upon the recommendation of the Byrds' manager. The group took their name from a steamroller brand and debuted in April 1966.", "Stephen Stills invited Richie Furay, who was an alumnus with Stills from the Au Go Go Singers band, to join him in California and form a band.", "Richie Furay was invited by Stephen Stills to join him in California to assemble a band. This invite was prompted by record producer Barry Friedman who told Stills there would be work available if he could put together a band.", "In California, Stephen Stills, Richie Furay, and Ken Koblun began forming their band. However, Ken Koblun left early on to join the group 3's a Crowd. Elsewhere in California, Neil Young and Bruce Palmer arrived and encountered Stills. Together, with the addition of drummer Dewey Martin, they formed the band that would become known as Buffalo Springfield. They debuted in April 1966 at The Troubadour in Hollywood and began a short tour of California.", "The text does not provide specific information on how long Buffalo Springfield's short tour of California lasted.", "The text does not provide information on any other locations where Buffalo Springfield toured.", "The text does not provide information on any other locations where Buffalo Springfield toured.", "The text does not provide information on any other tours by Buffalo Springfield.", "Other notable events included the formation of Buffalo Springfield itself. Stephen Stills invited Richie Furay and Ken Koblun, but Koblun left early to join a different group. Neil Young and Bruce Palmer, after meeting in Toronto and joining the Mynah birds, travelled to Los Angeles when their record deal fell apart due to the arrest of their lead singer. In Los Angeles, they encountered Stills. Drummer Dewey Martin, who was suggested by the Byrds' manager, also joined the group. They took their name from a steamroller brand and debuted on April 11, 1966, at The Troubadour in Hollywood. After their debut, they undertook a short tour of California as the opening act for the Dillards and the Byrds." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What did Buffalo Springfield manage?", "What was a recording from Buffalo Springfield?", "Did they record anything else?", "Any other song?", "Did they do anything other than songs?", "Who manages them?", "How did they find Charlie Greene?", "How about Brian Stone?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2202 ], [ 1101 ], [ 1627 ], [ 2044 ], [ 2202 ], [ 563 ], [ 506 ], [ 630 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "\"Nowadays Clancy Can't Even Sing\"," ], [ "\"For What It's Worth\"" ], [ "\"Baby Don't Scold Me\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Charlie Greene and Brian Stone;" ], [ "Davis sought advice from Sonny & Cher's management team, Charlie Greene and Brian Stone;" ], [ "Greene and Stone then aggressively pitched themselves to the band to be their new managers." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2202, 1101, 1627, 2044, 2202, 563, 506, 630 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "\"Nowadays Clancy Can't Even Sing\",", "\"For What It's Worth\"", "\"Baby Don't Scold Me\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "Charlie Greene and Brian Stone;", "Davis sought advice from Sonny & Cher's management team, Charlie Greene and Brian Stone;", "Greene and Stone then aggressively pitched themselves to the band to be their new managers." ] }

[]

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[ "What was his style focused on?", "Was he influenced by anything?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "did he have any influences", "How did jack benny influence him?", "Any thing else notable about his style?", "how wwas his style taken by the public?", "did he preform with anyone else?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 213 ], [ 474 ], [ 996 ], [ 410 ], [ 236 ], [ 582 ], [ 69 ], [ 247 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he worked often in the Jack Benny tradition of being the \"straight man\"" ], [ "cites George Gobel and the comedy team of Bob and Ray as his initial writing and performance inspirations." ], [ "Other famous routines include \"The Driving Instructor\", \"The Mrs. Grace L. Ferguson Airline (and Storm Door Company)\", \"" ], [ "influenced by Jack Benny" ], [ "Jack Benny tradition of being the \"straight man\"" ], [ "Several of his routines involve hearing one-half of a conversation as he speaks to someone over the phone." ], [ "he incorporated early on into the persona around which he built a successful career." ], [ "tradition of being the \"straight man\" while the sometimes rather bizarre cast members surrounding him got the laughs." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 213, 474, 996, 410, 236, 582, 69, 247 ], "texts": [ "he worked often in the Jack Benny tradition of being the \"straight man\"", "cites George Gobel and the comedy team of Bob and Ray as his initial writing and performance inspirations.", "Other famous routines include \"The Driving Instructor\", \"The Mrs. Grace L. Ferguson Airline (and Storm Door Company)\", \"", "influenced by Jack Benny", "Jack Benny tradition of being the \"straight man\"", "Several of his routines involve hearing one-half of a conversation as he speaks to someone over the phone.", "he incorporated early on into the persona around which he built a successful career.", "tradition of being the \"straight man\" while the sometimes rather bizarre cast members surrounding him got the laughs." ] }

[]

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[ "Was bob newhart a singer?", "Did he ever have a top ten album ?", "Were there any other famous people on any of his albums?", "any albums win a grammy award?", "What year was the award given?", "did he win only one award that year?", "what year was his first album?", "what was the genre of his albums?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1414 ], [ 1434 ], [ 1302 ], [ 428 ], [ 2096 ], [ 428 ], [ 791 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Newhart became famous mostly on the strength of his audio releases, in which he played a solo \"straight man" ], [ "Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart (1961), The Button-Down Mind on TV (1962), Bob Newhart Faces Bob Newhart (1964), The Windmills Are Weakening (1965)," ], [ "Bob Newhart (" ], [ "later and won Best Comedy Performance - Spoken Word that same year." ], [ "1961" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "1961" ], [ "eccentric" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1414, 1434, 1302, 428, 2096, 428, 791 ], "texts": [ "Newhart became famous mostly on the strength of his audio releases, in which he played a solo \"straight man", "Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart (1961), The Button-Down Mind on TV (1962), Bob Newhart Faces Bob Newhart (1964), The Windmills Are Weakening (1965),", "Bob Newhart (", "later and won Best Comedy Performance - Spoken Word that same year.", "1961", "CANNOTANSWER", "1961", "eccentric" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on Bob Newhart being a singer.", "Yes, Bob Newhart's 1960 comedy album, The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart, made number one on the Billboard charts.", "The text does not provide information on any other famous people appearing on Bob Newhart's albums.", "Yes, Bob Newhart's 1960 comedy album, The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart, received the 1961 Grammy Award for Album of the Year. His follow-up album, The Button-Down Mind Strikes Back, won Best Comedy Performance - Spoken Word that same year.", "The Grammy Award for Album of the Year was given to Bob Newhart's album in 1961.", "No, Bob Newhart won two awards that year. He won the Grammy for Album of the Year for his album, The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart and won Best New Artist.", "Bob Newhart's first album, The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart, was released in 1960.", "The genre of Bob Newhart's albums is comedy." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_6603602ef00545fd8b1102c10d656d0f_0_q#0", "C_6603602ef00545fd8b1102c10d656d0f_0_q#1", "C_6603602ef00545fd8b1102c10d656d0f_0_q#2", "C_6603602ef00545fd8b1102c10d656d0f_0_q#3", "C_6603602ef00545fd8b1102c10d656d0f_0_q#4", "C_6603602ef00545fd8b1102c10d656d0f_0_q#5", "C_6603602ef00545fd8b1102c10d656d0f_0_q#6", "C_6603602ef00545fd8b1102c10d656d0f_0_q#7" ]

[ "When Ali's career start?", "What did he do?", "//what was the decisions about", "What are some interesting aspects about this article", "Did he break any other records", "Did he win this match", "What other opponents did he have", "Any other boxers?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 54 ], [ 455 ], [ 105 ], [ 723 ], [ 956 ], [ 194 ], [ 318 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Clay made his professional debut on October 29, 1960," ], [ "winning a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker." ], [ "fights" ], [ "From then until the end of 1963, Clay amassed a record of 19-0 with 15 wins by knockout." ], [ "The fight with Doug Jones on March 13, 1963 was Clay's toughest fight during this stretch." ], [ "Jones staggered Clay in the first round, and the unanimous decision for Clay was greeted by boos" ], [ "He defeated boxers that included Tony Esperti, Jim Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff," ], [ "LaMar Clark, Doug Jones and Henry Cooper. Clay also beat his former trainer and veteran boxer Archie Moore in a 1962 match." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 54, 455, 105, 723, 956, 194, 318 ], "texts": [ "Clay made his professional debut on October 29, 1960,", "winning a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker.", "fights", "From then until the end of 1963, Clay amassed a record of 19-0 with 15 wins by knockout.", "The fight with Doug Jones on March 13, 1963 was Clay's toughest fight during this stretch.", "Jones staggered Clay in the first round, and the unanimous decision for Clay was greeted by boos", "He defeated boxers that included Tony Esperti, Jim Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff,", "LaMar Clark, Doug Jones and Henry Cooper. Clay also beat his former trainer and veteran boxer Archie Moore in a 1962 match." ] }

[]

[ "Ali's professional career started on October 29, 1960.", "He became a professional boxer and participated in numerous fights, amassing a record of 19-0 with 15 wins by knockout by the end of 1963.", "The decisions referred to in the context are the results of his boxing matches. For example, his professional debut resulted in a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker, meaning he won the match. Similarly, his fight with Doug Jones ended in a unanimous decision in Clay's favor, meaning the judges all agreed that Clay was the winner.", "Some interesting aspects from this article includes: \n\n1. Clay's early success in his boxing career, with a record of 19-0 by the end of 1963.\n2. The challenges he faced in his early fights, such as being knocked down by Sonny Banks and Henry Cooper.\n3. The controversial reactions to his victory over Doug Jones, which was greeted with boos, and was later named \"Fight of the Year\".\n4. Clay's provocative behavior in the ring, belittling his opponents and boasting about his abilities, which was inspired by professional wrestler \"Gorgeous George\" Wagner.\n5. Clay's search for a trainer and manager, ultimately hiring Angelo Dundee as his trainer after leaving his former trainer Archie Moore's camp, and failing to get his longtime idol Sugar Ray Robinson to be his manager.", "The context does not provide information on Clay breaking any records.", "The context mentions several matches. Clay won his debut match against Tunney Hunsaker and also his fights against Archie Moore, Doug Jones, and Henry Cooper, among others.", "In addition to Tunney Hunsaker, Archie Moore, Doug Jones, and Henry Cooper, Clay also fought and defeated Tony Esperti, Jim Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff and LaMar Clark according to the context.", "The context does not provide information on any other boxers that Clay fought against." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "When was the Dalai lama's uprising", "Why did he flee", "Did the Dalai Lama appeal", "What did the resolution call on", "Did he get any awards", "What is the area refered to as", "What country is that in", "What city is that in india" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 21 ], [ 117 ], [ 1009 ], [ 1259 ], [ 1811 ], [ 353 ], [ 315 ], [ 302 ] ], "texts": [ [ "1959" ], [ "help of the CIA's Special Activities Division, crossing into India on 30 March 1959," ], [ "United Nations" ], [ "China to respect the human rights of Tibetans." ], [ "Indian politicians of different political parties and citizens to confer His Holiness The Dalai Lama the prestigious Bharat Ratna," ], [ "Little Lhasa" ], [ "India," ], [ "Dharamshala," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 21, 117, 1009, 1259, 1811, 353, 315, 302 ], "texts": [ "1959", "help of the CIA's Special Activities Division, crossing into India on 30 March 1959,", "United Nations", "China to respect the human rights of Tibetans.", "Indian politicians of different political parties and citizens to confer His Holiness The Dalai Lama the prestigious Bharat Ratna,", "Little Lhasa", "India,", "Dharamshala," ] }

[ { "text": "This is a list of prominent people who fled their native country, went into exile and found refuge in another country. The list follows the current legal concept of refugee only loosely. It also includes children of people who have fled. The people are ordered according to the field in which they made their names.\n\nAdvertising\nLord Maurice Saatchi and Charles Saatchi - British citizens and founders of Saatchi & Saatchi advertising agency. Their family fled persecution in Iraq for Britain in 1947.\n\nArchitecture\nEva Jiřičná - British artist and architect, designed the Faith Zone in the Millennium Dome. Born in Czechoslovakia and took refuge in the UK after the Prague Spring in 1968. \nDaniel Marot - British architect best known for Hampton Court Palace. Born in France, he sought refuge in the UK in 1685 after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.\nRichard Rogers - British-Italian architect best known for the Centre Pompidou and the Millennium Dome. Fled Trieste in 1939 and took refuge in the UK.\n\nArt\n\nMarc Chagall - Jewish-Russian painter. Escaped Bolshevism for asylum in France in 1922. Fled France between 1941-48 to reside in the US. \nJacob Epstein - British modern sculptor. Child of Polish-Jewish refugees. \nLucian Freud - British figurative painter. Born in 1922 in Germany (grandson of Sigmund Freud); came to England in 1933 as refugee from Nazism. \nPeter Carl Fabergé - Russian jeweller for Russian Imperial Court, fled Russian Revolution for Switzerland in 1917\nMona Hatoum - British-Palestinian sculptor, performance and installation artist; Palestinian refugee born in Lebanon, forced into exile in London in 1975 when war broke out in Lebanon.\nJosine Ianco-Starrels - Los Angeles curator and museum director. Born in Romania, her family escaped to British (or Mandatory) Palestine in 1941. (see her father Marcel Janco)\nMarcel Janco - Romanian artist and architect, best known as the co-founder of Dadaism. Fled persecution in Romania for British (or Mandatory) Palestine in 1941.\nAnish Kapoor - British-Indian sculptor. His mother's family was Iraqi-Jewish and took refuge in India in 1920 after the Iraqi revolt.\nPiet Mondrian - Dutch painter, and contributor to De Stijl. World War II refugee who settled in New York City in 1940.\nCamille Pissarro - Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter, took refuge in London from France during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 \nAlfred Wolmark - British Post-Impressionist painter and decorative artist; Polish-Jewish refugee whose family came to the UK in 1883\n\nBusiness\n\nSir Montague Burton - British citizen, founded the British clothing business Burton retail in 1903. Jewish refugee from Lithuania.\nSir John Houblon - British citizen, first Governor of the Bank of England. Child of Huguenot refugees.\nManubhai Madhvani - Ugandan businessman, son of Muljibhai Madhvani and head of the Madhvani Group. Expelled from Uganda by Idi Amin in 1972, returned in 1982.\nMichael Marks - British citizen, one of the founders of Marks & Spencer. He was a Polish-Jewish refugee from Belarus (then part of the Russian Empire) who fled to the UK in 1882.\nAristotle Onassis - Greek billionaire shipping tycoon. Left Smyrna, Turkey for Greece after the Great Fire of Smyrna in the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish war.\nThomas Peterffy - Developed electronic trading of securities. Hungarian refugee who arrived in the U.S. in 1965.\nde Portal - founder of British paper firm Portal, which for 270 years (until 1995) held the only license to print British money. Huguenot refugee who arrived in the UK in 1685.\nSieng van Tran - British citizen, founder of the educational website www.iLearn.to. Vietnamese refugee whose family were given refuge in the UK in 1981. (see also Vietnamese Boat People)\nGeorge Weidenfeld - British citizen; publisher, philanthropist and newspaper columnist. Jewish-Austrian refugee, fled Nazi annexation of Austria (see Anschluss) in 1938 and found refuge in the UK.\n\nFashion and design\n\nSir Alec Issigonis - British car designer, best known for designing the Mini. His family was evacuated from Smyrna following the end of the Greco-Turkish war. \nTanya Sarne - British fashion designer and creator of the Ghost label. Her parents were refugees (her mother was Romanian, her father French-Jewish who met in London at the end of WWII.\nAlek Wek - British supermodel. She fled Wau for Khartoum, Sudan to escape the Second Sudanese Civil War, then made her way to the UK with her family.\n\nManufacturing\nLakshmishankar Pathak - British citizen and founder of Patak's. Fled Kenya for the UK during the Mau Mau uprising. \nRashmi Thakrar - British citizen and founder of Tilda Rice Company Fled Uganda for the UK during the Expulsion of Asians from Uganda in 1972.\n\nMusic and dance\nBéla Bartók - Hungarian composer and pianist who went into exile in the US in 1940 as a result of his opposition to Nazism. \nNorbert Brainin - British citizen, Austrian-Jewish violinist, first violinist of the Amadeus Quartet. Driven out of Vienna after the 1938 Anschluss, fled to the UK where he eventually began playing with fellow violinists and refugees Siegmund Nissel and Peter Schidlof.\nGloria Estefan - American-Cuban pop star. Fled Cuba for the US in 1960 after her father became a political prisoner. \nJustine Frischmann - British lead singer of Elastica. Her father was a Hungarian refugee and Holocaust survivor who was liberated from Auschwitz.\nWyclef Jean - Haitian-American, best known as member of the Fugees. Left Haiti during the Duvalier regime and re-settled in New York City.\nK'naan (Keinan Abdi Warsame) - Somali-Canadian songwriter, rapper and hip-hop artist, best known for his song Wavin' Flag. Fled Mogadishu during the Somali Civil War at age 13, settled in Toronto.\nErich Wolfgang Korngold - Czech-born Jewish composer, working in U.S. when Nazis came to power in Austria and could not return\nFritzi Massary - US citizen. Austrian-Jewish operetta singer and actress. Despite her conversion to Protestantism in 1903, she was persecuted in Germany for her Jewish heritage, and fled the country in 1933, ultimately settling in the US.\nFreddie Mercury - British pop singer, songwriter and producer, best known as the lead singer/songwriter for the rock band Queen. Born a British citizen in the British Protectorate of the Sultanate of Zanzibar (now Tanzania), he and his family fled during the 1964 Zanzibar Revolution. He and his family resettled in the UK.\nMika - Lebanese-born British singer-songwriter. Born in Beirut, Lebanon in 1983 to a Lebanese mother and American father; his family relocated to Paris in 1984 after attacks on the American Embassy during the Lebanese civil war.\nM.I.A (Mathangi \"Maya\" Arulpragasam) - British-born Tamil rapper, singer. Six months after her birth, her family relocated from the UK to Sri Lanka at the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War. As a result of her father's political activism, she and her family fled the war for London in 1987.\nSiegmund Nissel - British citizen, Austrian-Jewish violinist, member of Amadeus Quartet. Driven out of Vienna after the 1938 Anschluss, sent to the UK via Kindertransport, where he met fellow violinists and refugees Norbert Brainin and Peter Schidlof.\nRita Ora - British singer and actress. She was born in Pristina, Kosovo to Kosovar Albanian parents. Her family fled the Kosovo war for the UK when she was 1. \nLaleh Pourkarim - Swedish-Iranian singer. Fled persecution in Iran in 1982 (her father was a prominent opponent of the regime after the Iranian Revolution), eventually found refuge in Sweden. \nPeter Schidlof - British citizen, Austrian-Jewish violinist, member of Amadeus Quartet. Driven out of Vienna after the 1938 Anschluss, fled to the UK. The Amadeus Quartet was formed with fellow refugees Norbert Brainin and Siegmund Nissel.\nArnold Schoenberg - US citizen, Jewish-Austrian composer and painter, associated with Expressionism. Persecuted as a \"degenerate\" artist, in 1933 he fled the Nazi occupation and resettled in the US.\nClaude-Michel Schönberg - French composer whose works include the musicals Les Misérables and Miss Saigon. He is the son of Hungarian-Jewish refugees.\nChaim Witz (Gene Simmons) - Israeli-American rock bass guitarist, best known as co-lead singer of the rock band Kiss. His mother was a Hungarian-Jewish Holocaust survivor.\nRegina Spektor - American singer-songwriter and pianist. Came to the U.S. with her parents at the age of 9 from Soviet Russia.\nGyörgy Stern (Sir Georg Solti) - British citizen, Hungarian-Jewish conductor. Fled anti-semitic laws in Hungary to work in Germany, left Germany in 1938 after the Anschluss. \nOscar Straus (composer) - Austrian-Jewish composer of operettas and film scores. He fled Austria in 1938 after the Anschluss, first for Paris, then Hollywood. \nRobert Stolz - Austrian composer/conductor. Prior to the Anschluss he aided the escape of Jewish and political refugees across the Austro-German border, before escaping to the US himself in 1940. \nRichard Tauber - Austrian-Jewish singer, composer. He began his career in Germany, but in 1933 he was assaulted by Nazi Brownshirts, and left Germany for Austria. Nazis revoked his passport and right of abode while he was on tour in London in 1938, forcing him to apply for British citizenship.\nFelipe Andres Coronel (Immortal Technique) - African-Peruvian rapper and activist. Fled to the United States with his family in 1980, due to outbreak of internal conflict in Peru.\nGeorg Ludwig von Trapp and Maria von Trapp - Austrian singers. Maria's autobiography, The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, inspired the musical The Sound of Music. They fled Austria through the Italian Alps after the Anschluss, ultimately settling in the US.\n\nPolitics, economics, and political economy\n\n Madeleine Albright - Former U.S. Secretary of State. She and her family fled Czechoslovakia in 1948 and came to the US as refugees.\n Hannah Arendt - Jewish-American author and political theorist. Born in Germany, in 1933 she fled persecution by the Nazis for Czechoslovakia and then Geneva, eventually becoming a naturalized citizen of the US in 1950.\n Adrienne Clarkson - Canadian journalist and 26th Governor General of Canada. Her parents fled Hong Kong with her in 1941 and found refuge in Canada.\nAlexander Gerschenkron - Russian-born American economist. Fled Russia during Russian civil war and settled in Austria, fleeing again to the United States after the rise of fascism. He is best known for his book of essay, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective, which became one of the foundational texts of development economics. \nAlbert O. Hirschman - German development economist and political economist. He was an active resistance fighter during the Second War World and Spanish Civil War, helping to rescue many of Europe's leading artists and intellectuals. He is best known for his work on unbalanced development and his book in political science: Exit, Voice and Loyalty. \n Michaëlle Jean - Canadian journalist and 27th Governor General of Canada. Her father fled Haiti's Duvalier regime in 1967, she and the rest of their family arrived in Canada in 1968.\n Henry Kissinger - American diplomat and political scientist who fled Germany with his family in 1938.\n Karl Marx - German philosopher, writer and journalist best known for \"inventing\" the political concept of Communism. He spent much of his adult life in exile as a result of his political views, but became truly stateless in 1848 when he gave up his Prussian citizenship, and was expelled from France. He remained stateless till the end of his life.\nThandika Mkandawire - Malawian-Swedish economist, best known for his work on 'transformative social policy'. He was targeted by the regime of Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda and found asylum in Sweden.\n Maryam Monsef - Canadian politician. In 2015 she became Minister For Democratic Institutions. She and her family fled the Afghan Civil War in 1996, resettling in Canada.\n Ilhan Omar - Somali-American politician. Born in Somalia, her family fled the civil war there, and spent four years in a refugee camp. They immigrated to the United States. She was elected to the U.S. House of Representative in 2018.\nKarl Polanyi - Hungarian economic historian and political economist and a refugee from fascist persecution in the Vienna of 1934. He is known for his book The Great Transformation, which argued that the emergence of market-based societies in modern Europe was not inevitable but historically contingent.\nEdward Snowden - American computer security specialist, leaked information about U.S. National Security data collection, fled U.S. and received asylum in Russia.\n Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (Sitting Bull) - Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people as a tribal chief during years of resistance to United States government policies. Took refuge with his followers in Canada in 1877 for four years, where they petitioned the Canadian government for land and food. The Canadian government refused their request, and ultimately Sitting Bull and his people were forced to return to the United States. \n Deborah Carlos Valencia Filipino refugee who founded four migrant-support organisations in Greece. \n Clara Zetkin - key leader in German Communist movement, chiefly remembered for establishing March 8 as International Women's Day; fled Nazi Germany in 1932 and took refuge in the Soviet Union.\n\nPsychology and philosophy\n\nMichael Balint - British citizen, Jewish-Hungarian psychoanalyst, best known as a proponent of Object relations theory. Fled persecution by Nazis for the UK in 1939. \nSigmund Freud - Jewish-Austrian neurologist, best known as the founder of psychoanalysis. Fled persecution by the Nazis in Austria in June 1938, took refuge in the UK.\nAnna Freud - daughter of Sigmund, also a psychoanalyst. Fled persecution by the Nazis in Austria in June 1938, took refuge in the UK.\nErnest Gellner - British citizen, Czech-Jewish philosopher and social anthropologist. Came to England in 1939 after the German occupation of Prague.\nStephan Korner - British citizen, Czech-Jewish philosopher. Came to England in 1939 after German occupation of Czechoslovakia.\nClaude Lévi-Strauss - French-Jewish anthropologist and ethnologist. Stripped of his citizenship in 1940 under the Vichy anti-semitic laws for his Jewish ancestry, Levi-Strauss took refuge in the United States until 1948, when he returned to France. \nKarl Popper - Austrian-Jewish philosopher; fled from rise of Nazism in Austria to New Zealand in 1937.\nDr. Ruth Westheimer (Dr. Ruth) - Jewish German-American sex therapist, talk show host, author, professor, and former Haganah sniper who fled Nazi Germany for Switzerland as a 10-year-old in January 1939, as part of the Kindertransport. Both her parents were killed at Auschwitz.\n\nReligion\n\nJesus and the Holy Family, according to Matthew's gospel account of their flight to Egypt due to Herod's threat\nPope Gregory the Great was driven from Rome in 550 as a child with his family, along with most of the remaining population of the city by King Totila, during the Gothic war \nTheodore of Tarsus fled his home for Constantinople during either the Persian or Arab invasions of the Eastern Byzantine Empire in the 7th century\nAdrian of Canterbury fled from North Africa to Italy during the Muslim invasions of North Africa in the 640s\nSophronius of Jerusalem fled during the Persian-Byzantine war of the early 7th-century, but returned later\nMaximus the Confessor fled from the vicinity of Constantinople for Crete and later to Carthage around the time of the Persian siege of Constantinople during the Persian-Byzantine war\nIsaac Abravanel - rabbi and politician - fled from Portugal to Spain\nRabbi Leo Baeck - Reform rabbi and holocaust survivor\nRabbi Hugo Gryn - Reform rabbi and holocaust survivor\nTenzin Gyatso (14th Dalai Lama) - a refugee, fled from Tibet Autonomous Region, China during the 1959 Tibetan uprising.\nRabbi Immanuel Jakobovits - Chief rabbi of Great Britain - fled from the Nazis to Britain\nPaul Kahle - Christian Hebraist - fled from the Nazis to Britain \nMullah Krekar - Iraqi Kurdish mullah, lives in Norway\nVincent Nguyen - Canadian, Auxiliary Catholic Bishop of Toronto. Fled Vietnam in 1983 and settled in Canada.(See also Vietnamese Boat People)\nDieter F. Uchtdorf - First Presidency of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, refugee from Czechoslovakia and subsequently from East Germany\n\nScience and technology\n\n Sergey Brin - Co-founder of Google - Russian-Jewish refugee\nGustav Victor Rudolf Born - pharmacologist - German-Jewish refugee\nMax Born - Nobel Prize for physics - German-Jewish refugee\nEdith Bulbring - pharmacologist - German-Jewish refugee\nConstantin Carathéodory- Greek mathematician who spent most of his professional career in Germany. Taught in Turkey until the 1922 Great Fire of Smyrna, when he fled with books he had saved from the university's library to Athens.\nCarl Djerassi - the inventor of the first contraceptive pill. He was an Austrian refugee\nJohn Dollond - inventor of the achromatic lens. He founded Dollond and Aitchison; descended from Huguenot refugees\nAlbert Einstein - Nobel Prize-winning physicist (1921) for his theory of relativity; German-Jewish refugee who escaped Nazi Germany by taking a post at Princeton in 1938.\nEnrico Fermi - Nobel Prize-winning physicist (1938) for his work on nuclear reactions; member of the Manhattan Project; moved with his family to America in 1938 to escape Italy's anti-semitic laws.\nRobert Fano - physicist - Italian-Jewish refugee\nUgo Fano - physicist - Italian-Jewish refugee\nNicholas Georgescu-Roegen - a Romanian American progenitor and paradigm founder in economics, whose work was seminal in establishing ecological economics - fled when the communists took power in Romania in 1948.\nAlexander Grothendieck - mathematician - German-Jewish refugee\nErik Jorpes – Finnish biochemist who fled to Sweden after the Finnish Civil War.\nBernard Katz - Nobel Prize-winning biophysicist - German-Jewish refugee\nWalter Kohn - theoretical physicist who won the Nobel Prize (1998) in Chemistry for Density-Functional Theory; left Austria for England via Kindertransport\nSir Hans Krebs - Nobel Prize-winning scientist - German-Jewish refugee\nSir John Krebs - zoologist - son of Sir Hans Krebs\nLiviu Librescu, physicist; fled from Romania to Israel\nLord (Claus) Moser - British professor of statistics and head of the Government Statistical Service - Austrian-Jewish refugee\nCharles Proteus Steinmetz - mathematics and electrical engineering - German-Polish refugee. he identified and explained, through a mathematical equation that later became known as the Law of Hysterisis, or Steinmetz’s Law, phenomena governing power losses, leading to breakthroughs in both alternating- and direct-current electrical systems.\nDame Stephanie Shirley - British information technology pioneer and philanthropist, best known for founding Xansa. Arrived in the UK in 1938 as an unaccompanied child refugee from Germany as part of the Kindertransport.\n\nSport\nAlexander Alekhine - chess world champion, who moved from communist Russia to France\nOssip Bernstein - chess grandmaster, who escape from Communistic Ukraine to France\nEfim Bogoljubow - chess grandmaster, who moved from the Soviet Union to Germany\nFedor Bohatirchuk - chess grandmaster, who moved from Ukraine to Canada\nJoel Casamayor - former Lightweight champion in boxing, fled from Cuba to U.S.\nLuol Deng - Chicago Bulls basketball player and NBA All-Star. Moved from Sudan to Great Britain\nMebrahtom Keflezighi - Olympic marathon silver medallist, Eritrean refugee to U.S. (via Italy)\nLomana Tresor LuaLua - a striker/winger who plays for Blackpool, he migrated from Kinshansa, DR Congo to the U.K.\nYusra Mardini - Syrian swimmer who was a member of the Refugee Olympic Athletes Team during the 2016 Summer Olympics, she moved from Syria to Germany\nFabrice Muamba - Congolese refugee in the United Kingdom, became a football player for Bolton\nAshot Nadanian - chess player, who moved from Azerbaijan to Armenia\nKwity Paye - American football player, Liberian refugee born in Guinea\nMario Stanic - former footballer with Chelsea. He used to play for Sarajevo F.C. who were targeted during the Bosnian War\nChristopher Wreh - former Arsenal footballer and Liberian refugee\n\nTV and film\nZohra Daoud - former Afghani actress and model, now settled in Malibu, California\nOmid Djalili - comedian and actor. He and his family are Iranian refugees\nAnh Do - Australian comedian, Anh Do and his family fled in a boat to Australia as refugees in 1980\nBen Elton - comedian and grandson of a Czechoslovakian refugee\nAndy Garcia - actor and director fled Castro's Cuba with his parents when he was five\nBaron Lew Grade - television mogul and uncle of Michael Grade. He was a Russian refugee\nFritz Lang - film director, and a half-Jewish refugee\nJerry Springer - talk show host. His parents were German refugees\nRachel Weisz - actress. Both her parents are Jewish refugees\nBilly Wilder - film director and writer, and a Jewish refugee\nDagmara Domińczyk - actress. She fled to the United States with her parents and sisters in 1983 due to her parents' political associations (her father's involvement with Amnesty International and the Solidarity movement)\nZoltán Buday - actor. He and his family were Hungarian refugees who fled to Canada due to the Hungarian Revolution.\n\nWriting and publishing\n\nBrownkey Abdullahi - Dadaab born blogger\nYasmin Alibhai-Brown - journalist and author, and a Ugandan refugee\nIsabel Allende - author of The House of Spirits. She is a Chilean refugee who fled after receiving death threats following the overthrow of her father's cousin, Salvador Allende\nAkuch Kuol Anyieth - South-Sudanese-Australian writer.\nReinaldo Arenas - Cuban novelist. Became a refugee in the US after years of persecution for his sexuality and political ideas. His autobiography, Before Night Falls, was on the New York Times list of the ten best books of the year 1993 and was made into a film in 2000\nBertolt Brecht - German playwright, refugee from the Nazis during World War II\nElias Canetti - a Bulgarian refugee, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1981\nJoseph Conrad - author of Heart of Darkness and a refugee.\nAnne Frank - German-Jewish teen who fled with her family to the Netherlands during WWII. Her book The Diary of a Young Girl is one of the most widely known and poignant accounts of the refugee experience.\nKaren Gershon - as a child she fled from Nazi Germany to Great Britain\nMichael Hamburger - as a child he fled from Nazi Germany to London\nLord Paul Hamlyn CBE - a Jewish refugee from Germany. He was the founder of Octopus Publishing Group\nVictor Hugo - author of Les Misérables and The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Due to his political beliefs, he was forced to flee France several times\nGuillermo Cabrera Infante - Cuban writer and journalist. Became a refugee in the UK. Honoured with the Cervantes Prize in 1997\nRuth Prawer Jhabvala - novelist and film screenwriter - German-Jewish refugee\nIsmail Kadare - Albanian novelist and poet. Claimed political asylum in France in 1990.\nJudith Kerr - children's writer - German-Jewish refugee\nRigoberta Menchú - an author and Guatemalan refugee. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992\nThomas Mann - winner of the 1929 Nobel Prize in Literature. He moved from Germany to Switzerland and from there to the US\nVladimir Nabokov - Russian author and lepidopterist. Escaped to Europe from the Russian Civil War and then to the United States from the advance of Nazi Germany\nUrsula Owen - editor of Index on Censorship. She was a German refugee as a baby\nFelix Salten - author of Bambi - Hungarian-born Jewish refugee from Nazis\nJoe Schlesinger - Austrian-born Canadian television journalist and author was a Jewish refugee. In 1938, he was sent to England from Czechoslovakia to escape the Nazis as part of the Kindertransport that rescued 669 Jewish children. His parents, who couldn't escape with him, were later killed in the Holocaust.\nShyam Selvadurai - Canadian novelist, refugee from Sri Lanka as a teenager\nAleksandr Solzhenitsyn - Russian writer, winner of 1970 Nobel Prize in Literature. Deported from the USSR in 1974 as a result of his criticism of the Soviet system, returned to Russia from the United States in 1994 after the dissolution of the Soviet System. \nSamuel Ullman - German-born poet\nLoung Ung - a survivor of the Killing Fields of Cambodia, is an activist and author of the books, First They Killed My Father and Lucky Child\n\nMiscellaneous\nAlina Fernandez - daughter of Fidel Castro, fled Cuba to Spain, now lives in the United States. Former model, now hosts a talk show\nOtto Kahn-Freund - lawyer - German Jew who fled Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom\nMaya Ghazal - pilot and UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador \nChristoph Meili - whistleblower - fled from Switzerland to the United States, because an arrest warrant was issued against him\nMerhan Karimi Nasseri - an Iranian refugee who lived in the departure lounge of Terminal One in Charles de Gaulle Airport from 26 August 1988 – July 2006. See also the film The Terminal (2004), directed by Steven Spielberg, and the opera Flight, by Jonathan Dove.\nDaria Khrystenko - a Ukrainian teacher and humanitarian who fled to Poland due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.\n\nReferences\n\n.", "title": "List of refugees" } ]

[ "The Dalai Lama's uprising occurred in 1959.", "The Dalai Lama fled Tibet fearing for his life at the outset of the 1959 Tibetan uprising.", "Yes, the Dalai Lama appealed to the United Nations on the rights of Tibetans.", "The resolutions called on China to respect the human rights of Tibetans.", "The context does not provide any information on whether the Dalai Lama received any awards.", "The area where the Dalai Lama set up the Government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamshala, India, is often referred to as \"Little Lhasa\".", "Dharamshala, often referred to as \"Little Lhasa\", is in India.", "Dharamshala, often referred to as \"Little Lhasa\", is a city in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_0_q#0", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_0_q#1", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_0_q#2", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_0_q#3", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_0_q#4", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_0_q#5" ]

[ "what was the senate career?", "did he win?", "what did he do once he won?", "what does this mean?", "what was toms greatest accomplishment mentioned in the album?", "what came of this?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 586 ], [ 970 ], [ 1537 ], [ 1369 ], [ 1537 ] ], "texts": [ [ "After three years out of politics, Coburn announced his candidacy for the Senate seat" ], [ "In the election, Coburn won by a margin of 53% to Carson's 42%." ], [ "Coburn's Senate voting record is as conservative as his House record." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "On April 29, 2014, Coburn introduced the Insurance Capital Standards Clarification Act of 2014 (S. 2270; 113th Congress) into the Senate and it passed on June 3, 2014." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 586, 970, 1537, 1369, 1537 ], "texts": [ "After three years out of politics, Coburn announced his candidacy for the Senate seat", "In the election, Coburn won by a margin of 53% to Carson's 42%.", "Coburn's Senate voting record is as conservative as his House record.", "CANNOTANSWER", "On April 29, 2014, Coburn introduced the Insurance Capital Standards Clarification Act of 2014 (S. 2270; 113th Congress) into the Senate and it passed on June 3, 2014.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The context discusses the Senate career of a person named Coburn. After three years out of politics, Coburn ran for a Senate seat being vacated by a four-term incumbent Republican. Other candidates included former Oklahoma City Mayor Kirk Humphreys, favored by the Republican establishment, and Corporation Commissioner Bob Anthony. However, Coburn won the primary with 61% of the vote, compared to Humphreys's 25%. In the general election, Coburn faced Brad Carson, a Democrat, and won with 53% of the vote to Carson's 42%. Coburn had significant support in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area and the closer-in Tulsa suburbs. He was re-elected in 2010 with 90% of the vote in the Republican primary and 70% in the general election. He had originally planned not to seek a third term due to his self-imposed two-term limit, but announced his resignation at the end of his second term due to declining health. Coburn introduced the Insurance Capital Standards Clarification Act of 2014 into the Senate, which passed on June 3, 2014.", "Yes, Coburn won the Senate seat in the general election and was also re-elected in 2010.", "While in the Senate, Coburn maintained a conservative voting record. He also introduced the Insurance Capital Standards Clarification Act of 2014 (S. 2270; 113th Congress) into the Senate, which passed on June 3, 2014. However, due to his declining health he announced that he would resign from his office at the end of the year in 2014.", "Coburn's actions after winning the Senate seat encompassed various duties of a Senator. His conservative voting record implies that he consistently voted in line with conservative policies and principles. When he introduced the Insurance Capital Standards Clarification Act of 2014, he was fulfilling a legislative role as a senator, proposing a policy intended to clarify insurance capital standards. His subsequent resignation due to declining health means that he stepped down from his role before his term was officially over due to personal medical issues.", "The context does not provide information on what Tom Coburn's greatest accomplishment was.", "The context does not provide further information on the consequence or outcome of Coburn's actions." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_1_q#0", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_1_q#1", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_1_q#2", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_1_q#3", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_1_q#4", "C_9d4b4613a3f04cee8cf441d13ae94f3c_1_q#5" ]

[ "Where did he grow up?", "Where did he go to high school?", "Did he go to college?", "Did he go to medical school?", "What was his medical career?", "Was he a doctor?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 19 ], [ 1690 ], [ 282 ], [ 608 ], [ 1138 ], [ 1207 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Casper, Wyoming," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Coburn graduated with a B.S. in accounting from Oklahoma State University," ], [ "served as president of the College of Business Student Council." ], [ "He then opened Maternal & Family Practice in Muskogee, Oklahoma," ], [ "served as a deacon in a Southern Baptist Church." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 19, 1690, 282, 608, 1138, 1207 ], "texts": [ "Casper, Wyoming,", "CANNOTANSWER", "Coburn graduated with a B.S. in accounting from Oklahoma State University,", "served as president of the College of Business Student Council.", "He then opened Maternal & Family Practice in Muskogee, Oklahoma,", "served as a deacon in a Southern Baptist Church." ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on where Coburn grew up.", "The text does not provide information on where Coburn went to high school.", "Yes, Coburn went to college. He graduated with a B.S. in accounting from Oklahoma State University. Later, he graduated from the University of Oklahoma Medical School.", "Yes, Coburn graduated from the University of Oklahoma Medical School with honors in 1983.", "Coburn had a career in obstetrics. He opened Maternal & Family Practice in Muskogee, Oklahoma and treated over 15,000 patients and delivered 4,000 babies. During his career, he was subject to one malpractice lawsuit, which was dismissed without finding Coburn at fault.", "Yes, Coburn was a doctor. After graduating from the University of Oklahoma Medical School, he opened a Maternal & Family Practice in Muskogee, Oklahoma and had a career in obstetrics." ]

[ "no", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#0", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#1", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#2", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#3", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#4", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#5", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#6", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#7", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#8", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#9", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#10", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_1_q#11" ]

[ "What was the highlight of his politcial career?", "How did his political career start, did he found any party?", "What was notable and important about his career?", "What was the controversy about?", "what were some of his views?", "Were his views popular with the masses?", "What else was he known for?", "any other achievements during his career ?", "Were his views accepted by most people?", "ahy other noteworthy accomplishments?", "Any other writings or important information?", "Any other relevant info readers should know about him?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1110 ], [ 303 ], [ 560 ], [ 1923 ], [ 689 ], [ 810 ], [ 1088 ], [ 1386 ], [ 1923 ], [ 1551 ], [ 1709 ], [ 1923 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he achieved a major victory in the Rotterdam municipal council elections" ], [ "Fortuyn was elected \"lijsttrekker\" of the newly formed Livable Netherlands party" ], [ "His statements were considered so controversial that the party dismissed him as lijsttrekker the next day." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "he favoured putting an end to Muslim immigration," ], [ "the equality before the law. Having been rejected by Livable Netherlands," ], [ "a local issues party, he achieved a major victory in the Rotterdam municipal council elections" ], [ "Fortuyn's victory made him the subject of hundreds of interviews" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "released his book The Mess of Eight Purple Years" ], [ "Purple is the colour to indicate a coalition government consisting of left parties (red) and conservative-liberal parties (blue)." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1110, 303, 560, 1923, 689, 810, 1088, 1386, 1923, 1551, 1709, 1923 ], "texts": [ "he achieved a major victory in the Rotterdam municipal council elections", "Fortuyn was elected \"lijsttrekker\" of the newly formed Livable Netherlands party", "His statements were considered so controversial that the party dismissed him as lijsttrekker the next day.", "CANNOTANSWER", "he favoured putting an end to Muslim immigration,", "the equality before the law. Having been rejected by Livable Netherlands,", "a local issues party, he achieved a major victory in the Rotterdam municipal council elections", "Fortuyn's victory made him the subject of hundreds of interviews", "CANNOTANSWER", "released his book The Mess of Eight Purple Years", "Purple is the colour to indicate a coalition government consisting of left parties (red) and conservative-liberal parties (blue).", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "The highlight of Pim Fortuyn's political career, as indicated in the text, was his major victory in the Rotterdam municipal council elections in early March 2002. His party, Livable Rotterdam, won about 36% of the seats, making it the largest party in the council and for the first time since the Second World War, it pushed the Labour Party out of power in Rotterdam.", "Pim Fortuyn's political career started as a one-time communist and former member of the social-democratic Labour Party. He was elected \"lijsttrekker\" of the newly formed Livable Netherlands party on 26 November 2001. However, after making controversial statements, he was dismissed as \"lijsttrekker\" by the party. After his dismissal, Pim Fortuyn founded his own party, Pim Fortuyn List (LPF), on 11 February 2002.", "Several notable and important aspects of Pim Fortuyn's career are highlighted in the text. Fortuyn declared himself the successor to a controversial 18th-century Dutch politician and, after leaving the social-democratic Labour Party, he was elected as the leader of the newly formed Livable Netherlands party. However, after making controversial statements, including suggesting an end to Muslim immigration, he was dismissed from the party. He then founded his own party, Pim Fortuyn List (LPF), and led it to a major victory in the Rotterdam municipal council elections, making it the largest party in the council and ending the Labour Party's post-Second World War dominance in Rotterdam. Fortuyn also authored a book that served as his political agenda for the upcoming election.", "The controversy surrounding Pim Fortuyn was primarily due to his statements during an interview with the Volkskrant, a Dutch newspaper. In the interview, he advocated for ending Muslim immigration if possible and expressed his desire to abolish Article 1 of the Dutch constitution, which affirms equality before the law. The remarks were considered so controversial that his party, Livable Netherlands, dismissed him as their leader the day after the interview.", "Pim Fortuyn held some controversial views that led to his dismissal from the Livable Netherlands party. He stated that he favoured ending Muslim immigration, if possible. He also expressed a desire to abolish Article 1 of the Dutch constitution, which guarantees equality before the law. These views led to his dismissal from the party and his subsequent establishment of his own party, Pim Fortuyn List (LPF).", "Based on the context given, it appears that Pim Fortuyn's views were popular with some voters. After founding his own party, the Pim Fortuyn List, many Livable Netherlands supporters transferred their support to his new party. Furthermore, under his leadership, the Livable Rotterdam party won about 36% of the seats in the Rotterdam municipal council elections in March 2002, displacing the Labour Party from power in Rotterdam for the first time since the Second World War. This suggests his views resonated with a significant portion of the electorate.", "In addition to his controversial political views and successes in elections, Pim Fortuyn was also known as an author. He released a book in March 2002 called \"The Mess of Eight Purple Years\" (De puinhopen van acht jaar Paars), which he used as his political agenda for the upcoming general election. The term \"purple\" refers to a coalition government consisting of left parties (red) and conservative-liberal parties (blue). The Netherlands had been governed by such a coalition for eight years at that time.", "The context above does not provide any additional information on Pim Fortuyn's achievements beyond what has already been mentioned: his major electoral victory in Rotterdam, his founding of the Pim Fortuyn List party, and the publication of his book outlining his political agenda.", "The text does not provide definitive information on whether Pim Fortuyn's views were accepted by most people. While his views led to his dismissal from the Livable Netherlands party and were deemed controversial, it is also stated that he achieved a major victory in the Rotterdam municipal council elections and that many Livable Netherlands supporters transferred their support to the new party he founded, suggesting that his views had significant support among certain segments of the population.", "The text does not provide any additional information on other noteworthy accomplishments by Pim Fortuyn beyond his political victories, the founding of his own party, and the publishing of his book on his political agenda.\n", "Based on the context given, Pim Fortuyn's book \"The Mess of Eight Purple Years\" (De puinhopen van acht jaar Paars) is the only specific written work mentioned. This book outlined his political agenda for the upcoming general election. No other writings or important information are detailed in the provided text.\n", "The context provided does not contain any additional relevant information about Pim Fortuyn that hasn't already been discussed. It covers his brief tenure and dismissal from the Livable Netherlands party, his controversial views on Muslim immigration and equality law, his founding of the Pim Fortuyn List, his electoral success in Rotterdam, and his book outlining his political agenda." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#0", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#1", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#2", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#3", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#4", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#5", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#6", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#7", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#8", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#9", "C_c63ea999c5fc4bc8b61c023397909115_0_q#10" ]

[ "What year was he assassinated", "Who did it", "why was he assassinated?", "Where did this occur", "Who was the interview with", "How old was he", "what position was he running for?", "How many times did he take office", "What else is interesting", "Was he in church before the end of his life", "What did he do on TV" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 9 ], [ 83 ], [ 220 ], [ 106 ], [ 2395 ], [ 18 ], [ 1174 ], [ 2395 ], [ 1817 ], [ 1960 ], [ 191 ] ], "texts": [ [ "2002," ], [ "Volkert van der Graaf." ], [ "nine days before the general election, for which he was running." ], [ "The attack took place in a parking lot outside a radio studio where Fortuyn had just given an interview." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "age 54," ], [ "As Dutch law did not permit modifying the ballots, Fortuyn became a posthumous candidate." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "During the last months of his life, Fortuyn had become closer to the Catholic Church. To" ], [ "Fortuyn insisted on Fr. Louis Berger, a parish priest from The Hague, accompanying him in some of his last TV appearances." ], [ "given an interview." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 9, 83, 220, 106, 2395, 18, 1174, 2395, 1817, 1960, 191 ], "texts": [ "2002,", "Volkert van der Graaf.", "nine days before the general election, for which he was running.", "The attack took place in a parking lot outside a radio studio where Fortuyn had just given an interview.", "CANNOTANSWER", "age 54,", "As Dutch law did not permit modifying the ballots, Fortuyn became a posthumous candidate.", "CANNOTANSWER", "During the last months of his life, Fortuyn had become closer to the Catholic Church. To", "Fortuyn insisted on Fr. Louis Berger, a parish priest from The Hague, accompanying him in some of his last TV appearances.", "given an interview." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#0", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#1", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#2", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#3", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#4", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#5", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#6", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#7", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#8", "C_5b4d20d30848401f903921177eba83d6_1_q#9" ]

[ "What is significant about his public persona?", "Did he get in fights?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What did he change to?", "Did this help his public image?", "Did he go back to his old ways?", "What other things did he do to keep his image?", "What did he kick himself for?", "What never got better?", "When did his career end?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 27 ], [ 1484 ], [ 936 ], [ 1006 ], [ 1183 ], [ 1385 ], [ 388 ], [ 562 ], [ 824 ], [ 1484 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Bonds was frequently described as a difficult person, surly, standoffish and ungrateful," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Giants he changed his demeanor at the behest of a group of teammates," ], [ "resulting in him smiling much more frequently and engaging more with others with a pleasant demeanor." ], [ "teammates pleaded that he revert, having seemingly lost his competitive edge, and causing the team lose more." ], [ "Bonds says he complied, maintaining that familiar standoffish edge the rest of his playing career." ], [ "Hell, I kick myself now, because I'm getting great press" ], [ "The problem was, when I tried to give in a little bit, it never got better." ], [ "so I might as well live with the flames'." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 27, 1484, 936, 1006, 1183, 1385, 388, 562, 824, 1484 ], "texts": [ "Bonds was frequently described as a difficult person, surly, standoffish and ungrateful,", "CANNOTANSWER", "Giants he changed his demeanor at the behest of a group of teammates,", "resulting in him smiling much more frequently and engaging more with others with a pleasant demeanor.", "teammates pleaded that he revert, having seemingly lost his competitive edge, and causing the team lose more.", "Bonds says he complied, maintaining that familiar standoffish edge the rest of his playing career.", "Hell, I kick myself now, because I'm getting great press", "The problem was, when I tried to give in a little bit, it never got better.", "so I might as well live with the flames'.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Bonds was known for being difficult, standoffish, and ungrateful, which reportedly had negative impacts on his public image and endorsement opportunities. Despite trying to change his demeanor at one point, he ultimately reverted back to his old ways after receiving feedback from his teammates.", "The text does not provide information on whether Bonds got into fights.", "The article discusses how Bonds' public persona might have been influenced by the pressure he felt to perform as a young player and how it impacted the perception of him by the public and the media. It also touches upon an attempt to change his demeanor during his time with the Giants, driven by a group of teammates. Interestingly, the same group of teammates later asked him to revert back to his old ways, claiming that he had lost his competitive edge. This shows an internal team dynamics aspect that could be considered interesting.", "Bonds changed his demeanor to a more pleasant one during his playing days with the Giants. He started smiling much more frequently and engaging more with others as per the request of a group of teammates.", "The text does not provide information on whether this change helped Bonds' public image.", "Yes, Bonds reverted back to his original, standoffish demeanor after his teammates suggested that he lost his competitive edge during the period of his changed conduct.", "The text does not provide any additional actions Bonds took specifically to maintain his public image beyond his decision to revert back to his original demeanor following his teammates' feedback.", "Bonds expressed regret for the unapproachable persona he had created, understanding that it had negatively impacted his opportunities for endorsements which he could have had many more of had he been more cooperative and pleasant.", "Bonds said that even when he tried to be more cooperative and pleasant, the public perception and response to him \"never got better\". This led to his decision to return to his original, more standoffish demeanor.", "The text does not provide information on when Bonds' playing career ended." ]

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[ "Where was Ernie Kovacs born?", "What was interesting about Ernie's childhood?", "What did Kovacs do while at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts?", "Was he successful after graduation from the drama school?", "What happened to Kovacs after he was ill?", "What success did he find as a result of his antics?", "What did his parents do after he was hospitalized?", "Where did Kovacs work?", "What did Kovacs do after his job as a cigar salesman?", "what did he do while at WTTM?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 246 ], [ 560 ], [ 977 ], [ 1196 ], [ 1354 ], [ 1508 ], [ 1629 ], [ 1715 ], [ 1861 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Kovacs's father Andrew emigrated from Hungary at age 13." ], [ "Though a poor student, Kovacs was influenced by his Trenton Central High School drama teacher, Harold Van Kirk, and received an acting scholarship to the American Academy of Dramatic Arts" ], [ "When Kovacs began drama school, all he could afford was a fifth floor walk-up apartment on West 74th Street in New York City." ], [ "Kovacs used his class vacation time to pursue roles in summer stock companies. While working in Vermont during 1939, he became so seriously ill with pneumonia" ], [ "During the next year and a half, his comedic talents developed as he entertained both doctors and patients with his antics during stays at several hospitals." ], [ "While hospitalized, Kovacs developed a lifelong love of classical music by the gift of a radio, which he kept tuned to WQXR. By the time he was released, his parents" ], [ "his parents had separated, and Kovacs went back to Trenton, living with his mother in a two-room apartment over a store. He began work" ], [ "He began work as a cigar salesman, which resulted in a lifelong cigar-smoking habit." ], [ "Kovacs's first paid entertainment work was during 1941, as an announcer for Trenton's radio station WTTM. He spent the next nine years with WTTM," ], [ "becoming the station's director of Special Events; in this job he did things like trying to see what it was like to be run over by a train (" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 246, 560, 977, 1196, 1354, 1508, 1629, 1715, 1861 ], "texts": [ "Kovacs's father Andrew emigrated from Hungary at age 13.", "Though a poor student, Kovacs was influenced by his Trenton Central High School drama teacher, Harold Van Kirk, and received an acting scholarship to the American Academy of Dramatic Arts", "When Kovacs began drama school, all he could afford was a fifth floor walk-up apartment on West 74th Street in New York City.", "Kovacs used his class vacation time to pursue roles in summer stock companies. While working in Vermont during 1939, he became so seriously ill with pneumonia", "During the next year and a half, his comedic talents developed as he entertained both doctors and patients with his antics during stays at several hospitals.", "While hospitalized, Kovacs developed a lifelong love of classical music by the gift of a radio, which he kept tuned to WQXR. By the time he was released, his parents", "his parents had separated, and Kovacs went back to Trenton, living with his mother in a two-room apartment over a store. He began work", "He began work as a cigar salesman, which resulted in a lifelong cigar-smoking habit.", "Kovacs's first paid entertainment work was during 1941, as an announcer for Trenton's radio station WTTM. He spent the next nine years with WTTM,", "becoming the station's director of Special Events; in this job he did things like trying to see what it was like to be run over by a train (" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" }, { "text": "A watch is a portable timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep a consistent movement despite the motions caused by the person's activities. A wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet, including metal bands, leather straps, or any other kind of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, often attached to a chain .\n\nWatches were developed in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a mechanical device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring, and keeping time with an oscillating balance wheel. These are called mechanical watches. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery and kept time with a vibrating quartz crystal. By the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Historically, this is called the quartz revolution (also known as quartz crisis in Switzerland). Developments in the 2010s include smart watches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist. They generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only a small subset of the smartwatch's facilities.\n\nIn general, modern watches often display the day, date, month, and year. For mechanical watches, various extra features called \"complications\", such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Most electronic quartz watches, on the other hand, include time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions. Furthermore, some modern watches (like smart watches) even incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, and some of them use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time.\n\nMost watches that are used mainly for timekeeping have quartz movements. However, expensive collectible watches, valued more for their elaborate craftsmanship, aesthetic appeal, and glamorous design than for simple timekeeping, often have traditional mechanical movements, despite being less accurate and more expensive than their electronic counterparts. As of 2018, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction was the Patek Philippe Henry Graves Supercomplication, the world's most complicated mechanical watch until 1989, fetching US$24 million (CHF 23,237,000) in Geneva on 11 November 2014. As of December 2019, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction (and wristwatch) was the Patek Philippe Grandmaster Chime Ref. 6300A-010, fetching US$31.19 million (CHF 31,000,000) in Geneva on 9 November 2019.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins \nWatches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th-century Europe. The first timepieces to be worn, made in the 16th century beginning in the German cities of Nuremberg and Augsburg, were transitional in size between clocks and watches. Nuremberg clockmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle or Hele) (1485-1542) is often credited as the inventor of the watch. However, other German clockmakers were creating miniature timepieces during this period, and there is no evidence Henlein was the first.\n\nWatches were not widely worn in pockets until the 17th century. One account suggests that the word \"watch\" came from the Old English word woecce - which meant \"watchman\" – because town watchmen used the technology to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th-century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches (duty shifts).\n\nEvolution \n\nA rise in accuracy occurred in 1657 with the addition of the balance spring to the balance wheel, an invention disputed both at the time and ever since between Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens. This innovation increased watches' accuracy enormously, reducing error from perhaps several hours per day to perhaps 10 minutes per day, resulting in the addition of the minute hand to the face from around 1680 in Britain and around 1700 in France.\n\nThe increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement. The verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. Improvements in manufacturing – such as the tooth-cutting machine devised by Robert Hooke – allowed some increase in the volume of watch production, although finishing and assembling was still done by hand until well into the 19th century.\n\nA major cause of error in balance-wheel timepieces, caused by changes in elasticity of the balance spring from temperature changes, was solved by the bimetallic temperature-compensated balance wheel invented in 1765 by Pierre Le Roy and improved by Thomas Earnshaw (1749–1829). The lever escapement, the single most important technological breakthrough, though invented by Thomas Mudge in 1759 and improved by Josiah Emery in 1785, only gradually came into use from about 1800 onwards, chiefly in Britain.\n\nThe British predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, but maintained a system of production that was geared towards high-quality products for the élite. The British Watch Company modernized clock manufacture with mass-production techniques and the application of duplicating tools and machinery in 1843. In the United States, Aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 a successful enterprise operated, incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company.\n\nWristwatches \n\nThe concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century. In 1571 Elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch, described as an \"armed watch\", from Robert Dudley. The oldest surviving wristwatch (then described as a \"bracelet watch\") is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais. From the beginning, wristwatches were almost exclusively worn by women - men used pocket watches up until the early-20th century. In 1810, the watch-maker Abraham-Louis Breguet made a wristwatch for the Queen of Naples. The first Swiss wristwatch was made by the Swiss watch-maker Patek Philippe, in the year 1868 for Countess Koscowicz of Hungary.\n\nWristwatches were first worn by military men towards the end of the 19th century, having increasingly recognized the importance of synchronizing maneuvers during war without potentially revealing plans to the enemy through signaling. The Garstin Company of London patented a \"Watch Wristlet\" design in 1893, but probably produced similar designs from the 1880s. Officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. During the First Boer War of 1880–1881 the importance of coordinating troop movements and synchronizing attacks against highly mobile Boer insurgents became paramount, and the use of wristwatches subsequently became widespread among the officer class. The company Mappin & Webb began production of their successful \"campaign watch\" for soldiers during the campaign in the Sudan in 1898 and accelerated production for the Second Boer War of 1899–1902 a few years later. In continental Europe, Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watchmakers began supplying German naval officers with wristwatches in about 1880.\n\nEarly models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap, but by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches. The Swiss company Dimier Frères & Cie patented a wristwatch design with the now standard wire lugs in 1903.\n\nIn 1904, Louis Cartier produced a wristwatch to allow his friend Alberto Santos-Dumont to check flight performance in his airship while keeping both hands on the controls as this proved difficult with a pocket watch. Cartier still markets a line of Santos-Dumont watches and sunglasses.\n\nIn 1905, Hans Wilsdorf moved to London and set up his own business, Wilsdorf & Davis, with his brother-in-law Alfred Davis, providing quality timepieces at affordable prices; the company became Rolex in 1915. Wilsdorf was an early convert to the wristwatch, and contracted the Swiss firm Aegler to produce a line of wristwatches.\n\nThe impact of the First World War of 1914–1918 dramatically shifted public perceptions on the propriety of the man's wristwatch and opened up a mass market in the postwar era. The creeping barrage artillery tactic, developed during the war, required precise synchronization between the artillery gunners and the infantry advancing behind the barrage. Service watches produced during the war were specially designed for the rigors of trench warfare, with luminous dials and unbreakable glass. The War Office began issuing wristwatches to combatants from 1917. By the end of the war, almost all enlisted men wore a wristwatch (or wristlet), and after they were demobilized the fashion soon caught on: the British Horological Journal wrote in 1917 that \"the wristlet watch was little used by the sterner sex before the war, but now is seen on the wrist of nearly every man in uniform and of many men in civilian attire.\" By 1930, the wristwatch vastly exceeded the pocket watch in market share by a decisive ratio of 50:1.\n\nAutomatic watches \nJohn Harwood invented the first successful self-winding system in 1923. In anticipation of Harwood's patent for self-winding mechanisms expiration in 1930, Glycine founder Eugène Meylan started development on a self-winding system as a separate module that could be used with almost any 8.75 ligne (19.74 millimeter) watch movement. Glycine incorporated this module into its watches in October 1930 and began mass-producing automatic watches.\n\nElectric watches \nThe Elgin National Watch Company and the Hamilton Watch Company pioneered the first electric watch. The first electric movements used a battery as a power source to oscillate the balance wheel. During the 1950s Elgin developed the model 725 while Hamilton released two models: the first, the Hamilton 500, released on 3 January 1957, was produced into 1959. This model had problems with the contact wires misaligning, and the watches returned to Hamilton for alignment. The Hamilton 505, an improvement on the 500, proved more reliable: the contact wires were removed and a non-adjustable contact on the balance assembly delivered the power to the balance wheel. Similar designs from many other watch companies followed. Another type of electric watch was developed by the Bulova company that used a tuning-fork resonator instead of a traditional balance wheel to increase timekeeping accuracy, moving from a typical 2.5–4 Hz with a traditional balance wheel to 360 Hz with the tuning-fork design.\n\nQuartz watches\nThe commercial introduction of the quartz watch in 1969 in the form of the Seiko Astron 35SQ and in 1970 in the form of the Omega Beta 21 was a revolutionary improvement in watch technology. In place of a balance wheel which oscillated at perhaps 5 or 6 beats per second, these devices used a quartz-crystal resonator which vibrated at 8,192 Hz, driven by a battery-powered oscillator circuit. Most quartz-watch oscillators now operate at 32,768 Hz, although quartz movements have been designed with frequencies as high as 262 kHz. Since the 1980s, more quartz watches than mechanical ones have been marketed.\n\nParts \n\nThe movement and case are the basic parts of a watch. A watch band or bracelet is added to form a wristwatch; alternatively, a watch chain is added to form a pocket watch.\n\nThe case is the outer covering of the watch.\n\nThe case back is the back portion of the watch's case. Accessing the movement (such as during battery replacement) depends on the type of case back, which are generally categorized into four types:\n Snap-off case backs (press-on case backs): the watch back pulls straight off and presses straight on.\n Screw-down case backs (threaded case backs): the entire watch back must be rotated to unscrew from the case. Often it has 6 notches on the external part of the case back.\n Screw back cases: tiny screws hold the case back to the case\n Unibody: the only way into the case involves prying the crystal off the front of the watch.\n\nThe crystal, also called the window or watch glass, is the transparent part of the case that allows viewing the hands and the dial of the movement.\nModern wristwatches almost always use one of 4 materials:\n Acrylic glass (plexiglass, hesalite glass): the most impact-resistant (\"unbreakable\"), and therefore used in dive watches and most military watches. Acrylic glass is the lowest cost of these materials, so it is used in practically all low-cost watches.\n Mineral crystal: a tempered glass.\n Sapphire-coated mineral crystal\n Synthetic sapphire crystal: the most scratch-resistant; it is difficult to cut and polish, causing watch crystals made of sapphire to be the most expensive.\n\nThe bezel is the ring holding the crystal in place.\n\nThe lugs are small metal projections at both ends of the wristwatch case where the watch band attaches to the watch case.\nThe case and the lugs are often machined from one solid piece of stainless steel.\n\nMovement \n\nThe movement of a watch is the mechanism that measures the passage of time and displays the current time (and possibly other information including date, month, and day). Movements may be entirely mechanical, entirely electronic (potentially with no moving parts), or they might be a blend of both. Most watches intended mainly for timekeeping today have electronic movements, with mechanical hands on the watch face indicating the time.\n\nMechanical \n\nCompared to electronic movements, mechanical watches are less accurate, often with errors of seconds per day; are sensitive to position, temperature, and magnetism; are costly to produce; require regular maintenance and adjustments; and are more prone to failures. Nevertheless, mechanical watches attract interest from consumers, particularly among watch collectors. Skeleton watches are designed to display the mechanism for aesthetic purposes.\n\nA mechanical movement uses an escapement mechanism to control and limit the unwinding and winding parts of a spring, converting what would otherwise be a simple unwinding into a controlled and periodic energy release. The movement also uses a balance wheel, together with the balance spring (also known as a hairspring), to control gear system's motion in a manner analogous to the pendulum of a pendulum clock. The tourbillon, an optional part for mechanical movements, is a rotating frame for the escapement, used to cancel out or reduce gravitational bias. Due to the complexity of designing a tourbillon, they are expensive, and typically found in prestigious watches.\n\nThe pin-lever escapement (called the Roskopf movement after its inventor, Georges Frederic Roskopf), which is a cheaper version of the fully levered movement, was manufactured in huge quantities by many Swiss manufacturers, as well as by Timex, until it was replaced by quartz movements.\n\nIntroduced by Bulova in 1960, tuning-fork watches use a type of electromechanical movement with a precise frequency (most often ) to drive a mechanical watch. The task of converting electronically pulsed fork vibration into rotary movements is done via two tiny jeweled fingers, called pawls. Tuning-fork watches were rendered obsolete when electronic quartz watches were developed.\n\nTraditional mechanical watch movements use a spiral spring called a mainspring as its power source that must be rewound periodically by the user by turning the watch crown. Antique pocket watches were wound by inserting a key into the back of the watch and turning it. While most modern watches are designed to run on a winding, requiring winding daily, some run for several days; a few have 192-hour mainsprings, requiring once-weekly winding.\n\nAutomatic watches \n\nA self-winding or automatic watch is one that rewinds the mainspring of a mechanical movement by the natural motions of the wearer's body. The first self-winding mechanism was invented for pocket watches in 1770 by Abraham-Louis Perrelet, but the first \"self-winding\", or \"automatic\", wristwatch was the invention of a British watch repairer named John Harwood in 1923. This type of watch winds itself without requiring any special action by the wearer. It uses an eccentric weight, called a winding rotor, which rotates with the movement of the wearer's wrist. The back-and-forth motion of the winding rotor couples to a ratchet to wind the mainspring automatically. Self-winding watches usually can also be wound manually to keep them running when not worn or if the wearer's wrist motions are inadequate to keep the watch wound.\n\nIn April 2014 the Swatch Group launched the sistem51 wristwatch. It has a purely mechanical movement consisting of only 51 parts, including a novel self-winding mechanism with a transparent oscillating weight. So far, it is the only mechanical movement manufactured entirely on a fully automated assembly line. The low parts count and the automated assembly make it an inexpensive mechanical Swiss watch, which can be considered a successor to Roskopf movements, although of higher quality.\n\nElectronic \n\nElectronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the piezoelectric effect. A varying electric voltage is applied to the crystal, which responds by changing its shape so, in combination with some electronic components, it functions as an oscillator. It resonates at a specific highly stable frequency, which is used to accurately pace a timekeeping mechanism. Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch to provide a traditional analog display of the time, a feature most consumers still prefer.\n\nIn 1959 Seiko placed an order with Epson (a subsidiary company of Seiko and the 'brain' behind the quartz revolution) to start developing a quartz wristwatch. The project was codenamed 59A. By the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olympics, Seiko had a working prototype of a portable quartz watch which was used as the time measurements throughout the event.\n\nThe first prototypes of an electronic quartz wristwatch (not just quartz watches as the Seiko timekeeping devices at the Tokyo Olympics in 1964) were made by the CEH research laboratory in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. From 1965 through 1967 pioneering development work was done on a miniaturized 8192 Hz quartz oscillator, a thermo-compensation module, and an in-house-made, dedicated integrated circuit (unlike the hybrid circuits used in the later Seiko Astron wristwatch). As a result, the BETA 1 prototype set new timekeeping performance records at the International Chronometric Competition held at the Observatory of Neuchâtel in 1967. In 1970, 18 manufacturers exhibited production versions of the beta 21 wristwatch, including the Omega Electroquartz as well as Patek Philippe, Rolex Oysterquartz and Piaget.\n\nThe first quartz watch to enter production was the Seiko 35 SQ Astron, which hit the shelves on 25 December 1969, swiftly followed by the Swiss Beta 21, and then a year later the prototype of one of the world's most accurate wristwatches to date: the Omega Marine Chronometer. Since the technology having been developed by contributions from Japanese, American and Swiss, nobody could patent the whole movement of the quartz wristwatch, thus allowing other manufacturers to participate in the rapid growth and development of the quartz watch market. This ended - in less than a decade - almost 100 years of dominance by the mechanical wristwatch legacy. Modern quartz movements are produced in very large quantities, and even the cheapest wristwatches typically have quartz movements. Whereas mechanical movements can typically be off by several seconds a day, an inexpensive quartz movement in a child's wristwatch may still be accurate to within half a second per day - ten times more accurate than a mechanical movement.\n\nAfter a consolidation of the mechanical watch industry in Switzerland during the 1970s, mass production of quartz wristwatches took off under the leadership of the Swatch Group of companies, a Swiss conglomerate with vertical control of the production of Swiss watches and related products. For quartz wristwatches, subsidiaries of Swatch manufacture watch batteries (Renata), oscillators (Oscilloquartz, now Micro Crystal AG) and integrated circuits (Ebauches Electronic SA, renamed EM Microelectronic-Marin). The launch of the new SWATCH brand in 1983 was marked by bold new styling, design, and marketing. Today, the Swatch Group maintains its position as the world's largest watch company.\n\nSeiko's efforts to combine the quartz and mechanical movements bore fruit after 20 years of research, leading to the introduction of the Seiko Spring Drive, first in a limited domestic market production in 1999 and to the world in September 2005. The Spring Drive keeps time within quartz standards without the use of a battery, using a traditional mechanical gear train powered by a spring, without the need for a balance wheel either.\n\nIn 2010, Miyota (Citizen Watch) of Japan introduced a newly developed movement that uses a 3-pronged quartz crystal that was exclusively produced for Bulova to be used in the Precisionist or Accutron II line, a new type of quartz watch with ultra-high frequency (262.144 kHz) which is claimed to be accurate to +/− 10 seconds a year and has a smooth sweeping second hand rather than one that jumps each second.\n\nRadio time signal watches are a type of electronic quartz watch that synchronizes (time transfers) its time with an external time source such as in atomic clocks, time signals from GPS navigation satellites, the German DCF77 signal in Europe, WWVB in the US, and others. Movements of this type may - among others - synchronize the time of day and the date, the leap-year status and the state of daylight saving time (on or off). However, other than the radio receiver, these watches are normal quartz watches in all other aspects.\n\nElectronic watches require electricity as a power source, and some mechanical movements and hybrid electronic-mechanical movements also require electricity. Usually, the electricity is provided by a replaceable battery. The first use of electrical power in watches was as a substitute for the mainspring, to remove the need for winding. The first electrically powered watch, the Hamilton Electric 500, was released in 1957 by the Hamilton Watch Company of Lancaster, Pennsylvania.\n\nWatch batteries (strictly speaking cells, as a battery is composed of multiple cells) are specially designed for their purpose. They are very small and provide tiny amounts of power continuously for very long periods (several years or more). In most cases, replacing the battery requires a trip to a watch-repair shop or watch dealer; this is especially true for watches that are water-resistant, as special tools and procedures are required for the watch to remain water-resistant after battery replacement. Silver-oxide and lithium batteries are popular today; mercury batteries, formerly quite common, are no longer used, for environmental reasons. Cheap batteries may be alkaline, of the same size as silver-oxide cells but providing shorter life. Rechargeable batteries are used in some solar-powered watches.\n\nSome electronic watches are powered by the movement of the wearer. For instance, Seiko's kinetic-powered quartz watches use the motion of the wearer's arm: turning a rotating weight which causes a tiny generator to supply power to charge a rechargeable battery that runs the watch. The concept is similar to that of self-winding spring movements, except that electrical power is generated instead of mechanical spring tension.\n\nSolar powered watches are powered by light. A photovoltaic cell on the face (dial) of the watch converts light to electricity, which is used to charge a rechargeable battery or capacitor. The movement of the watch draws its power from the rechargeable battery or capacitor. As long as the watch is regularly exposed to fairly strong light (such as sunlight), it never needs a battery replacement. Some models need only a few minutes of sunlight to provide weeks of energy (as in the Citizen Eco-Drive). Some of the early solar watches of the 1970s had innovative and unique designs to accommodate the array of solar cells needed to power them (Synchronar, Nepro, Sicura, and some models by Cristalonic, Alba, Seiko, and Citizen). As the decades progressed and the efficiency of the solar cells increased while the power requirements of the movement and display decreased, solar watches began to be designed to look like other conventional watches.\n\nA rarely used power source is the temperature difference between the wearer's arm and the surrounding environment (as applied in the Citizen Eco-Drive Thermo).\n\nDisplay\n\nAnalog \n\nTraditionally, watches have displayed the time in analog form, with a numbered dial upon which are mounted at least a rotating hour hand and a longer, rotating minute hand. Many watches also incorporate a third hand that shows the current second of the current minute. In quartz watches this second hand typically snaps to the next marker every second. In mechanical watches, the second hand may appear to glide continuously, though in fact it merely moves in smaller steps, typically one-fifth to one-tenth of a second, corresponding to the beat (half period) of the balance wheel. With a duplex escapement, the hand advances every two beats (full period) of the balance wheel, typically -second; this happens every four beats (two periods, 1 second), with a double duplex escapement. A truly gliding second hand is achieved with the tri-synchro regulator of Spring Drive watches. All three hands are normally mechanical, physically rotating on the dial, although a few watches have been produced with \"hands\" simulated by a liquid-crystal display.\n\nAnalog display of the time is nearly universal in watches sold as jewelry or collectibles, and in these watches, the range of different styles of hands, numbers, and other aspects of the analog dial is very broad. In watches sold for timekeeping, analog display remains very popular, as many people find it easier to read than digital display; but in timekeeping watches the emphasis is on clarity and accurate reading of the time under all conditions (clearly marked digits, easily visible hands, large watch faces, etc.). They are specifically designed for the left wrist with the stem (the knob used for changing the time) on the right side of the watch; this makes it easy to change the time without removing the watch from the wrist. This is the case if one is right-handed and the watch is worn on the left wrist (as is traditionally done). If one is left-handed and wears the watch on the right wrist, one has to remove the watch from the wrist to reset the time or to wind the watch.\n\nAnalog watches, as well as clocks, are often marketed showing a display time of approximately 1:50 or 10:10. This creates a visually pleasing smile-like face on the upper half of the watch, in addition to enclosing the manufacturer's name. Digital displays often show a time of 12:08, where the increase in the number of active segments or pixels gives a positive feeling.\n\nTactile \nTissot, a Swiss luxury watchmaker, makes the Silen-T wristwatch with a touch-sensitive face that vibrates to help the user to tell time eyes-free. The bezel of the watch features raised bumps at each hour mark; after briefly touching the face of the watch, the wearer runs a finger around the bezel clockwise. When the finger reaches the bump indicating the hour, the watch vibrates continuously, and when the finger reaches the bump indicating the minute, the watch vibrates intermittently.\n\nEone Timepieces, a Washington D.C.-based company, launched its first tactile analog wristwatch, the \"Bradley\", on 11 July 2013 on the Kickstarter website. The device is primarily designed for sight-impaired users, who can use the watch's two ball bearings to determine the time, but it is also suitable for general use. The watch features raised marks at each hour and two moving, magnetically attached ball bearings. One ball bearing, on the edge of the watch, indicates the hour, while the other, on the face, indicates the minute.\n\nDigital \nA digital display shows the time as a number, e.g., 12:08 instead of a shorthand pointing towards the number 12 and a long hand 8/60 of the way around the dial. The digits are usually shown as a seven-segment display.\n\nThe first digital pocket watches appeared in the late 19th century. In the 1920s, the first digital mechanical wristwatches appeared.\n\nThe first digital electronic watch, a Pulsar LED prototype in 1970, was developed jointly by Hamilton Watch Company and Electro-Data, founded by George H. Thiess. John Bergey, the head of Hamilton's Pulsar division, said that he was inspired to make a digital timepiece by the then-futuristic digital clock that Hamilton themselves made for the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. On 4 April 1972, the Pulsar was finally ready, made in an 18-carat gold case and sold for $2,100. It had a red light-emitting diode (LED) display.\n\nDigital LED watches were very expensive and out of reach to the common consumer until 1975, when Texas Instruments started to mass-produce LED watches inside a plastic case. These watches, which first retailed for only $20, reduced to $10 in 1976, saw Pulsar lose $6 million and the Pulsar brand sold to Seiko.\n\nAn early LED watch that was rather problematic was The Black Watch made and sold by British company Sinclair Radionics in 1975. This was only sold for a few years, as production problems and returned (faulty) product forced the company to cease production.\n\nMost watches with LED displays required that the user press a button to see the time displayed for a few seconds because LEDs used so much power that they could not be kept operating continuously. Usually, the LED display color would be red. Watches with LED displays were popular for a few years, but soon the LED displays were superseded by liquid crystal displays (LCDs), which used less battery power and were much more convenient in use, with the display always visible and eliminating the need to push a button before seeing the time. Only in darkness would a button needed to be pressed to illuminate the display with a tiny light bulb, later illuminating LEDs and electroluminescent backlights.\n\nThe first LCD watch with a six-digit LCD was the 1973 Seiko 06LC, although various forms of early LCD watches with a four-digit display were marketed as early as 1972 including the 1972 Gruen Teletime LCD Watch, and the Cox Electronic Systems Quarza. The Quarza, introduced in 1972 had the first Field Effect LCD readable in direct sunlight and produced by the International Liquid Crystal Corporation of Cleveland, Ohio. In Switzerland, Ebauches Electronic SA presented a prototype eight-digit LCD wristwatch showing time and date at the MUBA Fair, Basle, in March 1973, using a twisted nematic LCD manufactured by Brown, Boveri & Cie, Switzerland, which became the supplier of LCDs to Casio for the CASIOTRON watch in 1974.\n\nA problem with LCDs is that they use polarized light. If, for example, the user is wearing polarized sunglasses, the watch may be difficult to read because the plane of polarization of the display is roughly perpendicular to that of the glasses. If the light that illuminates the display is polarized, for example if it comes from a blue sky, the display may be difficult or impossible to read.\n\nFrom the 1980s onward, digital watch technology vastly improved. In 1982, Seiko produced the Seiko TV Watch that had a television screen built-in, and Casio produced a digital watch with a thermometer (the TS-1000) as well as another that could translate 1,500 Japanese words into English. In 1985, Casio produced the CFX-400 scientific calculator watch. In 1987, Casio produced a watch that could dial telephone numbers (the DBA-800) and Citizen introduced one that would react to voice. In 1995, Timex released a watch that allowed the wearer to download and store data from a computer to their wrist. Some watches, such as the Timex Datalink USB, feature dot matrix displays. Since their apex during the late 1980s to mid-1990s high technology fad, digital watches have mostly become simpler, less expensive timepieces with little variety between models.\n\nIlluminated \n\nMany watches have displays that are illuminated, so they can be used in darkness. Various methods have been used to achieve this.\n\nMechanical watches often have luminous paint on their hands and hour marks. In the mid-20th century, radioactive material was often incorporated in the paint, so it would continue to glow without any exposure to light. Radium was often used but produced small amounts of radiation outside the watch that might have been hazardous. Tritium was used as a replacement, since the radiation it produces has such low energy that it cannot penetrate a watch glass. However, tritium is expensive - it has to be made in a nuclear reactor - and it has a half-life of only about 12 years so the paint remains luminous for only a few years. Nowadays, tritium is used in specialized watches, e.g., for military purposes (see Tritium illumination). For other purposes, luminous paint is sometimes used on analog displays, but no radioactive material is contained in it. This means that the display glows soon after being exposed to light and quickly fades.\n\nWatches that incorporate batteries often have the electric illumination of their displays. However, lights consume far more power than electronic watch movements. To conserve the battery, the light is activated only when the user presses a button. Usually, the light remains lit for a few seconds after the button is released, which allows the user to move the hand out of the way.\n\nIn some early digital watches, LED displays were used, which could be read as easily in darkness as in daylight. The user had to press a button to light up the LEDs, which meant that the watch could not be read without the button being pressed, even in full daylight.\n\nIn some types of watches, small incandescent lamps or LEDs illuminate the display, which is not intrinsically luminous. These tend to produce very non-uniform illumination.\n\nOther watches use electroluminescent material to produce uniform illumination of the background of the display, against which the hands or digits can be seen.\n\nSpeech synthesis \nTalking watches are available, intended for the blind or visually impaired. They speak the time out loud at the press of a button. This has the disadvantage of disturbing others nearby or at least alerting the non-deaf that the wearer is checking the time. Tactile watches are preferred to avoid this awkwardness, but talking watches are preferred for those who are not confident in their ability to read a tactile watch reliably.\n\nHandedness\nWristwatches with analog displays generally have a small knob, called the crown, that can be used to adjust the time and, in mechanical watches, wind the spring. Almost always, the crown is located on the right-hand side of the watch so it can be worn of the left wrist for a right-handed individual. This makes it inconvenient to use if the watch is being worn on the right wrist. Some manufacturers offer \"left-hand drive\", aka \"destro\", configured watches which move the crown to the left side making wearing the watch easier for left-handed individuals.\n\nA rarer configuration is the bullhead watch. Bullhead watches are generally, but not exclusively, chronographs. The configuration moves the crown and chronograph pushers to the top of the watch. Bullheads are commonly wristwatch chronographs that are intended to be used as stopwatches off the wrist. Examples are the Citizen Bullhead Change Timer and the Omega Seamaster Bullhead.\n\nDigital watches generally have push-buttons that can be used to make adjustments. These are usually equally easy to use on either wrist.\n\nFunctions\n\nCustomarily, watches provide the time of day, giving at least the hour and minute, and often the second. Many also provide the current date, and some (called \"complete calendar\" or \"triple date\" watches) display the day of the week and the month as well. However, many watches also provide a great deal of information beyond the basics of time and date. Some watches include alarms. Other elaborate and more expensive watches, both pocket and wrist models, also incorporate striking mechanisms or repeater functions, so that the wearer could learn the time by the sound emanating from the watch. This announcement or striking feature is an essential characteristic of true clocks and distinguishes such watches from ordinary timepieces. This feature is available on most digital watches.\n\nA complicated watch has one or more functions beyond the basic function of displaying the time and the date; such a functionality is called a complication. Two popular complications are the chronograph complication, which is the ability of the watch movement to function as a stopwatch, and the moonphase complication, which is a display of the lunar phase. Other more expensive complications include Tourbillon, Perpetual calendar, Minute repeater, and Equation of time. A truly complicated watch has many of these complications at once (see Calibre 89 from Patek Philippe for instance). Some watches can both indicate the direction of Mecca and have alarms that can be set for all daily prayer requirements. Among watch enthusiasts, complicated watches are especially collectible. Some watches include a second 12-hour or 24-hour display for UTC or GMT.\n\nThe similar-sounding terms chronograph and chronometer are often confused, although they mean altogether different things. A chronograph is a watch with an added duration timer, often a stopwatch complication (as explained above), while a chronometer watch is a timepiece that has met an industry-standard test for performance under pre-defined conditions: a chronometer is a high quality mechanical or a thermo-compensated movement that has been tested and certified to operate within a certain standard of accuracy by the COSC (Contrôle Officiel Suisse des Chronomètres). The concepts are different but not mutually exclusive; so a watch can be a chronograph, a chronometer, both, or neither.\n\nElectronic sports watches, combining timekeeping with GPS and/or activity tracking, address the general fitness market and have the potential for commercial success (Garmin Forerunner, Garmin Vivofit, Epson, announced model of Swatch Touch series).\n\nBraille watches have analog displays with raised bumps around the face to allow blind users to tell the time. Their digital equivalents use synthesised speech to speak the time on command.\n\nFashion \n\nWristwatches and antique pocket watches are often appreciated as jewelry or as collectible works of art rather than just as timepieces. This has created several different markets for wristwatches, ranging from very inexpensive but accurate watches (intended for no other purpose than telling the correct time) to extremely expensive watches that serve mainly as personal adornment or as examples of high achievement in miniaturization and precision mechanical engineering.\n\nTraditionally, dress watches appropriate for informal (business), semi-formal, and formal attire are gold, thin, simple, and plain, but increasingly rugged, complicated, or sports watches are considered by some to be acceptable for such attire. Some dress watches have a cabochon on the crown or faceted gemstones on the face, bezel, or bracelet. Some are made entirely of faceted sapphire (corundum).\n\nMany fashions and department stores offer a variety of less-expensive, trendy, \"costume\" watches (usually for women), many of which are similar in quality to basic quartz timepieces but which feature bolder designs. In the 1980s, the Swiss Swatch company hired graphic designers to redesign a new annual collection of non-repairable watches.\n\nTrade in counterfeit watches, which mimic expensive brand-name watches, constitutes an estimated market per year.\n\nSpace \n\nThe zero-gravity environment and other extreme conditions encountered by astronauts in space require the use of specially tested watches.\n\nThe first-ever watch to be sent into space was a Russian \"Pobeda\" watch from the Petrodvorets Watch Factory. It was sent on a single orbit flight on the spaceship Korabl-Sputnik 4 on 9 March 1961. The watch had been attached without authorisation to the wrist of Chernuchka, a dog that successfully did exactly the same trip as Yuri Gagarin, with exactly the same rocket and equipment, just a month before Gagarin's flight.\n\nOn 12 April 1961, Gagarin wore a Shturmanskie (a transliteration of which actually means \"navigator's\") wristwatch during his historic first flight into space. The Shturmanskie was manufactured at the First Moscow Factory. Since 1964, the watches of the First Moscow Factory have been marked by the trademark \"\", transliterated as \"POLJOT\", which means \"flight\" in Russian and is a tribute to the many space trips its watches have accomplished. In the late 1970s, Poljot launched a new chrono movement, the 3133. With a 23 jewel movement and manual winding (43 hours), it was a modified Russian version of the Swiss Valjoux 7734 of the early 1970s. Poljot 3133 were taken into space by astronauts from Russia, France, Germany and Ukraine. On the arm of Valeriy Polyakov, a Poljot 3133 chronograph movement-based watch set a space record for the longest space flight in history.\n\nThrough the 1960s, a large range of watches was tested for durability and precision under extreme temperature changes and vibrations. The Omega Speedmaster Professional was selected by NASA, the U.S space agency, and it is mostly known thanks to astronaut Buzz Aldrin who wore it during the moon landing, 1969. Heuer became the first Swiss watch in space thanks to a Heuer Stopwatch, worn by John Glenn in 1962 when he piloted the Friendship 7 on the first manned U.S. orbital mission. The Breitling Navitimer Cosmonaute was designed with a 24-hour analog dial to avoid confusion between AM and PM, which are meaningless in space. It was first worn in space by U.S. astronaut Scott Carpenter on 24 May 1962 in the Aurora 7 mercury capsule.\n\nSince 1994 Fortis is the exclusive supplier for manned space missions authorized by the Russian Federal Space Agency. China National Space Administration (CNSA) astronauts wear the Fiyta spacewatches. At BaselWorld, 2008, Seiko announced the creation of the first watch ever designed specifically for a space walk, Spring Drive Spacewalk. Timex Datalink is flight certified by NASA for space missions and is one of the watches qualified by NASA for space travel. The Casio G-Shock DW-5600C and 5600E, DW 6900, and DW 5900 are Flight-Qualified for NASA space travel.\n\nVarious Timex Datalink models were used both by cosmonauts and astronauts.\n\nScuba diving \n\nWatch construction may be water-resistant. These watches are sometimes called diving watches when they are suitable for scuba diving or saturation diving. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issued a standard for water-resistant watches which also prohibits the term \"waterproof\" to be used with watches, which many countries have adopted. In the United States, advertising a watch as waterproof has been illegal since 1968, per Federal Trade Commission regulations regarding the \"misrepresentation of protective features\".\n\nWater-resistance is achieved by the gaskets which forms a watertight seal, used in conjunction with a sealant applied on the case to help keep water out. The material of the case must also be tested in order to pass as water-resistant.\n\nNone of the tests defined by ISO 2281 for the Water Resistant mark are suitable to qualify a watch for scuba diving. Such watches are designed for everyday life and must be water-resistant during exercises such as swimming. They can be worn in different temperature and pressure conditions but are under no circumstances designed for scuba diving.\n\nThe standards for diving watches are regulated by the ISO 6425 international standard. The watches are tested in static or still water under 125% of the rated (water) pressure, thus a watch with a 200-metre rating will be water-resistant if it is stationary and under 250 metres of static water. The testing of the water-resistance is fundamentally different from non-dive watches, because every watch has to be fully tested. Besides water resistance standards to a minimum of 100-metre depth rating ISO 6425 also provides eight minimum requirements for mechanical diver's watches for scuba diving (quartz and digital watches have slightly differing readability requirements). For diver's watches for mixed-gas saturation diving two additional ISO 6425 requirements have to be met.\n\nWatches are classified by their degree of water resistance, which roughly translates to the following (1 metre = 3.281 feet):\n\nSome watches use bar instead of meters, which may then be multiplied by 10, and then subtract 10 to be approximately equal to the rating based on metres. Therefore, a 5 bar watch is equivalent to a 40-metre watch. Some watches are rated in atmospheres (atm), which are roughly equivalent to bar.\n\nNavigation \n\nThere is a traditional method by which an analog watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun appears to move in the sky over a 24-hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock face takes twelve hours to complete one rotation. In the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south. For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During daylight saving time, the same method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12. This method is accurate enough to be used only at fairly high latitudes.\n\nSee also \n\n Boule de Genève\n Clock\n Coin watch\n List of most expensive watches sold at auction\n List of watch manufacturers\n Marine chronometer\n Movado Ermeto watch\n Radium dial\n Tachymeter (watch)\n 24-hour analog dial\n Smart watch\n Shock-resistant watch\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Beckett, Edmund, A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, Watches and Bells, 1903, from Project Gutenberg\n Berner, G.A., Illustrated Professional Dictionary of Horology, Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH 1961–2012\n Daniels, George, Watchmaking, London: Philip Wilson Publishers, 1981 (reprinted 15 June 2011)\n De Carle, Donald, (Illustrations by E. A. Ayres), Practical Watch Repairing, 3rd edition, New York : Skyhorse Pub., 2008. . Significant information on watches, their history, and inner workings.\n Denn, Mark, \"The Tourbillon and How It Works,\" IEEE Control Systems Magazine, June 2010, IEEE Control Systems Society, DOI 10.1109/MCS.2010.936291.\n Donzé, Pierre-Yves. \"Dynamics of innovation in the electronic watch industry: a comparative business history of Longines (Switzerland) and Seiko (Japan), 1960-1980.\" Essays in Economic & Business History 37.1 (2019): 120-145. online\n Donzé, Pierre-Yves (2022). The business of time: A global history of the watch industry. Manchester University Press.\n Grafton, Edward, Horology, a popular sketch of clock and watch making, London: Aylett and Jones, 1849\n\n American and Swiss Watchmaking in 1876 by Jacques David\n The Watch Factories of America Past and Present by Henry G. Abbott (1888)\n Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH\n UK patent GB218487, Improvements relating to wrist watches, 1923 patent resulting from John Harwood's invention of a practical self-winding watch mechanism.\n\n \nCategory:Wrist", "title": "Watch" } ]

[ "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_0_q#0", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_0_q#1", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_0_q#2", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_0_q#3", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_0_q#4", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_0_q#5" ]

[ "where did he grow up?", "what was the Birthday Party?", "when was it formed?", "who were the other band members?", "where did they play their concerts?", "what songs did they sing?" ]

[ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1908 ], [ 1748 ], [ 810 ], [ 9 ], [ 717 ], [ 1333 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "the Birthday Party disbanded in 1984." ], [ "in 1980" ], [ "Cave met Mick Harvey (guitar), Phill Calvert (drums), John Cochivera (guitar), Brett Purcell (bass), and Chris Coyne (saxophone); fellow students at Caulfield Grammar." ], [ "playing hundreds of live shows in Australia" ], [ "\"Nick the Stripper\"" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1908, 1748, 810, 9, 717, 1333 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "the Birthday Party disbanded in 1984.", "in 1980", "Cave met Mick Harvey (guitar), Phill Calvert (drums), John Cochivera (guitar), Brett Purcell (bass), and Chris Coyne (saxophone); fellow students at Caulfield Grammar.", "playing hundreds of live shows in Australia", "\"Nick the Stripper\"" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on where Cave grew up.", "The Birthday Party was a band that was formed by Cave and his fellow students from Caulfield Grammar. It was originally named The Boys Next Door and played predominantly original material. They were a leader of Melbourne's post-punk scene in the late 1970s. The band was known for their provocative live performances and their use of Old Testament imagery in their lyrics. They moved to London and West Berlin in 1980 and obtained a cult following in Europe and Australia before disbanding in 1984.", "The band, originally named The Boys Next Door, was formed sometime after 1973, when Cave met his fellow band members. They changed their name to the Birthday Party in 1980.", "The other members of the band The Birthday Party included Mick Harvey (guitar), Phill Calvert (drums), John Cochivera (guitar), Brett Purcell (bass), Chris Coyne (saxophone), Tracy Pew (bass), and Rowland S. Howard (guitar, songwriter).", "They played hundreds of live shows in Australia, and then moved to London and West Berlin in 1980.", "The context mentions the band's songs \"Nick the Stripper\", \"King Ink\", and \"Release the Bats\". Initially, their repertoire consisted of proto-punk cover versions of songs by Lou Reed, David Bowie, Alice Cooper, Roxy Music and Alex Harvey, among others. Later, they began to play predominantly original material." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_1_q#0", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_1_q#1", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_1_q#2", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_1_q#3", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_1_q#4", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_1_q#5", "C_c0eaedb6a49142b881329052a49172ae_1_q#6" ]

[ "Was Nick Cave ever married?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Who was Nick Cave's parents?", "Did Nick Cave have any siblings?", "What kind of education did Nick Cave have?", "Where else did he study at?", "Did he study anything else while he was at Caulfield Institute of technology?" ]

[ 1, 0, 2, 1, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1777 ], [ 0 ], [ 114 ], [ 1777 ], [ 1365 ], [ 870 ], [ 1777 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Cave was born on 22 September 1957 in Warracknabeal," ], [ "Dawn Cave (nee Treadwell) and Colin Frank Cave." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Cave studied painting at the Caulfield Institute of Technology" ], [ "Caulfield Grammar School." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1777, 0, 114, 1777, 1365, 870, 1777 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Cave was born on 22 September 1957 in Warracknabeal,", "Dawn Cave (nee Treadwell) and Colin Frank Cave.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Cave studied painting at the Caulfield Institute of Technology", "Caulfield Grammar School.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on whether Nick Cave was ever married.", "The text provides several interesting aspects about Nick Cave's life. We learn that he was born in a small country town in Victoria, Australia, and that his parents were educators. His father seems to have had a significant influence on him, introducing him to literature and fostering his interest in the outlaw Ned Kelly. Cave had a troubled adolescence, getting expelled from school and charged with burglary. His father's death deeply impacted him, marking a turning point in his life. He was interested in various forms of art, studying painting before deciding to pursue music, and also began using heroin after leaving art school. Attending his first music concert had a profound physical impact on him.", "Nick Cave's parents were Dawn Cave (nee Treadwell) and Colin Frank Cave.", "The text does not provide information on whether Nick Cave had any siblings.", "Nick Cave attended Wangaratta High School but was expelled at age 13. Later, in 1970, when his family moved to the Melbourne suburb of Murrumbeena, he became a boarder and then a day student at Caulfield Grammar School. After his secondary schooling, Cave studied painting at the Caulfield Institute of Technology in 1976, but he dropped out the following year to pursue music.", "Aside from Wangaratta High School and Caulfield Grammar School, Nick Cave also studied painting at the Caulfield Institute of Technology.", "The text only mentions that Nick Cave studied painting at the Caulfield Institute of Technology. There is no additional information about him studying anything else there." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_0_q#0", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_0_q#1", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_0_q#2", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_0_q#3", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_0_q#4", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_0_q#5", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_0_q#6" ]

[ "What albums were released bewteen 2005-2010?", "What were the titles of the albums?", "What were the singles released from that album?", "Were they number 1 hits?", "What other albums did they release?", "What singles were on that album?", "Wasn't that the name of the 2005 album?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 9 ], [ 77 ], [ 153 ], [ 2020 ], [ 1072 ], [ 84 ], [ 574 ] ], "texts": [ [ "the band had sold 12 million albums." ], [ "2005's Seventeen Days," ], [ "\"Let Me Go\" and \"Behind Those Eyes" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "self-titled fourth album on May 20, 2008." ], [ "Seventeen Days," ], [ "Away from the Sun:" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 9, 77, 153, 2020, 1072, 84, 574 ], "texts": [ "the band had sold 12 million albums.", "2005's Seventeen Days,", "\"Let Me Go\" and \"Behind Those Eyes", "CANNOTANSWER", "self-titled fourth album on May 20, 2008.", "Seventeen Days,", "Away from the Sun:" ] }

[]

[ "The albums released between 2005 and 2010 were \"Seventeen Days\" and \"3 Doors Down\".", "The titles of the albums released between 2005 and 2010 were \"Seventeen Days\" and \"3 Doors Down\".", "The singles released from the \"Seventeen Days\" album include \"Let Me Go\", \"Behind Those Eyes\", \"Live for Today\", \"Landing in London\", and \"Here by Me\". The singles released from the \"3 Doors Down\" album include \"It's Not My Time\", \"Train\", \"Let Me Be Myself\" and \"Citizen/Soldier\".", "The text does not provide information on whether the singles from the \"Seventeen Days\" and \"3 Doors Down\" albums were number 1 hits.", "The text only mentions the albums \"Seventeen Days\" and \"3 Doors Down\". No other albums are mentioned.", "The singles on the \"Seventeen Days\" album were \"Let Me Go\", \"Behind Those Eyes\", \"Live for Today\", \"Landing in London\", and \"Here by Me\". The singles on the \"3 Doors Down\" album were \"It's Not My Time\", \"Train\", \"Let Me Be Myself\" and \"Citizen/Soldier\".", "Yes, \"Seventeen Days\" was the name of the album that the band released in 2005." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_1_q#0", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_1_q#1", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_1_q#2", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_1_q#3", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_1_q#4", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_1_q#5", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_1_q#6", "C_61f7b6bfa43f4590b3b5f6583174f11a_1_q#7" ]

[ "what happened in 1999?", "what was their success?", "What other albums did they have?", "Did they have any hits?", "Did they win any awards?", "Is there anything else interesting?", "What is the Better Life Foundation?", "Who did it help?" ]

[ 1, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2382 ], [ 35 ], [ 784 ], [ 927 ], [ 2382 ], [ 2027 ], [ 2122 ], [ 2382 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The Better Life, was released on February 8, 2000 and went on to become the 11th best-selling album of the year, selling over three million copies." ], [ "Away from the Sun," ], [ "When I'm Gone" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2003, the band began hosting the annual \"3 Doors Down and Friends\" benefit concert, through the band's own charity The Better Life Foundation." ], [ "the band's own charity" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2382, 35, 784, 927, 2382, 2027, 2122, 2382 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "The Better Life, was released on February 8, 2000 and went on to become the 11th best-selling album of the year, selling over three million copies.", "Away from the Sun,", "When I'm Gone", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 2003, the band began hosting the annual \"3 Doors Down and Friends\" benefit concert, through the band's own charity The Better Life Foundation.", "the band's own charity", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on what happened in 1999.", "3 Doors Down's first studio album, The Better Life, released in 2000, became the 11th best-selling album of the year and sold over three million copies. It was certified 6x platinum and had international hit singles like \"Kryptonite\", \"Loser\", and \"Duck and Run\". Their second studio album, Away from the Sun, went platinum within two months of release and produced two hit singles, \"When I'm Gone\" and \"Here Without You\". It sold four million copies worldwide. They also had success with a live EP entitled Another 700 Miles which has been certified Gold in the United States.", "The context mentions two studio albums of 3 Doors Down: \"The Better Life\" and \"Away from the Sun\". It also mentions a live EP called \"Another 700 Miles.\" No other albums are mentioned in the provided context.", "Yes, 3 Doors Down had several hit singles. From their first album \"The Better Life\", the songs \"Kryptonite\", \"Loser\", and \"Duck and Run\" were international hits. From their second album \"Away from the Sun\", the songs \"When I'm Gone\" and \"Here Without You\" were also hits.", "The text does not provide information on any awards won by 3 Doors Down.", "Yes, there are several interesting aspects mentioned in the context apart from their music career. In 2003, the band started an annual benefit concert called \"3 Doors Down and Friends\" through their own charity, The Better Life Foundation. The proceeds of the 2006 event were directed towards the survivors of Hurricane Katrina. The band members, being residents of Escatawpa, were deeply affected by Katrina's devastation. It's also noteworthy that while recording \"The Better Life\", lead singer Brad Arnold recorded both the vocal and drum parts. And, the band was aboard the USS George Washington (CVN-73) to film the music video \"When I'm Gone\".", "The Better Life Foundation is the charity owned by the band 3 Doors Down. They host an annual benefit concert, \"3 Doors Down and Friends\", through this foundation. In 2006, the proceeds from this event were used to aid Hurricane Katrina survivors. No other specific details about The Better Life Foundation are provided in the context.", "The Better Life Foundation, through the annual \"3 Doors Down and Friends\" benefit concert, helped the survivors of Hurricane Katrina in 2006. The members of the band are from Escatawpa and witnessed the devastation caused by Katrina." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_0_q#0", "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_0_q#1", "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_0_q#3", "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_0_q#4" ]

[ "What was edwards final assighnment", "What happened in the pacific Northwest", "How did Edward die?", "Who was Captain Jack?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 67 ], [ 2720 ], [ 971 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In August 1872, Canby was posted to command the Pacific Northwest." ], [ "He soon faced problems with the Modoc tribe, who had traditionally lived in Northern California." ], [ "Captain Jack attacked the general. With Ellen's Man, one of his lieutenants, he shot Canby twice in the head and cut his throat." ], [ "the Modoc leader Captain Jack" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 67, 2720, 971 ], "texts": [ "In August 1872, Canby was posted to command the Pacific Northwest.", "He soon faced problems with the Modoc tribe, who had traditionally lived in Northern California.", "Captain Jack attacked the general. With Ellen's Man, one of his lieutenants, he shot Canby twice in the head and cut his throat.", "the Modoc leader Captain Jack" ] }

[ { "text": "\n\nUnion generals\n\n__NOTOC__\n\nThe following lists show the names, substantive ranks, and brevet ranks (if applicable) of all general officers who served in the United States Army during the Civil War, in addition to a small selection of lower-ranked officers who received brevets as general officers; while some 1,600 officers received or were nominated for brevets as general officers in the course of the war (or immediately following it for service during the war), only a small selection is listed here; only those who were killed in action, served as department heads within the army, had revoked or incomplete appointments or became U.S. President are listed here.\n\nIn addition to their names and ranks, there is a small set of notes after every entry listing Medal of Honor or Thanks of Congress citations, West Point graduation dates, important political or Army offices held, retirements or deaths during the war (whether in action or other means), notable relations, rejections or expiration of appointments, or unique facts pertaining to this article (i.e. youngest general, last surviving general, etc.); for all other information on their lives and accomplishments, please refer to their individual entries.\n\nIf available, ranks are followed by the \"to rank from\" dates (i.e. the date on which the commission is effective) rather than the date of appointment or confirmation, which were generally months if not years later; this is particularly true in the case of brevets, most of which were granted after the war between 1866 and 1869.\n\nNote on abbreviations:\nMOH: Medal of Honor\nCSA: Confederate States Army\nDOW: Died of wounds\nGAR: Grand Army of the Republic\nKIA: Killed in action\nMOLLUS: Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States\nUSA: United States Army (Regular Army) (appointment or brevet)\nUSMA: United States Military Academy\nUSN: United States Navy\nUSV: United States Volunteers (appointment or brevet)\nVRC: Veteran Reserve Corps officer\n\nA\n\nB\n\nC\n\nD\n\nE\n\nF\n\nG\n\nH\n\nI\n\nJ\n\nK\n\nL\n\nM\n\nN\n\nO\n\nP\n\nQ\n\nR\n\nS\n\nT\n\nU\n\nV\n\nW\n\nY\n\nZ\n\nSee also\n\n List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)\n List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)\n List of American Civil War generals (Acting Confederate)\n General officers in the Confederate States Army\n General officers in the United States\n Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant\n Bibliography of the American Civil War\n\nReferences\n\n Boatner, III, Mark M., The Civil War Dictionary. David McKay Company, Inc., New York, 1959. .\n Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001. .\n Faust, Patricia L., ed., Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War. Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., New York, 1986. .\n Hattaway, Herman and Jones, Archer, How the North Won. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1983. .\n Heitman, Francis Bernard, Historical register and dictionary of the United States Army: from its organization, September 29, 1789, to March 2, 1903. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1903. \n Hunt, Roger D. and Brown, Jack R., Brevet Brigadier Generals in Blue. Olde Soldier Books, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD, 1990. ;\n McPherson, James M., Battle Cry of Freedom. Oxford University Press, New York, 1988. .\n Nevins, Allan, The War for the Union, Volume 1, The Improvised War, 1861–1862. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1959. .\n Rodenbough, Theophilus F. and Haskin, William L., ed., The Army of the United States. Maynard, Merrill, & Co., New York, 1896. Argonaut Press Ltd.; Reprint edition (1966). ASIN: B000ST7S9Y.\n Sifakis, Stewart, Who Was Who in the Civil War. Facts On File, New York, 1988. .\n United States War Department, The Military Secretary's Office, Memorandum Relative to the General Officers in the Armies of the United States During the Civil War, 1861–1865, (Compiled from Official Records.) 1906. https://archive.org/details/memorandumrelati05unit, retrieved August 5, 2010.\n United States War Department, The Military Secretary's Office, Memorandum relative to the general officers appointed by the President in the armies of the Confederate States--1861-1865 (1908) (Compiled from official records). Caption shows 1905 but printing date is February 11, 1908. https://archive.org/details/memorandumrelati01unit, retrieved August 5, 2010.\n Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Blue. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1964. .\n Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Gray. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1959. .\n American Civil War Generals, accessed February 18, 2008\n Brevet Union Generals of the Civil War, accessed February 18, 2008\n Confederate Generals from West Point, accessed February 18, 2008\n The Brevet Generals of the American Civil War, accessed from Archive.org, April 9, 2009\n The Generals of the American Civil War, accessed from Archive.org, April 9, 2009\n https://web.archive.org/web/20080306062513/http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/wpungen.html\n\nCategory:Lists of American military personnel\nCategory:Lists of generals\nAmerican union", "title": "List of American Civil War generals (Union)" } ]

[ "The text does not provide information on any individual named Edwards or their final assignment.", "In the Pacific Northwest, General Canby had to deal with issues related to the Modoc tribe. The tribe had traditionally lived in Northern California but were forced to relocate to a reservation in Oregon. They shared this reservation with their traditional enemies, the Klamath tribe. After their request to return to California was denied by the U.S. government, the Modoc left the reservation illegally, leading to the outbreak of the Modoc War. The tribe ultimately faced the U.S. army at a location known as Captain Jack's Stronghold, where they managed to resist attacks. The war lead into peace talks under General Canby's lead. However, during these peace talks, General Canby was killed by Captain Jack after he was unable to promise a return of their homeland to Modoc.", "The text does not provide information on an individual named Edward or how he died.", "Captain Jack was the leader of the Modoc tribe, which was involved in the Modoc War against the U.S. Army in 1872. Notably, he was part of a plot to kill the peace commissioners, including General Canby, as he and his tribe believed that peace was not possible. Captain Jack was the one who attacked General Canby during a peace talk, shooting him twice in the head and cutting his throat. Prior to this, he had been reluctant to agree to the killings and had intended to ask Canby for the tribe's home back." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_1_q#0", "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_1_q#1", "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_1_q#2", "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_1_q#3", "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_1_q#4", "C_3389194542a545ab8922ed9233e24555_1_q#5" ]

[ "What was Edward Canby's rank in the early part of his career?", "Did he fight in any wars during his early career?", "Did he fight in any other wars?", "Did anything notable happen during the Utah War?", "What happened after Sibly was aquitted?", "Did Canby fight any other Native Americans?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 124 ], [ 25 ], [ 1094 ], [ 1199 ], [ 1329 ], [ 1689 ] ], "texts": [ [ "where he received three brevet promotions, including to major for Contreras and Churubusco, and lieutenant colonel for Belen Gates." ], [ "Canby served in the Second Seminole War in Florida and saw combat during the Mexican-American War," ], [ "Canby served in Wyoming and Utah (then both part of the Utah Territory) during the Utah War (" ], [ "During this period, he served on the panel of judges for the court martial of Captain Henry Hopkins Sibley. Sibley was acquitted." ], [ "Subsequently, Canby wrote an endorsement for a teepee-like army tent which Sibley had adapted from the American Indian style." ], [ "The campaign ended in frustration, with Canby and Sibley rarely sighting Navajo raiders." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 124, 25, 1094, 1199, 1329, 1689 ], "texts": [ "where he received three brevet promotions, including to major for Contreras and Churubusco, and lieutenant colonel for Belen Gates.", "Canby served in the Second Seminole War in Florida and saw combat during the Mexican-American War,", "Canby served in Wyoming and Utah (then both part of the Utah Territory) during the Utah War (", "During this period, he served on the panel of judges for the court martial of Captain Henry Hopkins Sibley. Sibley was acquitted.", "Subsequently, Canby wrote an endorsement for a teepee-like army tent which Sibley had adapted from the American Indian style.", "The campaign ended in frustration, with Canby and Sibley rarely sighting Navajo raiders." ] }

[ { "text": "\n\nUnion generals\n\n__NOTOC__\n\nThe following lists show the names, substantive ranks, and brevet ranks (if applicable) of all general officers who served in the United States Army during the Civil War, in addition to a small selection of lower-ranked officers who received brevets as general officers; while some 1,600 officers received or were nominated for brevets as general officers in the course of the war (or immediately following it for service during the war), only a small selection is listed here; only those who were killed in action, served as department heads within the army, had revoked or incomplete appointments or became U.S. President are listed here.\n\nIn addition to their names and ranks, there is a small set of notes after every entry listing Medal of Honor or Thanks of Congress citations, West Point graduation dates, important political or Army offices held, retirements or deaths during the war (whether in action or other means), notable relations, rejections or expiration of appointments, or unique facts pertaining to this article (i.e. youngest general, last surviving general, etc.); for all other information on their lives and accomplishments, please refer to their individual entries.\n\nIf available, ranks are followed by the \"to rank from\" dates (i.e. the date on which the commission is effective) rather than the date of appointment or confirmation, which were generally months if not years later; this is particularly true in the case of brevets, most of which were granted after the war between 1866 and 1869.\n\nNote on abbreviations:\nMOH: Medal of Honor\nCSA: Confederate States Army\nDOW: Died of wounds\nGAR: Grand Army of the Republic\nKIA: Killed in action\nMOLLUS: Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States\nUSA: United States Army (Regular Army) (appointment or brevet)\nUSMA: United States Military Academy\nUSN: United States Navy\nUSV: United States Volunteers (appointment or brevet)\nVRC: Veteran Reserve Corps officer\n\nA\n\nB\n\nC\n\nD\n\nE\n\nF\n\nG\n\nH\n\nI\n\nJ\n\nK\n\nL\n\nM\n\nN\n\nO\n\nP\n\nQ\n\nR\n\nS\n\nT\n\nU\n\nV\n\nW\n\nY\n\nZ\n\nSee also\n\n List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)\n List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)\n List of American Civil War generals (Acting Confederate)\n General officers in the Confederate States Army\n General officers in the United States\n Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant\n Bibliography of the American Civil War\n\nReferences\n\n Boatner, III, Mark M., The Civil War Dictionary. David McKay Company, Inc., New York, 1959. .\n Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001. .\n Faust, Patricia L., ed., Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War. Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., New York, 1986. .\n Hattaway, Herman and Jones, Archer, How the North Won. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1983. .\n Heitman, Francis Bernard, Historical register and dictionary of the United States Army: from its organization, September 29, 1789, to March 2, 1903. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1903. \n Hunt, Roger D. and Brown, Jack R., Brevet Brigadier Generals in Blue. Olde Soldier Books, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD, 1990. ;\n McPherson, James M., Battle Cry of Freedom. Oxford University Press, New York, 1988. .\n Nevins, Allan, The War for the Union, Volume 1, The Improvised War, 1861–1862. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1959. .\n Rodenbough, Theophilus F. and Haskin, William L., ed., The Army of the United States. Maynard, Merrill, & Co., New York, 1896. Argonaut Press Ltd.; Reprint edition (1966). ASIN: B000ST7S9Y.\n Sifakis, Stewart, Who Was Who in the Civil War. Facts On File, New York, 1988. .\n United States War Department, The Military Secretary's Office, Memorandum Relative to the General Officers in the Armies of the United States During the Civil War, 1861–1865, (Compiled from Official Records.) 1906. https://archive.org/details/memorandumrelati05unit, retrieved August 5, 2010.\n United States War Department, The Military Secretary's Office, Memorandum relative to the general officers appointed by the President in the armies of the Confederate States--1861-1865 (1908) (Compiled from official records). Caption shows 1905 but printing date is February 11, 1908. https://archive.org/details/memorandumrelati01unit, retrieved August 5, 2010.\n Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Blue. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1964. .\n Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Gray. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1959. .\n American Civil War Generals, accessed February 18, 2008\n Brevet Union Generals of the Civil War, accessed February 18, 2008\n Confederate Generals from West Point, accessed February 18, 2008\n The Brevet Generals of the American Civil War, accessed from Archive.org, April 9, 2009\n The Generals of the American Civil War, accessed from Archive.org, April 9, 2009\n https://web.archive.org/web/20080306062513/http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/wpungen.html\n\nCategory:Lists of American military personnel\nCategory:Lists of generals\nAmerican union", "title": "List of American Civil War generals (Union)" } ]

[ "Edward Canby received brevet promotions to major and lieutenant colonel in the early part of his career.", "Yes, during his early career, Canby served in the Second Seminole War in Florida and saw combat during the Mexican-American War.", "The context also mentions that Canby served in the Utah War in the Utah Territory, which consisted of what is now Wyoming and Utah.", "During the Utah War, Canby served on the panel of judges for the court martial of Captain Henry Hopkins Sibley. Sibley was acquitted and Canby later endorsed a teepee-like army tent which Sibley had adapted from the American Indian style.", "After Sibley was acquitted, Canby wrote an endorsement for a teepee-like army tent which Sibley had adapted from the American Indian style. Both officers were later assigned to New Mexico, where in 1860 Canby coordinated a campaign against the Navajo, commanding Sibley in a futile attempt to capture and punish Navajo for \"depredations\" against the livestock of settlers.", "The context does not provide information on Edward Canby fighting any other Native Americans apart from the Navajo." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_1a26c9cccd24479ab425d2bbd4fd169b_1_q#0", "C_1a26c9cccd24479ab425d2bbd4fd169b_1_q#1", "C_1a26c9cccd24479ab425d2bbd4fd169b_1_q#2", "C_1a26c9cccd24479ab425d2bbd4fd169b_1_q#3" ]

[ "How popular was alvin and the chipmunks during this time frame?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Why did they change it?", "Did the show win any awards?" ]

[ 1, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2954 ], [ 0 ], [ 187 ], [ 2954 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The group's name changed from the \"Chipmunks\" to \"Alvin and the Chipmunks\". In 1983," ], [ "Titled simply Alvin and the Chipmunks, the outline of the show closely paralleled the original Alvin Show." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2954, 0, 187, 2954 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "The group's name changed from the \"Chipmunks\" to \"Alvin and the Chipmunks\". In 1983,", "Titled simply Alvin and the Chipmunks, the outline of the show closely paralleled the original Alvin Show.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The context implies that Alvin and the Chipmunks were quite popular during this time frame. Evidence of their popularity includes a second animated television series, the introduction of new characters, the release of a soundtrack album, participation in a NBC campaign, a live stage show, an animated feature film, and a documentary about the show. They also joined other famous cartoon stars for a drug abuse-prevention special. However, the series was also shown to have experienced a decline in popularity at one point after Alvin claimed they were \"bigger than Mickey Mouse\".", "Some interesting aspects of the article include the introduction of the Chipettes, which are female versions of the Chipmunks, each with a similar personality to one of the original Chipmunks. The show's reflection of contemporaneous trends in popular culture, with the Chipmunks singing recent hits and wearing contemporary clothing, is another intriguing element. The series also had episodes that spoofed famous Hollywood films and one that spoofed John Lennon's 1966 comment about the Beatles. The appearance of \"Uncle\" Harry, a character whose familial relation to the Chipmunks is ambiguous, and the anthropomorphism of the Chipmunks are further fascinating details. Additionally, the drug abuse-prevention special Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue, which saw the Chipmunks teaming up with other famous cartoon characters, is an intriguing aspect of the show.", "The context does not provide specific reasons for the changes made in the Alvin and the Chipmunks series, such as adding new characters or renaming the series.", "The context does not provide information on whether the show \"Alvin and the Chipmunks\" won any awards." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#0", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#1", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#2", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#3", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#4", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#5", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#6", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#7", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#8", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_1_q#9" ]

[ "what was he arrested for", "What was he selling?", "did he go to jail", "where was he arrested?", "What did ed want with him", "Was any one else arrested at the same time", "did they know it was him that snitched?", "What was the date of the families arrests?", "How did they plan to kill hill", "how di they know it was him" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 2344 ], [ 682 ], [ 2344 ], [ 1632 ], [ 2232 ], [ 1986 ], [ 13 ], [ 2131 ], [ 2344 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On April 27, 1980, Hill was arrested on a narcotics-trafficking charge." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "While in his cell, the officers would tell Hill that the prosecutor, Ed McDonald, wanted to speak with him," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "McDonald didn't want to take any chances and arrested Hill as a material witness in the Lufthansa robbery. Hill then agreed to become an informant" ], [ "Shortly afterwards, Burke and several other Lucchese crime family members were arrested by federal authorities." ], [ "Jimmy Burke offered him money to arrange a meeting between Bucceroni and Hill at a Brooklyn grocery store so that Burke could have Hill murdered gangland fashion," ], [ "1980" ], [ "gangland fashion," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 2344, 682, 2344, 1632, 2232, 1986, 13, 2131, 2344 ], "texts": [ "On April 27, 1980, Hill was arrested on a narcotics-trafficking charge.", "CANNOTANSWER", "While in his cell, the officers would tell Hill that the prosecutor, Ed McDonald, wanted to speak with him,", "CANNOTANSWER", "McDonald didn't want to take any chances and arrested Hill as a material witness in the Lufthansa robbery. Hill then agreed to become an informant", "Shortly afterwards, Burke and several other Lucchese crime family members were arrested by federal authorities.", "Jimmy Burke offered him money to arrange a meeting between Bucceroni and Hill at a Brooklyn grocery store so that Burke could have Hill murdered gangland fashion,", "1980", "gangland fashion,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "He was arrested on a narcotics-trafficking charge.", "The text does not provide specific information on what he was selling.", "Yes, the text mentions that he was in a cell and later released on bail.", "The text does not provide specific information on where Hill was arrested.", "The text does not specify what Ed McDonald specifically wanted with Hill, but it mentions that he wanted to speak with him while Hill was in his cell. Later, McDonald arrested Hill as a material witness in the Lufthansa robbery.", "The text does not provide information on whether anyone else was arrested at the same time as Hill.", "The text does not provide information on whether others knew that Hill was the informant.", "The text does not provide a specific date for the arrest of the other Lucchese crime family members.", "The text does not provide specific details on how they planned to kill Hill. But it was stated that Hill was supposed to kill Bobby Germaine's son in Florida, where Hill believed he himself would be killed.", "The text does not provide information on how they knew it was Hill." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "no", "no", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#0", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#1", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#2", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#3", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#4", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#5", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#6", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#7", "C_094aef02927740e7be83a2bb60c98047_0_q#8" ]

[ "What was Hill an informant for?", "Did he testify?", "Did he have to go into witness protection?", "Where did he move to?", "Did he have to move around a lot?", "Was he safe while in witness protection?", "What did he do to get kicked out?", "Did this put him in danger?", "What did he do after being kicked out of witness protection?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 1, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 122 ], [ 840 ], [ 999 ], [ 1031 ], [ 1444 ], [ 1260 ], [ 1576 ], [ 1576 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Hill testified against his former associates to avoid a possible execution by his crew or going to prison for his crimes." ], [ "His testimony led to 50 convictions." ], [ "Hill, his wife Karen, and their two children (Gregg and Gina) entered the U.S. Marshals' Witness Protection Program" ], [ "undisclosed locations in Omaha," ], [ "Nebraska; Independence," ], [ "Hill repeated the same breach of security, causing the government to finally expel him from the Federal Witness Protection Program." ], [ "revealed his true identity" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 122, 840, 999, 1031, 1444, 1260, 1576, 1576 ], "texts": [ "Hill testified against his former associates to avoid a possible execution by his crew or going to prison for his crimes.", "His testimony led to 50 convictions.", "Hill, his wife Karen, and their two children (Gregg and Gina) entered the U.S. Marshals' Witness Protection Program", "undisclosed locations in Omaha,", "Nebraska; Independence,", "Hill repeated the same breach of security, causing the government to finally expel him from the Federal Witness Protection Program.", "revealed his true identity", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide specific information on what Hill was an informant for.", "Yes, Hill testified against his former associates.", "Yes, Hill, along with his wife Karen and their two children, entered the U.S. Marshals' Witness Protection Program in 1980.", "Hill and his family moved to undisclosed locations in Omaha, Nebraska; Independence, Kentucky; Redmond, Washington; and Seattle, Washington. They were also relocated one final time to Sarasota, Florida.", "Yes, Hill and his family had to move around a lot due to his involvement in the U.S. Marshals' Witness Protection Program. They lived in several locations across the United States.", "The text does not provide specific information on Hill's safety while in the Witness Protection Program. However, it does mention that he breached security twice by revealing his true identity, which resulted in his eventual expulsion from the program.", "Hill was expelled from the Witness Protection Program because he revealed his true identity while under the influence of liquor and drugs. This happened twice - once in Seattle and once in Sarasota, Florida.", "The text does not provide specific information on whether Hill was put in danger after being expelled from the Federal Witness Protection Program.", "The text does not provide specific information on what Hill did after being expelled from the Federal Witness Protection Program." ]

[ "no", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_1_q#0", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_1_q#1", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_1_q#2", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_1_q#3", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_1_q#4", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_1_q#5", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_1_q#6", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_1_q#7" ]

[ "When was the Museum created?", "Who was museum named for?", "Who was she?", "How did the museum begin?", "What did she do when she was declined?", "What did she name the museum?", "What art work was displayed there?", "Anyone in particular?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 285 ], [ 0 ], [ 0 ], [ 722 ], [ 835 ], [ 1449 ], [ 1529 ], [ 2097 ] ], "texts": [ [ "she created in 1918" ], [ "Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney," ], [ "Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, the museum's namesake and founder," ], [ "she offered to donate over 500 works of art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, but the museum declined the gift." ], [ "This, along with the apparent preference for European modernism at the recently opened Museum of Modern Art, led Whitney to start her own museum," ], [ "Whitney." ], [ "the museum concentrated on displaying the works of new and contemporary American artists." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 285, 0, 0, 722, 835, 1449, 1529, 2097 ], "texts": [ "she created in 1918", "Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney,", "Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, the museum's namesake and founder,", "she offered to donate over 500 works of art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, but the museum declined the gift.", "This, along with the apparent preference for European modernism at the recently opened Museum of Modern Art, led Whitney to start her own museum,", "Whitney.", "the museum concentrated on displaying the works of new and contemporary American artists.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The museum was created in 1929.", "The museum was named for Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney.", "Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney was the museum's founder and a well-regarded sculptor and serious art collector. She was also a patron of the arts and had created the \"Whitney Studio Club\", an exhibition space to promote works of avant-garde and unrecognized American artists.", "The museum began when Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, after having her offer to donate over 500 works of art declined by the Metropolitan Museum of Art and noticing a preference for European modernism at the recently opened Museum of Modern Art, decided to start her own museum exclusively for American art in 1929. She converted three row houses on West 8th Street in Greenwich Village - one of which had been the location of her \"Studio Club\" - to be the museum's home as well as her residence.", "When her offer to donate over 500 works of art was declined by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney decided to start her own museum exclusively for American art.", "She named the museum the Whitney Museum of American Art.", "The museum concentrated on displaying the works of new and contemporary American artists. Some specific artists that Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney favored were those of the Ashcan School, such as John Sloan, George Luks, and Everett Shinn, as well as Edward Hopper, Stuart Davis, Charles Demuth, Charles Sheeler, and Max Weber.", "Whitney favored the radical art of American artists of the Ashcan School and others such as John Sloan, George Luks, Everett Shinn, Edward Hopper, Stuart Davis, Charles Demuth, Charles Sheeler, and Max Weber." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_0_q#0", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_0_q#1", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_0_q#2", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_0_q#3", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_0_q#4", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_0_q#5", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_0_q#6", "C_1e359431748b4ccd986342420052ce54_0_q#7" ]

[ "what happened in 1961", "were they able to get", "any notable person in the article", "How is the new building better than the old", "who built the new musuem", "Any intresting thing", "does the musuem has branch", "is that the only branch" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 2, 2, 0, 0, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 64 ], [ 591 ], [ 267 ], [ 181 ], [ 685 ], [ 743 ], [ 897 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1961, the museum began seeking a site for a larger building." ], [ "The Whitney settled in 1966 at the southeast corner of Madison Avenue at 75th Street in Manhattan's Upper East Side." ], [ "shows by Louise Nevelson and Andrew Wyeth as the first exhibits installed in the new museum." ], [ "distinctively modern style, is easily distinguished from the neighboring townhouses by its staircase facade made from granite stones and its external upside-down windows." ], [ "The building, planned and built 1963-1966 by Marcel Breuer and Hamilton P. Smith" ], [ "The institution grappled with space problems for decades." ], [ "From 1973 to 1983 the Whitney operated its first branch at 55 Water Street," ], [ "In 1983 Philip Morris installed a Whitney branch in the lobby of its Park Avenue headquarters." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 64, 591, 267, 181, 685, 743, 897 ], "texts": [ "In 1961, the museum began seeking a site for a larger building.", "The Whitney settled in 1966 at the southeast corner of Madison Avenue at 75th Street in Manhattan's Upper East Side.", "shows by Louise Nevelson and Andrew Wyeth as the first exhibits installed in the new museum.", "distinctively modern style, is easily distinguished from the neighboring townhouses by its staircase facade made from granite stones and its external upside-down windows.", "The building, planned and built 1963-1966 by Marcel Breuer and Hamilton P. Smith", "The institution grappled with space problems for decades.", "From 1973 to 1983 the Whitney operated its first branch at 55 Water Street,", "In 1983 Philip Morris installed a Whitney branch in the lobby of its Park Avenue headquarters." ] }

[]

[ "In 1961, the museum began seeking a site for a larger building.", "Yes, they were able to get a new site. The Whitney Museum settled in 1966 at the southeast corner of Madison Avenue at 75th Street in Manhattan's Upper East Side.", "Yes, there are several notable persons mentioned in the article. These include Marcel Breuer and Hamilton P. Smith, who planned and built the new museum building; Mauricio Lasansky, who showed The Nazi Drawings; Louise Nevelson and Andrew Wyeth, whose shows were the first to be installed in the new museum. Additionally, architects Derek Walker, Norman Foster, Richard Gluckman, Rem Koolhaas, and Michael Graves are also mentioned in relation to various proposals and renovations for the museum. Harold Uris, who leased a building to the museum for $1 a year and Danny Meyer, a New York restaurateur who opened a restaurant in the museum, are also mentioned.", "The context does not provide specific information on how the new museum building is better than the old one.", "The new museum building was planned and built by Marcel Breuer and Hamilton P. Smith between 1963 and 1966.", "One interesting thing about the new museum building is its distinctively modern style, being distinguished from neighboring townhouses by its staircase facade made from granite stones and its external upside-down windows. Another is that in spite of multiple attempts and designs proposed by various famous architects, the museum has struggled to expand this landmark building, with plans usually being dropped because of the cost or design.", "Yes, the museum operated several branches. From 1973 to 1983, it operated its first branch at 55 Water Street. In 1983, a Whitney branch was installed in the lobby of the Philip Morris headquarters on Park Avenue. In 1981, the museum opened an exhibition space in Stamford, Connecticut, housed in the Champion International Corporation. In the late 1980s, satellite museums with rotating exhibitions were set up in the lobbies of buildings owned by Park Tower Realty, I.B.M. and The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States.", "No, the Whitney Museum has operated multiple branches. These include the first branch at 55 Water Street from 1973 to 1983, a branch in the lobby of Philip Morris' Park Avenue headquarters in 1983, and an exhibition space in Stamford, Connecticut in 1981. In the late 1980s, satellite museums were set up in the lobbies of buildings owned by Park Tower Realty, I.B.M., and The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#0", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#1", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#2", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#3", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#4", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#5", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#6", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#7", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#8", "C_74a81bb524314d3988a5b03604bcf271_0_q#9" ]

[ "What tv specials was he on?", "What did he do next?", "What happened with the Eugene character?", "What was going on with the show?", "What resulted from the popular show?", "What movie offer did he get?", "What did he go on to do next?", "What else happened to him?", "Did he get any other awards at this time?", "What specials was he in after this?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 51 ], [ 537 ], [ 650 ], [ 824 ], [ 875 ], [ 3101 ], [ 914 ], [ 954 ], [ 1046 ], [ 1191 ] ], "texts": [ [ "the famous Silent Show (" ], [ "Featuring Kovacs as the mute, Charlie Chaplin-like character \"Eugene\", the program" ], [ "Kovacs developed the Eugene character during the autumn of 1956" ], [ "Kovacs's special that received the most attention;" ], [ "Kovacs received his first movie offer," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "had a cover story in Life magazine," ], [ "received the Sylvania Award" ], [ "recipients of the Directors Guild of America Award" ], [ "A series of monthly half-hour specials for ABC during" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 51, 537, 650, 824, 875, 3101, 914, 954, 1046, 1191 ], "texts": [ "the famous Silent Show (", "Featuring Kovacs as the mute, Charlie Chaplin-like character \"Eugene\", the program", "Kovacs developed the Eugene character during the autumn of 1956", "Kovacs's special that received the most attention;", "Kovacs received his first movie offer,", "CANNOTANSWER", "had a cover story in Life magazine,", "received the Sylvania Award", "recipients of the Directors Guild of America Award", "A series of monthly half-hour specials for ABC during" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" }, { "text": "A watch is a portable timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep a consistent movement despite the motions caused by the person's activities. A wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet, including metal bands, leather straps, or any other kind of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, often attached to a chain .\n\nWatches were developed in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a mechanical device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring, and keeping time with an oscillating balance wheel. These are called mechanical watches. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery and kept time with a vibrating quartz crystal. By the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Historically, this is called the quartz revolution (also known as quartz crisis in Switzerland). Developments in the 2010s include smart watches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist. They generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only a small subset of the smartwatch's facilities.\n\nIn general, modern watches often display the day, date, month, and year. For mechanical watches, various extra features called \"complications\", such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Most electronic quartz watches, on the other hand, include time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions. Furthermore, some modern watches (like smart watches) even incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, and some of them use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time.\n\nMost watches that are used mainly for timekeeping have quartz movements. However, expensive collectible watches, valued more for their elaborate craftsmanship, aesthetic appeal, and glamorous design than for simple timekeeping, often have traditional mechanical movements, despite being less accurate and more expensive than their electronic counterparts. As of 2018, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction was the Patek Philippe Henry Graves Supercomplication, the world's most complicated mechanical watch until 1989, fetching US$24 million (CHF 23,237,000) in Geneva on 11 November 2014. As of December 2019, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction (and wristwatch) was the Patek Philippe Grandmaster Chime Ref. 6300A-010, fetching US$31.19 million (CHF 31,000,000) in Geneva on 9 November 2019.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins \nWatches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th-century Europe. The first timepieces to be worn, made in the 16th century beginning in the German cities of Nuremberg and Augsburg, were transitional in size between clocks and watches. Nuremberg clockmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle or Hele) (1485-1542) is often credited as the inventor of the watch. However, other German clockmakers were creating miniature timepieces during this period, and there is no evidence Henlein was the first.\n\nWatches were not widely worn in pockets until the 17th century. One account suggests that the word \"watch\" came from the Old English word woecce - which meant \"watchman\" – because town watchmen used the technology to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th-century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches (duty shifts).\n\nEvolution \n\nA rise in accuracy occurred in 1657 with the addition of the balance spring to the balance wheel, an invention disputed both at the time and ever since between Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens. This innovation increased watches' accuracy enormously, reducing error from perhaps several hours per day to perhaps 10 minutes per day, resulting in the addition of the minute hand to the face from around 1680 in Britain and around 1700 in France.\n\nThe increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement. The verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. Improvements in manufacturing – such as the tooth-cutting machine devised by Robert Hooke – allowed some increase in the volume of watch production, although finishing and assembling was still done by hand until well into the 19th century.\n\nA major cause of error in balance-wheel timepieces, caused by changes in elasticity of the balance spring from temperature changes, was solved by the bimetallic temperature-compensated balance wheel invented in 1765 by Pierre Le Roy and improved by Thomas Earnshaw (1749–1829). The lever escapement, the single most important technological breakthrough, though invented by Thomas Mudge in 1759 and improved by Josiah Emery in 1785, only gradually came into use from about 1800 onwards, chiefly in Britain.\n\nThe British predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, but maintained a system of production that was geared towards high-quality products for the élite. The British Watch Company modernized clock manufacture with mass-production techniques and the application of duplicating tools and machinery in 1843. In the United States, Aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 a successful enterprise operated, incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company.\n\nWristwatches \n\nThe concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century. In 1571 Elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch, described as an \"armed watch\", from Robert Dudley. The oldest surviving wristwatch (then described as a \"bracelet watch\") is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais. From the beginning, wristwatches were almost exclusively worn by women - men used pocket watches up until the early-20th century. In 1810, the watch-maker Abraham-Louis Breguet made a wristwatch for the Queen of Naples. The first Swiss wristwatch was made by the Swiss watch-maker Patek Philippe, in the year 1868 for Countess Koscowicz of Hungary.\n\nWristwatches were first worn by military men towards the end of the 19th century, having increasingly recognized the importance of synchronizing maneuvers during war without potentially revealing plans to the enemy through signaling. The Garstin Company of London patented a \"Watch Wristlet\" design in 1893, but probably produced similar designs from the 1880s. Officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. During the First Boer War of 1880–1881 the importance of coordinating troop movements and synchronizing attacks against highly mobile Boer insurgents became paramount, and the use of wristwatches subsequently became widespread among the officer class. The company Mappin & Webb began production of their successful \"campaign watch\" for soldiers during the campaign in the Sudan in 1898 and accelerated production for the Second Boer War of 1899–1902 a few years later. In continental Europe, Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watchmakers began supplying German naval officers with wristwatches in about 1880.\n\nEarly models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap, but by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches. The Swiss company Dimier Frères & Cie patented a wristwatch design with the now standard wire lugs in 1903.\n\nIn 1904, Louis Cartier produced a wristwatch to allow his friend Alberto Santos-Dumont to check flight performance in his airship while keeping both hands on the controls as this proved difficult with a pocket watch. Cartier still markets a line of Santos-Dumont watches and sunglasses.\n\nIn 1905, Hans Wilsdorf moved to London and set up his own business, Wilsdorf & Davis, with his brother-in-law Alfred Davis, providing quality timepieces at affordable prices; the company became Rolex in 1915. Wilsdorf was an early convert to the wristwatch, and contracted the Swiss firm Aegler to produce a line of wristwatches.\n\nThe impact of the First World War of 1914–1918 dramatically shifted public perceptions on the propriety of the man's wristwatch and opened up a mass market in the postwar era. The creeping barrage artillery tactic, developed during the war, required precise synchronization between the artillery gunners and the infantry advancing behind the barrage. Service watches produced during the war were specially designed for the rigors of trench warfare, with luminous dials and unbreakable glass. The War Office began issuing wristwatches to combatants from 1917. By the end of the war, almost all enlisted men wore a wristwatch (or wristlet), and after they were demobilized the fashion soon caught on: the British Horological Journal wrote in 1917 that \"the wristlet watch was little used by the sterner sex before the war, but now is seen on the wrist of nearly every man in uniform and of many men in civilian attire.\" By 1930, the wristwatch vastly exceeded the pocket watch in market share by a decisive ratio of 50:1.\n\nAutomatic watches \nJohn Harwood invented the first successful self-winding system in 1923. In anticipation of Harwood's patent for self-winding mechanisms expiration in 1930, Glycine founder Eugène Meylan started development on a self-winding system as a separate module that could be used with almost any 8.75 ligne (19.74 millimeter) watch movement. Glycine incorporated this module into its watches in October 1930 and began mass-producing automatic watches.\n\nElectric watches \nThe Elgin National Watch Company and the Hamilton Watch Company pioneered the first electric watch. The first electric movements used a battery as a power source to oscillate the balance wheel. During the 1950s Elgin developed the model 725 while Hamilton released two models: the first, the Hamilton 500, released on 3 January 1957, was produced into 1959. This model had problems with the contact wires misaligning, and the watches returned to Hamilton for alignment. The Hamilton 505, an improvement on the 500, proved more reliable: the contact wires were removed and a non-adjustable contact on the balance assembly delivered the power to the balance wheel. Similar designs from many other watch companies followed. Another type of electric watch was developed by the Bulova company that used a tuning-fork resonator instead of a traditional balance wheel to increase timekeeping accuracy, moving from a typical 2.5–4 Hz with a traditional balance wheel to 360 Hz with the tuning-fork design.\n\nQuartz watches\nThe commercial introduction of the quartz watch in 1969 in the form of the Seiko Astron 35SQ and in 1970 in the form of the Omega Beta 21 was a revolutionary improvement in watch technology. In place of a balance wheel which oscillated at perhaps 5 or 6 beats per second, these devices used a quartz-crystal resonator which vibrated at 8,192 Hz, driven by a battery-powered oscillator circuit. Most quartz-watch oscillators now operate at 32,768 Hz, although quartz movements have been designed with frequencies as high as 262 kHz. Since the 1980s, more quartz watches than mechanical ones have been marketed.\n\nParts \n\nThe movement and case are the basic parts of a watch. A watch band or bracelet is added to form a wristwatch; alternatively, a watch chain is added to form a pocket watch.\n\nThe case is the outer covering of the watch.\n\nThe case back is the back portion of the watch's case. Accessing the movement (such as during battery replacement) depends on the type of case back, which are generally categorized into four types:\n Snap-off case backs (press-on case backs): the watch back pulls straight off and presses straight on.\n Screw-down case backs (threaded case backs): the entire watch back must be rotated to unscrew from the case. Often it has 6 notches on the external part of the case back.\n Screw back cases: tiny screws hold the case back to the case\n Unibody: the only way into the case involves prying the crystal off the front of the watch.\n\nThe crystal, also called the window or watch glass, is the transparent part of the case that allows viewing the hands and the dial of the movement.\nModern wristwatches almost always use one of 4 materials:\n Acrylic glass (plexiglass, hesalite glass): the most impact-resistant (\"unbreakable\"), and therefore used in dive watches and most military watches. Acrylic glass is the lowest cost of these materials, so it is used in practically all low-cost watches.\n Mineral crystal: a tempered glass.\n Sapphire-coated mineral crystal\n Synthetic sapphire crystal: the most scratch-resistant; it is difficult to cut and polish, causing watch crystals made of sapphire to be the most expensive.\n\nThe bezel is the ring holding the crystal in place.\n\nThe lugs are small metal projections at both ends of the wristwatch case where the watch band attaches to the watch case.\nThe case and the lugs are often machined from one solid piece of stainless steel.\n\nMovement \n\nThe movement of a watch is the mechanism that measures the passage of time and displays the current time (and possibly other information including date, month, and day). Movements may be entirely mechanical, entirely electronic (potentially with no moving parts), or they might be a blend of both. Most watches intended mainly for timekeeping today have electronic movements, with mechanical hands on the watch face indicating the time.\n\nMechanical \n\nCompared to electronic movements, mechanical watches are less accurate, often with errors of seconds per day; are sensitive to position, temperature, and magnetism; are costly to produce; require regular maintenance and adjustments; and are more prone to failures. Nevertheless, mechanical watches attract interest from consumers, particularly among watch collectors. Skeleton watches are designed to display the mechanism for aesthetic purposes.\n\nA mechanical movement uses an escapement mechanism to control and limit the unwinding and winding parts of a spring, converting what would otherwise be a simple unwinding into a controlled and periodic energy release. The movement also uses a balance wheel, together with the balance spring (also known as a hairspring), to control gear system's motion in a manner analogous to the pendulum of a pendulum clock. The tourbillon, an optional part for mechanical movements, is a rotating frame for the escapement, used to cancel out or reduce gravitational bias. Due to the complexity of designing a tourbillon, they are expensive, and typically found in prestigious watches.\n\nThe pin-lever escapement (called the Roskopf movement after its inventor, Georges Frederic Roskopf), which is a cheaper version of the fully levered movement, was manufactured in huge quantities by many Swiss manufacturers, as well as by Timex, until it was replaced by quartz movements.\n\nIntroduced by Bulova in 1960, tuning-fork watches use a type of electromechanical movement with a precise frequency (most often ) to drive a mechanical watch. The task of converting electronically pulsed fork vibration into rotary movements is done via two tiny jeweled fingers, called pawls. Tuning-fork watches were rendered obsolete when electronic quartz watches were developed.\n\nTraditional mechanical watch movements use a spiral spring called a mainspring as its power source that must be rewound periodically by the user by turning the watch crown. Antique pocket watches were wound by inserting a key into the back of the watch and turning it. While most modern watches are designed to run on a winding, requiring winding daily, some run for several days; a few have 192-hour mainsprings, requiring once-weekly winding.\n\nAutomatic watches \n\nA self-winding or automatic watch is one that rewinds the mainspring of a mechanical movement by the natural motions of the wearer's body. The first self-winding mechanism was invented for pocket watches in 1770 by Abraham-Louis Perrelet, but the first \"self-winding\", or \"automatic\", wristwatch was the invention of a British watch repairer named John Harwood in 1923. This type of watch winds itself without requiring any special action by the wearer. It uses an eccentric weight, called a winding rotor, which rotates with the movement of the wearer's wrist. The back-and-forth motion of the winding rotor couples to a ratchet to wind the mainspring automatically. Self-winding watches usually can also be wound manually to keep them running when not worn or if the wearer's wrist motions are inadequate to keep the watch wound.\n\nIn April 2014 the Swatch Group launched the sistem51 wristwatch. It has a purely mechanical movement consisting of only 51 parts, including a novel self-winding mechanism with a transparent oscillating weight. So far, it is the only mechanical movement manufactured entirely on a fully automated assembly line. The low parts count and the automated assembly make it an inexpensive mechanical Swiss watch, which can be considered a successor to Roskopf movements, although of higher quality.\n\nElectronic \n\nElectronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the piezoelectric effect. A varying electric voltage is applied to the crystal, which responds by changing its shape so, in combination with some electronic components, it functions as an oscillator. It resonates at a specific highly stable frequency, which is used to accurately pace a timekeeping mechanism. Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch to provide a traditional analog display of the time, a feature most consumers still prefer.\n\nIn 1959 Seiko placed an order with Epson (a subsidiary company of Seiko and the 'brain' behind the quartz revolution) to start developing a quartz wristwatch. The project was codenamed 59A. By the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olympics, Seiko had a working prototype of a portable quartz watch which was used as the time measurements throughout the event.\n\nThe first prototypes of an electronic quartz wristwatch (not just quartz watches as the Seiko timekeeping devices at the Tokyo Olympics in 1964) were made by the CEH research laboratory in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. From 1965 through 1967 pioneering development work was done on a miniaturized 8192 Hz quartz oscillator, a thermo-compensation module, and an in-house-made, dedicated integrated circuit (unlike the hybrid circuits used in the later Seiko Astron wristwatch). As a result, the BETA 1 prototype set new timekeeping performance records at the International Chronometric Competition held at the Observatory of Neuchâtel in 1967. In 1970, 18 manufacturers exhibited production versions of the beta 21 wristwatch, including the Omega Electroquartz as well as Patek Philippe, Rolex Oysterquartz and Piaget.\n\nThe first quartz watch to enter production was the Seiko 35 SQ Astron, which hit the shelves on 25 December 1969, swiftly followed by the Swiss Beta 21, and then a year later the prototype of one of the world's most accurate wristwatches to date: the Omega Marine Chronometer. Since the technology having been developed by contributions from Japanese, American and Swiss, nobody could patent the whole movement of the quartz wristwatch, thus allowing other manufacturers to participate in the rapid growth and development of the quartz watch market. This ended - in less than a decade - almost 100 years of dominance by the mechanical wristwatch legacy. Modern quartz movements are produced in very large quantities, and even the cheapest wristwatches typically have quartz movements. Whereas mechanical movements can typically be off by several seconds a day, an inexpensive quartz movement in a child's wristwatch may still be accurate to within half a second per day - ten times more accurate than a mechanical movement.\n\nAfter a consolidation of the mechanical watch industry in Switzerland during the 1970s, mass production of quartz wristwatches took off under the leadership of the Swatch Group of companies, a Swiss conglomerate with vertical control of the production of Swiss watches and related products. For quartz wristwatches, subsidiaries of Swatch manufacture watch batteries (Renata), oscillators (Oscilloquartz, now Micro Crystal AG) and integrated circuits (Ebauches Electronic SA, renamed EM Microelectronic-Marin). The launch of the new SWATCH brand in 1983 was marked by bold new styling, design, and marketing. Today, the Swatch Group maintains its position as the world's largest watch company.\n\nSeiko's efforts to combine the quartz and mechanical movements bore fruit after 20 years of research, leading to the introduction of the Seiko Spring Drive, first in a limited domestic market production in 1999 and to the world in September 2005. The Spring Drive keeps time within quartz standards without the use of a battery, using a traditional mechanical gear train powered by a spring, without the need for a balance wheel either.\n\nIn 2010, Miyota (Citizen Watch) of Japan introduced a newly developed movement that uses a 3-pronged quartz crystal that was exclusively produced for Bulova to be used in the Precisionist or Accutron II line, a new type of quartz watch with ultra-high frequency (262.144 kHz) which is claimed to be accurate to +/− 10 seconds a year and has a smooth sweeping second hand rather than one that jumps each second.\n\nRadio time signal watches are a type of electronic quartz watch that synchronizes (time transfers) its time with an external time source such as in atomic clocks, time signals from GPS navigation satellites, the German DCF77 signal in Europe, WWVB in the US, and others. Movements of this type may - among others - synchronize the time of day and the date, the leap-year status and the state of daylight saving time (on or off). However, other than the radio receiver, these watches are normal quartz watches in all other aspects.\n\nElectronic watches require electricity as a power source, and some mechanical movements and hybrid electronic-mechanical movements also require electricity. Usually, the electricity is provided by a replaceable battery. The first use of electrical power in watches was as a substitute for the mainspring, to remove the need for winding. The first electrically powered watch, the Hamilton Electric 500, was released in 1957 by the Hamilton Watch Company of Lancaster, Pennsylvania.\n\nWatch batteries (strictly speaking cells, as a battery is composed of multiple cells) are specially designed for their purpose. They are very small and provide tiny amounts of power continuously for very long periods (several years or more). In most cases, replacing the battery requires a trip to a watch-repair shop or watch dealer; this is especially true for watches that are water-resistant, as special tools and procedures are required for the watch to remain water-resistant after battery replacement. Silver-oxide and lithium batteries are popular today; mercury batteries, formerly quite common, are no longer used, for environmental reasons. Cheap batteries may be alkaline, of the same size as silver-oxide cells but providing shorter life. Rechargeable batteries are used in some solar-powered watches.\n\nSome electronic watches are powered by the movement of the wearer. For instance, Seiko's kinetic-powered quartz watches use the motion of the wearer's arm: turning a rotating weight which causes a tiny generator to supply power to charge a rechargeable battery that runs the watch. The concept is similar to that of self-winding spring movements, except that electrical power is generated instead of mechanical spring tension.\n\nSolar powered watches are powered by light. A photovoltaic cell on the face (dial) of the watch converts light to electricity, which is used to charge a rechargeable battery or capacitor. The movement of the watch draws its power from the rechargeable battery or capacitor. As long as the watch is regularly exposed to fairly strong light (such as sunlight), it never needs a battery replacement. Some models need only a few minutes of sunlight to provide weeks of energy (as in the Citizen Eco-Drive). Some of the early solar watches of the 1970s had innovative and unique designs to accommodate the array of solar cells needed to power them (Synchronar, Nepro, Sicura, and some models by Cristalonic, Alba, Seiko, and Citizen). As the decades progressed and the efficiency of the solar cells increased while the power requirements of the movement and display decreased, solar watches began to be designed to look like other conventional watches.\n\nA rarely used power source is the temperature difference between the wearer's arm and the surrounding environment (as applied in the Citizen Eco-Drive Thermo).\n\nDisplay\n\nAnalog \n\nTraditionally, watches have displayed the time in analog form, with a numbered dial upon which are mounted at least a rotating hour hand and a longer, rotating minute hand. Many watches also incorporate a third hand that shows the current second of the current minute. In quartz watches this second hand typically snaps to the next marker every second. In mechanical watches, the second hand may appear to glide continuously, though in fact it merely moves in smaller steps, typically one-fifth to one-tenth of a second, corresponding to the beat (half period) of the balance wheel. With a duplex escapement, the hand advances every two beats (full period) of the balance wheel, typically -second; this happens every four beats (two periods, 1 second), with a double duplex escapement. A truly gliding second hand is achieved with the tri-synchro regulator of Spring Drive watches. All three hands are normally mechanical, physically rotating on the dial, although a few watches have been produced with \"hands\" simulated by a liquid-crystal display.\n\nAnalog display of the time is nearly universal in watches sold as jewelry or collectibles, and in these watches, the range of different styles of hands, numbers, and other aspects of the analog dial is very broad. In watches sold for timekeeping, analog display remains very popular, as many people find it easier to read than digital display; but in timekeeping watches the emphasis is on clarity and accurate reading of the time under all conditions (clearly marked digits, easily visible hands, large watch faces, etc.). They are specifically designed for the left wrist with the stem (the knob used for changing the time) on the right side of the watch; this makes it easy to change the time without removing the watch from the wrist. This is the case if one is right-handed and the watch is worn on the left wrist (as is traditionally done). If one is left-handed and wears the watch on the right wrist, one has to remove the watch from the wrist to reset the time or to wind the watch.\n\nAnalog watches, as well as clocks, are often marketed showing a display time of approximately 1:50 or 10:10. This creates a visually pleasing smile-like face on the upper half of the watch, in addition to enclosing the manufacturer's name. Digital displays often show a time of 12:08, where the increase in the number of active segments or pixels gives a positive feeling.\n\nTactile \nTissot, a Swiss luxury watchmaker, makes the Silen-T wristwatch with a touch-sensitive face that vibrates to help the user to tell time eyes-free. The bezel of the watch features raised bumps at each hour mark; after briefly touching the face of the watch, the wearer runs a finger around the bezel clockwise. When the finger reaches the bump indicating the hour, the watch vibrates continuously, and when the finger reaches the bump indicating the minute, the watch vibrates intermittently.\n\nEone Timepieces, a Washington D.C.-based company, launched its first tactile analog wristwatch, the \"Bradley\", on 11 July 2013 on the Kickstarter website. The device is primarily designed for sight-impaired users, who can use the watch's two ball bearings to determine the time, but it is also suitable for general use. The watch features raised marks at each hour and two moving, magnetically attached ball bearings. One ball bearing, on the edge of the watch, indicates the hour, while the other, on the face, indicates the minute.\n\nDigital \nA digital display shows the time as a number, e.g., 12:08 instead of a shorthand pointing towards the number 12 and a long hand 8/60 of the way around the dial. The digits are usually shown as a seven-segment display.\n\nThe first digital pocket watches appeared in the late 19th century. In the 1920s, the first digital mechanical wristwatches appeared.\n\nThe first digital electronic watch, a Pulsar LED prototype in 1970, was developed jointly by Hamilton Watch Company and Electro-Data, founded by George H. Thiess. John Bergey, the head of Hamilton's Pulsar division, said that he was inspired to make a digital timepiece by the then-futuristic digital clock that Hamilton themselves made for the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. On 4 April 1972, the Pulsar was finally ready, made in an 18-carat gold case and sold for $2,100. It had a red light-emitting diode (LED) display.\n\nDigital LED watches were very expensive and out of reach to the common consumer until 1975, when Texas Instruments started to mass-produce LED watches inside a plastic case. These watches, which first retailed for only $20, reduced to $10 in 1976, saw Pulsar lose $6 million and the Pulsar brand sold to Seiko.\n\nAn early LED watch that was rather problematic was The Black Watch made and sold by British company Sinclair Radionics in 1975. This was only sold for a few years, as production problems and returned (faulty) product forced the company to cease production.\n\nMost watches with LED displays required that the user press a button to see the time displayed for a few seconds because LEDs used so much power that they could not be kept operating continuously. Usually, the LED display color would be red. Watches with LED displays were popular for a few years, but soon the LED displays were superseded by liquid crystal displays (LCDs), which used less battery power and were much more convenient in use, with the display always visible and eliminating the need to push a button before seeing the time. Only in darkness would a button needed to be pressed to illuminate the display with a tiny light bulb, later illuminating LEDs and electroluminescent backlights.\n\nThe first LCD watch with a six-digit LCD was the 1973 Seiko 06LC, although various forms of early LCD watches with a four-digit display were marketed as early as 1972 including the 1972 Gruen Teletime LCD Watch, and the Cox Electronic Systems Quarza. The Quarza, introduced in 1972 had the first Field Effect LCD readable in direct sunlight and produced by the International Liquid Crystal Corporation of Cleveland, Ohio. In Switzerland, Ebauches Electronic SA presented a prototype eight-digit LCD wristwatch showing time and date at the MUBA Fair, Basle, in March 1973, using a twisted nematic LCD manufactured by Brown, Boveri & Cie, Switzerland, which became the supplier of LCDs to Casio for the CASIOTRON watch in 1974.\n\nA problem with LCDs is that they use polarized light. If, for example, the user is wearing polarized sunglasses, the watch may be difficult to read because the plane of polarization of the display is roughly perpendicular to that of the glasses. If the light that illuminates the display is polarized, for example if it comes from a blue sky, the display may be difficult or impossible to read.\n\nFrom the 1980s onward, digital watch technology vastly improved. In 1982, Seiko produced the Seiko TV Watch that had a television screen built-in, and Casio produced a digital watch with a thermometer (the TS-1000) as well as another that could translate 1,500 Japanese words into English. In 1985, Casio produced the CFX-400 scientific calculator watch. In 1987, Casio produced a watch that could dial telephone numbers (the DBA-800) and Citizen introduced one that would react to voice. In 1995, Timex released a watch that allowed the wearer to download and store data from a computer to their wrist. Some watches, such as the Timex Datalink USB, feature dot matrix displays. Since their apex during the late 1980s to mid-1990s high technology fad, digital watches have mostly become simpler, less expensive timepieces with little variety between models.\n\nIlluminated \n\nMany watches have displays that are illuminated, so they can be used in darkness. Various methods have been used to achieve this.\n\nMechanical watches often have luminous paint on their hands and hour marks. In the mid-20th century, radioactive material was often incorporated in the paint, so it would continue to glow without any exposure to light. Radium was often used but produced small amounts of radiation outside the watch that might have been hazardous. Tritium was used as a replacement, since the radiation it produces has such low energy that it cannot penetrate a watch glass. However, tritium is expensive - it has to be made in a nuclear reactor - and it has a half-life of only about 12 years so the paint remains luminous for only a few years. Nowadays, tritium is used in specialized watches, e.g., for military purposes (see Tritium illumination). For other purposes, luminous paint is sometimes used on analog displays, but no radioactive material is contained in it. This means that the display glows soon after being exposed to light and quickly fades.\n\nWatches that incorporate batteries often have the electric illumination of their displays. However, lights consume far more power than electronic watch movements. To conserve the battery, the light is activated only when the user presses a button. Usually, the light remains lit for a few seconds after the button is released, which allows the user to move the hand out of the way.\n\nIn some early digital watches, LED displays were used, which could be read as easily in darkness as in daylight. The user had to press a button to light up the LEDs, which meant that the watch could not be read without the button being pressed, even in full daylight.\n\nIn some types of watches, small incandescent lamps or LEDs illuminate the display, which is not intrinsically luminous. These tend to produce very non-uniform illumination.\n\nOther watches use electroluminescent material to produce uniform illumination of the background of the display, against which the hands or digits can be seen.\n\nSpeech synthesis \nTalking watches are available, intended for the blind or visually impaired. They speak the time out loud at the press of a button. This has the disadvantage of disturbing others nearby or at least alerting the non-deaf that the wearer is checking the time. Tactile watches are preferred to avoid this awkwardness, but talking watches are preferred for those who are not confident in their ability to read a tactile watch reliably.\n\nHandedness\nWristwatches with analog displays generally have a small knob, called the crown, that can be used to adjust the time and, in mechanical watches, wind the spring. Almost always, the crown is located on the right-hand side of the watch so it can be worn of the left wrist for a right-handed individual. This makes it inconvenient to use if the watch is being worn on the right wrist. Some manufacturers offer \"left-hand drive\", aka \"destro\", configured watches which move the crown to the left side making wearing the watch easier for left-handed individuals.\n\nA rarer configuration is the bullhead watch. Bullhead watches are generally, but not exclusively, chronographs. The configuration moves the crown and chronograph pushers to the top of the watch. Bullheads are commonly wristwatch chronographs that are intended to be used as stopwatches off the wrist. Examples are the Citizen Bullhead Change Timer and the Omega Seamaster Bullhead.\n\nDigital watches generally have push-buttons that can be used to make adjustments. These are usually equally easy to use on either wrist.\n\nFunctions\n\nCustomarily, watches provide the time of day, giving at least the hour and minute, and often the second. Many also provide the current date, and some (called \"complete calendar\" or \"triple date\" watches) display the day of the week and the month as well. However, many watches also provide a great deal of information beyond the basics of time and date. Some watches include alarms. Other elaborate and more expensive watches, both pocket and wrist models, also incorporate striking mechanisms or repeater functions, so that the wearer could learn the time by the sound emanating from the watch. This announcement or striking feature is an essential characteristic of true clocks and distinguishes such watches from ordinary timepieces. This feature is available on most digital watches.\n\nA complicated watch has one or more functions beyond the basic function of displaying the time and the date; such a functionality is called a complication. Two popular complications are the chronograph complication, which is the ability of the watch movement to function as a stopwatch, and the moonphase complication, which is a display of the lunar phase. Other more expensive complications include Tourbillon, Perpetual calendar, Minute repeater, and Equation of time. A truly complicated watch has many of these complications at once (see Calibre 89 from Patek Philippe for instance). Some watches can both indicate the direction of Mecca and have alarms that can be set for all daily prayer requirements. Among watch enthusiasts, complicated watches are especially collectible. Some watches include a second 12-hour or 24-hour display for UTC or GMT.\n\nThe similar-sounding terms chronograph and chronometer are often confused, although they mean altogether different things. A chronograph is a watch with an added duration timer, often a stopwatch complication (as explained above), while a chronometer watch is a timepiece that has met an industry-standard test for performance under pre-defined conditions: a chronometer is a high quality mechanical or a thermo-compensated movement that has been tested and certified to operate within a certain standard of accuracy by the COSC (Contrôle Officiel Suisse des Chronomètres). The concepts are different but not mutually exclusive; so a watch can be a chronograph, a chronometer, both, or neither.\n\nElectronic sports watches, combining timekeeping with GPS and/or activity tracking, address the general fitness market and have the potential for commercial success (Garmin Forerunner, Garmin Vivofit, Epson, announced model of Swatch Touch series).\n\nBraille watches have analog displays with raised bumps around the face to allow blind users to tell the time. Their digital equivalents use synthesised speech to speak the time on command.\n\nFashion \n\nWristwatches and antique pocket watches are often appreciated as jewelry or as collectible works of art rather than just as timepieces. This has created several different markets for wristwatches, ranging from very inexpensive but accurate watches (intended for no other purpose than telling the correct time) to extremely expensive watches that serve mainly as personal adornment or as examples of high achievement in miniaturization and precision mechanical engineering.\n\nTraditionally, dress watches appropriate for informal (business), semi-formal, and formal attire are gold, thin, simple, and plain, but increasingly rugged, complicated, or sports watches are considered by some to be acceptable for such attire. Some dress watches have a cabochon on the crown or faceted gemstones on the face, bezel, or bracelet. Some are made entirely of faceted sapphire (corundum).\n\nMany fashions and department stores offer a variety of less-expensive, trendy, \"costume\" watches (usually for women), many of which are similar in quality to basic quartz timepieces but which feature bolder designs. In the 1980s, the Swiss Swatch company hired graphic designers to redesign a new annual collection of non-repairable watches.\n\nTrade in counterfeit watches, which mimic expensive brand-name watches, constitutes an estimated market per year.\n\nSpace \n\nThe zero-gravity environment and other extreme conditions encountered by astronauts in space require the use of specially tested watches.\n\nThe first-ever watch to be sent into space was a Russian \"Pobeda\" watch from the Petrodvorets Watch Factory. It was sent on a single orbit flight on the spaceship Korabl-Sputnik 4 on 9 March 1961. The watch had been attached without authorisation to the wrist of Chernuchka, a dog that successfully did exactly the same trip as Yuri Gagarin, with exactly the same rocket and equipment, just a month before Gagarin's flight.\n\nOn 12 April 1961, Gagarin wore a Shturmanskie (a transliteration of which actually means \"navigator's\") wristwatch during his historic first flight into space. The Shturmanskie was manufactured at the First Moscow Factory. Since 1964, the watches of the First Moscow Factory have been marked by the trademark \"\", transliterated as \"POLJOT\", which means \"flight\" in Russian and is a tribute to the many space trips its watches have accomplished. In the late 1970s, Poljot launched a new chrono movement, the 3133. With a 23 jewel movement and manual winding (43 hours), it was a modified Russian version of the Swiss Valjoux 7734 of the early 1970s. Poljot 3133 were taken into space by astronauts from Russia, France, Germany and Ukraine. On the arm of Valeriy Polyakov, a Poljot 3133 chronograph movement-based watch set a space record for the longest space flight in history.\n\nThrough the 1960s, a large range of watches was tested for durability and precision under extreme temperature changes and vibrations. The Omega Speedmaster Professional was selected by NASA, the U.S space agency, and it is mostly known thanks to astronaut Buzz Aldrin who wore it during the moon landing, 1969. Heuer became the first Swiss watch in space thanks to a Heuer Stopwatch, worn by John Glenn in 1962 when he piloted the Friendship 7 on the first manned U.S. orbital mission. The Breitling Navitimer Cosmonaute was designed with a 24-hour analog dial to avoid confusion between AM and PM, which are meaningless in space. It was first worn in space by U.S. astronaut Scott Carpenter on 24 May 1962 in the Aurora 7 mercury capsule.\n\nSince 1994 Fortis is the exclusive supplier for manned space missions authorized by the Russian Federal Space Agency. China National Space Administration (CNSA) astronauts wear the Fiyta spacewatches. At BaselWorld, 2008, Seiko announced the creation of the first watch ever designed specifically for a space walk, Spring Drive Spacewalk. Timex Datalink is flight certified by NASA for space missions and is one of the watches qualified by NASA for space travel. The Casio G-Shock DW-5600C and 5600E, DW 6900, and DW 5900 are Flight-Qualified for NASA space travel.\n\nVarious Timex Datalink models were used both by cosmonauts and astronauts.\n\nScuba diving \n\nWatch construction may be water-resistant. These watches are sometimes called diving watches when they are suitable for scuba diving or saturation diving. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issued a standard for water-resistant watches which also prohibits the term \"waterproof\" to be used with watches, which many countries have adopted. In the United States, advertising a watch as waterproof has been illegal since 1968, per Federal Trade Commission regulations regarding the \"misrepresentation of protective features\".\n\nWater-resistance is achieved by the gaskets which forms a watertight seal, used in conjunction with a sealant applied on the case to help keep water out. The material of the case must also be tested in order to pass as water-resistant.\n\nNone of the tests defined by ISO 2281 for the Water Resistant mark are suitable to qualify a watch for scuba diving. Such watches are designed for everyday life and must be water-resistant during exercises such as swimming. They can be worn in different temperature and pressure conditions but are under no circumstances designed for scuba diving.\n\nThe standards for diving watches are regulated by the ISO 6425 international standard. The watches are tested in static or still water under 125% of the rated (water) pressure, thus a watch with a 200-metre rating will be water-resistant if it is stationary and under 250 metres of static water. The testing of the water-resistance is fundamentally different from non-dive watches, because every watch has to be fully tested. Besides water resistance standards to a minimum of 100-metre depth rating ISO 6425 also provides eight minimum requirements for mechanical diver's watches for scuba diving (quartz and digital watches have slightly differing readability requirements). For diver's watches for mixed-gas saturation diving two additional ISO 6425 requirements have to be met.\n\nWatches are classified by their degree of water resistance, which roughly translates to the following (1 metre = 3.281 feet):\n\nSome watches use bar instead of meters, which may then be multiplied by 10, and then subtract 10 to be approximately equal to the rating based on metres. Therefore, a 5 bar watch is equivalent to a 40-metre watch. Some watches are rated in atmospheres (atm), which are roughly equivalent to bar.\n\nNavigation \n\nThere is a traditional method by which an analog watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun appears to move in the sky over a 24-hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock face takes twelve hours to complete one rotation. In the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south. For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During daylight saving time, the same method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12. This method is accurate enough to be used only at fairly high latitudes.\n\nSee also \n\n Boule de Genève\n Clock\n Coin watch\n List of most expensive watches sold at auction\n List of watch manufacturers\n Marine chronometer\n Movado Ermeto watch\n Radium dial\n Tachymeter (watch)\n 24-hour analog dial\n Smart watch\n Shock-resistant watch\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Beckett, Edmund, A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, Watches and Bells, 1903, from Project Gutenberg\n Berner, G.A., Illustrated Professional Dictionary of Horology, Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH 1961–2012\n Daniels, George, Watchmaking, London: Philip Wilson Publishers, 1981 (reprinted 15 June 2011)\n De Carle, Donald, (Illustrations by E. A. Ayres), Practical Watch Repairing, 3rd edition, New York : Skyhorse Pub., 2008. . Significant information on watches, their history, and inner workings.\n Denn, Mark, \"The Tourbillon and How It Works,\" IEEE Control Systems Magazine, June 2010, IEEE Control Systems Society, DOI 10.1109/MCS.2010.936291.\n Donzé, Pierre-Yves. \"Dynamics of innovation in the electronic watch industry: a comparative business history of Longines (Switzerland) and Seiko (Japan), 1960-1980.\" Essays in Economic & Business History 37.1 (2019): 120-145. online\n Donzé, Pierre-Yves (2022). The business of time: A global history of the watch industry. Manchester University Press.\n Grafton, Edward, Horology, a popular sketch of clock and watch making, London: Aylett and Jones, 1849\n\n American and Swiss Watchmaking in 1876 by Jacques David\n The Watch Factories of America Past and Present by Henry G. Abbott (1888)\n Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH\n UK patent GB218487, Improvements relating to wrist watches, 1923 patent resulting from John Harwood's invention of a practical self-winding watch mechanism.\n\n \nCategory:Wrist", "title": "Watch" } ]

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[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" }, { "text": "A watch is a portable timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep a consistent movement despite the motions caused by the person's activities. A wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet, including metal bands, leather straps, or any other kind of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, often attached to a chain .\n\nWatches were developed in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a mechanical device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring, and keeping time with an oscillating balance wheel. These are called mechanical watches. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery and kept time with a vibrating quartz crystal. By the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Historically, this is called the quartz revolution (also known as quartz crisis in Switzerland). Developments in the 2010s include smart watches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist. They generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only a small subset of the smartwatch's facilities.\n\nIn general, modern watches often display the day, date, month, and year. For mechanical watches, various extra features called \"complications\", such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Most electronic quartz watches, on the other hand, include time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions. Furthermore, some modern watches (like smart watches) even incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, and some of them use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time.\n\nMost watches that are used mainly for timekeeping have quartz movements. However, expensive collectible watches, valued more for their elaborate craftsmanship, aesthetic appeal, and glamorous design than for simple timekeeping, often have traditional mechanical movements, despite being less accurate and more expensive than their electronic counterparts. As of 2018, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction was the Patek Philippe Henry Graves Supercomplication, the world's most complicated mechanical watch until 1989, fetching US$24 million (CHF 23,237,000) in Geneva on 11 November 2014. As of December 2019, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction (and wristwatch) was the Patek Philippe Grandmaster Chime Ref. 6300A-010, fetching US$31.19 million (CHF 31,000,000) in Geneva on 9 November 2019.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins \nWatches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th-century Europe. The first timepieces to be worn, made in the 16th century beginning in the German cities of Nuremberg and Augsburg, were transitional in size between clocks and watches. Nuremberg clockmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle or Hele) (1485-1542) is often credited as the inventor of the watch. However, other German clockmakers were creating miniature timepieces during this period, and there is no evidence Henlein was the first.\n\nWatches were not widely worn in pockets until the 17th century. One account suggests that the word \"watch\" came from the Old English word woecce - which meant \"watchman\" – because town watchmen used the technology to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th-century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches (duty shifts).\n\nEvolution \n\nA rise in accuracy occurred in 1657 with the addition of the balance spring to the balance wheel, an invention disputed both at the time and ever since between Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens. This innovation increased watches' accuracy enormously, reducing error from perhaps several hours per day to perhaps 10 minutes per day, resulting in the addition of the minute hand to the face from around 1680 in Britain and around 1700 in France.\n\nThe increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement. The verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. Improvements in manufacturing – such as the tooth-cutting machine devised by Robert Hooke – allowed some increase in the volume of watch production, although finishing and assembling was still done by hand until well into the 19th century.\n\nA major cause of error in balance-wheel timepieces, caused by changes in elasticity of the balance spring from temperature changes, was solved by the bimetallic temperature-compensated balance wheel invented in 1765 by Pierre Le Roy and improved by Thomas Earnshaw (1749–1829). The lever escapement, the single most important technological breakthrough, though invented by Thomas Mudge in 1759 and improved by Josiah Emery in 1785, only gradually came into use from about 1800 onwards, chiefly in Britain.\n\nThe British predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, but maintained a system of production that was geared towards high-quality products for the élite. The British Watch Company modernized clock manufacture with mass-production techniques and the application of duplicating tools and machinery in 1843. In the United States, Aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 a successful enterprise operated, incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company.\n\nWristwatches \n\nThe concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century. In 1571 Elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch, described as an \"armed watch\", from Robert Dudley. The oldest surviving wristwatch (then described as a \"bracelet watch\") is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais. From the beginning, wristwatches were almost exclusively worn by women - men used pocket watches up until the early-20th century. In 1810, the watch-maker Abraham-Louis Breguet made a wristwatch for the Queen of Naples. The first Swiss wristwatch was made by the Swiss watch-maker Patek Philippe, in the year 1868 for Countess Koscowicz of Hungary.\n\nWristwatches were first worn by military men towards the end of the 19th century, having increasingly recognized the importance of synchronizing maneuvers during war without potentially revealing plans to the enemy through signaling. The Garstin Company of London patented a \"Watch Wristlet\" design in 1893, but probably produced similar designs from the 1880s. Officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. During the First Boer War of 1880–1881 the importance of coordinating troop movements and synchronizing attacks against highly mobile Boer insurgents became paramount, and the use of wristwatches subsequently became widespread among the officer class. The company Mappin & Webb began production of their successful \"campaign watch\" for soldiers during the campaign in the Sudan in 1898 and accelerated production for the Second Boer War of 1899–1902 a few years later. In continental Europe, Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watchmakers began supplying German naval officers with wristwatches in about 1880.\n\nEarly models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap, but by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches. The Swiss company Dimier Frères & Cie patented a wristwatch design with the now standard wire lugs in 1903.\n\nIn 1904, Louis Cartier produced a wristwatch to allow his friend Alberto Santos-Dumont to check flight performance in his airship while keeping both hands on the controls as this proved difficult with a pocket watch. Cartier still markets a line of Santos-Dumont watches and sunglasses.\n\nIn 1905, Hans Wilsdorf moved to London and set up his own business, Wilsdorf & Davis, with his brother-in-law Alfred Davis, providing quality timepieces at affordable prices; the company became Rolex in 1915. Wilsdorf was an early convert to the wristwatch, and contracted the Swiss firm Aegler to produce a line of wristwatches.\n\nThe impact of the First World War of 1914–1918 dramatically shifted public perceptions on the propriety of the man's wristwatch and opened up a mass market in the postwar era. The creeping barrage artillery tactic, developed during the war, required precise synchronization between the artillery gunners and the infantry advancing behind the barrage. Service watches produced during the war were specially designed for the rigors of trench warfare, with luminous dials and unbreakable glass. The War Office began issuing wristwatches to combatants from 1917. By the end of the war, almost all enlisted men wore a wristwatch (or wristlet), and after they were demobilized the fashion soon caught on: the British Horological Journal wrote in 1917 that \"the wristlet watch was little used by the sterner sex before the war, but now is seen on the wrist of nearly every man in uniform and of many men in civilian attire.\" By 1930, the wristwatch vastly exceeded the pocket watch in market share by a decisive ratio of 50:1.\n\nAutomatic watches \nJohn Harwood invented the first successful self-winding system in 1923. In anticipation of Harwood's patent for self-winding mechanisms expiration in 1930, Glycine founder Eugène Meylan started development on a self-winding system as a separate module that could be used with almost any 8.75 ligne (19.74 millimeter) watch movement. Glycine incorporated this module into its watches in October 1930 and began mass-producing automatic watches.\n\nElectric watches \nThe Elgin National Watch Company and the Hamilton Watch Company pioneered the first electric watch. The first electric movements used a battery as a power source to oscillate the balance wheel. During the 1950s Elgin developed the model 725 while Hamilton released two models: the first, the Hamilton 500, released on 3 January 1957, was produced into 1959. This model had problems with the contact wires misaligning, and the watches returned to Hamilton for alignment. The Hamilton 505, an improvement on the 500, proved more reliable: the contact wires were removed and a non-adjustable contact on the balance assembly delivered the power to the balance wheel. Similar designs from many other watch companies followed. Another type of electric watch was developed by the Bulova company that used a tuning-fork resonator instead of a traditional balance wheel to increase timekeeping accuracy, moving from a typical 2.5–4 Hz with a traditional balance wheel to 360 Hz with the tuning-fork design.\n\nQuartz watches\nThe commercial introduction of the quartz watch in 1969 in the form of the Seiko Astron 35SQ and in 1970 in the form of the Omega Beta 21 was a revolutionary improvement in watch technology. In place of a balance wheel which oscillated at perhaps 5 or 6 beats per second, these devices used a quartz-crystal resonator which vibrated at 8,192 Hz, driven by a battery-powered oscillator circuit. Most quartz-watch oscillators now operate at 32,768 Hz, although quartz movements have been designed with frequencies as high as 262 kHz. Since the 1980s, more quartz watches than mechanical ones have been marketed.\n\nParts \n\nThe movement and case are the basic parts of a watch. A watch band or bracelet is added to form a wristwatch; alternatively, a watch chain is added to form a pocket watch.\n\nThe case is the outer covering of the watch.\n\nThe case back is the back portion of the watch's case. Accessing the movement (such as during battery replacement) depends on the type of case back, which are generally categorized into four types:\n Snap-off case backs (press-on case backs): the watch back pulls straight off and presses straight on.\n Screw-down case backs (threaded case backs): the entire watch back must be rotated to unscrew from the case. Often it has 6 notches on the external part of the case back.\n Screw back cases: tiny screws hold the case back to the case\n Unibody: the only way into the case involves prying the crystal off the front of the watch.\n\nThe crystal, also called the window or watch glass, is the transparent part of the case that allows viewing the hands and the dial of the movement.\nModern wristwatches almost always use one of 4 materials:\n Acrylic glass (plexiglass, hesalite glass): the most impact-resistant (\"unbreakable\"), and therefore used in dive watches and most military watches. Acrylic glass is the lowest cost of these materials, so it is used in practically all low-cost watches.\n Mineral crystal: a tempered glass.\n Sapphire-coated mineral crystal\n Synthetic sapphire crystal: the most scratch-resistant; it is difficult to cut and polish, causing watch crystals made of sapphire to be the most expensive.\n\nThe bezel is the ring holding the crystal in place.\n\nThe lugs are small metal projections at both ends of the wristwatch case where the watch band attaches to the watch case.\nThe case and the lugs are often machined from one solid piece of stainless steel.\n\nMovement \n\nThe movement of a watch is the mechanism that measures the passage of time and displays the current time (and possibly other information including date, month, and day). Movements may be entirely mechanical, entirely electronic (potentially with no moving parts), or they might be a blend of both. Most watches intended mainly for timekeeping today have electronic movements, with mechanical hands on the watch face indicating the time.\n\nMechanical \n\nCompared to electronic movements, mechanical watches are less accurate, often with errors of seconds per day; are sensitive to position, temperature, and magnetism; are costly to produce; require regular maintenance and adjustments; and are more prone to failures. Nevertheless, mechanical watches attract interest from consumers, particularly among watch collectors. Skeleton watches are designed to display the mechanism for aesthetic purposes.\n\nA mechanical movement uses an escapement mechanism to control and limit the unwinding and winding parts of a spring, converting what would otherwise be a simple unwinding into a controlled and periodic energy release. The movement also uses a balance wheel, together with the balance spring (also known as a hairspring), to control gear system's motion in a manner analogous to the pendulum of a pendulum clock. The tourbillon, an optional part for mechanical movements, is a rotating frame for the escapement, used to cancel out or reduce gravitational bias. Due to the complexity of designing a tourbillon, they are expensive, and typically found in prestigious watches.\n\nThe pin-lever escapement (called the Roskopf movement after its inventor, Georges Frederic Roskopf), which is a cheaper version of the fully levered movement, was manufactured in huge quantities by many Swiss manufacturers, as well as by Timex, until it was replaced by quartz movements.\n\nIntroduced by Bulova in 1960, tuning-fork watches use a type of electromechanical movement with a precise frequency (most often ) to drive a mechanical watch. The task of converting electronically pulsed fork vibration into rotary movements is done via two tiny jeweled fingers, called pawls. Tuning-fork watches were rendered obsolete when electronic quartz watches were developed.\n\nTraditional mechanical watch movements use a spiral spring called a mainspring as its power source that must be rewound periodically by the user by turning the watch crown. Antique pocket watches were wound by inserting a key into the back of the watch and turning it. While most modern watches are designed to run on a winding, requiring winding daily, some run for several days; a few have 192-hour mainsprings, requiring once-weekly winding.\n\nAutomatic watches \n\nA self-winding or automatic watch is one that rewinds the mainspring of a mechanical movement by the natural motions of the wearer's body. The first self-winding mechanism was invented for pocket watches in 1770 by Abraham-Louis Perrelet, but the first \"self-winding\", or \"automatic\", wristwatch was the invention of a British watch repairer named John Harwood in 1923. This type of watch winds itself without requiring any special action by the wearer. It uses an eccentric weight, called a winding rotor, which rotates with the movement of the wearer's wrist. The back-and-forth motion of the winding rotor couples to a ratchet to wind the mainspring automatically. Self-winding watches usually can also be wound manually to keep them running when not worn or if the wearer's wrist motions are inadequate to keep the watch wound.\n\nIn April 2014 the Swatch Group launched the sistem51 wristwatch. It has a purely mechanical movement consisting of only 51 parts, including a novel self-winding mechanism with a transparent oscillating weight. So far, it is the only mechanical movement manufactured entirely on a fully automated assembly line. The low parts count and the automated assembly make it an inexpensive mechanical Swiss watch, which can be considered a successor to Roskopf movements, although of higher quality.\n\nElectronic \n\nElectronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the piezoelectric effect. A varying electric voltage is applied to the crystal, which responds by changing its shape so, in combination with some electronic components, it functions as an oscillator. It resonates at a specific highly stable frequency, which is used to accurately pace a timekeeping mechanism. Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch to provide a traditional analog display of the time, a feature most consumers still prefer.\n\nIn 1959 Seiko placed an order with Epson (a subsidiary company of Seiko and the 'brain' behind the quartz revolution) to start developing a quartz wristwatch. The project was codenamed 59A. By the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olympics, Seiko had a working prototype of a portable quartz watch which was used as the time measurements throughout the event.\n\nThe first prototypes of an electronic quartz wristwatch (not just quartz watches as the Seiko timekeeping devices at the Tokyo Olympics in 1964) were made by the CEH research laboratory in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. From 1965 through 1967 pioneering development work was done on a miniaturized 8192 Hz quartz oscillator, a thermo-compensation module, and an in-house-made, dedicated integrated circuit (unlike the hybrid circuits used in the later Seiko Astron wristwatch). As a result, the BETA 1 prototype set new timekeeping performance records at the International Chronometric Competition held at the Observatory of Neuchâtel in 1967. In 1970, 18 manufacturers exhibited production versions of the beta 21 wristwatch, including the Omega Electroquartz as well as Patek Philippe, Rolex Oysterquartz and Piaget.\n\nThe first quartz watch to enter production was the Seiko 35 SQ Astron, which hit the shelves on 25 December 1969, swiftly followed by the Swiss Beta 21, and then a year later the prototype of one of the world's most accurate wristwatches to date: the Omega Marine Chronometer. Since the technology having been developed by contributions from Japanese, American and Swiss, nobody could patent the whole movement of the quartz wristwatch, thus allowing other manufacturers to participate in the rapid growth and development of the quartz watch market. This ended - in less than a decade - almost 100 years of dominance by the mechanical wristwatch legacy. Modern quartz movements are produced in very large quantities, and even the cheapest wristwatches typically have quartz movements. Whereas mechanical movements can typically be off by several seconds a day, an inexpensive quartz movement in a child's wristwatch may still be accurate to within half a second per day - ten times more accurate than a mechanical movement.\n\nAfter a consolidation of the mechanical watch industry in Switzerland during the 1970s, mass production of quartz wristwatches took off under the leadership of the Swatch Group of companies, a Swiss conglomerate with vertical control of the production of Swiss watches and related products. For quartz wristwatches, subsidiaries of Swatch manufacture watch batteries (Renata), oscillators (Oscilloquartz, now Micro Crystal AG) and integrated circuits (Ebauches Electronic SA, renamed EM Microelectronic-Marin). The launch of the new SWATCH brand in 1983 was marked by bold new styling, design, and marketing. Today, the Swatch Group maintains its position as the world's largest watch company.\n\nSeiko's efforts to combine the quartz and mechanical movements bore fruit after 20 years of research, leading to the introduction of the Seiko Spring Drive, first in a limited domestic market production in 1999 and to the world in September 2005. The Spring Drive keeps time within quartz standards without the use of a battery, using a traditional mechanical gear train powered by a spring, without the need for a balance wheel either.\n\nIn 2010, Miyota (Citizen Watch) of Japan introduced a newly developed movement that uses a 3-pronged quartz crystal that was exclusively produced for Bulova to be used in the Precisionist or Accutron II line, a new type of quartz watch with ultra-high frequency (262.144 kHz) which is claimed to be accurate to +/− 10 seconds a year and has a smooth sweeping second hand rather than one that jumps each second.\n\nRadio time signal watches are a type of electronic quartz watch that synchronizes (time transfers) its time with an external time source such as in atomic clocks, time signals from GPS navigation satellites, the German DCF77 signal in Europe, WWVB in the US, and others. Movements of this type may - among others - synchronize the time of day and the date, the leap-year status and the state of daylight saving time (on or off). However, other than the radio receiver, these watches are normal quartz watches in all other aspects.\n\nElectronic watches require electricity as a power source, and some mechanical movements and hybrid electronic-mechanical movements also require electricity. Usually, the electricity is provided by a replaceable battery. The first use of electrical power in watches was as a substitute for the mainspring, to remove the need for winding. The first electrically powered watch, the Hamilton Electric 500, was released in 1957 by the Hamilton Watch Company of Lancaster, Pennsylvania.\n\nWatch batteries (strictly speaking cells, as a battery is composed of multiple cells) are specially designed for their purpose. They are very small and provide tiny amounts of power continuously for very long periods (several years or more). In most cases, replacing the battery requires a trip to a watch-repair shop or watch dealer; this is especially true for watches that are water-resistant, as special tools and procedures are required for the watch to remain water-resistant after battery replacement. Silver-oxide and lithium batteries are popular today; mercury batteries, formerly quite common, are no longer used, for environmental reasons. Cheap batteries may be alkaline, of the same size as silver-oxide cells but providing shorter life. Rechargeable batteries are used in some solar-powered watches.\n\nSome electronic watches are powered by the movement of the wearer. For instance, Seiko's kinetic-powered quartz watches use the motion of the wearer's arm: turning a rotating weight which causes a tiny generator to supply power to charge a rechargeable battery that runs the watch. The concept is similar to that of self-winding spring movements, except that electrical power is generated instead of mechanical spring tension.\n\nSolar powered watches are powered by light. A photovoltaic cell on the face (dial) of the watch converts light to electricity, which is used to charge a rechargeable battery or capacitor. The movement of the watch draws its power from the rechargeable battery or capacitor. As long as the watch is regularly exposed to fairly strong light (such as sunlight), it never needs a battery replacement. Some models need only a few minutes of sunlight to provide weeks of energy (as in the Citizen Eco-Drive). Some of the early solar watches of the 1970s had innovative and unique designs to accommodate the array of solar cells needed to power them (Synchronar, Nepro, Sicura, and some models by Cristalonic, Alba, Seiko, and Citizen). As the decades progressed and the efficiency of the solar cells increased while the power requirements of the movement and display decreased, solar watches began to be designed to look like other conventional watches.\n\nA rarely used power source is the temperature difference between the wearer's arm and the surrounding environment (as applied in the Citizen Eco-Drive Thermo).\n\nDisplay\n\nAnalog \n\nTraditionally, watches have displayed the time in analog form, with a numbered dial upon which are mounted at least a rotating hour hand and a longer, rotating minute hand. Many watches also incorporate a third hand that shows the current second of the current minute. In quartz watches this second hand typically snaps to the next marker every second. In mechanical watches, the second hand may appear to glide continuously, though in fact it merely moves in smaller steps, typically one-fifth to one-tenth of a second, corresponding to the beat (half period) of the balance wheel. With a duplex escapement, the hand advances every two beats (full period) of the balance wheel, typically -second; this happens every four beats (two periods, 1 second), with a double duplex escapement. A truly gliding second hand is achieved with the tri-synchro regulator of Spring Drive watches. All three hands are normally mechanical, physically rotating on the dial, although a few watches have been produced with \"hands\" simulated by a liquid-crystal display.\n\nAnalog display of the time is nearly universal in watches sold as jewelry or collectibles, and in these watches, the range of different styles of hands, numbers, and other aspects of the analog dial is very broad. In watches sold for timekeeping, analog display remains very popular, as many people find it easier to read than digital display; but in timekeeping watches the emphasis is on clarity and accurate reading of the time under all conditions (clearly marked digits, easily visible hands, large watch faces, etc.). They are specifically designed for the left wrist with the stem (the knob used for changing the time) on the right side of the watch; this makes it easy to change the time without removing the watch from the wrist. This is the case if one is right-handed and the watch is worn on the left wrist (as is traditionally done). If one is left-handed and wears the watch on the right wrist, one has to remove the watch from the wrist to reset the time or to wind the watch.\n\nAnalog watches, as well as clocks, are often marketed showing a display time of approximately 1:50 or 10:10. This creates a visually pleasing smile-like face on the upper half of the watch, in addition to enclosing the manufacturer's name. Digital displays often show a time of 12:08, where the increase in the number of active segments or pixels gives a positive feeling.\n\nTactile \nTissot, a Swiss luxury watchmaker, makes the Silen-T wristwatch with a touch-sensitive face that vibrates to help the user to tell time eyes-free. The bezel of the watch features raised bumps at each hour mark; after briefly touching the face of the watch, the wearer runs a finger around the bezel clockwise. When the finger reaches the bump indicating the hour, the watch vibrates continuously, and when the finger reaches the bump indicating the minute, the watch vibrates intermittently.\n\nEone Timepieces, a Washington D.C.-based company, launched its first tactile analog wristwatch, the \"Bradley\", on 11 July 2013 on the Kickstarter website. The device is primarily designed for sight-impaired users, who can use the watch's two ball bearings to determine the time, but it is also suitable for general use. The watch features raised marks at each hour and two moving, magnetically attached ball bearings. One ball bearing, on the edge of the watch, indicates the hour, while the other, on the face, indicates the minute.\n\nDigital \nA digital display shows the time as a number, e.g., 12:08 instead of a shorthand pointing towards the number 12 and a long hand 8/60 of the way around the dial. The digits are usually shown as a seven-segment display.\n\nThe first digital pocket watches appeared in the late 19th century. In the 1920s, the first digital mechanical wristwatches appeared.\n\nThe first digital electronic watch, a Pulsar LED prototype in 1970, was developed jointly by Hamilton Watch Company and Electro-Data, founded by George H. Thiess. John Bergey, the head of Hamilton's Pulsar division, said that he was inspired to make a digital timepiece by the then-futuristic digital clock that Hamilton themselves made for the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. On 4 April 1972, the Pulsar was finally ready, made in an 18-carat gold case and sold for $2,100. It had a red light-emitting diode (LED) display.\n\nDigital LED watches were very expensive and out of reach to the common consumer until 1975, when Texas Instruments started to mass-produce LED watches inside a plastic case. These watches, which first retailed for only $20, reduced to $10 in 1976, saw Pulsar lose $6 million and the Pulsar brand sold to Seiko.\n\nAn early LED watch that was rather problematic was The Black Watch made and sold by British company Sinclair Radionics in 1975. This was only sold for a few years, as production problems and returned (faulty) product forced the company to cease production.\n\nMost watches with LED displays required that the user press a button to see the time displayed for a few seconds because LEDs used so much power that they could not be kept operating continuously. Usually, the LED display color would be red. Watches with LED displays were popular for a few years, but soon the LED displays were superseded by liquid crystal displays (LCDs), which used less battery power and were much more convenient in use, with the display always visible and eliminating the need to push a button before seeing the time. Only in darkness would a button needed to be pressed to illuminate the display with a tiny light bulb, later illuminating LEDs and electroluminescent backlights.\n\nThe first LCD watch with a six-digit LCD was the 1973 Seiko 06LC, although various forms of early LCD watches with a four-digit display were marketed as early as 1972 including the 1972 Gruen Teletime LCD Watch, and the Cox Electronic Systems Quarza. The Quarza, introduced in 1972 had the first Field Effect LCD readable in direct sunlight and produced by the International Liquid Crystal Corporation of Cleveland, Ohio. In Switzerland, Ebauches Electronic SA presented a prototype eight-digit LCD wristwatch showing time and date at the MUBA Fair, Basle, in March 1973, using a twisted nematic LCD manufactured by Brown, Boveri & Cie, Switzerland, which became the supplier of LCDs to Casio for the CASIOTRON watch in 1974.\n\nA problem with LCDs is that they use polarized light. If, for example, the user is wearing polarized sunglasses, the watch may be difficult to read because the plane of polarization of the display is roughly perpendicular to that of the glasses. If the light that illuminates the display is polarized, for example if it comes from a blue sky, the display may be difficult or impossible to read.\n\nFrom the 1980s onward, digital watch technology vastly improved. In 1982, Seiko produced the Seiko TV Watch that had a television screen built-in, and Casio produced a digital watch with a thermometer (the TS-1000) as well as another that could translate 1,500 Japanese words into English. In 1985, Casio produced the CFX-400 scientific calculator watch. In 1987, Casio produced a watch that could dial telephone numbers (the DBA-800) and Citizen introduced one that would react to voice. In 1995, Timex released a watch that allowed the wearer to download and store data from a computer to their wrist. Some watches, such as the Timex Datalink USB, feature dot matrix displays. Since their apex during the late 1980s to mid-1990s high technology fad, digital watches have mostly become simpler, less expensive timepieces with little variety between models.\n\nIlluminated \n\nMany watches have displays that are illuminated, so they can be used in darkness. Various methods have been used to achieve this.\n\nMechanical watches often have luminous paint on their hands and hour marks. In the mid-20th century, radioactive material was often incorporated in the paint, so it would continue to glow without any exposure to light. Radium was often used but produced small amounts of radiation outside the watch that might have been hazardous. Tritium was used as a replacement, since the radiation it produces has such low energy that it cannot penetrate a watch glass. However, tritium is expensive - it has to be made in a nuclear reactor - and it has a half-life of only about 12 years so the paint remains luminous for only a few years. Nowadays, tritium is used in specialized watches, e.g., for military purposes (see Tritium illumination). For other purposes, luminous paint is sometimes used on analog displays, but no radioactive material is contained in it. This means that the display glows soon after being exposed to light and quickly fades.\n\nWatches that incorporate batteries often have the electric illumination of their displays. However, lights consume far more power than electronic watch movements. To conserve the battery, the light is activated only when the user presses a button. Usually, the light remains lit for a few seconds after the button is released, which allows the user to move the hand out of the way.\n\nIn some early digital watches, LED displays were used, which could be read as easily in darkness as in daylight. The user had to press a button to light up the LEDs, which meant that the watch could not be read without the button being pressed, even in full daylight.\n\nIn some types of watches, small incandescent lamps or LEDs illuminate the display, which is not intrinsically luminous. These tend to produce very non-uniform illumination.\n\nOther watches use electroluminescent material to produce uniform illumination of the background of the display, against which the hands or digits can be seen.\n\nSpeech synthesis \nTalking watches are available, intended for the blind or visually impaired. They speak the time out loud at the press of a button. This has the disadvantage of disturbing others nearby or at least alerting the non-deaf that the wearer is checking the time. Tactile watches are preferred to avoid this awkwardness, but talking watches are preferred for those who are not confident in their ability to read a tactile watch reliably.\n\nHandedness\nWristwatches with analog displays generally have a small knob, called the crown, that can be used to adjust the time and, in mechanical watches, wind the spring. Almost always, the crown is located on the right-hand side of the watch so it can be worn of the left wrist for a right-handed individual. This makes it inconvenient to use if the watch is being worn on the right wrist. Some manufacturers offer \"left-hand drive\", aka \"destro\", configured watches which move the crown to the left side making wearing the watch easier for left-handed individuals.\n\nA rarer configuration is the bullhead watch. Bullhead watches are generally, but not exclusively, chronographs. The configuration moves the crown and chronograph pushers to the top of the watch. Bullheads are commonly wristwatch chronographs that are intended to be used as stopwatches off the wrist. Examples are the Citizen Bullhead Change Timer and the Omega Seamaster Bullhead.\n\nDigital watches generally have push-buttons that can be used to make adjustments. These are usually equally easy to use on either wrist.\n\nFunctions\n\nCustomarily, watches provide the time of day, giving at least the hour and minute, and often the second. Many also provide the current date, and some (called \"complete calendar\" or \"triple date\" watches) display the day of the week and the month as well. However, many watches also provide a great deal of information beyond the basics of time and date. Some watches include alarms. Other elaborate and more expensive watches, both pocket and wrist models, also incorporate striking mechanisms or repeater functions, so that the wearer could learn the time by the sound emanating from the watch. This announcement or striking feature is an essential characteristic of true clocks and distinguishes such watches from ordinary timepieces. This feature is available on most digital watches.\n\nA complicated watch has one or more functions beyond the basic function of displaying the time and the date; such a functionality is called a complication. Two popular complications are the chronograph complication, which is the ability of the watch movement to function as a stopwatch, and the moonphase complication, which is a display of the lunar phase. Other more expensive complications include Tourbillon, Perpetual calendar, Minute repeater, and Equation of time. A truly complicated watch has many of these complications at once (see Calibre 89 from Patek Philippe for instance). Some watches can both indicate the direction of Mecca and have alarms that can be set for all daily prayer requirements. Among watch enthusiasts, complicated watches are especially collectible. Some watches include a second 12-hour or 24-hour display for UTC or GMT.\n\nThe similar-sounding terms chronograph and chronometer are often confused, although they mean altogether different things. A chronograph is a watch with an added duration timer, often a stopwatch complication (as explained above), while a chronometer watch is a timepiece that has met an industry-standard test for performance under pre-defined conditions: a chronometer is a high quality mechanical or a thermo-compensated movement that has been tested and certified to operate within a certain standard of accuracy by the COSC (Contrôle Officiel Suisse des Chronomètres). The concepts are different but not mutually exclusive; so a watch can be a chronograph, a chronometer, both, or neither.\n\nElectronic sports watches, combining timekeeping with GPS and/or activity tracking, address the general fitness market and have the potential for commercial success (Garmin Forerunner, Garmin Vivofit, Epson, announced model of Swatch Touch series).\n\nBraille watches have analog displays with raised bumps around the face to allow blind users to tell the time. Their digital equivalents use synthesised speech to speak the time on command.\n\nFashion \n\nWristwatches and antique pocket watches are often appreciated as jewelry or as collectible works of art rather than just as timepieces. This has created several different markets for wristwatches, ranging from very inexpensive but accurate watches (intended for no other purpose than telling the correct time) to extremely expensive watches that serve mainly as personal adornment or as examples of high achievement in miniaturization and precision mechanical engineering.\n\nTraditionally, dress watches appropriate for informal (business), semi-formal, and formal attire are gold, thin, simple, and plain, but increasingly rugged, complicated, or sports watches are considered by some to be acceptable for such attire. Some dress watches have a cabochon on the crown or faceted gemstones on the face, bezel, or bracelet. Some are made entirely of faceted sapphire (corundum).\n\nMany fashions and department stores offer a variety of less-expensive, trendy, \"costume\" watches (usually for women), many of which are similar in quality to basic quartz timepieces but which feature bolder designs. In the 1980s, the Swiss Swatch company hired graphic designers to redesign a new annual collection of non-repairable watches.\n\nTrade in counterfeit watches, which mimic expensive brand-name watches, constitutes an estimated market per year.\n\nSpace \n\nThe zero-gravity environment and other extreme conditions encountered by astronauts in space require the use of specially tested watches.\n\nThe first-ever watch to be sent into space was a Russian \"Pobeda\" watch from the Petrodvorets Watch Factory. It was sent on a single orbit flight on the spaceship Korabl-Sputnik 4 on 9 March 1961. The watch had been attached without authorisation to the wrist of Chernuchka, a dog that successfully did exactly the same trip as Yuri Gagarin, with exactly the same rocket and equipment, just a month before Gagarin's flight.\n\nOn 12 April 1961, Gagarin wore a Shturmanskie (a transliteration of which actually means \"navigator's\") wristwatch during his historic first flight into space. The Shturmanskie was manufactured at the First Moscow Factory. Since 1964, the watches of the First Moscow Factory have been marked by the trademark \"\", transliterated as \"POLJOT\", which means \"flight\" in Russian and is a tribute to the many space trips its watches have accomplished. In the late 1970s, Poljot launched a new chrono movement, the 3133. With a 23 jewel movement and manual winding (43 hours), it was a modified Russian version of the Swiss Valjoux 7734 of the early 1970s. Poljot 3133 were taken into space by astronauts from Russia, France, Germany and Ukraine. On the arm of Valeriy Polyakov, a Poljot 3133 chronograph movement-based watch set a space record for the longest space flight in history.\n\nThrough the 1960s, a large range of watches was tested for durability and precision under extreme temperature changes and vibrations. The Omega Speedmaster Professional was selected by NASA, the U.S space agency, and it is mostly known thanks to astronaut Buzz Aldrin who wore it during the moon landing, 1969. Heuer became the first Swiss watch in space thanks to a Heuer Stopwatch, worn by John Glenn in 1962 when he piloted the Friendship 7 on the first manned U.S. orbital mission. The Breitling Navitimer Cosmonaute was designed with a 24-hour analog dial to avoid confusion between AM and PM, which are meaningless in space. It was first worn in space by U.S. astronaut Scott Carpenter on 24 May 1962 in the Aurora 7 mercury capsule.\n\nSince 1994 Fortis is the exclusive supplier for manned space missions authorized by the Russian Federal Space Agency. China National Space Administration (CNSA) astronauts wear the Fiyta spacewatches. At BaselWorld, 2008, Seiko announced the creation of the first watch ever designed specifically for a space walk, Spring Drive Spacewalk. Timex Datalink is flight certified by NASA for space missions and is one of the watches qualified by NASA for space travel. The Casio G-Shock DW-5600C and 5600E, DW 6900, and DW 5900 are Flight-Qualified for NASA space travel.\n\nVarious Timex Datalink models were used both by cosmonauts and astronauts.\n\nScuba diving \n\nWatch construction may be water-resistant. These watches are sometimes called diving watches when they are suitable for scuba diving or saturation diving. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issued a standard for water-resistant watches which also prohibits the term \"waterproof\" to be used with watches, which many countries have adopted. In the United States, advertising a watch as waterproof has been illegal since 1968, per Federal Trade Commission regulations regarding the \"misrepresentation of protective features\".\n\nWater-resistance is achieved by the gaskets which forms a watertight seal, used in conjunction with a sealant applied on the case to help keep water out. The material of the case must also be tested in order to pass as water-resistant.\n\nNone of the tests defined by ISO 2281 for the Water Resistant mark are suitable to qualify a watch for scuba diving. Such watches are designed for everyday life and must be water-resistant during exercises such as swimming. They can be worn in different temperature and pressure conditions but are under no circumstances designed for scuba diving.\n\nThe standards for diving watches are regulated by the ISO 6425 international standard. The watches are tested in static or still water under 125% of the rated (water) pressure, thus a watch with a 200-metre rating will be water-resistant if it is stationary and under 250 metres of static water. The testing of the water-resistance is fundamentally different from non-dive watches, because every watch has to be fully tested. Besides water resistance standards to a minimum of 100-metre depth rating ISO 6425 also provides eight minimum requirements for mechanical diver's watches for scuba diving (quartz and digital watches have slightly differing readability requirements). For diver's watches for mixed-gas saturation diving two additional ISO 6425 requirements have to be met.\n\nWatches are classified by their degree of water resistance, which roughly translates to the following (1 metre = 3.281 feet):\n\nSome watches use bar instead of meters, which may then be multiplied by 10, and then subtract 10 to be approximately equal to the rating based on metres. Therefore, a 5 bar watch is equivalent to a 40-metre watch. Some watches are rated in atmospheres (atm), which are roughly equivalent to bar.\n\nNavigation \n\nThere is a traditional method by which an analog watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun appears to move in the sky over a 24-hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock face takes twelve hours to complete one rotation. In the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south. For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During daylight saving time, the same method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12. This method is accurate enough to be used only at fairly high latitudes.\n\nSee also \n\n Boule de Genève\n Clock\n Coin watch\n List of most expensive watches sold at auction\n List of watch manufacturers\n Marine chronometer\n Movado Ermeto watch\n Radium dial\n Tachymeter (watch)\n 24-hour analog dial\n Smart watch\n Shock-resistant watch\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Beckett, Edmund, A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, Watches and Bells, 1903, from Project Gutenberg\n Berner, G.A., Illustrated Professional Dictionary of Horology, Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH 1961–2012\n Daniels, George, Watchmaking, London: Philip Wilson Publishers, 1981 (reprinted 15 June 2011)\n De Carle, Donald, (Illustrations by E. A. Ayres), Practical Watch Repairing, 3rd edition, New York : Skyhorse Pub., 2008. . Significant information on watches, their history, and inner workings.\n Denn, Mark, \"The Tourbillon and How It Works,\" IEEE Control Systems Magazine, June 2010, IEEE Control Systems Society, DOI 10.1109/MCS.2010.936291.\n Donzé, Pierre-Yves. \"Dynamics of innovation in the electronic watch industry: a comparative business history of Longines (Switzerland) and Seiko (Japan), 1960-1980.\" Essays in Economic & Business History 37.1 (2019): 120-145. online\n Donzé, Pierre-Yves (2022). The business of time: A global history of the watch industry. Manchester University Press.\n Grafton, Edward, Horology, a popular sketch of clock and watch making, London: Aylett and Jones, 1849\n\n American and Swiss Watchmaking in 1876 by Jacques David\n The Watch Factories of America Past and Present by Henry G. Abbott (1888)\n Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH\n UK patent GB218487, Improvements relating to wrist watches, 1923 patent resulting from John Harwood's invention of a practical self-winding watch mechanism.\n\n \nCategory:Wrist", "title": "Watch" } ]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "The text does not provide information on whether Kovacs finished drama school.", "Yes, there are several other interesting aspects highlighted in the article. Kovacs endured a serious case of pneumonia and pleurisy but used this time to further develop his comedic skills by entertaining doctors and patients. He also developed a deep love for classical music during his hospitalization after receiving a radio as a gift. After his parents separated, Kovacs returned to Trenton to live with his mother and began work as a cigar salesman. This led to him developing a lifelong cigar-smoking habit. His first paid entertainment job was as a radio announcer for Trenton's station WTTM, where he worked for nine years. During this period, he performed various outlandish stunts, such as broadcasting from an airplane cockpit and pretending to be run over by a train. Plus, he directed for the Trenton Players Guild and wrote a column for a local weekly newspaper.", "The text does not provide information on when Kovacs started wearing his trademark mustache.", "The text does not provide information on what Kovacs' biggest accomplishment was.", "The text does not provide information on how much Kovacs was paid.", "The text does not provide information on why Kovacs named his column \"Kovacs Unlimited\".", "Kovacs worked with Trenton's radio station WTTM as an announcer and later became the station's director of Special Events. He also worked with the Trenton Players Guild, possibly in a directing role. The text does not provide specific names of individuals he might have worked with during his career.", "The text does not provide information on anyone else Kovacs worked with.", "The text mentions several years related to different events in Kovacs's life. He received an acting scholarship to the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in 1937, he was ill with pneumonia and pleurisy in 1939, and his first paid entertainment work was during 1941 as an announcer for Trenton's radio station WTTM. Additionally, he was offered a column by a local weekly newspaper in 1945." ]

[ "No", "no", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No" ]

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[ "Did Amos release any albums during these years?", "Was the album successful?", "Did Amos release any albums after Scarlet's Walk?", "What can you tell me about The Beekeeper?", "Did either album win any awards?", "Did she collaborate with anyone else on her albums?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Why did Polly Anthony resign?", "Why was the news of her resignation unsettling?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 94 ], [ 483 ], [ 1378 ], [ 1481 ], [ 1431 ], [ 3195 ], [ 618 ], [ 3195 ], [ 767 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In October 2002, Amos released Scarlet's Walk, another concept album." ], [ "strong debut at No. 7 on the Billboard 200." ], [ "The Beekeeper (2005) and American Doll Posse (2007)." ], [ "The Beekeeper was conceptually influenced by the ancient art of beekeeping," ], [ "Both albums received generally favorable reviews." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Not long after Amos was ensconced with her new label, she received unsettling news when Polly Anthony resigned" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Anthony had been one of the primary reasons Amos signed with the label" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 94, 483, 1378, 1481, 1431, 3195, 618, 3195, 767 ], "texts": [ "In October 2002, Amos released Scarlet's Walk, another concept album.", "strong debut at No. 7 on the Billboard 200.", "The Beekeeper (2005) and American Doll Posse (2007).", "The Beekeeper was conceptually influenced by the ancient art of beekeeping,", "Both albums received generally favorable reviews.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Not long after Amos was ensconced with her new label, she received unsettling news when Polly Anthony resigned", "CANNOTANSWER", "Anthony had been one of the primary reasons Amos signed with the label" ] }

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[ "C_9b7cbe25b8104d2889a0b4289d7030b8_0_q#0", "C_9b7cbe25b8104d2889a0b4289d7030b8_0_q#1", "C_9b7cbe25b8104d2889a0b4289d7030b8_0_q#2", "C_9b7cbe25b8104d2889a0b4289d7030b8_0_q#3", "C_9b7cbe25b8104d2889a0b4289d7030b8_0_q#4", "C_9b7cbe25b8104d2889a0b4289d7030b8_0_q#5" ]

[ "Why was the song \"relax\" banned by the BBC?", "When was the song \"relax\" released?", "How successful was \"relax\"?", "How long did it stay on the charts?", "Did they shoot a video for \"relax\"?", "Where was the video filmed?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1398 ], [ 1 ], [ 122 ], [ 1949 ], [ 1041 ], [ 1451 ] ], "texts": [ [ "emperor\" was so excited he shimmied out of his toga." ], [ "Relax\" was released by ZTT in October 1983" ], [ "Following a debut on the BBC's Top of the Pops on 5 January 1984 while at number 35, the single rose to number six the following week." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The original video was directed by Bernard Rose and depicted a gay S&M" ], [ "Filmed in the unused East London theatre Wilton's Music Hall," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1398, 1, 122, 1949, 1041, 1451 ], "texts": [ "emperor\" was so excited he shimmied out of his toga.", "Relax\" was released by ZTT in October 1983", "Following a debut on the BBC's Top of the Pops on 5 January 1984 while at number 35, the single rose to number six the following week.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The original video was directed by Bernard Rose and depicted a gay S&M", "Filmed in the unused East London theatre Wilton's Music Hall," ] }

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[ "The song \"Relax\" was banned by the BBC because Radio 1 disc jockey Mike Read found the nature of the record sleeve and the printed lyrics to be \"overtly sexual\" and \"obscene\". This reaction occurred live on air, and afterwards, the BBC banned the record from all its TV and radio outlets, with the exception of its Top 40 show. The original music video, depicting a gay S&M parlour and sexually suggestive scenes, was also banned by the BBC.", "The song \"Relax\" was released in October 1983.", "\"Relax\" was very successful. The song rose to Number One in the UK charts after its controversial ban by the BBC and stayed there for five weeks. It was such a hit that the BBC could not feature the nation's best-selling single on its Top of the Pops show during the ban. At the end of 1984, aside from Band Aid, it was the biggest-selling single of the year.", "The text does not provide information on how long the song \"Relax\" stayed on the charts.", "Yes, they shot a video for \"Relax\". The original video, directed by Bernard Rose, was filmed in the unused East London theatre Wilton's Music Hall and depicted a gay S&M parlour, which included band members being admired by muscular leathermen, a bleached blonde drag queen, and a large-bodied man dressed as a Roman emperor. After the video was banned by the BBC and MTV, a substitute video was filmed, directed by Brian De Palma.", "The original video for \"Relax\" was filmed in the unused East London theatre Wilton's Music Hall." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]