{"text": " = Homarus gammarus =\n"}
{"text": " Homarus gammarus, known as the European lobster or common lobster, is a species of clawed lobster from the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and parts of the Black Sea. It is closely related to the American lobster, H. americanus. It may grow to a length of 60 cm (24 in) and a mass of 6 kilograms (13 lb), and bears a conspicuous pair of claws. In life, the lobsters are blue, only becoming \"lobster red\" on cooking. Mating occurs in the summer, producing eggs which are carried by the females for up to a year before hatching into planktonic larvae. Homarus gammarus is a highly esteemed food, and is widely caught using lobster pots, mostly around the British Isles.\n"}
{"text": " == Description ==\n"}
{"text": " Homarus gammarus is a large crustacean, with a body length up to 60 centimetres (24 in) and weighing up to 5 \u2013 6 kilograms (11 \u2013 13 lb), although the lobsters caught in lobster pots are usually 23 \u2013 38 cm (9 \u2013 15 in) long and weigh 0.7 \u2013 2.2 kg (1.5 \u2013 4.9 lb). Like other crustaceans, lobsters have a hard exoskeleton which they must shed in order to grow, in a process called ecdysis (moulting). This may occur several times a year for young lobsters, but decreases to once every 1 \u2013 2 years for larger animals.\n"}
{"text": " The first pair of pereiopods is armed with a large, asymmetrical pair of claws. The larger one is the \"crusher\", and has rounded nodules used for crushing prey; the other is the \"cutter\", which has sharp inner edges, and is used for holding or tearing the prey. Usually, the left claw is the crusher, and the right is the cutter.\n"}
{"text": " The exoskeleton is generally blue above, with spots that coalesce, and yellow below. The red colour associated with lobsters only appears after cooking. This occurs because, in life, the red pigment astaxanthin is bound to a protein complex, but the complex is broken up by the heat of cooking, releasing the red pigment.\n"}
{"text": " The closest relative of H. gammarus is the American lobster, Homarus americanus. The two species are very similar, and can be crossed artificially, although hybrids are unlikely to occur in the wild since their ranges do not overlap. The two species can be distinguished by a number of characteristics:\n"}
{"text": " The rostrum of H. americanus bears one or more spines on the underside, which are lacking in H. gammarus.\n"}
{"text": " The spines on the claws of H. americanus are red or red-tipped, while those of H. gammarus are white or white-tipped.\n"}
{"text": " The underside of the claw of H. americanus is orange or red, while that of H. gammarus is creamy white or very pale red.\n"}
{"text": " == Life cycle ==\n"}
{"text": " Female H. gammarus reach sexual maturity when they have grown to a carapace length of 80 \u2013 85 millimetres (3.1 \u2013 3.3 in), whereas males mature at a slightly smaller size. Mating typically occurs in summer between a recently moulted female, whose shell is therefore soft, and a hard-shelled male. The female carries the eggs for up to 12 months, depending on the temperature, attached to her pleopods. Females carrying eggs are said to be \"berried\" and can be found throughout the year.\n"}
{"text": " The eggs hatch at night, and the larvae swim to the water surface where they drift with the ocean currents, preying on zooplankton. This stage involves three moults and lasts for 15 \u2013 35 days. After the third moult, the juvenile takes on a form closer to the adult, and adopts a benthic lifestyle. The juveniles are rarely seen in the wild, and are poorly known, although they are known to be capable of digging extensive burrows. It is estimated that only 1 larva in every 20,000 survives to the benthic phase. When they reach a carapace length of 15 mm (0.59 in), the juveniles leave their burrows and start their adult lives.\n"}
{"text": " == Distribution ==\n"}
{"text": " Homarus gammarus is found across the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean from northern Norway to the Azores and Morocco, not including the Baltic Sea. It is also present in most of the Mediterranean Sea, only missing from the section east of Crete, and along only the north-west coast of the Black Sea. The northernmost populations are found in the Norwegian fjords Tysfjorden and Nordfolda, inside the Arctic Circle.\n"}
{"text": " The species can be divided into four genetically distinct populations, one widespread population, and three which have diverged due to small effective population sizes, possibly due to adaptation to the local environment. The first of these is the population of lobsters from northern Norway, which have been referred to as the \"midnight-sun lobster\". The populations in the Mediterranean Sea are distinct from those in the Atlantic Ocean. The last distinct population is found in the Netherlands: samples from the Oosterschelde were distinct from those collected in the North Sea or English Channel.\n"}
{"text": " Attempts have been made to introduce H. gammarus to New Zealand, alongside other European species such as the edible crab, Cancer pagurus. Between 1904 and 1914, one million lobster larvae were released from hatcheries in Dunedin, but the species did not become established there.\n"}
{"text": " == Ecology ==\n"}
{"text": " Adult H. gammarus live on the continental shelf at depths of 0 \u2013 150 metres (0 \u2013 492 ft), although not normally deeper than 50 m (160 ft). They prefer hard substrates, such as rocks or hard mud, and live in holes or crevices, emerging at night to feed.\n"}
{"text": " The diet of H. gammarus mostly consists of other benthic invertebrates. These include crabs, molluscs, sea urchins, starfish and polychaete worms.\n"}
{"text": " The three clawed lobster species Homarus gammarus, H. americanus and Nephrops norvegicus are hosts to the three known species of the animal phylum Cycliophora; the species on H. gammarus has not been described.\n"}
{"text": " Homarus gammarus is susceptible to the disease gaffkaemia, caused by the bacterium Aerococcus viridans. Although it is frequently found in American lobsters, the disease has only been seen in captive H. gammarus, where prior occupation of the tanks by H. americanus could not be ruled out.\n"}
{"text": " == Human consumption ==\n"}
{"text": " Homarus gammarus is traditionally \"highly esteemed\" as a foodstuff and was mentioned in \"The Crabfish\" a seventeenth century English folk song. It may fetch very high prices and may be sold fresh, frozen, canned or powdered. Both the claws and the abdomen of H. gammarus contain \"excellent\" white meat, and most of the contents of the cephalothorax are edible. The exceptions are the gastric mill and the \"sand vein\" (gut). The price of H. gammarus is up to three times higher than that of H. americanus, and the European species is considered to have a better flavour.\n"}
{"text": " Lobsters are mostly fished using lobster pots, although lines baited with octopus or cuttlefish sometimes succeed in tempting them out, to allow them to be caught in a net or by hand. In 2008, 4,386 t of H. gammarus were caught across Europe and North Africa, of which 3,462 t (79 %) was caught in the British Isles (including the Channel Islands). The minimum landing size for H. gammarus is a carapace length of 87 mm (3.4 in).\n"}
{"text": " Aquaculture systems for H. gammarus are under development, and production rates are still very low.\n"}
{"text": " == Taxonomic history ==\n"}
{"text": " Homarus gammarus was first given a binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae, published in 1758. That name was Cancer gammarus, since Linnaeus' concept of the genus Cancer at that time included all large crustaceans.\n"}
{"text": " H. gammarus is the type species of the genus Homarus Weber, 1795, as determined by Direction 51 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Prior to that direction, confusion arose because the species had been referred to by several different names, including Astacus marinus Fabricius, 1775 and Homarus vulgaris H. Milne-Edwards, 1837, and also because Friedrich Weber's description of the genus had been overlooked until rediscovered by Mary Rathbun, rendering any prior assignments of type species (for Homarus H. Milne-Edwards, 1837) invalid for Homarus Weber, 1795.\n"}
{"text": " The type specimen of Homarus gammarus was a lectotype selected by Lipke Holthuis in 1974. It came from 57\u00b053 \u2032 1 11\u00b032 \u2032 E, near Marstrand, Sweden (48 kilometres or 30 miles northwest of Gothenburg), but both it and the paralectotypes have since been lost.\n"}
{"text": " The common name for H. gammarus preferred by the Food and Agriculture Organization is \"European lobster\", but the species is also widely known as the \"common lobster\".\n"}
{"text": " = Frank Headlam =\n"}
{"text": " Air Vice Marshal Frank Headlam, CB, CBE (15 July 1914 \u2013 23 December 1976) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). Born and educated in Tasmania, he joined the RAAF as an air cadet in January 1934. He specialised in flying instruction and navigation before the outbreak of World War II. In April 1941, he became commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron, which operated Lockheed Hudsons. The squadron was deployed to Dutch Timor in December, and saw action against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific. After returning to Australia in February 1942, Headlam held staff appointments and training commands, finishing the war a group captain.\n"}
{"text": " Headlam served as Officer Commanding North-Western Area in 1946, and as Director of Training from 1947 to 1950. In 1950 \u2013 51, during the Malayan Emergency, he was stationed at Singapore as commander of No. 90 (Composite) Wing and, later, RAF Tengah. He twice served as acting Air Member for Personnel, in 1957 and 1959 \u2013 60, receiving appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1958. Promoted air vice marshal, he successively held the positions of Air Officer Commanding (AOC) Operational Command in 1961 \u2013 62, AOC No. 224 Group RAF from 1962 to 1965 during the Indonesia \u2013 Malaysia Konfrontasi, Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1965 \u2013 66, and AOC Support Command in 1966 \u2013 67. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1965. Following a posting to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff from 1968 to 1971, he retired from the Air Force and died in Melbourne five years later.\n"}
{"text": " == Early career ==\n"}
{"text": " The son of farmers Malcolm and Hilda Headlam, Frank Headlam was born on 15 July 1914 in Launceston, Tasmania. He was schooled at Clemes College, Hobart, and matriculated in 1932. Against the wishes of his parents he joined the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) as an air cadet on 16 January 1934. He underwent flying instruction with No. 1 Flying Training School (FTS) at RAAF Point Cook, Victoria, and was commissioned as a pilot officer on 1 January 1935.\n"}
{"text": " After completing a conversion course, Headlam was assigned to the Seaplane Squadron at Point Cook. No larger than a flight according to the official history of the pre-war RAAF, Seaplane Squadron was part of No. 1 FTS and operated Supermarine Southampton flying boats and de Havilland Gipsy Moth floatplanes, among other types. During this posting Headlam was promoted to flying officer, on 1 July 1935, and wrote a paper on national defence in which he suggested that with \"strong air forces, naval forces (including submarines), and fixed defences, Australia may be made practically invulnerable\". According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens, this paper \"in effect, defined the 'anti-lodgment' concept which has been a persistent feature of RAAF strategic thinking\".\n"}
{"text": " Headlam completed a flying instructors course in July 1936 and joined the staff of No. 1 FTS. He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 March 1937. Commencing in July 1938, he was one of six students to take part in the RAAF's first Long Specialist Navigation Course, run by Flight Lieutenants Bill Garing and Alister Murdoch at Point Cook. The course involved several epic training flights that attracted considerable media attention, including a twelve-day, 10,800-kilometre (6,700 mi) round-Australia trip by three Avro Ansons, one of which was piloted by Headlam, in November. The following month, Headlam led the three Ansons on a six-day journey back and forth over Central Australia. He subsequently passed the navigation course with a special distinction. On 27 January 1939 he was posted to RAAF Station Laverton, Victoria, as a flight commander. He served initially with No. 2 Squadron, before transferring to No. 1 Squadron on 29 August. Both units operated Ansons.\n"}
{"text": " == World War II ==\n"}
{"text": " Following the outbreak of World War II, No. 1 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and maritime reconnaissance duties off south-eastern Australia. Headlam continued to serve with the squadron as a flight commander until 15 January 1940, when he was assigned to Headquarters Laverton as the station navigation officer. On 27 March he was posted to the staff of RAAF Headquarters, Melbourne. He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 June 1940. Two weeks later he married Katherine Bridge at St Paul's Anglican Church in Frankston; the couple would have a son and a daughter.\n"}
{"text": " Headlam was given command of No. 2 Squadron at Laverton on 15 April 1941, and raised to wing commander on 1 July. Equipped with Lockheed Hudsons, the squadron mainly conducted maritime patrols in southern waters until 5 December, when four of its aircraft were ordered to Darwin, Northern Territory, in response to fears of Japanese aggression in the Pacific. On 7 December, this detachment established itself at Penfui, near Koepang in Dutch Timor, while No. 2 Squadron's eight remaining Hudsons were stationed at Darwin on standby. The following day, aware that Australia was now at war in the Pacific, one of the Penfui-based Hudsons attacked the Japanese pearler Nanyo Maru, which was suspected of being a radio ship, and forced it aground. By 12 December, Headlam had transferred to Penfui as commanding officer of the base, as well as No. 2 Squadron.\n"}
{"text": " During January 1942, No. 2 Squadron's aircraft were dispersed at Penfui, Boeroe Island, and Darwin. The Penfui detachment attacked Japanese shipping taking part in the invasion of Celebes. Two Hudsons shot down or damaged three Japanese floatplanes that attacked them as they were bombing a transport ship on 11 January; the next day both Hudsons were themselves shot down by Mitsubishi Zeros. Penfui was bombed by the Japanese for the first time on 26 January 1942, and attacked regularly thereafter, damaging some aircraft. The intact Hudsons were withdrawn to Darwin but Headlam and his staff remained at Penfui to enable the base to be used by aircraft during reconnaissance missions from Australia. On 18 February, Headlam was ordered to evacuate all his personnel except a small party to demolish the airfield with assistance from Sparrow Force. He returned to Darwin the following day, just as the city experienced its first raid by the Japanese. Four of No. 2 Squadron's Hudsons were destroyed in the attack; the remainder were relocated to Daly Waters, where they continued to carry out reconnaissance and bombing missions against Japanese targets in Timor.\n"}
{"text": " Headlam remained in Darwin as Controller of Operations at Headquarters North-Western Area Command until 12 May 1942, when he was posted to Nhill, Victoria, as commanding officer of No. 2 Air Navigation School, operating Ansons. No. 97 (Reserve) Squadron was formed from the school's personnel in June. On 20 July 1943, Headlam took command of No. 2 Air Observer School (AOS), also operating Ansons, at Mount Gambier, South Australia. He was promoted to group captain on 1 December 1943, and was appointed the inaugural commanding officer of No. 3 AOS, operating Ansons and Fairey Battles out of Port Pirie, on 9 December. After handing over command of No. 3 AOS, he commenced studies at RAAF Staff School in Mount Martha, Victoria, on 2 October 1944. He was appointed senior administrative staff officer at North-Western Area Command on 12 January 1945.\n"}
{"text": " == Post-war career ==\n"}
{"text": " Headlam became Officer Commanding North-Western Area in January 1946. Posted to Britain at the end of the year, he attended the Royal Air Force Staff College, Andover, and served with RAAF Overseas Headquarters, London. On his return to Australia, in November 1947, he became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters. In November 1950, Headlam was appointed to take over command of No. 90 (Composite) Wing from Group Captain Paddy Heffernan. Headquartered at RAF Changi, Singapore, No. 90 Wing controlled RAAF units operating during the Malayan Emergency: No. 1 (Bomber) Squadron, flying Avro Lincolns, and No. 38 (Transport) Squadron, flying Douglas C-47 Dakotas. The Lincolns conducted area bombing missions over communist-held territory, as well as strikes against pinpoint targets. The Dakotas were tasked with courier flights, VIP transport and medical evacuations across South East Asia, and in Malaya with airlifting troops and cargo, dropping supplies to friendly forces and despatching propaganda leaflets. Headlam was slightly injured on 20 December, when a No. 38 Squadron Dakota he was co-piloting on a supply drop crash-landed at Kampong Aur in Pahang, following engine failure. In August 1951 he was named commander of RAF Tengah, Singapore, in addition to his post as commanding officer of No. 90 Wing. Headlam handed over command of No. 90 Wing in December 1951.\n"}
{"text": " On 19 February 1952, Headlam became senior air staff officer (SASO) at Eastern Area Command in Penrith, New South Wales. During his term as SASO, the RAAF began re-equipping with English Electric Canberra jet bombers and CAC Sabre jet fighters. The Air Force also underwent a major organisational change, as it transitioned from a geographically based command-and-control system to one based on function, resulting in the establishment of Home (operational), Training, and Maintenance Commands. Eastern Area Command, considered a de facto operational headquarters owing to the preponderance of combat units under its control, was reorganised as Home Command in October 1953. Headlam was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1954 New Year Honours for his \"exceptional ability and devotion to duty\". He was promoted to acting air commodore in May. His appointment as aide-de-camp to Queen Elizabeth II was announced on 7 October 1954.\n"}
{"text": " Headlam was promoted to substantive air commodore on 1 January 1955. In November he was posted to RAAF Overseas Headquarters, London, and the following year undertook studies at the Imperial Defence College. Returning to Australia, he served as acting Air Member for Personnel at the Department of Air, Canberra, from 19 March to 21 October 1957, between the terms of Air Vice Marshals Fred Scherger and Allan Walters, and again from 24 August 1959 to 28 March 1960, between the terms of Walters and Air Vice Marshal Bill Hely. In this role Headlam occupied a seat on the Air Board, the service's controlling body that comprised its senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff. He was also one of two RAAF representatives to serve on a committee, chaired by businessman William John Allison, examining conditions of defence service; the committee's recommendations led to a doubling of flight pay, among other improvements. Headlam's other positions at the Department of Air included Air Commodore Plans from October 1957 to January 1959, and Director General Plans and Policy from January to August 1959. The latter assignment put him in charge of the RAAF's Directorate of Intelligence. Headlam was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1958 Queen's Birthday Honours, gazetted on 3 June. In May 1960 he became acting Deputy Chief of the Air Staff.\n"}
{"text": " On 30 January 1961, Headlam joined the staff of Operational Command (OPCOM), the successor organisation to Home Command, responsible for the direction of RAAF operational units. He took over as Air Officer Commanding (AOC) OPCOM from Air Vice Marshal Val Hancock in April. Headlam was promoted to air vice marshal on 29 May. On 17 July 1962, he was posted to RAAF Base Butterworth, Malaya, and took up the appointment of AOC No. 224 Group RAF in Singapore one week later. He was succeeded as AOC OPCOM by Air Vice Marshal Alister Murdoch. As AOC No. 224 Group, Headlam had overall responsibility for regional air defence and offensive air operations during the Brunei Rebellion in December 1962, and the subsequent Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia that officially began the following month. Divorced from his first wife in 1956, he married widowed social worker Vernon Spence at the Sydney registry office on 20 January 1964. He handed over No. 224 Group to Air Vice Marshal Christopher Foxley-Norris on 30 November.\n"}
{"text": " Returning to Australia, Headlam became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff (DCAS) on 26 January 1965. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) \"in recognition of distinguished service in the Borneo Territories\" on 22 June. His tenure as DCAS coincided with the most significant rearmament program the Air Force had undertaken since World War II, and with manpower shortages stemming from this expansion and from Australia's increasing involvement in the security of South East Asia. The first RAAF helicopters were committed to the Vietnam War towards the end of his term, and he travelled to Saigon with the Chief of the General Staff, Lieutenant General Sir John Wilton, in March 1966 to plan the deployment. The year before, Wilton had recommended to Air Marshal Murdoch, the Chief of the Air Staff, that two Iroquois be sent to Vietnam for familiarisation purposes; Murdoch had rebuffed Wilton, and the RAAF helicopter squadron was considered underprepared for its army co-operation role when it finally did deploy. Headlam succeeded Air Vice Marshal Douglas Candy as AOC Support Command, Melbourne, on 8 August 1966. Support Command had been formed in 1959, by merging the RAAF's former Training and Maintenance Commands. On 1 January 1968, Headlam was posted to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff. He served as an Extra Gentleman Usher to the Queen from 17 November 1970 to 5 June 1971.\n"}
{"text": " == Retirement ==\n"}
{"text": " Returning to Australia in June 1971, Headlam took resettlement leave before retiring from the Air Force on 3 August. He made his home in Melbourne, where he died aged 62 on 23 December 1976, after a lengthy battle with cancer. Survived by his children and his second wife, he was given a private funeral and cremated at Springvale Crematorium.\n"}
{"text": " = M-82 (Michigan highway) =\n"}
{"text": " M-82 is a state trunkline in the Lower Peninsula in the US state of Michigan that travels between Fremont and Howard City. The section between Newaygo and Howard City travels through Fremont and along the southern edge of Manistee National Forest. The current version of M-82 is actually the second in the state; the first usage appeared in the Upper Peninsula by 1919. The Lower Peninsula routing has been in use since the 1920s. Various extensions and truncations have shifted the terminus as far west as New Era or Hesperia in the past. The current route was finalized in the late 1970s\n"}
{"text": " == Route description ==\n"}
{"text": " M-82 begins at a junction with M-120 and B-96 west of Fremont. This junction is at a tripoint of county lines. M-120 forms the north \u2013 south Newaygo \u2013 Oceana and Newaygo \u2013 Muskegon county lines. B-96, which forms the east \u2013 west Oceana \u2013 Muskegon county line runs due west of the intersection. M-82 exits the intersection to the east. The highway runs along 48th Street through rural farms into the community of Fremont. The road, now called Main Street, passes through the downtown area and M-82 turns south along Stewart Avenue out of town. The highway rounds a curve and transitions to 72nd Street running eastward through more farm land. As the trunkline approaches Newaygo, the terrain becomes more wooded near the Muskegon River. M-82 follows Fremont Street east to a junction with M-37. The two highways merge and run concurrently over the river and into downtown on State Street. South of downtown, M-82 turns east again, independent of M-37, and runs along 82nd Street on the southern edge of the Manistee National Forest. The east end of M-82 is at exit 118 on US 131 / M-46 west of Howard City.\n"}
{"text": " The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT), as a part of its maintenance responsibilities, tracks the volume of traffic using its roadways. These levels are expressed in terms of a metric called average annual daily traffic (AADT), which is a calculation of the traffic along a segment of road for any average day of the year. In 2009, the department's measurements indicated that a segment of M-82 west of Fremont had the peak volume for the highway at 16,532 vehicles daily. The traffic nadir was 4,018 vehicles east of Newaygo. In addition, MDOT has not had any section of the highway listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " === Previous designation ===\n"}
{"text": " The first usage of M-82 was in the Upper Peninsula by July 1, 1919. The trunkline started at M-25 and ran north of Newberry to the vicinity of Eight Mile Corner. It was later replaced by M-48 in 1926.\n"}
{"text": " === Current designation ===\n"}
{"text": " The current M-82 dates back to 1926. It ran from US 31 in Hart to the northern junction of US 131 and M-46 in Howard City. The highway was routed through Ferry, Hesperia and Fremont, replacing M-41. In late 1936, M-46 was extended along the section between Newaygo and Howard City, forming a M-46 / M-82 concurrency to fill a gap in the M-46 routing. This concurrent section became just M-46 in 1938, shortening M-82 back to the northern M-37 junction in Newaygo. The highway was moved to a new alignment west of Ferry in late 1947 or early 1948. Instead of heading northwesterly to Hart, it was continued west to end in Shelby.\n"}
{"text": " Two realignments in 1963 and 1964 rerouted the western end of the highway again. This time it was realigned to run from Hesperia to New Era, bypassing Ferry. A larger change around 1969 reconfigured the highway designations in Oceana County. M-20 replaced M-82 west of Hesperia, to end at New Era instead of Muskegon. The new M-120 designation replaced M-20 south of Hesperia. M-82 now ran from Hesperia to Newaygo only. The length of the highway was increased in 1973 when the eastern end was moved back to Howard City. M-46 was rerouted to follow the US 131 freeway south of Howard City to Cedar Springs, and replaced M-57 between Cedar Springs and Casnovia. This freed up the Newaygo to Howard City highway for a return to the M-82 designation. The last change came in 1978 when the concurrency with M-120 was eliminated in favor of M-120. The M-82 designation was truncated at this time to the junction west of Fremont, resulting in the current highway routing.\n"}
{"text": " == Major intersections ==\n"}
{"text": " = Shikamaru Nara =\n"}
{"text": " Shikamaru Nara (\u5948\u826f \u30b7\u30ab\u30de\u30eb, Nara Shikamaru) is a fictional character in the Naruto manga and anime series created by Masashi Kishimoto. In the anime and manga, Shikamaru is a ninja affiliated with the village of Konohagakure. He is a member of Team 10, a group of ninja consisting of himself, Choji Akimichi, Ino Yamanaka, and team leader Asuma Sarutobi. Shikamaru is portrayed as a lazy character, unwilling to apply his prodigious intelligence; Kishimoto has noted that he likes Shikamaru due to his easygoing nature. Outside of the Naruto anime and manga, Shikamaru has appeared in four of the feature films in the series, as well as several other media relating to the series, including video games and original video animations.\n"}
{"text": " Numerous anime and manga publications have commented on Shikamaru's character. Many reviewers commented on his laziness and intelligence, and noted his transformation into a leader; Anime News Network celebrated Shikamaru's emergence as \"an unlikely hero\" in the Naruto storyline. Shikamaru has also been highly popular with the Naruto reader base, placing high in several popularity polls. Merchandise based on Shikamaru has been released, including action figures, key chains, and patches.\n"}
{"text": " == Creation and conception ==\n"}
{"text": " Masashi Kishimoto has noted that he likes Shikamaru due to his easygoing nature despite being a genius, and contrasted him against Sasuke Uchiha's intelligent but abrasive personality. Kishimoto also comically remarked that he would marry Shikamaru if he were a girl, noting that Shikamaru would likely be successful in life. When designing Shikamaru's Part II appearance, Kishimoto wanted to give Shikamaru a unique appearance despite drawing him with a vest that several other ninja wear in the series. As a result, he drew his forehead protector on his arm in order to not obscure his hair.\n"}
{"text": " == Appearances ==\n"}
{"text": " === In Naruto ===\n"}
{"text": " Shikamaru first major appearance in the series is during the Chunin Exams, bi-yearly exams for ninja who wish to advance in rank. He is part of Team 10 alongside Choji Akimichi and Ino Yamanaka. He is a highly unenthusiastic person, and he attempts to go through life with minimum effort. Contrary to his lazy tendencies, Shikamaru is extremely intelligent; his teacher, Asuma Sarutobi, determined that Shikamaru's IQ was over 200. Shikamaru's abilities are based on the Shadow Imitation Technique (\u5f71\u771f\u4f3c\u306e\u8853, Kagemane no Jutsu, English TV: \"Shadow Possession Jutsu\"), the signature technique of his clan, with which he merges his shadow with an opponent's shadow, making them immobilized and forced to mimic Shikamaru's movements. As the series progresses, Shikamaru becomes able to manipulate his shadow in new ways. By Part II of the series, Shikamaru is capable of utilizing multiple shadow-based techniques at once and can lift his shadow from the ground in order to interact with physical objects; for instance, he can pierce enemies with the shadow tendrils or use them to throw weapons.\n"}
{"text": " Shikamaru approaches the exams with a sense of apathy; when he battles the Sunagakure ninja Temari, he defeats her but forfeits his match to her, due to his chakra being low. Despite this loss, he is the only ninja among his peers to be promoted to the rank of Chunin, as the overseers of the exams were impressed by the insight and intelligence he demonstrated against Temari. As a Chunin, Shikamaru is appointed the leader of a team to prevent Sasuke Uchiha from defecting to the village of Otogakure. Although Shikamaru's team manages to defeat the Otogakure ninja barring their way, Sasuke manages to escape.\n"}
{"text": " In Part II of the series, Shikamaru is assigned the task of locating two members of the criminal organization Akatsuki. While his team manages to find their targets, the immortal Akatsuki member Hidan kills Asuma Sarutobi during the course of the battle despite Shikamaru's best efforts. After Asuma's funeral, Shikamaru sets out with the surviving members of Team 10 to avenge their mentor with the aid of Kakashi Hatake. As the other deal with Hidan's partner Kakuzu, Shikamaru avenges Asuma by defeating Hidan and making sure the Akatsuki member's body is never found. Following the fight, Shikamaru vows to protect Kurenai Yuhi and Asuma's newborn daughter. He is later assigned to the Fourth Division alongside Temari and Ch\u014dji. He is named a proxy general under Gaara. In the series epilogue, stating his personal desire during the series of final battles, Shikamaru becomes advisor to the Seventh Hokage Naruto after marrying Temari and gaining a son in Shikadai Nara.\n"}
{"text": " === Appearances in other media ===\n"}
{"text": " Besides the Naruto anime and manga, Shikamaru is featured in seven of the featured films in the series: in the second film, he aids Naruto Uzumaki and Sakura Haruno in fighting against Haido, a utopian idealist seeking to rule the world with a power called Gelel; in the fourth, Shikamaru appears in a brief sequence, fighting against a large group of stone soldiers; in the fifth, Shikamaru is sent alongside Kakashi and Sai in search of the base of the Land of Sky, who plans to invade Konoha; in the sixth, Shikamaru, alongside Sakura and Sai battle the chimera beast summoned by Hiruko; in the eight, Shikamaru participates in the battle against the demon Satori; in the ninth, the Limited Tsukuyomi universe presents a portly Shikamaru, the exact opposite of his teammate, Choji, who becomes the team strategist instead; and in the tenth, Shikamaru leads the team consisting of himself, Naruto, Sakura, Sai, and Hinata Hyuga that is sent to rescue Hinata's younger sister, Hanabi, who was kidnapped by Toneri Otsutsuki. He is also present in the third original video animation, in which he participates in a tournament. Shikamaru is a playable character in nearly all Naruto video games, including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series. In some games, he utilizes variations of his Shadow Imitation Technique not seen in the anime or manga. Naruto Shipp\u016bden: Gekit\u014d Ninja Taisen! EX 2 marks the first appearance of Shikamaru in his Part II appearance in a video game.\n"}
{"text": " A light novel titled Shikamaru Hiden: A Cloud Drifting in Silent Darkness, written by Takashi Yano and illustrated by Kishimoto, stars Shikamaru as the main character and narrator. The novel is set two years after the Fourth Ninja War, focusing on Shikamaru's assignment as organizer of the newly formed Shinobi Union to capture a rogue ninja who rules over the distant Land of Silence and attempts to establish a new world order ruled by the common people. It also explores his growing relationship with Temari, culminating in him struggling to name his child with her, years after the end of the novel.\n"}
{"text": " == Reception ==\n"}
{"text": " Shikamaru has ranked highly in the Weekly Sh\u014dnen Jump popularity polls for the series, continuously placing in the top ten and reaching fourth place in one poll. The last such poll was in 2011, in which Shikamaru was in ninth place, behind Sasori and ahead of Hinata. Merchandise based on Shikamaru has also been released, including action figures, key chains, and patches in both his Part I and Part II appearance. NTT customers voted him as their sixteenth favorite black haired male anime character. CyberConnect2 CEO Hiroshi Matsuyama referred to Shikamaru as one of his favorite characters from Naruto.\n"}
{"text": " Several publications for manga, anime, video games, and other related media have commented on Shikamaru's character. IGN stated that Shikamaru was one of their favorite characters in the series, and referred to him as \"the poster child for any card-carrying member of Generation X\" due to his general lack of enthusiasm and his unwillingness to utilize his potential. In a review of episode 110, IGN praised how Shikamaru managed to transcend his lazy nature in order to take on the mantle of a leader when assigned to lead a team in order to retrieve Sasuke Uchiha and agreed that the decision to make him Chunin was fair. Anime News Network also commented on this development, calling Shikamaru's emergence as \"an unlikely hero\" one of the highlights of the arc. In a subsequent review of episode 135, in which the mission to retrieve Sasuke has failed and the members of Shikamaru's team were critically injured, IGN lauded the \"great moment\" in the episode in which Shikamaru began to cry after learning his friends will recover, and declared that he will be a better leader for the sake of his friends. Mania Entertainment's Justin Rich celebrated his \"sheer intellect\", calling him \"one of the most fascinating characters in the series\" and \"one of the few truly brilliant fighters in sh\u014dnen anime\". Dani Moure, another reviewer from the same site, noted about his battle with Temari during the Chunin Exams that it was \"one of the better fights involving the supporting players\".\n"}
{"text": " = Meridian, Mississippi =\n"}
{"text": " Meridian is the sixth largest city in the state of Mississippi, in the United States. It is the county seat of Lauderdale County and the principal city of the Meridian, Mississippi Micropolitan Statistical Area. Along major highways, the city is 93 mi (150 km) east of Jackson, Mississippi; 154 mi (248 km) west of Birmingham, Alabama; 202 mi (325 km) northeast of New Orleans, Louisiana; and 231 mi (372 km) southeast of Memphis, Tennessee.\n"}
{"text": " Established in 1860, at the intersection of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad and Southern Railway of Mississippi, Meridian's economy was built on the railways and goods transported on them, and it became a strategic trading center. During the American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman burned much of the city to the ground in the Battle of Meridian (February, 1864).\n"}
{"text": " Rebuilt after the war, the city entered a \"Golden Age\" it become the largest city in Mississippi between 1890 and 1930, and a leading center for manufacturing in the South, with 44 trains arriving and departing daily. Union Station, built in 1906, is now a multi-modal center, giving access to the Meridian Transit System, Greyhound Buses, and Trailways, averaging 242,360 passengers per year. Although the economy slowed with the decline of the railroad industry, the city has diversified, with healthcare, military, and manufacturing employing the most people in 2010. The population within the city limits, according to 2008 census estimates, is 38,232, but a population of 232,900 in a 45-mile (72 km) radius and 526,500 in a 65-mile (105 km) radius, of which 104,600 and 234,200 people respectively are in the labor force, feed the economy of the city.\n"}
{"text": " The area is served by two military facilities, Naval Air Station Meridian and Key Field, which provide over 4,000 jobs. NAS Meridian is home to the Regional Counter-Drug Training Academy (RCTA) and the first local Department of Homeland Security in the state. Key Field is named after brothers Fred and Al Key, who set a world endurance flight record in 1935. The field is now home to the 186th Air Refueling Wing of the Air National Guard and a support facility for the 185th Aviation Brigade of the Army National Guard. Rush Foundation Hospital is the largest non-military employer in the region, employing 2,610 people.\n"}
{"text": " Among the city's many arts organizations and historic buildings are the Riley Center, the Meridian Museum of Art, Meridian Little Theatre, and the Meridian Symphony Orchestra. Meridian was home to two Carnegie libraries, one for whites and one for African Americans. The Carnegie Branch Library, now demolished, was one of a number of Carnegie libraries built for blacks in the Southern United States during the segregation era.\n"}
{"text": " The city has been selected as the future location of the Mississippi Arts and Entertainment Center (MAEC). Jimmie Rodgers, the \"Father of Country Music\", was born in Meridian. Highland Park houses a museum which displays memorabilia of his life and career, as well as railroad equipment from the steam-engine era. The park is also home to the Highland Park Dentzel Carousel, a National Historic Landmark. It is the world's only two-row stationary Dentzel menagerie in existence. Other notable natives include Miss America 1986 Susan Akin, James Chaney \u2013 an activist who was killed in the Mississippi civil rights workers murders in 1964, and Hartley Peavey, founder of Peavey Electronics headquartered in Meridian. The federal courthouse was the site of the 1966-1967 trial of suspects in the murder of Chaney and two other activists; it was the first time a white jury convicted a white official of a civil rights killing.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " Previously inhabited by the Choctaw Native Americans, the area now called Meridian was obtained by the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek in 1830 during the period of Indian Removal. After the treaty was ratified, European-American settlers began to move into the area.\n"}
{"text": " After receiving a federal land grant of about 2,000 acres (810 ha), Richard McLemore, the first settler of Meridian, began offering free land to newcomers to attract more settlers to the region and develop the area. Most of McLemore's land was bought in 1853 by Lewis A. Ragsdale, a lawyer from Alabama. John T. Ball, a merchant from Kemper County, bought the remaining 80 acres (0.32 km2). Ragsdale and Ball, now known as the founders of the city, began laying out lots for new development on their respective land sections.\n"}
{"text": " There was much competition over the proposed name of the settlement. Ball and the more industrial residents of the city supported the name \"Meridian,\" believing the term to be synonymous with \"junction\"; the more agrarian residents of the city preferred \"Sowashee\" (meaning \"mad river\" in a Native American language), from the name of a nearby creek; and Ragsdale proposed \"Ragsdale City.\" Ball erected a station house on the Mobile and Ohio Railroad \u2013 the sign on which would alternate between \"Meridian\" and \"Sowashee\" each day. Eventually the continued development of the railroads led to an influx of railroad workers who overruled the others in the city and left \"Meridian\" on the station permanently. The town was officially incorporated as Meridian on February 10, 1860.\n"}
{"text": " Meridian was a small village at the start of the American Civil War in 1861. Its strategic position at the railroad junction led to the Confederate construction of several military installations to support the war. During the Battle of Meridian in 1864, General William Tecumseh Sherman led troops into the city, destroying the railroads in every direction, as well as an arsenal and immense storehouses; his forces burned much of the buildings to the ground. Sherman is reported to have said afterwards, \"Meridian, with its depots, store-houses, arsenal, hospitals, offices, hotels, and cantonments no longer exists.\" Despite the destruction, the railroad lines in the city were rapidly repaired, back in operation 26 working days after the battle. Race relations remained tense during the Reconstruction era, with the riot of 1871 following a fire that damaged many businesses.\n"}
{"text": " The town boomed in the aftermath of the Civil War, and experienced its \"Golden Age\" from 1880 to 1910. The railroads in the area provided for a means of transportation and an influx of industries, which caused a population boom. As the population rose, commercial activity increased in the downtown area. Between 1890 and 1930, Meridian was the largest city in Mississippi and a leading center for manufacturing in the South. Many of the city's historic buildings were built during and just after this era, including the Grand Opera House in 1890, the Wechsler School in 1894, two Carnegie libraries in 1913, and the Threefoot Building, Meridian's tallest skyscraper, in 1929.\n"}
{"text": " The city continued to grow thanks to a commission government's efforts to bring in 90 new industrial plants in 1913 and a booming automobile industry in the 1920s. Even through the stock market crash of 1929 and the following Great Depression, the city continued to attract new businesses. With escapism becoming popular in the culture during the depth of the Depression, the S. H. Kress & Co. building, built to \"provide luxury to the common man,\" opened in downtown Meridian, as did the Temple Theater, which was used as a movie house. The federal courthouse was built in 1933 as a WPA project.\n"}
{"text": " After a brief slowdown of the economy at the end of the Depression, the country entered World War II, which renewed the importance of railroads. The rails were essential to transport gasoline and scrap metal to build military vehicles, so Meridian became the region's rail center again. This renewed prosperity continued until the 1950s, when the automobile and Interstate Highway System became more popular than passenger rails. The decline of the railroad industry caused significant job losses, resulting in a population decline as workers left for other areas.\n"}
{"text": " During the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, Meridian was home to a Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) office and several other activist organizations. James Chaney and other local residents, along with Michael Schwerner, his wife Rita, and Andrew Goodman, volunteers from the North, worked to create a community center, holding classes to help prepare African Americans in the area to regain the power to vote. Whites in the area resented the activism, and racial tension often resulted in violence. In June 1964, Chaney, Schwerner, and Goodman went to Neshoba County, Mississippi, to meet with members of a black church that had been bombed and burned. The three disappeared that night on their way back to Meridian. Following a massive FBI investigation, their murdered bodies were found two months later, buried in an earthen dam.\n"}
{"text": " Seven Klansmen, including a deputy sheriff, were convicted in the federal courthouse in Meridian of \"depriving the victims of their civil rights\" and three were acquitted in the Mississippi civil rights workers murders trial. It was the first time that a white jury had convicted \"a white official in a civil rights killing.\" In 2005, the case was reopened by the state, which brought charges in the case for the first time. Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to 60 years in prison. Meridian later honored Chaney by renaming a portion of 49th Avenue after him and holding an annual memorial service.\n"}
{"text": " Starting in the 1960s and following the construction of highways that made commuting easier, residents began to move away from downtown in favor of new housing subdivisions to the north. After strip commercial interests began to move downtown, the city worked to designate several areas as historic districts in the 1970s and 80s to preserve the architectural character of the city. The Meridian Historic Districts and Landmarks Commission was created in 1979, and the Meridian Main Street program was founded in 1985.\n"}
{"text": " Meridian Main Street organized several projects to revitalize downtown, including the construction of a new Amtrak Station in 1997 based on the design of the historic train station used during Meridian's Golden Age; it had been demolished. Other projects included the renovation of the Rosenbaum Building in 2001 and Weidmann's Restaurant in 2002, as well as support for integrated urban design. Meridian Main Street, along with The Riley Foundation, helped renovate and adapt the historic Grand Opera House in 2006 for use as the \"Mississippi State University Riley Center for Education and the Performing Arts.\"\n"}
{"text": " After ownership of the Meridian Main Street was transferred to the Alliance for Downtown Meridian in late 2007, the two organizations, along with the Meridian Downtown Association, spearheaded the downtown revitalization effort. The Alliance serves as an umbrella organization, allowing the other two organizations to use the its support staff and housing, and in turn the Alliance serves as a liaison between the organizations. Plans were underway to renovate the Threefoot Building, but newly elected Mayor Cheri Barry killed the plans in early 2010. Today, the Alliance helps to promote further development and restoration downtown; its goal is to assist businesses such as specialty shops, restaurants, and bars because these help downtown become more active during the day and at night. The Meridian Downtown Association is primarily focused on increasing foot traffic downtown by organizing special events, and the Meridian Main Street program supports existing businesses downtown.\n"}
{"text": " === Hotels ===\n"}
{"text": " Given Meridian's site as a railroad junction, its travelers have attracted the development of many hotels. Even before Meridian reached its \"Golden Age,\" several large hotels, including the Great Southern and the Grand Avenue hotels, were built before the start of the 20th century. With the growth of the railroads and the construction of the original Union Station in 1906, many hotels were constructed for passengers and workers. The Elmira Hotel was constructed in 1905, and the Terminal Hotel was constructed in 1910. Hotel Meridian was constructed in 1907, and Union Hotel was built in 1908. Union Hotel was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, and both Hotel Meridian and Grand Avenue Hotel were listed as contributing properties to the Meridian Urban Center Historic District.\n"}
{"text": " As the city grew, the hotels reflected ambitions of the strong economy, as evidenced by the eleven-story skyscraper Lamar Hotel built in 1927. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, the Lamar Hotel was adapted for use as a county annex building. In 1988 it was listed as a Mississippi Landmark.\n"}
{"text": " The E.F. Young Hotel was built in 1931. A staple in the African-American business district that developed west of the city's core, the hotel was one of the only places in the city during the years of segregation where a traveling African American could find a room.\n"}
{"text": " As the city suburbs developed in the 1960s and '70s, most hotels moved outside of downtown. Rehabilitation of the Riley Center in 2006 has increased demand and a push for a new downtown hotel. The Threefoot Building has been proposed for redevelopment for this purpose, but restoration efforts stalled with a change in city administrations. The Threefoot Preservation Society was formed in 2013 to raise public awareness and support for the building's renovation, featuring tours of the first floor and anniversary events.\n"}
{"text": " === Historic districts ===\n"}
{"text": " Meridian has nine historic districts that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Meridian Downtown Historic District is a combination of two older districts, the Meridian Urban Center Historic District and the Union Station Historic District. Many architectural styles are present in the districts, most from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including Queen Anne, Colonial Revival, Italianate, Art Deco, Late Victorian, and Bungalow. The districts are:\n"}
{"text": " 1 East End Historic District \u2014 roughly bounded by 18th St, 11th Ave, 14th St, 14th Ave, 5th St, and 17th Ave.\n"}
{"text": " 2 Highlands Historic District \u2014 roughly bounded by 15th St, 34th Ave, 19th St, and 36th Ave.\n"}
{"text": " 3 Meridian Downtown Historic District \u2014 runs from the former Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad north to 6th St between 18th and 26th Ave, excluding Ragsdale Survey Block 71.\n"}
{"text": " 4 Meridian Urban Center Historic District \u2014 roughly bounded by 21st and 25th Aves, 6th St, and the railroad.\n"}
{"text": " 5 Union Station Historic District \u2014 roughly bounded by 18th and 19th Aves, 5th St, and the railroad.\n"}
{"text": " 6 Merrehope Historic District \u2014 roughly bounded by 33rd Ave, 30th Ave, 14th St, and 8th St.\n"}
{"text": " 7 Mid-Town Historic District \u2014 roughly bounded by 23rd Ave, 15th St, 28th Ave, and 22nd St.\n"}
{"text": " 8 Poplar Springs Road Historic District \u2014 roughly bounded by 29th St, 23rd Ave, 22nd St, and 29th Ave.\n"}
{"text": " 9 West End Historic District \u2014 roughly bounded by 7th St, 28th Ave, Shearer's Branch, and 5th St.\n"}
{"text": " == Government and infrastructure ==\n"}
{"text": " Meridian has operated under the mayor-council or \"strong mayor\" form of government since 1985. A mayor is elected every four years by the population at-large. The five members of the city council are elected every four years from each of the city's five wards, considered single-member districts. The mayor, the chief executive officer of the city, is responsible for administering and leading the day-to-day operations of city government. The city council is the legislative arm of the government, setting policy and annually adopting the city's operating budget.\n"}
{"text": " City Hall, which has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, is located at 601 23rd Avenue. The current mayor is Percy Bland. Members of the city council include Dr. George M. Thomas, representative from Ward 1, Kenneth Dustin Markham, representative from Ward 2, Barbara Henson, representative from Ward 3, Kim Houston, representative from Ward 4, and Randy Hammon, representative from Ward 5. The council clerk is Pam McInnis. In total, the city employs 570 people.\n"}
{"text": " The city established a Department of Homeland Security (DHS) shortly after Hurricane Katrina in 2005, becoming the only local DHS in the state. The team oversees an area of nine counties. Upon receiving $ 2.5 million in grants from the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency and other organizations, the department began training law enforcement offices from other Southern states in passenger rail rescue as well as offering civilian classes in basic handguns, Boy Scout first aid and hunting, and firearms training. The DHS helps during times of crisis such as Hurricane Ivan in September 2005, when the department helped establish and support shelters for 700 evacuees. The city now serves as the leader of one of the task forces in the Mississippi DHS, a combination of three nine-county teams.\n"}
{"text": " Headed by police chief Lee Shelbourn since 2009, the Meridian Police Department consists of 115 full-time officers as well as part-time and reserve staff available. In 2009, the department's Criminal Investigations Division responded to 4000 cases, 2000 of which were felonies. In 2000, 2094 crimes were reported, up slightly from 2008 crimes the preceding year. Meridian has been described as \"the safest city in Mississippi with more than 30,000 people.\" The East Mississippi Correctional Facility is located in unincorporated Lauderdale County, near Meridian. It is operated by the GEO Group on behalf of the Mississippi Department of Corrections. The chief of the Meridian Fire Department is Anthony Clayton. The fire department responded to more than 1600 calls in 2009, including 123 structural fires and 609 emergency service calls.\n"}
{"text": " The Mississippi Department of Mental Health operates the East Mississippi State Hospital in Meridian.\n"}
{"text": " The United States Postal Service operates the Meridian, North Meridian, and the West Meridian Station post offices.\n"}
{"text": " In state politics, the Mississippi Senate district map divides the city into three sections. The northern tip of the city is in the 31st State Senate District and seats Terry Clark Burton (R). A strip of the city from the southwest corner up to the northeast corner comprises part of the 32nd State Senate District and seats Sampson Jackson, II (D). The western and southeastern portions of the city lie in the 33rd State Senate District and seats Videt Carmichael (R). In the Mississippi House of Representatives districts, the city is divided into four districts. The southern and eastern portions of the city reside in House District 81 and are represented by Steven A. Horne (R). The city's core makes up the entirety of House District 82 and is represented by Wilbert L. Jones (D). Surrounding House District 82 is House District 83, represented by Greg Snowden (R). The western section of the city, along with a small section in the north, lie in House District 84 and are represented by Tad Campbell (R).\n"}
{"text": " On the national level, the city is located in Mississippi's 3rd congressional district, represented by Gregg Harper (R), who has been in office since 2009. Lauderdale County, home to Meridian, has voted for the Republican candidate in every United States presidential election since 1972. Prior to the shift to the Republican Party, white area voters supported Democratic Party candidates, as for decades since the late nineteenth century, it was a one-party state.\n"}
{"text": " == Demographics ==\n"}
{"text": " The city's growth has reflected the push and pull of many social and economic factors. The total population increased in each census from the city's founding until 1970, although varying from rates as high as 165 % to as low as 0.2 %. In the 1970 census the population decreased, then slightly increased by 1980, after which the population slowly declined, increasing again since the turn of the 21st century. Between 1980 and 2000, the population declined more than 14 %. As of the census of 2000, the city's population was 39,968, and the population density was 885.9 inhabitants per square mile (342.0 / km2). In 2008, the city was the sixth largest in the state. The population increased as of 2010.\n"}
{"text": " Meridian is the principal city in the Meridian micropolitan area, which as of 2009 consisted of three counties \u2013 Clarke, Kemper, and Lauderdale \u2013 and had a population of 106,139. There is a population of 232,900 in a 45-mile (72 km) radius and 526,500 in a 65-mile (105 km) radius.\n"}
{"text": " While the overall population growth of the city has varied, there has been a steady growth in the number and percentage of non-white residents. The only decline in this group was between 1960 and 1970, when the city's overall population declined markedly. In the 2010 Census, the racial makeup of the city was 61.55 % African American, 35.71 % White, 0.9 % Asian, 0.2 % Native American, < 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 0.59 % from other races, and 0.89 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.75 % of the population.\n"}
{"text": " According to the 2000 Census, of the 17,890 housing units inside city limits, 15,966 were occupied, 10,033 of them by families. 31.1 % of occupied households had children under the age of 18, 36.2 % were married couples living together, 23.3 % consisted of a female householder with no husband present, and 37.2 % were non-families. 33.2 % of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.06. The average household size has steadily decreased since 1970, when it was 3.04. Meridian's median age has increased from 30.4 in 1970 to 34.6 in 2000.\n"}
{"text": " The median income for a household in the city was $ 25,085, and the median income for a family was $ 31,062. Males had a median income of $ 29,404 versus $ 19,702 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 15,255. About 24.6 % of families and 28.6 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 40.8 % of those under age 18 and 22.0 % of those age 65 or over.\n"}
{"text": " === Religion ===\n"}
{"text": " The population of Meridian and its surrounds is fairly observant, with 65.2 % of Lauderdale County identifying as affiliated with some type of religious congregation, compared with the national average of 50.2 %. Of the affiliated in 2000, 30,068 (59.0 %) were in the Southern Baptist Convention, 9,469 (18.6 %) were with the United Methodist Church, and 1,872 (3.7 %) were associated with the Catholic Church.\n"}
{"text": " Immigrant Jews from Germany and eastern Europe were influential in commercial development of the city, building businesses and services. Congregation Beth Israel was founded in 1868, just before the city's \"Golden Age.\" Meridian once had the largest Jewish community in the state, with 575 Jewish people living in the city in 1927. Today, fewer than 40 Jews live in Meridian, most of whom are elderly.\n"}
{"text": " == Geography and climate ==\n"}
{"text": " Meridian is located in the North Central Hills region of Mississippi in Lauderdale County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 45.9 sq mi (119 km2), of which 45.1 sq mi (117 km2) is land and 0.8 sq mi (2.1 km2) is water. Along major highways, the city is 93 mi (150 km) east of Jackson, Mississippi; 154 mi (248 km) west of Birmingham, Alabama; 202 mi (325 km) northeast of New Orleans, Louisiana; 231 mi (372 km) southeast of Memphis, Tennessee; and 297 mi (478 km) west of Atlanta, Georgia. The area surrounding the city is covered with cotton and corn fields along with oak and pine forests, and its topography consists of clay hills and the bottom lands of the head waters of the Chickasawhay River.\n"}
{"text": " The natural terrain of the area has been modified in the urban core of the city by grading, but it maintains its gentle rolling character in the outlying areas. Numerous small creeks are found throughout the city and small lakes and woodlands lie in the northern and southern portions of the city. Sowashee Creek runs through the southern portion of the city and branches off into Gallagher's Creek, which flows through the center of the city. Loper's Creek runs through the far-western part of the city while smaller creeks including Shearer's Branch, Magnolia Creek, and Robbins Creek are dispersed throughout the city.\n"}
{"text": " Meridian is in the humid subtropical climate zone. The average high temperature during summer (June through August) is around 90\u00b0F (32\u00b0C) and the average low is around 70\u00b0F (21\u00b0C). In winter (December through February) the average maximum is around 60\u00b0F (16\u00b0C) and minimum 35\u00b0F (2\u00b0C). The warmest month is July, with an average high of 92.9\u00b0F (33.8\u00b0C), and the coldest month of the year is January with an average low of 34.7\u00b0F (1.5\u00b0C).\n"}
{"text": " The average annual precipitation in the city is 58.65 in (1,490 mm). Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, and the wettest month of the year is March, in which an average of 6.93 in (176 mm) of rain falls. Much rainfall is delivered by thunderstorms which are common during the summer months but occur throughout the year. Severe thunderstorms - which can produce damaging winds and / or large hail in addition to the usual hazards of lightning and heavy rain - occasionally occur. These are most common during the spring months with a secondary peak during the Fall months. These storms also bring the risk of tornadoes.\n"}
{"text": " == Economy ==\n"}
{"text": " Early on, the economy depended greatly upon the railroads in the area. The city was the largest in Mississippi around the start of the 20th century, with five major rail lines and 44 trains coming in and out daily. The city's economy not only depended on the rails but the goods, such as timber and cotton, transported on them. With these rail-based industries, the city was a great economic power in the state and region from about 1890 through 1930. Though its economy slowed with the decline of the railroading industry in the 1950s, the city has adapted, moving from a largely rail-based economy to a more diversified one, with healthcare, military, and manufacturing employing the most people.\n"}
{"text": " Along with Lauderdale County and the city of Marion, Meridian is served by the East Mississippi Business Development Corporation, which was formed in 1996 by a group of business leaders from the area. While as of April 2010, the city's civilian labor force was only 15,420 people, there is a population of 232,900 in a 45-mile (72 km) radius and 526,500 in a 65-mile (105 km) radius, of which 104,600 and 234,200 people respectively are in the labor force. The city thus serves as a hub of employment, retail, health care, and culture activities. Eighty percent of Lauderdale County's workers reside in the county while 90 % live within 45 miles.\n"}
{"text": " In April 2010, there were 6,260 people employed in the healthcare field in Lauderdale County. Rush Hospital is the largest healthcare organization in the region, employing 2,610 people, followed by East Mississippi State Hospital with 1,500 and Anderson Hospital with 1,475. There are three hospitals in Meridian, as well as many other healthcare-related facilities. Jeff Anderson Regional Medical Center provides cardiovascular surgery, a Level II newborn intensive-care unit, and a health and fitness center. Rush Foundation Hospital and the related Rush Health Systems operate a Specialty Hospital of Meridian, which offers long-term care for non-permanent patients who require more recovery time in a hospital setting. Riley Hospital has two centers for stroke treatment and rehabilitation services. Other healthcare facilities in Meridian include the Alliance Health Center and East Mississippi State Hospital, the latter of which has been in operation since 1882.\n"}
{"text": " Retail is another major employer in the county, with 5,280 people employed in April 2010. Nearly $ 2 billion annually is spent on retail purchases in the city. The 633,685-square-foot (58,871 m2) Bonita Lakes Mall offers over one hundred shopping venues, including department stores, specialty shops, restaurants, eateries, and United Artists Theatres. Phase I of the construction of Meridian Crossroads, a 375,000-square-foot (34,800 m2) shopping center in the Bonita Lakes area, was completed in November 2007, providing a major boost to retail in the area. Also, the shopping district on North Hills Street has continued to expand, and in March 2007, additional retail and office space was opened near the Highway 19 Walmart Supercenter.\n"}
{"text": " The area is also served by two military facilities, Naval Air Station Meridian and Key Field, which supply over 4,000 jobs to residents of the surrounding area. NAS Meridian provides training for naval carrier pilots and other enlisted personnel. Also housed at the base is the Regional Counter-Drug Training Academy (RCTA), which provides narcotics training for law enforcement in many southeastern states. Containing the first local Department of Homeland Security in the state, the city is the leader in a nine county regional response team and a twenty-nine county regional response task force. Key Field is the site of the famous flight by brothers Fred and Al Key, who set a world endurance flight record in 1935. Key Field is now home to the 186th Air Refueling Wing of the Air National Guard and a support facility for the 185th Aviation Brigade of the Army National Guard. The site also contains an exhibit reviewing the history of aviation, and is the home of Meridian's Aviation Museum.\n"}
{"text": " The total manufacturing employment of Lauderdale County in April 2010 was 2,850 people. Peavey Electronics Corporation, which has manufactured guitars, amplifiers, and sound equipment since 1965, operates its headquarters in the city. Other businesses in the area include Avery Dennison, Structural Steel Services, Sara Lee, Tower Automotive, and Teikuro Corporation. The city is also home to four industrial parks.\n"}
{"text": " In downtown, the MSU Riley Center provides revenue from tourism, arts, and entertainment sales. The Riley Center attracts more than 60,000 visitors to downtown Meridian annually for conferences, meetings, and performances. Loeb's Department Store on Front St has remained a Mississippi clothing landmark, having passed through four generations of family ownership. The store has been selling fine men's and women's clothing since 1887, when the store was first opened by Alex Loeb.\n"}
{"text": " == Culture ==\n"}
{"text": " === Arts ===\n"}
{"text": " Known for more than a century of arts, Meridian contains many art and cultural organizations and hosts many cultural events. One of the first art organizations in the city, The Meridian Art League, was established in February 1933. Art exhibitions were originally held in Lamar Hotel in downtown Meridian, but after a name change to Meridian Art Association in 1949, exhibitions were held at various locations around the city. After the Carnegie library at 25th Ave and 7th St was closed, the Art Association remodelled the building into the Meridian Museum of Art to serve as a permanent home for exhibits. The museum was opened in 1970 and has since featured rotating exhibitions as well as many educational programs for both students and adults. Over thirty exhibitions are held annually, ranging from traditional decorative arts to ethnographic and tribal materials, photography, crafts, and many other works of art. The collection also includes 18th and 19th century portraits, 20th century photography, and several sculptures.\n"}
{"text": " The Meridian Council for the Arts (MCA) was founded as Meridian's and Lauderdale County's official arts agency in 1978. MCA operates its Community Art Grants program, the annual Threefoot Festival, several workshops, and other special events each year. MCA is partnered with many arts organizations in the city and county including the Meridian Museum of Art, the Meridian Little Theatre, and the Meridian Symphony Orchestra. Meridian Little Theatre, one of the South's oldest subscription-based community theatres, was built in 1932 and currently provides entertainment to residents of and visitors to Meridian and Lauderdale County, entertaining over 22,000 guests each season, making it Mississippi's most-attended community theatre. The Meridian Symphony Orchestra (MSO) \u2013 founded in 1961 \u2013 played its first concert in 1962 and its first full season in 1963. In 1965 the MSO booked its first international soloist, Elena Nikolaidi, to perform with the orchestra. The Orchestra helped the Meridian Public School District develop its own orchestra and strings programs and also helped develop the Meridian Symphony Chorus. The current conductor is Dr. Claire Fox Hillard, who has been with the orchestra since 1991. The MSO will celebrate its 50th anniversary in February 2011 with a performance from Itzhak Perlman.\n"}
{"text": " The city's former Grand Opera House was built in 1889 by two half brothers, Israel Marks and Levi Rothenberg. During its operation the opera house hosted many famous artists and works, the first being a German company's rendition of Johann Strauss II's \"The Gypsy Baron\". After closing in the late 1920s due to the Great Depression, the opera house was abandoned for nearly 70 years. A $ 10 million grant in 2000 by the Riley Foundation, a local foundation chartered in 1998, sparked the building's restoration while $ 15 million came from a combination of city, county, and federal grants. The opera house's renovation was completed in September 2006 under the new name \"Mississippi State University Riley Center for Education and Performing Arts.\" The Riley Center, which includes a 950-seat auditorium for live performances, a 200-seat studio theater, and 30,000 sq ft (2,787 m2) of meeting space, attracts more than 60,000 visitors to downtown Meridian annually for conferences, meetings, and performances.\n"}
{"text": " Meridian is rightly considered an architectural treasure trove being one the nations most intact cities from the turn of the last century. Architecture students from around the nation and Canada are known to visit Meridian in groups as part of their coursework due to numerous structures in the city having been designed by noted architects. The only home in the US south designed by noted Canadian born Architect Louis S. Curtiss, famous for inventing the glass curtain wall skyscraper, is extant on Highland Park. The Frank Fort designed Threefoot Building is generally considered one of the best Art Deco skyscrapers in the US and is often compared to Detroit's famed Fisher Building. Noted California Architect Wallace Neff designed a number of homes in Meridian as well as in the Alabama Black Belt which adjoins the city across the nearby Alabama State line. He had relatives in Meridian and Selma who were executives in the then thriving railroad industry and would take commissions in the area when commissions in California were lean. His work is mostly concentrated in the lower numbered blocks of Poplar Springs Drive where his 2516 Poplar Springs Drive is often compared to the similarly designed Falcon Lair, the Beverly Hills home in Benedict Canyon of Rudolph Valentino. One Neff work was lost to an expansion of Anderson Hospital in 1990 and another in Marion Park burned in the 1950s. The Meridian Post Office with its interior done entirely of bronze and Verde marble is also noteworthy as a very fine example of the type of Post Office structures built in thriving and well to do cities in the 1920s and originally had Lalique lighting which was removed sadly during a 1960s remodeling and which are now in private residences on Poplar Springs Drive and in North Hills.\n"}
{"text": " Meridian has also been selected as the future location of the Mississippi Arts and Entertainment Center (MAEC). The Mississippi Legislature approved the idea in 2001 and in 2006 promised $ 4 million in funding if private contributors could raise $ 8 million. The city donated $ 50,000 to the cause in September 2007. The MAEC, as proposed, would be located on 175 acres (71 ha) at Bonita Lakes and consist of an outdoor amphitheatre, an indoor concert hall, and a Hall of Fame honoring Mississippi artists. The Hall of Fame will be located downtown in the old Montana's building. That property and the adjacent Meridian Hotel building were acquired in July 2010 for $ 300,000. In February 2009, the MAEC revealed its Walk of Fame outside of the Riley Center in an attempt to promote the planned Hall of Fame. The first star on the walk was dedicated to Jimmie Rodgers, a Meridian native. In September of the same year, the second star was revealed, recognizing B.B. King, a famous blues musician from Mississippi. On June 1, 2010, authors Tennessee Williams, Eudora Welty, and William Faulkner were added to the walk. Sela Ward was added to the walk on June 24, 2010. The MAEC plans to add many more Mississippi-born stars to the Walk of Fame; names mentioned include Morgan Freeman, Jimmy Buffett, Elvis Presley, Conway Twitty, and others.\n"}
{"text": " Another location in the city used for large productions is the Hamasa Shrine Temple Theater. The Temple Theater houses a 778-pipe Robert Morgan organ, one of two Theater Organs still in their original installations in the state. With seating for 1800 persons, the silent movie era was a prosperous time for the Temple. At the time, it was one of the largest stages in the United States, second only to the Roxy Theater in New York City. Today, seating 1576 persons, the Temple is used year-round for area events, live stage shows, plays, concerts, Hamasa Shrine functions, and public screenings of classic movies.\n"}
{"text": " Highland Park houses a Jimmie Rodgers museum which displays the original guitar of \"The Singing Brakeman\" and other memorabilia of his life and career, as well as railroad equipment from the steam-engine era. In addition to the museum building itself, there are outside memorials, and a vintage steam locomotive on display. A Mississippi Blues Trail historic marker has been placed in Meridian to honor the city as the birthplace of Jimmie Rodgers and emphasizes his importance to the development of the blues style of music in Mississippi. The city was the first site to receive this designation outside the Mississippi Delta. Also, a Mississippi Country Music Trail marker was placed in Oak Grove Cemetery in honor of Rodgers on June 1, 2010. Each year since 1953, the city has held a festival during May to honor the anniversary of his death.\n"}
{"text": " The park is also home to a 19th-century carousel manufactured around 1895 by Gustav Dentzel of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Highland Park Dentzel Carousel has been in operation since 1909, is a National Historic Landmark, and is the world's only two-row stationary Dentzel menagerie in existence. Its house is the only remaining original carousel building built from a Dentzel blueprint. Around Town Carousels Abound is a public arts project of 62 carousel horses, representing the historic carousel. Sixty-two pieces have been sponsored by local businesses and citizens, and design of the horses was conceived and painted by local artists. They are placed throughout the city and county.\n"}
{"text": " === Recreation ===\n"}
{"text": " The city contains several recreational parks, including Highland Park, Bonita Lakes, and Okatibbee Lake. Highland Park contains picnic shelters, swimming pools, tennis courts, a baseball field, softball fields, and a playground, all open year round to visitors. Bonita Lakes is a city-owned, 3,300-acre (13 km2) park including three lakes. The park also includes the Long Creek Reservoir and Lakeview Municipal Golf Course, along with nature trails, a jogging and walking track, biking paths, horseback riding trails, pavilions, picnic facilities, boat ramps, paddle boats, concessions, and fishing. Along with the lakes, the Bonita Lakes area includes Bonita Lakes Mall, Bonita Lakes Crossing, and Bonita Lakes Plaza. Okatibbee Lake is a 7,150-acre (28.9 km2) establishment containing a 4,144-acre (16.77 km2) lake which offers boating, fishing, swimming, water skiing, picnicking, hunting, hiking and camping. Splashdown Country Water Park, a 25-room motel, and cabins are located on the lake.\n"}
{"text": " Since 1992, Meridian has been a host of the State Games of Mississippi, a statewide annual multi-sport event modeled after the Olympic Games. The organization is a member of the National Congress of State Games, which is affiliated with the U.S. Olympic Committee. In its first year 1,200 athletes competed in twelve sports, and since then over 70,000 athletes have participated in the Games. In 2009, more than 4500 athletes participated in 27 sports. All competitors in the games can compete in the Southeast Sports Festival while medalists may move up to the bi-annual State Games of America.\n"}
{"text": " Originally the games were held in one weekend in June, but as more sports were added, the event was expanded to two weekends. Opening ceremonies always begin on the 3rd Friday of June in downtown Meridian. The games are held at several sports parks, including Northeast Park, Sammie Davidson Complex, and other various fields throughout the city. Northeast Park is an 85-acre (34 ha) park on Highway 39 that contains ten tennis courts, four softball fields, three soccer fields, an asphalt track, and a large picnic pavilion. The Sammie Davidson Sports Complex includes six tennis courts, four softball fields, and a half-mile track. Other sports fields include the Meridian Jaycee Soccer Complex, Sykes Park, and Phil Hardin Park.\n"}
{"text": " There are also several golf courses in the city, including the aforementioned Lakeview Municipal Golf Course, an 18-hole course open to the public daily. Briarwood County Club, located on Highway 39 North, is a private club with golf, swimming, fishing, and dining facilities. Other golf courses serving the city include Northwood Country Club, Okatibbee Creek Golf Center, and Ponta Creek Golf Course.\n"}
{"text": " == Transportation ==\n"}
{"text": " === Railroads and public transit ===\n"}
{"text": " Amtrak's Crescent line connects Meridian with the cities of New York, New York; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Baltimore, Maryland; Washington, D.C.; Charlotte, North Carolina; Atlanta, Georgia; Birmingham, Alabama; and New Orleans, Louisiana. The Union Station Multi-Modal Transportation Center (MMTC) is located at 1901 Front Street, part of the Meridian Downtown Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Originally built in 1906, but later demolished in 1966 then rebuilt in 1997, the station includes several modes of transportation including the Meridian Transit System, Amtrak, Norfolk Southern rail corridor, Greyhound buses, Trailways and other providers of transit services. The number of passengers on Amtrak trains, Greyhound buses, and Meridian Transit System buses averages 242,360 per year.\n"}
{"text": " === Air ===\n"}
{"text": " The city is served by Meridian Regional Airport, located at Key Field, 2811 Airport Boulevard South, 3 mi (4.8 km) southwest of the city. At 10,004 foot (3,049 m), the airport's runway is the longest public runway in Mississippi. The airport, which has been in service since 1930, offers daily flights to Dallas / Fort Worth, TX.\n"}
{"text": " During the Great Depression, residents of the city contemplated abandoning the airport because of the cost of maintenance, but in 1935 Brothers Fred and Al Key, managers of the airport, thought of a way to keep the airport operating. From June 4 until July 1, 1935, the brothers flew over the city in their plane, the \"Ole Miss.\" The record they established in their 27 days aloft, totaling 653 hours and 34 minutes, attracted enough publicity and funds to the city to keep the airport running. Key Field is therefore named after the brothers, whose flight endurance record remains unbroken in conventional flight.\n"}
{"text": " === Highways ===\n"}
{"text": " Interstate Highways\n"}
{"text": " Interstate 20\n"}
{"text": " Runs west through Jackson, Mississippi, eventually terminating near Kent, Texas, and east through Tuscaloosa, Alabama, eventually terminating in Florence, South Carolina. Interstate 59\n"}
{"text": " Joins with I-20 in the city and runs north through Tuscaloosa, Alabama, ending in Wildwood, Georgia. It also runs south through Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and on to Slidell, Louisiana.\n"}
{"text": " U.S. Highways\n"}
{"text": " U.S. Highway 11\n"}
{"text": " Runs parallel to Interstate 59 south to New Orleans, Louisiana, and north all the way to the Canada \u2013 US border. U.S. Highway 45\n"}
{"text": " Transnational route which runs north through Columbus, Mississippi, to the US-Canada border and south through Quitman, Mississippi, to Mobile, Alabama, and the Gulf of Mexico. U.S. Highway 80\n"}
{"text": " Runs west through Jackson, Mississippi, to Dallas, Texas, and east through Demopolis, Alabama, all the way to Tybee Island, Georgia and the Atlantic Ocean.\n"}
{"text": " State Highways\n"}
{"text": " Mississippi Highway 19\n"}
{"text": " Runs north to West, Mississippi, and south to the Mississippi-Alabama border, where it continues as Alabama State Route 10. Mississippi Highway 39\n"}
{"text": " Begins in Meridian and runs north to Shuqualak, Mississippi. Mississippi Highway 145\n"}
{"text": " Formerly US 45, but now only exists as an alternate route in several cities. Mississippi Highway 493\n"}
{"text": " Begins in Meridian and runs north to Lynville, Mississippi.\n"}
{"text": " == Education ==\n"}
{"text": " Early public education in Meridian was based on the 1870 Mississippi Constitution. From 1870 to 1885, trustees appointed by the City Council served on the Board of School Directors, which had authority to operate the schools. Although there were several schools in the city before 1884, they were privately owned and only enrolled about 400 students. The city did not build its first publicly owned school until September 1884. The first public school for blacks in the city was held in facilities rented from St. Paul Methodist Church. The Mississippi Legislature amended the city charter in January 1888 to allow the city to maintain its own municipal school district, and in March of the same year $ 30,000 in bonds was approved for the city to build new public schools. From this bond, the Wechsler School was built in 1894, becoming the first brick public school building in the state built for blacks.\n"}
{"text": " From this early district and later additions, the Meridian Public School District grew to its current size, which now includes six elementary schools, 3 middle schools, and 3 high schools. The city also contains several private schools including Lamar School, Calvary Christian School, Community Christian School, and St. Patrick's Catholic School. The campus of Meridian High School, the main high school in the district, occupies 37 acres (15 ha), including six buildings and 111 classrooms. The school is made up of grades 10-12 and enrolls approximately 1,500 students.\n"}
{"text": " Meridian is home to two post-secondary educational institutions. Meridian Community College, founded in 1937, is located at 910 Highway 19 1 and offers free tuition for four semesters to graduates from the Meridian Public and Lauderdale County School Districts as well as homeschooled children who reside inside Lauderdale County. Originally known as Meridian Junior College and located at Meridian High School, the college moved to its present location in 1965. After desegregation laws were passed, MJC merged with T.J. Harris Junior College in 1970, which had previously enrolled African-American students. The name change from Meridian Junior College to Meridian Community College took place In 1987 \"to more accurately reflect the diversity of opportunities it provides for a growing community area.\" Mississippi State University also operates a campus in the city. As of the Fall 2008 semester, 763 students from 33 counties throughout the state and several in Alabama attended the college.\n"}
{"text": " Meridian is served by the Meridian-Lauderdale County Public Library, located at the corner of 7th Street and 26th Avenue. The city originally had two Carnegie libraries, both built in 1913 \u2013 one for blacks and one for whites. A group of women had formed the Fortnightly Book and Magazine Club in the 1880s and began raising money to build a library for the city. The books they collected and shared within the club were later the basis of the library collection for Meridian. With wide support for the library, the club enlisted Israel Marks, a city leader, to approach the national philanthropist Andrew Carnegie for funding assistance. The library for blacks was built at 13th Street and 28th Avenue on land donated by St. Paul Methodist Church, and the library for whites was established in a building originally owned by members of the First Presbyterian Church of Meridian, who sold it to the city on September 25, 1911. The African American library was the only library for blacks in the state until after World War I and is the only Carnegie library ever built for African Americans in the country. The two libraries served the city until 1967, when the institutions became integrated because of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, combined their collections, and moved all materials to their current location. The former white library was renovated and converted into the Meridian Museum of Art in 1970, and the former African-American library was demolished on May 28, 2008.\n"}
{"text": " == Media ==\n"}
{"text": " The only daily newspaper printed in the city is The Meridian Star, which has been in operation since 1898. The paper was originally named The Evening Star but was renamed in 1915 and has been Meridian's only daily newspaper since 1921. With a daily circulation of about 12,000 in March 2010, the paper serves Lauderdale County as well as adjacent portions of western Alabama and eastern Mississippi.\n"}
{"text": " Though the Meridian Star is now the only newspaper printed in the city, there have been a few other historical newspapers. One such paper is the Memo Digest, a ten to twenty page publication published during the 1970s. The Digest focused on issues relevant to the African-American population of the region, gathering a circulation of about 5,000 people. Other newspapers in the city have included The Colored Messenger, The State, The Weekly Mercury, The Blade, Weekly Echo, Fair Play, Headlight, Meridian Morning Sun, Teacher and Preacher, and Clarion.\n"}
{"text": " The city is the principal city in the Meridian, Mississippi Designated Market Area (DMA), which includes 72,180 households with televisions. WTOK-TV broadcasts as an ABC affiliate from the city, headquartered at 815 23rd Avenue. WTOK operates two digital subchannels, WTOK-DT2, a MyNetworkTV affiliate, and WTOK-DT3, Meridian's CW. WGBC-TV, the market's NBC affiliate, is headquartered at 1151 Crestview Circle. Since January 5, 2009, WGBC has also been the market's FOX affiliate, and it also features some programming from the Retro Television Network (RTN). WGBC operates under a program services agreement with WMDN-TV, the market's CBS affiliate which operates a local AccuWeather service on its second subchannel. WMAW-TV is the local affiliate of Mississippi Public Broadcasting.\n"}
{"text": " The city is also the principal city in the Meridian Arbitron Radio Market, which includes 64,500 people over the age of 12. WJXM (FM 105.7), headquartered at 3436 Highway 45 North, takes the largest share of ratings in the market at 14.8 % in Fall 2009. In the same period, WZKS (FM 104.1) was second with 11.1 %, and WMOX (AM 1010) was third with 7.4 %. Other popular stations in the market include WUCL (FM 97.9), WOKK (FM 97.1), WEXR (FM 106.9), WYHL (AM 1450), and WKZB (FM 95.1). Mississippi Public Broadcasting can be found on WMAW-FM (FM 88.1).\n"}
{"text": " == Notable people ==\n"}
{"text": " Meridian has produced or hosted many famous people in the arts and other areas. For example:\n"}
{"text": " === In acting ===\n"}
{"text": " Alvin Childress, who played the lead role in the Amos'n' Andy Show, was born in the city in 1907.\n"}
{"text": " Diane Ladd was also born in the city in 1932,\n"}
{"text": " Sela Ward was born in Meridian, in 1956.\n"}
{"text": " === In business and politics ===\n"}
{"text": " Gil Carmichael, Meridian businessman and transportation specialist, was the Republican nominee for the Mississippi Senate in 1966 and 1967, U.S. Senate in 1972, governor in 1975 and 1979, and lieutenant governor in 1983.\n"}
{"text": " Winfield Dunn, former Governor of Tennessee, lived in Meridian\n"}
{"text": " John Fleming, current U.S. Representative for Louisiana's 4th congressional district lived in Meridian;\n"}
{"text": " The late Lieutenant Governor Carroll Gartin, who was born in Meridian, lived in Laurel;\n"}
{"text": " Lewis McAllister, a businessman in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, was the first Republican to serve in the Mississippi House of Representatives since Reconstruction, 1962-1968; he resided in Meridian prior to 1971.\n"}
{"text": " Gillespie V. Montgomery, former U.S. Representative, lived in Meridian\n"}
{"text": " Hartley Peavey, founder of Peavey Electronics which is headquartered in Meridian, is a Meridian native.\n"}
{"text": " Tom Stuart from 1973 to 1977 was the first Republican to serve as mayor of Meridian in the 20th century.\n"}
{"text": " === In broadcasting ===\n"}
{"text": " Emmy award winning meteorologist Bill Evans (meteorologist) (WABC-TV New York) was born in Meridian, where he held his first broadcasting jobs.\n"}
{"text": " === In literature and comics ===\n"}
{"text": " Novelist Edwin Granberry, who won the 1932 O. Henry Award for Best Short Short Story, was born in Meridian. For 30 years, Granberry wrote the Buz Sawyer comic strip. Meridian is the birthplace of novelist and short story writer Barry Hannah.\n"}
{"text": " === In music ===\n"}
{"text": " Classical composer John Luther Adams is a Meridian native.\n"}
{"text": " The Island Def Jam rapper Big K.R.I.T. was born in Meridian. K.R.I.T is known for his many mixtapes and albums such as K.R.I.T. Wuz Here and Cadillactica. He has gained a large following for his lyricism and self-produced beats as well as his ability to change his style on songs from slow and conscious tracks (\"The Vent\") to fiery and upbeat tracks (\"Mt. Olympus\").\n"}
{"text": " The guitarist-songwriter George Cummings, born in Meridian in 1938, was a founding member of Dr. Hook & the Medicine Show.\n"}
{"text": " Paul Davis, a singer-songwriter best known for the late 1970s and early 1980s pop hits \"I Go Crazy\" and \"' 65 Love Affair\", was born in Meridian in 1948; after retiring from the music business, he returned to the city where he remained until a fatal heart attack in 2008.\n"}
{"text": " Chris Ethridge (February 10, 1947 \u2013 April 23, 2012) was an American country rock bass guitarist. He was a member of the International Submarine Band (ISB) and The Flying Burrito Brothers, and he co-wrote several songs with Gram Parsons. Ethridge worked with Jackson Browne, Judy Collins, Ry Cooder, Whitney Houston, Willie Nelson, Randy Newman, Linda Ronstadt, Leon Russell, Nancy Sinatra, Johnny Winter, and The Byrds.\n"}
{"text": " The singer-songwriter Steve Forbert was born in Meridian in 1954.\n"}
{"text": " Jimmie Rodgers, the \"Father of Country Music\", was born in the city in 1897. The Jimmie Rodgers Museum is located in Meridian, and the Jimmie Rodgers Festival has been an annual Meridian event since 1953.\n"}
{"text": " David Ruffin, former lead singer of The Temptations, and his older brother Jimmy Ruffin were born in the surrounding area, Whynot and Collinsville, respectively.\n"}
{"text": " George Soul\u00e9, the singer-songwriter most famous for the rhythm and blues anthem \"Get Involved\", is a resident of Meridian, where he was born in 1945.\n"}
{"text": " Hayley Williams, lead singer of the band Paramore, was also born in the city in 1988.\n"}
{"text": " Singer Al Wilson, born in June 1939, was a Meridian native.\n"}
{"text": " === In sports ===\n"}
{"text": " The city has also been home to several athletes, many of whom have competed at professional levels. Among them are: Dennis Ray \"Oil Can\" Boyd, former Major League Baseball pitcher; Negro league baseball catcher Paul Hardy; professional basketball player Derrick McKey; Jay Powell, another pitcher; Joe Stringfellow played in the NFL; professional basketball player George Wilson\n"}
{"text": " === Others ===\n"}
{"text": " Other notable natives of the city include:\n"}
{"text": " Susan Akin who won the Miss America beauty pageant in 1986,\n"}
{"text": " James Chaney - one of the victims of the Mississippi civil rights workers murders in 1964,\n"}
{"text": " Fred and Al Key, known as \"The Flying Keys\" - holders of the world flight endurance record - are Meridian natives. Al Key is also a former mayor of the city.\n"}
{"text": " Fred Phelps, leader of the Westboro Baptist Church,\n"}
{"text": " == In popular culture ==\n"}
{"text": " === Fictional characters ===\n"}
{"text": " Cullen Bohannon, the protagonist of the AMC series Hell on Wheels, hails from Meridian, Mississippi, where he was a tobacco farmer and later a Confederate soldier during the American Civil War.\n"}
{"text": " Dill Harris, one of the characters of the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel To Kill a Mockingbird (1960), is from Meridian, which is mentioned throughout when referencing Dill's home.\n"}
{"text": " = Papa Stour =\n"}
{"text": " Papa Stour is one of the Shetland Islands in Scotland, with a population of under twenty people, some of whom immigrated after an appeal for residents in the 1970s. Located to the west of mainland Shetland and with an area of 828 hectares (3.2 square miles), Papa Stour is the eighth largest island in Shetland. Erosion of the soft volcanic rocks by the sea has created an extraordinary variety of caves, stacks, arches, blowholes, and cliffs. The island and its surrounding seas harbour diverse populations of wildlife. The west side of the island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the seas around the island are a Special Area of Conservation.\n"}
{"text": " The island has several Neolithic burial chamber sites, as well as the remains of Duke Hakon's 13th-century house dating from the Norse occupation of the island. The population reached 380 or more in the nineteenth century, when a fishing station was opened at Crabbaberry in West Voe. Subsequently there was a steady decline in population, although the numbers have increased from a low of 16 in the 1970s.\n"}
{"text": " Today the main settlement on the island is Biggings, just to the east of which is Housa Voe from where the Snolda ferry arrives from its base at West Burrafirth on the Shetland Mainland. Crofting, especially sheep rearing, is the mainstay of island life.\n"}
{"text": " Numerous shipwrecks have occurred around the coast, and the celebrated poem Da Sang o da Papa Men by Vagaland recalls the drama of the days when Papa Stour was a centre for deep-sea fishing.\n"}
{"text": " == Geography ==\n"}
{"text": " Papa Stour is located at the south western end of St Magnus Bay. There are 34 kilometres (21 mi) of rugged coastline which is indented by numerous small embayments and four larger 'voes'. Hamna Voe (Old Norse: 'harbour bay') in the south is the most sheltered anchorage and the surrounding cliffs contain a natural rock arch. Housa Voe to the east (Old Norse: 'house bay') is less secluded but is the main harbour for the island and the ferry's embarkation point.\n"}
{"text": " Brei Holm and Maiden Stack guard the harbour entrance to the south. The former is a tidal island and was a leper colony until the 18th century (although it has been suggested that many of the \"lepers\" there were suffering from a vitamin deficiency rather than leprosy). The latter's name relates to a story from the 14th century. Lord Thorvald Thoresson is said to have constructed the tiny house at its top, whose ruins are still visible, in order to \"preserve\" his daughter from men. Unfortunately for his plans, when she left she was found to be pregnant; in another version of the story, she and her fisherman sweetheart successfully eloped. West Voe, the inner part of which is called' Robies Noust ' is the main voe in the north coast, the smaller Culla Voe lying immediately to the west.\n"}
{"text": " The main settlement on the island today is Biggings, which overlooks Housa Voe and is surrounded by in-bye land to the east of the hill dyke (which runs south from West Voe). To the west the island is bisected by a belt of glacial moraine about one and a half kilometres in length. Much of the rest of the area consists of a shallow stony soil that may be derived from glacial till. There is an almost complete absence of peat on the island and due to the volcanic rocks the soils are relatively fertile. The lack of peat led to 'turf scalping' for fuel and the bare areas of rock in the interior.\n"}
{"text": " The highest point on the island is in the north west at Virda Field, which rises to 87 metres (285 feet). Virda is possibly from the Old Norse for 'heap of stones'.\n"}
{"text": " === List of outliers ===\n"}
{"text": " In addition to the larger islets mentioned above there are various other isles and skerries around the coast of Papa Stour. They include: Aesha Stack, Boinna Skerry, Borse Skerry, Fogla Skerry, Forewick Holm, Galti Stacks, Holm of Melby, Koda Skerry, Lyra Skerry, Skerries of Quidaness, Skerry of Lambaness, Sula Stack, Swat Skerry, The Horn, Tiptans Skerry and Wilma Skerry. The Ve Skerries lie 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to the north west. They include: Helliogoblo, North Skerry, Ormal, Reaverack and The Clubb. In between Papa Stour and Ve Skerries lies the shallow bank of Papa-rof.\n"}
{"text": " On 21 June 2008, Stuart Hill, the owner and only resident of the 1 hectare (2.5 acres) island of Forewick Holm (which he has renamed \"Forvik Island\") made a declaration of dependence, creating the Crown Dependency of Forvik. On the basis of a marriage arrangement between King Christian of Norway and King James III of Scotland that dates to 1468, Hill argued that the island should be considered a British crown dependency, and thus not a part of the United Kingdom or of the European Union. This claim was not recognised by the United Kingdom.\n"}
{"text": " == Geology ==\n"}
{"text": " The island is composed of a variety of volcanic and sedimentary rock formations from the Devonian period. At that time the Scottish landmass formed part of the Old Red Sandstone Continent and lay some 10-25 degrees south of the equator. The accumulations of Old Red Sandstone, laid down from 408 to 370 million years ago, were created as earlier Silurian rocks, uplifted by the formation of Pangaea, eroded and then were deposited into river deltas. The freshwater Lake Orcadie existed on the edges of the eroding mountains, stretching from Shetland to the southern Moray Firth. The structure of Papa Stour is largely made up of ashes and lavas from volcanic activity associated with this period, including bands of solidified volcanic ash and lava (rhyolite), but there is also a Devonian fish bed at Lamba Banks. There are numerous large boulders deposited by Pleistocene glaciation.\n"}
{"text": " Erosion of the soft volcanic rocks by the sea has created an extraordinary variety of caves, stacks, arches, blowholes, cliffs, voes and geos that are amongst the finest in Britain. The 'Holl o Boardie' is a cave that passes right through the north-west tip of the island. It is nearly half a mile long and wide enough to row through. Kirstan (or Christie's) Hole in the south west is another spectacular cave, part of the roof of which collapsed in 1981. Yet another is' Francie's Hole' close to Hamna Voe in the west. This was the favourite of John Tudor who wrote of the island in his Victorian memoirs and described the cave as:\n"}
{"text": " ... in fairyland, so exquisite is the colouring of the roof and sides and so pellucid is the water ... [with] alcoves or recesses like stalls in a church.\n"}
{"text": " In 1953 the spectacular headland, 'Da Horn o Papa' fell into the sea during a storm. The nearby islet of Brei Holm also has caves that can be accessed by small boats when conditions permit.\n"}
{"text": " == Ecology ==\n"}
{"text": " Otters, grey seals, killer whales and harbour porpoises are frequently seen on and around Papa Stour. Atlantic puffin, Arctic and common tern, bonxie and Arctic skua, northern fulmar, common guillemot, razorbill, curlew, wheatear, ringed plover and great black-backed gull all breed on the island, and numerous migratory species have been recorded.\n"}
{"text": " There is a profusion of wild flowers, including mountain everlasting, spring squill and eyebright as well as the ubiquitous heather. The west side of the island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the seas around Papa Stour are a Special Area of Conservation. The traditional Shetland Pony is still bred.\n"}
{"text": " == History and archaeology ==\n"}
{"text": " Human settlement of the island dates from circa 3000 BC and there are remains of several Neolithic burial chambers known as'heel-shaped cairns'. Little is known of the pre-Celtic and Celtic eras, but when the Norse arrived it is likely they found a religious settlement as the name of the island derives from Papey St\u00f3ra meaning \"Big island of the Papar\" (Celtic monks), in distinction to Papa Little some 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) to the west.\n"}
{"text": " === Norse period ===\n"}
{"text": " Papa Stour is the subject of a 1299 manuscript written in Old Norse, which is the oldest surviving document from Shetland. It deals with a dramatic incident in the house of Duke Hakon Magnusson, who was later to become King Hakon V of Norway. There is a circle of stones near the beach at Housa Voe, which are the remains of a 'ting', or local assembly. This was the scene of a duel, fought and won by Lord Thorvald Thoresson, who was accused of corruption in the 1299 document and was later called \u2018 dominus de Papay \u2019. (The story of his unfortunate daughter is referred to above.) The remains of Duke Hakon's thirteenth-century house are still visible near Housa Voe.\n"}
{"text": " === Scots rule and fishing ===\n"}
{"text": " In 1469 Shetland came under nominal Scottish control, although the Norse 'Lairds of Norway' kept their Papa Stour estates until the 17th century. In the 16th century merchants from Bremen and Hamburg were operating a summer trading booth to buy fish from the local fleet. By the 18th century, two Scottish lairds, Thomas Gifford of Busta, and Arthur Nicolson of Lerwick, owned the island. They maintained a prosperous Haaf (Old Norse: 'deep sea') fishing industry, undertaken in the summer months using six-oared boats known as sixareens.\n"}
{"text": " In addition to the leper colony on Brei Holm there may have been another at Hilla Fielle overlooking Hamna Voe. A recent archaeological survey was inconclusive but suggests the site may be much older than the supposed 18th century colony.\n"}
{"text": " The island church, which overlooks Kirk Sand in the bay of Fore Wick, was founded in 1806. 300 metres from the present church there may be an older chapel site of Sneeans or Sn\u00f8yans on the headland between the west end of Kirk Sand and the bay of Tusselby. It is called the 'ald kirk' by locals and referred to by the Ordnance Survey as \"the site of a Romish chapel belonging to about the twelfth century\". There is a tradition that the work there was interfered with by supernatural powers and that each day's work on the building was destroyed during the night. Eventually the cornerstones were moved overnight by these unearthly agencies to the present site of the church and work was re-commenced there successfully. Excavations in 2004 found little besides large blocks of rhyolite and a piece of whalebone rib, suggesting that the oral tradition may have some truth to it.\n"}
{"text": " In the 19th century the Crabbaberry fishing station in West Voe was opened and the island had a population of 360 people or more. However, fuel shortages and a decline in fishing due to the introduction of steam drifters saw a fall in population from the 1870s on. At this time another duel entered the history of Papa Stour. Edwin Lindsay, an Indian army officer and the son of the 6th Earl of Balcarres, was declared insane and sent to the island in disgrace after refusing to fight in one. He spent 26 years as a prisoner before the Quaker preacher Catherine Watson arranged for his release in 1835. Lindsay's Well is a spring at the south of the island where he was allowed to bathe.\n"}
{"text": " There are good examples of horizontal water mills, also known as Norse or Clack Mills, around Dutch Loch. Originally these were two story buildings with turf roofs, built into banks to give access to the upper floor where the mill-stone was sited. Inside the building there was a fixed lower millstone, and a rotating upper millstone driven by the water falling onto the paddles below. Some were still in use on Papa Stour in the early years of the 20th century, and there is still a working example of one of these mills on the Burn of Clumlie, at Troswick in the south Mainland of Shetland.\n"}
{"text": " === 20th and 21st centuries ===\n"}
{"text": " In common with many small Scottish islands, Papa Stour's population peaked in the 19th century and has experienced a significant decline since then (see e.g. Mingulay). By 1970 the island school had closed and the population had declined to sixteen' fairly elderly ' residents, but an advertisement in Exchange and Mart reversed the decline. A croft and five sheep were offered free of charge to incomers which brought a flood of applicants. By 1981 the census recorded a population of 33. However, by 2005 the population had fallen to 20 after serious discord between islanders led to several court cases. A number of people left the island and the school closed. By early 2008 the population had dropped to just nine after a family of seven left. The 2011 census recorded a usually resident population of 15 - during the decade 2011-11 Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103,702.\n"}
{"text": " Overview of population trends\n"}
{"text": " === Shipwrecks ===\n"}
{"text": " The coasts around Papa Stour have claimed numerous wrecks. In Hamnavoe, Tiptans Skerry alone has sunk Dutch, French, German and Norwegian ships.\n"}
{"text": " The Aberdeen trawler Ben Doran A178, foundered on the Ve Skerries 3 miles northwest of Papa Stour, on the evening of 28 March 1930 while on her way to the village of Scalloway to land her catch. When she grounded weather conditions were fairly good but it was not until the following day that a passing trawler saw, and reported the wreck. By the time that various rescue attempts were launched by the coastguard and local volunteers (there being no lifeboat in Shetland at that time), weather conditions had deteriorated to the point where it was impossible to approach the skerries. A request had been made for the Stromness lifeboat from Orkney, only 120 miles away, to launch, but the request was made too late to be of help. All 9 crew perished in the wreck. Only 3 bodies were recovered, that of James Mitchell, which was returned to Aberdeen, and the bodies of J. Cormack and J.R. Insh, which were buried in Scalloway.\n"}
{"text": " The cargo ship SS Highcliffe ran aground in fog on Forewick Holm in February 1940. On this occasion the conditions were clement and only the ship and cargo were lost. In 1967 the Aberdeen trawler Juniper ran aground in Lyra Sound at the bottom of the 60 metres (200 feet) cliffs. The 12 man crew were rescued by the Aith lifeboat, the coxswain being awarded the RNLI silver medal for this rescue.\n"}
{"text": " Papa Stour's most recent shipwreck occurred on 9 December 1977 when the Aberdeen trawler Elinor Viking A278, skipper Alec Flett, foundered on the Ve Skerries. The Aith Lifeboat came to the scene but was unable to get near enough to rescue the crew because of the sea conditions. At the request of Alec Webster, Coastguard Station Officer, Lerwick, a volunteer crew in a British Airways Sikorsky S61N helicopter from Sumburgh Airport was scrambled. They managed to winch all the boat's crew to safety within hours of the grounding, despite the storm force winds. The helicopter crew later received a number of awards for bravery. There was no loss of life, but this incident prompted the building of a lighthouse on the skerries in 1979, and may also have been the example required for the formation of the present Search and Rescue helicopter unit, based at Sumburgh Airport.\n"}
{"text": " == Economy & Transport ==\n"}
{"text": " Crofting is the mainstay of island life. Sheep form the backbone of the agricultural economy but a diversity livestock are kept, including cattle, pigs, goats, chickens, ducks and geese. Vegetable are grown too, often in the shelter of circular walls, such plots being known as'plantie scrubs'. Fishing is still conducted but on a relatively small scale. There is a post office at the pier, but no shop. Mains electricity only came to the island at the close of the twentieth century. The Papa Stour Project is a Christian supported housing service offering accommodation to men with drug and alcohol issues. Ferries now sail across the Sound of Papa to West Burrafirth on the Shetland Mainland. The crossing takes 45 minutes, and although the Snolda carries cars, there is only one short road on the island.For visiting yachts the four main voes provide good shelter, but the strong tides in both the Sound of Papa and to the north west require considerable care.\n"}
{"text": " === Airstrip ===\n"}
{"text": " There is an airstrip which caters for regular flights from Tingwall.\n"}
{"text": " == Culture and the arts ==\n"}
{"text": " The Papa Stour sword dance may be of Norse origin and bears similarities to the long sword dance of the north east of England. A description of the dance appears in The Pirate by Sir Walter Scott.\n"}
{"text": " The writer and journalist John Sands lived on Papa Stour and Foula for a while during the late nineteenth century. The writer, folklorist and musician, George P. S. Peterson was brought up on Papa Stour.\n"}
{"text": " It is also the 'Papa' of Vagaland's poem Da Sang o da Papa men, now adopted as part of the folksong tradition, as set to music by T.M.Y. Manson. The insistent chorus chant,' Rowin Foula Doon! ', is particularly striking.\n"}
{"text": " \" Oot bewast da Horn o Papa,\n"}
{"text": " Rowin Foula doon!\n"}
{"text": " Owir a hidden piece o water,\n"}
{"text": " Rowin Foula doon!\n"}
{"text": " Roond da boat da tide-lumps makkin,\n"}
{"text": " Sunlicht trowe da cloods is brakkin;\n"}
{"text": " We maan geng whaar fish is takkin,\n"}
{"text": " Rowin Foula doon! \"\n"}
{"text": " \"Rowin Foula doon!\" refers to the fishermens'practice of rowing their open fishing boat out to sea until the high cliffs of Foula were no longer visible. This entailed the boat being some 96 kilometres (60 mi) west of Papa Stour. The' tide-lumps'are increased swells of unusual size due to the combined action of wind against tide. The resonant final image of the piece is of the fishermen being led back home to Papa by the' scent o flooers'across the water. This is an example of Vagaland's ability to create a vivid sensual impression of a situation. An extra layer of meaning is added by the knowledge that Da Horn o Papa collapsed in a storm around the time of this poem's composition, so that it is a tribute not just to a lost way of life, but a noted geographical feature.\n"}
{"text": " = Angel of Death (Slayer song) =\n"}
{"text": " \"Angel of Death\" is the opening track on the American thrash metal band Slayer's 1986 album Reign in Blood. The lyrics and music were written by Slayer guitarist, Jeff Hanneman and are based on Nazi physician Josef Mengele, who conducted human experiments at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. \"Angel of Death\" led to the band facing accusations of Nazi sympathizing and racism throughout their career.\n"}
{"text": " Despite the controversy surrounding the song and its contribution to the delay in the release of Reign in Blood, \"Angel of Death\" is featured on all of Slayer's live albums and DVDs and has appeared in several movies. The song was well received by critics; Steve Huey of AllMusic described it as a \"classic\".\n"}
{"text": " == Composition and origins ==\n"}
{"text": " Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman wrote \"Angel of Death\" after reading books about Nazi physician Josef Mengele while on tour with the band: \"I remember stopping someplace where I bought two books on Mengele. I thought, 'This has gotta be some sick shit.' So when it came time to do the record, that stuff was still in my head \u2014 that's where the lyrics to' Angel of Death ' came from.\"\n"}
{"text": " The lyrics detail Mengele's surgical experiments on patients at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. Mengele's explorations were conducted on such groups as dwarfs and twins, and included both physical and psychological examinations. Among the tests he performed that are mentioned in \"Angel of Death\" are experimental surgeries performed without anesthesia, transfusion of blood between twins, isolation endurance, gassing, injections with lethal germs, sex change operations, the removal of organs and limbs, and abacination.\n"}
{"text": " \"Sewn together, joining heads. Just a matter of time ' til you rip yourselves apart\", a line from the penultimate verse, is a reference to the allegation Mengele stitched together twins, one of them deformed; \"the hunchback was sewn to the other child, back to back, their wrists back to back too.\" This claim was first made by Auschwitz survivor Vera Alexander at the 1961 trial of SS-Hauptscharf\u00fchrer Adolf Eichmann the \"architect of the Holocaust\", where it was asserted that Mengele \"sewed the veins together\" and turned \"them into Siamese twins.\" This allegation became more widely known when Vera Alexander was featured in the 1985 documentary The Search for Mengele, which has been cited by several authors including Gerald Posner, an expert on Mengele.\n"}
{"text": " Towards the end of the song, there is a line \"Feeding off the screams of the mutants he's creating\", which was taken from the film The Boys from Brazil in which Dr. Mengele was the villain.\n"}
{"text": " == Controversy ==\n"}
{"text": " The lyrical content of \"Angel of Death\" contributed to the delay of the release of Slayer's 1986 album Reign in Blood. The band were signed to Def Jam Records whose distributor, Columbia Records, refused to release the album due to lyrical themes and artwork concerns, deeming the artwork \"too graphic\". Reign in Blood was eventually distributed by Geffen Records on October 7, 1986. However, due to the controversy, Reign in Blood did not appear on Geffen Records official release schedule.\n"}
{"text": " \"Angel of Death\" caused outrage among survivors of the Holocaust, as well as their families and the general public. The controversy led to accusations of Nazi sympathizing which have followed Slayer throughout their career. People took Hanneman's interest in Nazi history and his collection of Nazi medals as evidence of sympathizing \u2013 his most prized item being a German Knight's Cross. Hanneman counteracted asserting:\n"}
{"text": " \"I know why people misinterpret it \u2013 it's because they get this knee \u2013 jerk reaction to it. When they read the lyrics, there's nothing I put in the lyrics that says necessarily he was a bad man, because to me \u2013 well, isn 't that obvious? I shouldn't have to tell you that.\"\n"}
{"text": " According to guitarist Kerry King: \"Yeah, 'Slayer are Nazis, fascists, communists' \u2014 all that fun shit. And of course we got the most flak for it in Germany. I was always like, 'Read the lyrics and tell me what's offensive about it. Can you see it as a documentary, or do you think Slayer's preaching fucking World War II?' People get this thought in their heads \u2014 especially in Europe \u2014 and you 'll never talk them out of it.\"\n"}
{"text": " The song drew accusations of racism, which the band has denied. The band members are often asked about the accusations in interviews, and have stated numerous times that they do not condone racism and are merely interested in the subject.\n"}
{"text": " In 2006, the song \"Jihad\" from Slayer's 2006 album Christ Illusion drew comparison to \"Angel of Death\". \"Jihad\" deals with the September 11, 2001, attacks, and tells the story from a terrorist's perspective. Vocalist Araya was expecting the subject matter to create a similar backlash to that of \"Angel of Death\", although it did not materialise, in part, he believes, due to peoples' view that the song is \"just Slayer being Slayer\".\n"}
{"text": " == Music and structure ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Angel of Death\" is the longest track on the album Reign in Blood, spanning 4 minutes and 51 seconds, where the total duration of the album is 29 minutes. Additionally, it has one of the most conventional song structures on the album, featuring prominent verses and choruses, where most tracks on the album eschew them. Hanneman and King deliver their 'intricate riffs', which offer the few hints of melody on the album according to PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand, and Araya bursts out his piercing scream, with Lombardo performing beats of 210 beats per minute.\n"}
{"text": " When drummer Lombardo left Slayer in 1992, the band hired a full-time replacement in Forbidden drummer Paul Bostaph. Bostaph made one mistake out of the nine songs the band trialled him with, on \"Angel of Death\". Before the \"big double bass part\" there is a lead section, which Bostaph could not understand, as he had to learn from live records recorded with Lombardo. Bostaph could not tell how many revolutions the guitar riff goes before the bass sequence. The band members told him there were eight, \"perfecting\" the song afterwards.\n"}
{"text": " == Reception ==\n"}
{"text": " Although \"Angel of Death\" did not enter any charts, it received strong praise from critics in reviews for Reign in Blood. Clay Jarvas of Stylus Magazine noted that the song \"smokes the asses of any band playing fast and / or heavy today. Lyrically outlining the horrors to come, while musically laying the groundwork for the rest of the record: fast, lean and filthy.\"\n"}
{"text": " Adrien Begrand of PopMatters remarked that \"There's no better song to kick things off than the masterful' Angel of Death ', one of the most monumental songs in metal history, where guitarists Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman deliver their intricate riffs, drummer Dave Lombardo performs some of the most powerful drumming ever recorded, and bassist / vocalist Tom Araya screams and snarls his tale of Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele.\"\n"}
{"text": " Capitalizing on the publicity generated by the controversy, the band utilized Nazi imagery by adapting a logo to one similar to the eagle atop swastika, during the Seasons in the Abyss period. Hanneman placed SS stickers on his guitar, and wrote \"SS-3\" a song about Reinhard Heydrich, the second in command in the Schutzstaffel organization.\n"}
{"text": " == Appearances ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Angel of Death\" has appeared in several movies and TV shows including Gremlins 2: The New Batch in a scene when the gremlin Mohawk is turning into a spider, Jackass: The Movie during a car stunt, the 2005 Iraq War documentary Soundtrack to War, which details the role of music on the contemporary battlefield, and on an episode of The Leftovers when Nora asks a female escort to shoot her.\n"}
{"text": " The half-time riff was sampled by Public Enemy in their 1988 song \"She Watch Channel Zero ?!\", sampled by M.O.P. in their song \"Raise Hell\", which appeared in the Breaking Bad episode \"Thirty-Eight Snub\", and sampled by KMFDM on their 1990 single \"Godlike\", and featured in the multi-platform video game Tony Hawk's Project 8. Nolan Nelson, who selected the soundtrack for the game asserts the song is \"one of the greatest heavy metal songs ever recorded. Don't know who Slayer is? I feel sorry for you.\"\n"}
{"text": " A Slayer tribute band called Dead Skin Mask released an album with eight Slayer tracks, \"Angel of Death\" being one of them. The death metal bands Debauchery and Monstrosity covered the song, and the track was featured on cello metal band Apocalyptica's 2006 album Amplified / / A Decade of Reinventing the Cello. Sgt. Discharge, a thrash metal band with members from Morbid Saint, has also covered this song. Al Sur del Abismo (Tributo Argentino a Slayer), a Slayer tribute album compiled by Hurling Metal Records, featured sixteen tracks covered by Argentina metal bands, Asinesia covered \"Angel of Death\". The song was once again covered by deathcore band Carnifex and appears on their third album Hell Chose Me as a bonus track included on the vinyl and iTunes editions.\n"}
{"text": " A compilation album of bands that have been featured in the Ozzfest line-up, of which Slayer have headlined multiple times, features \"Angel of Death\".\n"}
{"text": " The song saw a release as playable downloadable content in the game Rocksmith 2014.\n"}
{"text": " = Calvin McCarty =\n"}
{"text": " Calvin McCarty (born November 2, 1984) is a Canadian football running back for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL). He played as a tailback until 2014, when he became the starting fullback for the Eskimos. McCarty is known for being able to fill many roles at his position, with TSN sportscaster Chris Schultz noting in 2010 that he is a \"multi-purpose running back who catches the ball extremely well, blocks well and runs well\". He is a champion of the 103rd Grey Cup.\n"}
{"text": " Prior to being drafted by the Edmonton Eskimos in the fourth round of the 2007 CFL Draft, McCarty played high school football for the St. Thomas More Knights, where he broke multiple school records. He later played college football for the Western Washington Vikings. With the Vikings, McCarty developed into a dual threat, being used heavily as a rusher and receiver. McCarty has spent his entire professional career with the Edmonton Eskimos, making him the most veteran player on the team as of the 2015 season.\n"}
{"text": " == High school career ==\n"}
{"text": " McCarty played high school football for the St. Thomas More Knights in Burnaby, British Columbia beginning in 1998, playing as both a running back and middle linebacker on the Grade 8 team. He quickly became a key player on the team, including rushing for 185 yards and four touchdowns while adding 10 defensive tackles in the Grade 8 provincial semi-finals on November 24 against the Handsworth Royals. For that performance, he was named \"Star of the Week\" by The Vancouver Sun. The Knights went on to defeat the Vancouver College Fighting Irish 48 \u2013 0 in the Grade 8 B.C. championship game, where McCarty scored another three touchdowns.\n"}
{"text": " The following year, McCarty joined the senior team at St. Thomas More, skipping the junior team entirely. He continued in his role as a running back while switching to the secondary defensively. Despite being a rare Grade 9 player on the senior team, he was one of the Knights'two leading rushers that year. McCarty scored a touchdown in the AAA B.C. championship game, helping the Knights win their first senior title as they beat the Pinetree T-Wolves 29 \u2013 6. While K.C. Steele, the Knights' coach, has a policy of not recording player statistics, it is estimated that McCarty finished 1999 with over 1,000 rushing yards and 15 touchdowns.\n"}
{"text": " In 2000, McCarty played a significant role in the Knights'rushing and return game. He rushed for 150 yards and three touchdowns against the Burnaby Central Wildcats in the annual Burnaby Bowl, adding two punt returns for touchdowns. By the end of October, the Knights had compiled a perfect 6 \u2013 0 record, and defensive coordinator and former CFL defensive back Lou Deslauriers called McCarty \"the best player for his age and talent that we've ever had at our school\". He recorded 238 yards and four consecutive touchdowns with only 23 carries in the Knights'46 \u2013 12 victory over the W. J. Mouat Hawks in the AAA championship game. For his role in earning the Knights their second AAA title, McCarty was named the game's MVP, becoming the youngest player to earn this award.\n"}
{"text": " McCarty remained a presence on the field for the Knights in 2001, expanding his role by playing some snaps as a fullback. He rushed for 160 yards in that year's Burnaby Bowl, including three touchdowns as a halfback and one as a fullback. McCarty had another notable performance in a 67 \u2013 7 blowout against the South Delta Sun Devils, running for 200 yards and three touchdowns. He also showed himself to be a capable receiver, including making five catches for 66 yards in a match against the Holy Cross Crusaders. McCarty also finished that game with 110 yards and two touchdowns on only three carries. Despite giving up only 19 points during the entire regular season, the Knights lost 32 \u2013 26 in the quarter-finals of the playoffs against the Centennial Centaurs after McCarty was stopped one yard away from the endzone on the last play of the game.\n"}
{"text": " As a senior, McCarty recorded 2,400 yards and scored 33 touchdowns in just nine games, averaging 266.7 yards and over three touchdowns per game. He ran for 380 yards and three touchdowns in a 21 \u2013 20 loss against the W. J. Mouat Hawks in the quarter-finals of the AAA playoffs. He was named the 2002 Provincial Player of the Year for his performance and finished his four-year AAA career at St. Thomas More with 84 touchdowns, breaking a school record.\n"}
{"text": " === Other sports ===\n"}
{"text": " McCarty played basketball and baseball during high school as well. He lettered in basketball with the Knights. At the 2001 Big League World Series, McCarty played for Team Canada as a shortstop and center fielder, helping the team to third place in the international competition. Despite being skilled as a baseball player, McCarty chose football over professional baseball due to the physicality of the former sport.\n"}
{"text": " == College career ==\n"}
{"text": " === Boise State ===\n"}
{"text": " McCarty originally committed to Boise State University and played for the Broncos. In 2003, he was given redshirt status and did not play. McCarty played a limited role the following year, but capitalized on the opportunities he was given, rushing for 104 yards on only 10 carries. His only touchdown came on a 7-yard carry in the October 24 game against the Fresno State Bulldogs. The Bulldogs finished with an 11 \u2013 1 season in 2004.\n"}
{"text": " === Reedley ===\n"}
{"text": " McCarty transferred to Reedley College and played for the Tigers in 2005. He ended the season with 620 rushing yards, 500 receiving yards, and 14 touchdowns, as the Tigers earned a 10 \u2013 1 record along their way to the Central Valley Conference championship title. McCarty also played baseball at Reedley.\n"}
{"text": " === Western Washington ===\n"}
{"text": " After his single season at Reedley, McCarty transferred to Western Washington University and played football for the Vikings. McCarty was immediately a significant factor in the Vikings' gameplan. In the season opener, he rushed for 139 yards and three touchdowns on 30 carries against the Humboldt State Lumberjacks. He also played a large role in the passing game early in the season, making eight receptions for 126 yards through the first two games. After starting the first seven games for the Vikings, McCarty broke his foot in a game against the South Dakota Hardrockers. At the time of his injury, he led the Vikings in rushing and receiving yards. He finished the season with 492 rushing yards and five touchdowns on 130 carries, as well as 30 receptions for 278 yards. McCarty was also named a second-team all-star of the North Central Conference.\n"}
{"text": " == Professional career ==\n"}
{"text": " === Edmonton Eskimos ===\n"}
{"text": " Following his only season at Western Washington, McCarty declared himself eligible for the 2007 CFL Draft. He was selected in the fourth round of the draft by the Edmonton Eskimos with the 27th overall pick. He was re-signed on December 19, 2008 to a multiple-year contract, and again following the 2011 season.\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2007 season ====\n"}
{"text": " McCarty made the active roster and played in all 18 regular season games his rookie season. He was used in the passing game and on the special teams, finishing with seven receptions for 99 yards and a touchdown as well as five special-teams tackles. McCarty made his CFL debut on June 28 in the season opener against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. He received his first carry and reception in a Week 10 game against the Calgary Stampeders, where he was given two carries for one yard and caught one reception for 10 yards.\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2008 season ====\n"}
{"text": " McCarty played a larger role in his second season with the Eskimos, especially as a receiver. On September 1 in a match against the Stampeders, starting running back A. J. Harris was injured, and McCarty rushed for 73 yards on 12 carries as a backup. Filling in again for the injured Harris on September 13 against the Montreal Alouettes, McCarty was named Canadian Player of the Week for the first time with 72 yards on only 9 carries and a touchdown. Receiving his first start of his career on October 4, McCarty rushed for 88 yards on 19 carries with a touchdown along with eight catches for 80 yards, earning him another Canadian Player of the Week award. He played in all 18 games and started three times in his second year, finishing with 490 yards and four touchdowns on 88 carries. He had 70 catches, the second-highest amount among running backs. He also continued his role on the special teams, ending the season with 11 special-teams tackles. During the season, head coach Danny Maciocia referred to McCarty as \"the best fourth-round pick he 'd ever been associated with\".\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2009 season ====\n"}
{"text": " McCarty split time with Arkee Whitlock in 2009. He rushed for two touchdowns in Week 4, being named the Canadian Player of the Week for the third time. He was also named the Canadian Player of the Month in July after continuing to play a large role in the rushing game. In August, McCarty injured his hamstring in a game against the Stampeders and missed several games. He briefly returned in mid-September before being sidelined again with recurring hamstring issues until late October. In Week 19, McCarty ran for 81 yards and a touchdown off of 10 carries, helping the Eskimos defeat the BC Lions in a 45 \u2013 13 blowout. Despite having his season sidetracked by injuries, McCarty finished 2009 with 348 rushing yards and five touchdowns on 67 attempts, as well as seven special-teams tackles. He saw a significantly smaller role as a receiver, catching 20 passes for only 124 yards.\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2010 season ====\n"}
{"text": " McCarty remained in a multi-purpose role in 2010 and was utilized more frequently in the passing game compared to the previous season. He made a reception for a first down following a fake punt in Week 6. He missed two games later in the season due to a hand injury. In a September 26 game against the Toronto Argonauts, McCarty rushed for 84 yards on 10 carries and two fourth-quarter touchdowns, including a 46-yard breakaway. McCarty was utilized about equally on the ground and in the air, ending his season with 287 rushing yards on 62 carries and 278 receiving yards on 36 catches as well as five total touchdowns. He continued to play on the special teams where he made eight tackles. He started in six of the 15 games he played, and the Eskimos nominated him for Most Outstanding Canadian.\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2011 season ====\n"}
{"text": " In 2011, the Eskimos utilized a committee of running backs, with McCarty, Daniel Porter, and Jerome Messam all receiving significant playing time. McCarty was used mostly in short-yardage situations on the ground, while also being active as a receiver and on special teams. He played in 18 games, made eight starts, and finished with 209 yards on 52 carries with no touchdowns. He also caught 22 passes for 150 yards and a touchdown. McCarty played in both of the Eskimos' playoff games. In the West Semi-Finals against the Stampeders, he rushed for a goal-line touchdown, in addition to making three receptions and two special-teams tackles. McCarty played a more limited role in the West Finals against the BC Lions, where he was given only one carry for six yards, made one tackle on special teams, and caught two passes for a total of four yards.\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2012 season ====\n"}
{"text": " McCarty played a limited role in 2012, both due to injuries and competition from other backs, including Cory Boyd, Hugh Charles, and Jerome Messam. McCarty missed six games due to a high ankle sprain suffered during the Labour Day Rematch. Playing in the other 12 games but starting in none, McCarty rushed only 12 times and made five receptions with a lone rushing touchdown. He added four special-teams tackles.\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2013 season ====\n"}
{"text": " McCarty played a role as a receiver and special teams player in 2013, but was almost entirely absent from the rushing game. He rushed for 48 yards on 9 carries, but caught 20 passes for 186 yards and two touchdowns. He continued to play on the special teams, and recorded nine special-teams tackles.\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2014 season ====\n"}
{"text": " McCarty was shifted from playing mostly as a backup tailback to the fullback position, where he started all 18 regular season games. In his new position, McCarty was primarily used for blocking and remained involved on special teams and as a receiver. He continued his extremely limited role as a rusher, finishing the season with just eight carries. McCarty had 16 catches for 123 yards and two touchdowns, as well as a career-high 12 special-teams tackles.\n"}
{"text": " ==== 2015 season ====\n"}
{"text": " McCarty was again used as a fullback and special teams player in 2015. After sustaining an unspecified injury in week 12, he missed several games and was placed on the six-game injured list. McCarty finished the season with only one carry and nine catches, his lowest total number of touches in any CFL season. With 12 starts, McCarty finished with one carry for 20 yards, nine receptions for 68 yards, as well as five special teams tackles and one kick return for 17 yards. McCarty played in the West Final and had one special teams tackle. He became a Grey Cup champion for the first time after rushing for three yards on a fake punt in the championship game versus the Redblacks.\n"}
{"text": " === Season statistics ===\n"}
{"text": " == Personal life ==\n"}
{"text": " McCarty grew up in Muskogee, Oklahoma. After his mother, Jackie Conway, was unable to financially support him, McCarty moved to Canada and lived with his father, Orlando McCarty.\n"}
{"text": " His mother was a college softball player for the NEO Lady Norse, while his father was a college basketball player for the Bacone Warriors and the Southeastern Oklahoma State Savage Storm. McCarty's siblings were also college athletes; Tiffany played softball for the McPherson Bulldogs while Jordan was a quarterback with the Reedley Tigers.\n"}
{"text": " = Hurricane Beatriz (2011) =\n"}
{"text": " Hurricane Beatriz was a Category 1 hurricane that killed four people after brushing the western coast of Mexico in June 2011. Originating from an area of disturbed weather on June 19, several hundred miles south of Mexico, Beatriz gradually intensified. Gaining latitude, the system became increasingly organized and reached hurricane status on the evening of June 20. The following morning, Beatriz attained winds of 90 mph (150 km / h) as it passed roughly 15 mi (20 km) of Mexico. Due to its interaction with land, the hurricane abruptly weakened hours later. Early on June 22, Beatriz dissipated over open waters. Prior to Beatriz's arrival in Mexico, hurricane watches and warnings were issued for coastal areas. Hundreds of shelters opened across the states of Colima and Guerrero. Heavy rains from the storm triggered significant flooding along the Sabana River in Acapulco, killing four people. However, the overall effects of Beatriz were limited and the rains were largely beneficial in mitigating a severe drought.\n"}
{"text": " == Meteorological history ==\n"}
{"text": " On June 16, 2011, a trough situated off the southern coast of Guatemala showed signs of possible tropical cyclogenesis. Though located within an area favoring development, the system remained broad and disorganized as it moved slowly west-northwestward. Gradually, convection consolidated around an area of low pressure. On June 18, a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued for the system as it was expected to develop into a tropical depression within 24 hours. On the following day, the low further developed and was declared Tropical Depression Two-E by the National Hurricane Center at 1500 UTC. Upon being declared, the depression was located about 335 mi (540 km) south-southeast of L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas, Mexico. However, after post-analysis, the depression had actually developed nine hours earlier. Maintaining a west-northwesterly track in response to a subtropical ridge to the north, the depression was forecast to move into a favorable environment, characterized by low wind shear and sea surface temperatures up to 86\u00b0F (30\u00b0C). Three hours after classification, the depression strengthened Tropical Storm Beatriz, the second named storm of the season.\n"}
{"text": " Early on June 20, convection increased markedly with several overshooting tops (denoted by cloud-top temperatures below \u2212 80\u00b0C ( \u2212 112\u00b0F) ) appearing on satellite imagery. A notable increase in southerly outflow also took place. As the subtropical ridge north of the storm weakened, Beatriz acquired a more northerly component to its track, bringing the center of the storm closer to Mexico. Convective bands gradually wrapped around the system throughout the day. During the afternoon hours of June 20, a hurricane hunter aircraft found Beatriz just below hurricane strength, and subsequently, the system was upgraded just a few hours later, while situated roughly 85 mi (140 km) southeast of Manzanillo, Mexico. Early on June 21, a 23 to 29 mi (37 to 47 km) wide eye developed within the central dense overcast. In light of this, the National Hurricane Center estimated Beatriz to have attained winds of 90 mph (150 km / h) along with a barometric pressure of 977 mbar (hPa; 28.85 inHg); however, it was noted that this could be conservative based on estimates of 105 mph (165 km / h) from the University of Wisconsin and the Satellite Analysis Branch.\n"}
{"text": " Throughout the morning of June 21, Beatriz brushed the coast of Mexico, with the center passing roughly 15 mi (20 km) south-southeast of La Fortuna, Mexico. Centered just off the coast of Mexico, the system interacted with land and began weakening. Hours later, convection rapidly diminished as dry air became entrained in the circulation. In response to quick degradation of the system's structure, the NHC downgraded Beatriz to a tropical storm. Rapid weakening continued throughout the day and by the evening hours, the storm no longer had a defined circulation. Lacking an organized center and deep convection, the final advisory was issued on Beatriz. The storm's remnants persisted for several more hours before dissipating roughly 175 mi (280 km) southwest of Cabo Corrientes, Mexico.\n"}
{"text": " == Preparations and impact ==\n"}
{"text": " Following the classification of Tropical Depression Two-E on June 19, the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for coastal areas between Zihuatanejo and Manzanillo. A hurricane watch was also put in place from Tecp\u00e1n de Galeana to Punta San Telmo. Later that day, the tropical storm warning was upgraded to a hurricane warning and the watch was extended westward to La Fortuna. As Beatriz continued to strengthen, the watches and warnings were extended westward to Cabo Corrientes on June 20. Early on June 21, the easternmost advisories were discontinued as Beatriz moved away. Later that morning, all watches and warnings were discontinued in light of Beatriz's rapid weakening.\n"}
{"text": " In Colima and Jalisco, residents were warned of heavy rains that could trigger flooding and mudslides. Schools across both states canceled classes for June 21. In Colima, 236 shelters were opened to the public. Additionally, the Mexican Navy was placed on standby for hurricane relief. A total of 980 temporary shelters were opened in Guerrero, many of which were in Acapulco, as many residents were expected to evacuate flood-prone area. An orange-level alert was issued for portions of Chiapas in light of potentially heavy rains. Throughout Western and Southwestern Mexico, the Servicio Meteorol\u00f3gico Nacional (National Weather Service) advised that all air and sea traffic be suspended until the passage of Beatriz.\n"}
{"text": " Across Guerrero, Beatriz produced heavy rain, peaking at 222.5 mm (8.76 in) in Copala, Guerrero. Several homes across the state were damaged, though none were destroyed. In Acapulco, 380 homes were inundated by flood waters, prompting evacuations in areas built in 1999 to relocate residents after Hurricane Pauline. Several landslides blocked off roads and a 100 m (330 ft) section of a roundabout was destroyed. In the community of Amatillo, three people were killed after being washed away by flood waters. Heavy rains from Beatriz caused the Sabana River to overflow its banks, placing 150 homes across 14 colonias under water. One person drowned in San Agust\u00edn after falling in the swollen river. Twenty-seven colonias in and around the city lost power after muddy floodwaters entered a substation. Throughout Oaxaca, at least a dozen homes lost their roofs due to high winds. Portions of Colima, Chiapas, Michoac\u00e1n and Jalisco experienced heavy rains; however, in many areas, the rain proved beneficial in mitigating a severe drought.\n"}
{"text": " = The Bourgeois Blues =\n"}
{"text": " \"The Bourgeois Blues\" is a blues song by American folk and blues musician, Lead Belly. It was written in June 1937 in response to the discrimination and segregation that Lead Belly faced during a visit to Washington, DC to record for Alan Lomax. It rails against racism, the Jim Crow laws, and the conditions of contemporary African Americans in the southern United States.\n"}
{"text": " The song was recorded in December 1938 for the Library of Congress and re-recorded in 1939 for commercial release. It has been remixed and covered by a number of artists including Pete Seeger, Ry Cooder, Hans Theessink, and Billy Bragg.\n"}
{"text": " \"The Bourgeois Blues\" is regarded as one of Lead Belly's best original works, but it also drew controversy. There is doubt over the song's authorship, with some scholars contending that Lead Belly was unlikely to have written a work in a genre new to him without a collaborator. Questions have been raised over his role in the American Communist Party and whether he and the song were used to further the party's political goals.\n"}
{"text": " == Background and creation ==\n"}
{"text": " Most music historians date the writing of \"The Bourgeois Blues\" to Lead Belly's June 1937 trip to Washington, DC, when he was invited by the folklorist Alan Lomax to record for the Library of Congress's folk music collection. On the first night Lead Belly and his wife Martha spent in the city, they encountered racially discriminatory Jim Crow laws similar to those found in their native Louisiana: most hotels refused to rent rooms to African Americans and the few that would were either full or refused to serve him because he was with a white man (Lomax). Lomax, in some versions of the story described as an unnamed \"white friend\", offered to let the couple stay for the night in his apartment near the Supreme Court Building. The next morning, Lead Belly awoke to Lomax arguing with his landlord about the presence of a black man, with the landlord threatening to call the police.\n"}
{"text": " While in Washington, Lead Belly encountered several other incidents of segregation that are believed to have contributed to the impetus of the song. For instance, when Lead Belly, Lomax, and their wives wanted to go out to dinner together, they discovered that it was impossible for the mixed race group to find a restaurant that would serve them. Lead Belly was told that if he returned later without Lomax, he would be served.\n"}
{"text": " In response to one of these incidents, a friend of Lead Belly's, variously identified as either Lomax or Mary Elizabeth Barnicle joked that Washington was a \"bourgeois town.\" Though Lead Belly did not know what the word \"bourgeois\" meant, he was fascinated by the sound of it, and after its meaning was explained to him he decided to incorporate it into a song about the trip. The song came together quickly; one account claims that it only took a few hours for Lead Belly to write it. Lomax liked it because it was partly based on what happened in his apartment.\n"}
{"text": " == Lyrics, themes and music ==\n"}
{"text": " \"The Bourgeois Blues\" is a blues-style protest song that criticizes the culture of Washington, DC. It protests against both the city's Jim Crow laws and the racism of its white population. Its structure includes several verses and a refrain that declares that the speaker is going to \"spread the news all around\" about the racial issues plaguing the city. The song, particularly in the refrain, conflates race and economics by referring to Caucasians as \"bourgeois\".\n"}
{"text": " The first two verses speak of the segregation that Lead Belly encountered in Washington DC: the first recounts the fact that during the trip, Lead Belly was \"turned down\" wherever he tried to get served due to his race, while the second recounts the argument between Lomax and his landlord over Lead Belly staying in his apartment. The third verse sarcastically cites \"the home of the brave, the land of the Free\", juxtaposed with the mistreatment he received at the hands of white people in Washington, DC. The fourth verse speaks of the racism of the white population of the city, leading to the song's end, which suggests that African Americans boycott buying homes in the district.\n"}
{"text": " The song's tone implies that the speaker feels powerless against the discrimination and racism that he encounters; despite this, by \"spreading the news\" of his poor treatment in a song, the speaker uses what power he has to tell both southern African Americans and northern whites that the status quo is deeply flawed and that something needs to change.\n"}
{"text": " \"The Bourgeois Blues\" follows a traditional twelve-bar blues format. It is written in 44 time but annotated to note that the song rhythmically should swing at medium shuffle. The song was written in B \u266d. It uses twelve measures with verses one to four repeating, followed by the final two verses and a coda.\n"}
{"text": " == Recordings and adaptions ==\n"}
{"text": " Lead Belly first recorded \"The Bourgeois Blues\" in December 1938 in New York City, for donation to the Library of Congress. He re-recorded the song in April 1939 for Musicraft Records, for release the same year as a 78 rpm record. The version that was commercially released features Lead Belly singing and playing the twelve-string guitar without any other accompaniment.\n"}
{"text": " The song has been covered and reinterpreted by a variety of artists including Pete Seeger and Hans Theessink. Seeger recorded and released both live and studio versions of the song on several of his albums. In Australia, the song was reworked as \"Canberra Blues\" by The Bitter Lemons, an R & B band. The lyrics speak of the problems faced by young Australians in the Australian Capital Territory in the 1960s. Theessink adapted the song to his style of European blues for the album Journey On in 1997.\n"}
{"text": " In 2006, Billy Bragg reworked the song as \"Bush War Blues\". Bragg's cover is a topical protest song about the Iraq War. In one verse, Bragg claims that the Iraq War was not for democracy but instead was to \"make the world safe for Halliburton\". In another, he takes on the Christian right, asking where the moderates are. Finally, Bragg chides the United States government for not dealing with poverty at home before going to war.\n"}
{"text": " == Legacy ==\n"}
{"text": " \"The Bourgeois Blues\" is one of Lead Belly's most famous songs and is remembered as his most \"heartfelt protest song\". There is disagreement among music scholars as to its importance. Robert Springer claims that the song is \"peripheral\" to the wider study of the blues, while Lawson points to it as a watershed in the way African Americans see themselves in the fabric of the United States. There is debate over the relationship between the song and radical politics. After its release, it became popular with left-wing political groups. Lead Belly was invited to perform at Camp Unity, the Communist Party USA's summer retreat, and the FBI subsequently opened a file on him in the 1940s. This led to the accusations that the Communists were taking advantage of him and using him as a platform. The party claims, to the contrary, that they were some of the few people who respected him and gave him a chance to perform.\n"}
{"text": " Jeff Todd Titon and several other writers have suggested that Lead Belly had significant help with its authorship and claim it is not a genuine protest song. This theory stems from the idea that Lead Belly did not have a history of protest music before he was discovered by Lomax. Since the music that Lomax recorded was sold to northerners sympathetic to Civil Rights, it has been suggested that Lomax helped him write a song attractive to a white audience. Lead Belly admitted that the term \"bourgeois\" was unfamiliar to him, and it seems out of place compared to the vocabulary of his past work.\n"}
{"text": " = Sorry (Madonna song) =\n"}
{"text": " \"Sorry\" is a song by American singer Madonna from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005). It was written and produced by Madonna and Stuart Price, and released as the second single from the album on February 7, 2006. It later appeared on Celebration, her 2009 greatest hits album. An uptempo dance song, \"Sorry\" was one of the first tracks developed for the album and had numerous remix treatments before the ultimate version of the track was finalized. One of the remixes was done by the Pet Shop Boys, featuring added lyrics by the band. The actual song features a dance groove tempo. It talks about personal empowerment and self-sufficiency.\n"}
{"text": " \"Sorry\" received positive reviews from contemporary critics, who declared the track the strongest song on Confessions on a Dance Floor. Some critics also commented on the song's disco-influenced beats while comparing it to Madonna's older dance songs. It achieved commercial success, topping the singles charts in Italy, Spain, Romania and the United Kingdom, where it became Madonna's twelfth number one single. Elsewhere, the song was a top ten hit. However, in the United States, the song did not perform well due to an underplay on radio but was able to reach the top of Billboard's dance charts and became one of the decade's most successful dance hits.\n"}
{"text": " The accompanying music video, directed by Madonna's choreographer Jamie King, was a continuation from the \"Hung Up\" music video. It featured Madonna and her dancers roaming around a city in a van, dancing on roller skates and Madonna fighting with a group of men in a cage. She performed the song on her 2006 Confessions Tour in a similar fight sequence to that shown in the video. An additional video was created as a backdrop for a remix of the song, which depicted political leaders and scenes of war and destruction.\n"}
{"text": " == Background and composition ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Sorry\" was one of the first tracks developed for Confessions on a Dance Floor, along with \"Hung Up\" and \"Future Lovers\". It was also the one which took the most time to finish because Madonna \"thought it was too melodramatic and could never decide when it was right.\" The songs were developed with a remixed perspective in mind. Madonna commented that, \"Whenever I make records, I often like the remixes better than the original ones. [...] So I thought, screw that. I 'm going to start from that perspective\". She promoted the album at the dance party \"Misshapes\" held at Luke & Leroy's nightclub in Greenwich Village, invited by Junior Sanchez to take over the DJ booth where she mixed \"Hung Up\" with \"Sorry\". Musically, \"Sorry\" is an uptempo dance song containing layers of beats and strong vocal on the chorus. It is set in common time with a moderately fast dance groove tempo of 132 beats per minute. Composed in the key of C minor, Madonna's vocal range spans from F3 to G4. It follows the chord progression of E \u266d \u2013 Cm \u2013 A \u266d \u2013 B \u266d during the spoken introduction. It then changes to Fm \u2013 Gm-Cm in the chorus, while continuing in A \u266d \u2013 Cm \u2013 A \u266d \u2013 Fm in the intermediate verses, ultimately ending in repeated lines of \"I've heard it all before\".\n"}
{"text": " Lyrically the song has excerpts of different languages including French, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Hebrew, Hindi, Polish and Japanese. The song talks about personal empowerment and self-sufficiency, denoting a shift in focus of Madonna as an artist from her previous songs about supremacy like \"Everybody\" (1982), \"Vogue\" (1990) or \"Music\" (2000) which was centered around the subject of music itself. Among the various remixes, the Pet Shop Boys remix incorporated Whitney Houston's \"I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)\" with a more pronounced bassline and uses a double breakdown in the introduction. Pet Shop Boys and Madonna had always mutually admired each other, from the time they wrote the song \"Heart\" (1988) for Madonna but never delivered it. The remix had added lyrics sung by band member Neil Tennant which subsequently appeared on their remix album Disco Four. Madonna's voice hits on the first chorus which was remixed to have a masculine synth and a serious hook. A breakdown happens before the fifth minute ends, leading to the entry of programmed drum sounds after which the song ends.\n"}
{"text": " == Critical response ==\n"}
{"text": " Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News wrote that \"Sorry\" is the \"album's strongest track\" and that it is a \"Pet Shop Boys-esque\" song. Vineyard went on to say that it \"... wistfully evokes the sounds of the' 80s-era dance clubs that first lofted her toward stardom.\" According to a review in the BBC's Collective, \"New single' Sorry'states Queen Madge's unapologetic stance, and though the song is wrapped up in relationship sentiment, one cannot help but hear the subtext, perhaps directed at her more savage critics: 'there are more important things than hearing you speak'.\" Alan Braidwood from BBC Music called the song \"lethally catchy\". Mike Pattenden of The Times and Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine noted that the bassline of the song utilizes The Jacksons'1980 song \"Can You Feel It\". The song was noted by Slant Magazine as one of the best songs of 2006. In a review of \"Sorry\" from Virgin Media, it wrote that the song's musicscape features an \"infectious combo of pumping, filtered synths and disco beats\". Keith Caulfield from Billboard commented that, \"[Sorry] should keep fans hung up on Madonna's ability to create instant radio and club classics.\" He also called the song \"springy\" while reviewing the album.\n"}
{"text": " Ben Williams of New York magazine, wrote that the song is \"propelled by a catchy bass melody\". Joan Morgan of The Village Voice, in review of Confessions on a Dance Floor, wrote: \"The party continues admirably with the multilingual, kick-your-man-to-the-curb 'Sorry'.\" Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork Media wrote, \"The cascades of sound wash directly into 'Sorry', setting up the song's panlingual apologies and shifting bass tectonics.\" Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that the first half of the album consists of love songs, happy and sad, and included \"Sorry\" into the mix. Alexis Petridis from The Guardian called the song as triumphant. Kitty Empire from the same newspaper said that \"' Sorry'sees Madonna taking a lover to task over an insistent dance-pop rush.\" Alan Light from Rolling Stone called the song \"throbbing\". Thomas Inksweep from Stylus magazine commented that \"Sorry\" and first single \"Hung Up\" may not be as sleazy like Madonna's initial singles \"Burning Up\" (1984) or \"Physical Attraction\" (1984), but they have the same modus operandi of being designed for all-night dancing.\n"}
{"text": " == Chart performance ==\n"}
{"text": " In the United States, \"Sorry\" debuted at number 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for the issue dated March 11, 2006 and reached a peak of 58 the following week. The same week it reached a peak of 46 on the Pop 100 chart. Its low chart performance in America was attributed to limited radio airplay. A petition was signed by about 3,300 fans at petitionline.com. Known as the \"End the Madonna U.S. Radio Boycott\"; it was addressed to Clear Channel Communications CEO Mark P. Mays. Message boards at Entertainment Weekly and VH1 were filled with entries by users showing support for Madonna, as well as conspiracy theories about why she was not played on radio. The song, however, reached the top of the Hot Dance Club Play chart for two weeks, as well as Hot Dance Airplay chart for five weeks. As of April 2010, the song has sold 366,000 digital units in the United States.\n"}
{"text": " In the United Kingdom, it debuted at number one on the chart dated February 26, 2006. The song became Madonna's 12th number one single in Britain and second consecutive single from the album to peak the British chart, after \"Hung Up.\" This made Madonna the female artist with most number one songs in the United Kingdom, while placing her in fifth place in overall tabulation. According to the Official Charts Company, the song has sold 200,000 digital downloads there and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). In Australia, the song debuted and peaked at four.\n"}
{"text": " The song peaked at number two on the Canadian Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) on April 10, 2006 for sales of 80,000 units of paid digital downloads. \"Sorry\" debuted at number five in Ireland and was on the chart for 12 weeks. Elsewhere in Europe, the song became a top ten hit for Madonna reaching the top ten of countries like Austria, Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland while reaching the top of the charts in Italy, Spain and Billboard's Eurochart Hot 100 Singles.\n"}
{"text": " == Music video ==\n"}
{"text": " The music video incorporated parts of the television show Pimp My Ride, and was shot by Madonna in London in January 2006 while she was making plans for her then forthcoming Confessions Tour. It was directed by Madonna's longtime choreographer Jamie King and featured choreography from The Talauega Brothers. Many of the performers featured in Madonna's \"Hung Up\" video were in that of \"Sorry\", which was shot as a continuation from the \"Hung Up\" video. Madonna's parts in the video were shot first, followed by the shot of the skaters. The shoot took place for over two days.\n"}
{"text": " The video starts with Madonna standing in front of neon lighted screen in a purple leotard uttering \"Sorry\" in different languages. As the music starts she comes out from the gaming parlour of her \"Hung Up\" video with her dancers. They board a van where Madonna and her dancers strip of their clothes into new ones. Madonna wears a white leotard with a matching tassled corset with her hair in 1970s retro inspired style and pair of knee high silver platform boots.\n"}
{"text": " As they move around the city in the van, they pick up different men from the streets to join them. These scenes are interspersed with the scenes of Madonna singing in front of the neon screen. The video progresses like this until the intermediate verse whence Madonna is shown standing in a cage opposite to a number of men. As the bridge builds up, Madonna starts fighting with the men. She starts bending backwards and tying herself in knot like positions, while doing backflips and somersaults which defeats the men. The chorus starts again and Madonna and her dancers are shown skating in circles around a roller rink. The video ends with the close-up of Madonna in the purple leotard and fades into her silhouette.\n"}
{"text": " == Live performances ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Sorry\" was performed on the 2006 Confessions Tour as part of the bedouin themed segment. Madonna was dressed in a Jean-Paul Gaultier kaftan with pants and high heeled boots. As Madonna finished the performance of the song \"Isaac\", she took off the kaftan and wore a jacket given to her by the dancers and greets them one by one. The Pet Shop Boys music for the song's remix start in the background. Madonna and her female dancers take to one side of a giant cage and start singing the song. As the song progresses to the intermediate verses, Madonna engages in an energetic fight with her male dancers which demonstrated her bending her body and putting her leg over her head and jumping from the cage on a dancer's back.\n"}
{"text": " The song was also used as a video backdrop during the interlude between the bedouin and the glam / rock sections. The video featured images of fascists and political leaders from past and present like Adolf Hitler and Idi Amin Dada to George W. Bush and Tony Blair. Their images flashed across the screen, with text and footage of war atrocities intermingled in between. Madonna appears on the screens wearing her \"Sorry\" video leotard and utters the words \"talk is cheap\" and \"don 't speak\", along with the music and Bush's lips stuttering. The performances of \"Sorry\" and the remix video was included in The Confessions Tour CD and DVD.\n"}
{"text": " The Daily Mail called the performance \"energetic\". Tom Young from BBC Music called the performance a \"delight\" but described the video as the \"lowlight\" of the tour. Ed Gonzalez from Slant Magazine wrote that the performance was not among the concert's highlights. However, he commented that the remix backdrop \"feels ecstatic [...] a collage of Godardian weight you can dance too\". Thomas Inkseep from Stylus described the song's performance and remix as \"fantastic\".\n"}
{"text": " == Track listings and formats ==\n"}
{"text": " == Credits and personnel ==\n"}
{"text": " Madonna \u2013 Lead vocals, producer\n"}
{"text": " Stuart Price \u2013 Producer\n"}
{"text": " Neil Tennant \u2013 Supporting vocals\n"}
{"text": " Guy Oseary \u2013 Management\n"}
{"text": " Goetz Botzenhardt \u2013 Mixing\n"}
{"text": " Giovanni Bianco \u2013 Graphic Design, Art Direction\n"}
{"text": " Orlando Puerta \u2013 Remixing, A & R\n"}
{"text": " Angela Becker \u2013 Management\n"}
{"text": " Ian Green \u2013 Programming, Producer\n"}
{"text": " Paul Oakenfold \u2013 Remixing\n"}
{"text": " Pete Gleadall \u2013 Programming\n"}
{"text": " Steven Klein \u2013 Photography\n"}
{"text": " Pet Shop Boys \u2013 Keyboards, Producer, Remixing\n"}
{"text": " == Charts ==\n"}
{"text": " == Certifications ==\n"}
{"text": " = High Five Interchange =\n"}
{"text": " The High Five Interchange is one of the first five-level stack interchanges built in Dallas, Texas. Located at the junction of the Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway (Interstate 635, I-635) and the Central Expressway (US Highway 75, US 75), it replaces an antiquated partial cloverleaf interchange constructed in the 1960s.\n"}
{"text": " The $ 261 million project was started in 2002 and completed in December 2005. It was designed by the HNTB Corporation and built by Zachry Construction Corporation.\n"}
{"text": " The interchange is considered by Popular Mechanics to be one of \"The World's 18 Strangest Roadways\" because of its height (as high as a 12-story building), its 43 permanent bridges and other unusual design and construction features. In 2006, the American Public Works Association named the High Five Interchange as \"Public Works Projects of the Year\".\n"}
{"text": " == Description ==\n"}
{"text": " The High Five Interchange, north of downtown in Dallas, Texas, is a massive five-level freeway interchange. It is the junction of two major highways carrying heavy rush hour traffic, the Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway (Interstate 635) and the Central Expressway (US 75), and is the first five-level stack interchange to be built in the city.\n"}
{"text": " It replaces the antiquated three-level, modified cloverleaf interchange built in the 1960s that caused a severe bottleneck by narrowing US 75 down to two lanes at the junction of the two highways. The looped ramps of the cloverleaf forced motorists to slow down drastically, backing up traffic. Left-hand exits contributed to the congestion. Further, its two frontage roads were not directly connected to each other, making local access difficult.\n"}
{"text": " Alluding to the celebratory gesture, the \"High Five\" name refers to the five flyover ramps handling the left-turn movements that tower over the landscape. The interchange is as high as a 12-story building, and includes 43 bridges spread across five levels (the \"High Five\"), 710 support tiers, and 60 miles of additional highway. The highest ramps are 120 feet (37 m) above ground. The lanes of US 75, which are on the bottom level, are 20 feet (6 m) below ground level, giving the structure a total height of 140 feet from bottom to top As part of the project, I-635 was widened to include four dedicated high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV lanes) that are barrier-separated and reversible.\n"}
{"text": " The roads on the five levels are:\n"}
{"text": " Level I: US 75, an eight lane highway, four lanes going each way\n"}
{"text": " Level II: The junction of the two six-lane frontage roads, each having three through lanes in each direction, left-turn lanes and turnarounds, and easy access to US 75 and I-635\n"}
{"text": " Level III: I-635, ten regular lanes, five going each way, and four HOV lanes (two going each way) separated by barriers\n"}
{"text": " Level IV and V: Direct connection ramps (two levels), eliminating the left exits of the modified cloverleaf\n"}
{"text": " The interchange, with its decorative etchings on precast concrete elements, along with the visually appealing coloration specified by the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), can be regarded as an enormous work of public art. The High Five also incorporates a hiking and bike trail, named the Cottonwood Trail, which runs under all levels of the interchange. The section of the trail passing beneath the interchange was constructed as part of the High Five project by TxDOT.\n"}
{"text": " The interchange is considered by Popular Mechanics as one of \"The World's 18 Strangest Roadways\", calling it a \"labyrinth of lanes\" and a \"five-level marvel of engineering\" because of its height, the number of its bridges and other unusual design and construction features.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " The High Five Interchange project was planned as a replacement for the existing, antiquated interchange that accommodated 500,000 vehicles daily and was located in one of the most intensely developed commercial zones in Dallas. It was a collaborative project between the TxDOT, affected motorists and property owners, and the primary contractor, Zachry Construction. An essential consideration was to complete the project with as little disruption to the traffic flow as possible.\n"}
{"text": " Reasons for upgrading the interchange, in addition to the need to increase traffic flow and reduce congestion, were to improve air quality, safety, and local access.\n"}
{"text": " Zachry Construction Corporation submitted the lowest bid and was awarded the $ 261 million contract by TxDOT, the largest ever by that agency. The construction contract for the High Five Interchange was unique in that it contained elements not found in other construction project contracts. For example, it specified the concrete maturity method to be used to ensure the concrete's strength (the first time TxDOT had ever done so), and contained an early completion bonus, a sliding scale of up to $ 11 million if the company completed the contract within four years. Also built into the construction contract was a provision that Zachry was charged for \"lane rentals\" by TxDOT for time they closed down traffic lanes \u2014 fees based on hourly assessments and the time of day the lane was closed. The fees ranged from $ 50 to a high of $ 110,000 for rush hours. In order not to interfere with traffic flow during construction, the new interchange was designed largely as elevated flyover ramps and viaducts so they could be built high over the existing junction lanes; once traffic was transferred to the new structures the old lanes could simply be closed off and removed. Little of the original interchange remained when the project was finished.\n"}
{"text": " To save time and money, innovative construction methods were employed: The original plans called for the segments of the long ramps and spans (used to direct-connect roads) to be made of steel, but because building with steel would interfere with heavy traffic flow during construction, cast-in-place segmental concrete was substituted in the plans. However, Zachry decided to use precast concrete segmental bridges, rather than casting the bridge elements in place, and used a unique machine, designed and constructed by Deal S.R.L. of Italy and costing about $ 1 million, to move the pieces into place.\n"}
{"text": " During the construction, 2.2 million cubic yards of earthwork was used, 350,000 cubic yards of concrete was mixed on site, and 300,000 square feet of retaining walls were built. Additionally, 40,000 feet of drilled shafts and 75,000 linear feet of drainage pipe were completed. In addition to the construction of 43 permanent bridges, six temporary bridges were built, resulting in 2.3 million square feet of bridge deck.\n"}
{"text": " The project was designed by the HNTB Corporation who provided professional engineering consultation throughout the construction, which had begun in 2002 and was completed in December 2005, more than 13 months sooner than planned.\n"}
{"text": " == Awards ==\n"}
{"text": " In 2006, the American Public Works Association named the High Five \"Public Works Project of the Year\" for its massive size, its innovative design, the complexity and rapidity of its construction and the need it fulfilled for the community. TxDOT as the managing agency, Zachry Construction Corporation as the primary contractor, and HNTB Corporation as the primary consultant received the award in recognition of their cooperative alliance in completing the project.\n"}
{"text": " = Tim Richmond =\n"}
{"text": " Tim Richmond (June 7, 1955 \u2013 August 13, 1989) was an American race car driver from Ashland, Ohio. He competed in IndyCar racing before transferring to NASCAR's Winston Cup Series (now Sprint Cup Series). Richmond was one of the first drivers to change from open wheel racing to NASCAR stock cars full-time, which has since become an industry trend. He won the 1980 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year award and had 13 victories during eight NASCAR seasons.\n"}
{"text": " Richmond achieved his top NASCAR season in 1986 when he finished third in points. He won seven races that season, more than any other driver on the tour. When he missed the season-opening Daytona 500 in February 1987, media reported that he had pneumonia. The infection most likely resulted from his compromised immune system, which was weakened by AIDS. Despite the state of his health, Richmond competed in eight races in 1987, winning two events and one pole position before his final race in August of that year. He attempted a comeback in 1988 before NASCAR I banned him for testing positive for excessive OTC (over the counter) drugs, Ibuprofen and Pseudoephedrine; NASCAR later announced they gave Tim Richmond a new test and tested negative. Tim Richmond filed a lawsuit against NASCAR after NASCAR insisted they wanted access to his entire medical record before they would reinstate him, after losing the lawsuit, Richmond withdrew from racing. NASCAR later stated their original test was a \"Bad Test.\"\n"}
{"text": " Richmond grew up in a wealthy family and lived a freewheeling lifestyle, earning him the nickname \"Hollywood\". In describing Richmond's influence in racing, Charlotte Motor Speedway president Humpy Wheeler said: \"We've never had a race driver like Tim in stock car racing. He was almost a James Dean-like character.\" When Richmond was cast for a bit part in the 1983 movie Stroker Ace, \"He fell right in with the group working on the film,\" said director Hal Needham. Cole Trickle, the main character in the movie Days of Thunder, played by Tom Cruise, was loosely based on Richmond and his interaction with Harry Hyde and Rick Hendrick.\n"}
{"text": " == Early life ==\n"}
{"text": " Richmond grew up in Ashland, Ohio. His parents, Al and Evelyn (n\u00e9e Warner) Richmond, met in the course of their work. Al was a welder for pipe construction companies and Evelyn was a field office manager. Noticing that highway crews had to dig up the entire highway to lay pipe, Al designed a machine to bore underneath the highway. To market this invention, he founded Richmond Manufacturing, which eventually exported machines worldwide.\n"}
{"text": " Tim's driving days started as a toddler when he was given a go-kart that he often drove inside buildings and across his lawn. He later raced the kart at tracks in Moreland and New Pittsburg. Richmond grew up in a well-to-do family, and was sometimes therefore treated differently by his classmates, so his parents enrolled him in Miami Military Academy in Miami, Florida. During his years in Miami, Tim and his mother moved to Florida and his father stayed in Ohio. While home in Ohio over a summer break, he met local drag racer Raymond Beadle through lifelong friend Fred Miller. When Richmond reached age 16, his parents purchased him a Pontiac Trans Am, a speedboat and a Piper Cherokee airplane for his birthday. Yet his mother Evelyn often worried about spoiling her only son. She once said, \"Tim was lazy ...\", and \"... I did everything for him. I ruined him, I admit it. He was my whole life.\"\n"}
{"text": " Richmond excelled in sports; he set a conference record in high hurdles and his high school football career was stellar enough that the academy retired his sports jersey after his gridiron days were over. Miami Military Academy named him Athlete of the Year in 1970. Richmond's other interests included flying, and he earned his private pilot license at age 16. Following high school graduation, Richmond attended Ashland University for about one year before dropping out.\n"}
{"text": " == Racing career ==\n"}
{"text": " === Open wheel racing ===\n"}
{"text": " A friend of Richmond's father co-owned a sprint car and Richmond joined the team as a crew member for Dave Shoemaker. In 1976, 21-year-old Richmond took the car onto Lakeville Speedway at Lakeville, Ohio for some practice laps. \"Somebody put a stopwatch on me,\" Richmond said. \"I was running laps faster than Dave had been. It was the first time I had ever driven a race car.\" Richmond and his father found a red, white and blue-colored No. 98 car in Pennsylvania, which was the same number and paint scheme that Richmond used on model cars as a child. In his first competition at the track, officials placed Richmond in the slowest heat. He passed several cars before spinning out and breaking an axle. Although he made several attempts to get the car pointed in the right direction, the broken axle prevented the car from driving straight. After being towed to the pits, he parked the car for the rest of the event. Later that season, they towed the car to Eldora Speedway, only to have Richmond crash the car again. In response, Richmond's father fired him as the driver. The next season, Al Richmond bought a SuperModified better suited to his son's driving style. In 1977 Tim Richmond became both Sandusky Speedway's Rookie of the Year and the SuperModified class track champion.\n"}
{"text": " Richmond returned to racing sprint cars in the United States Automobile Club's (USAC) national sprint car tour in 1978. Competing in 12 races, he finished 30th in points as the series' Rookie of the Year. That year he attended Jim Russell's road racing school at Willow Springs International Motorsports Park, setting a student course record. Richmond raced in a 1978 Mini Indy car event at Phoenix International Raceway, winning the Formula Super Vee support event in a Lola T620. The win attracted sponsors and attention from major owners like Roger Penske. He also competed in USAC's Silver Crown series.\n"}
{"text": " Richmond's father bought an Eagle Indy Car chassis and an Offenhauser engine for the 1979 race at Michigan International Speedway. Richmond qualified 21st fastest with a 175.768 mph (282.871 km / h) lap, significantly slower than Bobby Unser's 203.879 mph (328.111 km / h) pole position speed. The race ended for him when his motor blew up on the fourth lap, and he finished last (23rd). Owner Pat Santello was looking for a driver to replace Larry Rice for his CART team at the following race at Watkins Glen International, so he gave Richmond a test at Willow Spring where he had previously set the student record. Santello hired Richmond, who then qualified 15th fastest for the event and finished in eighth place, the best of his IndyCar career. Richmond raced in three more events that season.\n"}
{"text": " After crashing during the first day of qualifying for the 1980 Indianapolis 500, Richmond nevertheless obtained the 19th starting position in the race. He worked his way up to the top 10 during the race, led a lap, and finished ninth as he ran out of fuel at the end of the race. To the delight of the crowd, winner Johnny Rutherford gave him a ride back to the pits. He was named the 1980 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year. \"I busted up a few Indy cars right after that,\" he said. \"Milwaukee, Mid-Ohio. .. at Michigan I cut one in two. I was afraid my racing career would come to a halt. So when I got an offer to drive stock cars, I took it, and it turned out I liked driving them better.\"\n"}
{"text": " === NASCAR ===\n"}
{"text": " Pocono Raceway President Joseph Mattioli III convinced Richmond to make the change to stock car racing on the NASCAR circuit. Richmond made his first NASCAR start two months after winning the Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year award. He debuted at the Coca-Cola 500 at Pocono on July 27, 1980, finishing 12th in a D. K. Ulrich-owned Chevrolet. That season, he competed in five events, with two DNFs (did not finish) and three 12th-place finishes. Overall, he finished the 1980 season 41st in points.\n"}
{"text": " Richmond raced for three teams in 1981. He started the season by competing in 15 events for Ulrich. He had his first career top 10 finish, taking sixth place at Talladega Superspeedway, soon followed by a seventh-place finish at Texas World Speedway. After Kennie Childers hired him away from Ulrich mid-season, Richmond had top 10 finishes at Pocono and Bristol. For the final seven races of the season, he drove for Bob Rogers and had a top 10 finish at Dover International Speedway. Overall for the season, Richmond had six top 10 finishes to place 16th in season points.\n"}
{"text": " Richmond started 1982 without a ride before getting a one-race deal to drive for Billie Harvey at the Rockingham track. Richmond completed 112 laps of the 492-lap event to finish 31st, retiring from the race with engine problems. For the following event, Richmond was hired to drive J.D. Stacy's No. 2 car. In his first race for the team, Richmond earned his first career top 5 finish when he placed fifth at Darlington Raceway. Returning to Pocono, he finished second, before winning his first race on the road course at Riverside, California the following week. Later that season, he earned his first pole position at Bristol. The tour returned to Riverside for the final race of the season where Richmond won his second race, sweeping both events at the track. Benny Parsons said that \"watching Richmond go through the Esses was unbelievable\". For the season, Richmond had twelve top 10s, two wins, and one pole to finish 26th in points.\n"}
{"text": " In 1983, Richmond began racing for Raymond Beadle whom he had known before he started racing. He returned to the three-cornered Pocono racetrack, earning his first oval victory. During the season, he accumulated four pole positions (Darlington, Pocono, Charlotte, and Atlanta), one win (Pocono), and fifteen top 10s on his way to finishing tenth in season points. He made his first appearance in a NASCAR Busch Series (now Nationwide Series) car, but did not finish any of the three races he entered that season.\n"}
{"text": " Esquire magazine named Richmond as one of \"the best of the new generation\" in 1984. That year he had one win at North Wilkesboro Speedway and second-place finishes at Dover, Darlington and Riverside. Richmond finished the 1984 season 12th in points, with 11 finishes in the top 10 and in six in the top 5. In 1985, the final season that Richmond competed for Beadle, his best finish was a second-place run at Bristol. He ended the season 11th in points with 13 Top 10s in 28 races. In the Busch Series, he qualified at the pole position in the two races he entered, and won the Charlotte race.\n"}
{"text": " Richmond joined Hendrick Motorsports in 1986, where he teamed up with veteran crew chief Harry Hyde. It took the team until the middle of the season to gel. Richmond had suffered a 64-race winless streak that was finally broken at the Van Scoy Diamond Mine 500 at Pocono in June 1986. After two straight second-place finishes at Charlotte and Riverside, Richmond started the Pocono event in third place inside the second row. That race saw a caution for rain with five laps left before the halfway point. NASCAR wanted the cars to get to the halfway point to make the race official, so the sanctioning body had the drivers slowly circle the track. It took the drivers 26 minutes to complete the laps, and the rain was so heavy that some drivers had to look out their side windows because they could not see out their windshields. Two hours later, the track had dried and the race resumed with Richmond in third. After Richmond's car was adjusted to remove the \"push\", the car was more to his liking. Because his radio did not work, he was unable to communicate with his crew chief, Hyde, and he made his final pit stop with 37 laps left. Hyde worried that Richmond had stopped a lap too early to ensure that he would have enough fuel to make it to the end. After Richmond took the lead with 30 laps left in the race, Dale Earnhardt made up three seconds on Richmond's five-second lead. With four laps to go, Buddy Arrington spun in a three-car accident. The remaining laps of the race where completed slowly under caution and Richmond took the checkered flag for the victory. He had led 97 laps, including the final 30, taking his first victory in a Rick Hendrick car.\n"}
{"text": " The tour returned to Pocono a month later, and Richmond battled for another victory in a fog-shortened event. In the final 8-lap sprint, Richmond competed in a three-car battle with Geoff Bodine and Ricky Rudd. Richmond crossed the finish line beside Rudd, winning the race by 0.05 seconds. He notched four more victories that season, and over a span of twelve races, Richmond earned three second-place finishes, and six wins. The National Motorsports Press Association named him Co-Driver of the Year with Earnhardt after Richmond accumulated 13 top 5 finishes and 16 in the top 10. He had a career-best third-place finish in points after winning seven events in 1986, in what was his last full NASCAR season.\n"}
{"text": " == Illness and death ==\n"}
{"text": " Richmond fell ill the day after the 1986 NASCAR annual banquet during a promotional trip to New York. He was not well enough to begin the 1987 NASCAR season despite lengthy hospitalization in Cleveland and further rest at home; when Richmond missed the Daytona 500, his condition was reported as double pneumonia. Media later reported that he had tested positive for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). He returned to Pocono for the Miller High Life 500 during the middle of the year. Starting third, he led by the fifth lap and ultimately led 82 laps, including the final 46, to win the race by eight car-lengths over Bill Elliott. In the middle of the race, Richmond's car suffered gearbox problems. Because he could use only fourth (high) gear, he had to use that gear to slowly exit the pits. Richmond was emotional after the victory, saying, \"I had tears in my eyes when I took the checkered flag. Then every time anyone congratulated me, I started bawling again.\" Richmond earned a victory in the next race at Riverside, and made his final 1987 start at Michigan International Speedway's Champion Spark Plug 400 that August, finishing 29th with a blown engine. He resigned from Hendrick Motorsports in September 1987.\n"}
{"text": " Although Richmond attempted a comeback in 1988, NASCAR suspended him for testing positive for banned substances. The substances were identified as Sudafed, a non-prescription over-the-counter allergy medication, and Advil, an over-the-counter pain reliever. In April 1988, Richmond sued NASCAR over the suspension. Although he retested later that year and was reinstated, he could not find a car to drive. In his final public appearance in February 1988, Richmond denied that he abused drugs and said that a mistake had been made in his drug test. His suit with NASCAR was settled out-of-court, the terms sealed.\n"}
{"text": " Richmond withdrew into his condo in Florida. There were by then rumors of HIV and AIDS, which he denied. He was later hospitalized in West Palm Beach.\n"}
{"text": " ESPN sent a get-well-soon card to Richmond when it aired the July 1989 NASCAR race at Pocono. The television network showed highlights of Richmond's victory at the track from 1986. \"Tim had Hollywood good looks and the charisma of Tom Cruise,\" said his friend Dr. Jerry Punch. \"There he was in victory lane with the team all around him and beauty queens hanging all over him. It was important for the people at the hospital to see Tim the way he really was, when he was healthy and handsome and vital, not the way he was as they saw him every day in the hospital.\"\n"}
{"text": " On August 13, 1989, Richmond died at the age of 34, about two years after his final NASCAR race. He was buried in Ashland, Ohio.\n"}
{"text": " The secrecy surrounding the circumstance of his death caused speculation for several days. At the time, Punch stated that Richmond had been hospitalized due to a motorcycle accident, though it is unlikely that Richmond had the strength to ride a motorcycle during his last months. Ten days after his death, on August 23, the Richmond family held a press conference to reveal that Richmond died from complications from AIDS, which he acquired from an unknown woman. Richmond's physician, Dr. David Dodson, said: \"There's no way of knowing who that woman was. Tim was a celebrity with a lot of charisma, a handsome guy. He naturally attracted a lot of women.\" Punch later claimed that more than 90 drivers and personnel underwent HIV testing in the wake of Richmond's death.\n"}
{"text": " == Legacy ==\n"}
{"text": " In 1990, a few months after Richmond's death, Washington television station WJLA-TV and reporter Roberta Baskin reported that Dr. Forest Tennant, who was then the National Football League's drug adviser, \"falsified drug tests\" that ultimately helped shorten Richmond's NASCAR career. Baskin reported that sealed court documents and interviews showed Tennant and NASCAR used \"allegedly false drug-test results in 1988 to bar Richmond from racing\". Baskin also stated that NASCAR had targeted Richmond, requesting that Tennant establish a substance-abuse policy with Richmond in mind. A series of drug tests and falsely reported positive results shortly before the 1988 Daytona 500 kept Richmond from driving in what was to have been his last big race ... \", the report said. The New York Times published the findings. While neither Tennant nor NASCAR supplied an official response at the time, NASCAR did confirm that they were seeking to replace Tennant.\n"}
{"text": " The Ashland County Sports Hall of Fame inducted Richmond in their second class in 1996. In 1998, NASCAR named Richmond one of its 50 greatest drivers of all time. He was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2002. The Mansfield Motorsports Park ARCA Re / Max Series race in 2009 was named the Tim Richmond Memorial ARCA Re / Max 250 in honor of the area native. The race at Mansfield was co-promoted by Mattioli's son Joseph Mattioli III.\n"}
{"text": " The documentary film Tim Richmond: To The Limit was produced as part of ESPN's 30 for 30 series with a premiere date of October 19, 2010.\n"}
{"text": " == Motorsports career results ==\n"}
{"text": " === NASCAR ===\n"}
{"text": " (key) (Bold \u2013 Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics \u2013 Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * \u2013 Most laps led.)\n"}
{"text": " ==== Winston Cup Series ====\n"}
{"text": " ===== Daytona 500 =====\n"}
{"text": " ==== Busch Series ====\n"}
{"text": " = Trout Creek Mountains =\n"}
{"text": " The Trout Creek Mountains are a remote, semi-arid Great Basin mountain range mostly in southeastern Oregon and partially in northern Nevada in the United States. The range's highest point is Orevada View Benchmark, 8,506 feet (2,593 m) above sea level, in Nevada. Disaster Peak, elevation 7,781 feet (2,372 m), is another prominent summit in the Nevada portion of the mountains.\n"}
{"text": " The mountains are characteristic of the Great Basin's topography of mostly parallel mountain ranges alternating with flat valleys. Oriented generally north to south, the Trout Creek Mountains consist primarily of fault blocks of basalt, which came from an ancient volcano and other vents, on top of older metamorphic rocks. The southern end of the range, however, features many granitic outcrops. As a whole, the faulted terrain is dominated by rolling hills and ridges cut by escarpments and canyons.\n"}
{"text": " Most of the range is public land administered by the federal Bureau of Land Management. There is very little human development in the remote region \u2014 cattle grazing and ranching are the primary human uses \u2014 but former mines at the McDermitt Caldera produced some of the largest amounts of mercury in North America in the 20th century. Public lands in the mountains are open to recreation but are rarely visited. Vegetation includes large swaths of big sagebrush in addition to desert grasses and cottonwood and alder stands. Sage grouse and mountain chickadee are two bird species native to the range, and common mammals include pronghorn and jackrabbits.\n"}
{"text": " Despite the area's dry climate, a few year-round streams provide habitat for the rare Lahontan cutthroat trout. Fish populations in the Trout Creek Mountains declined throughout much of the 20th century. In the 1980s, the effects of grazing allotments on riparian zones and the fish led to land-use conflict. The Trout Creek Mountain Working Group was formed in 1988 to help resolve disagreements among livestock owners, environmentalists, government agencies, and other interested parties. The stakeholders met and agreed on changes to land-use practices, and since the early 1990s, riparian zones have begun to recover.\n"}
{"text": " == Geography ==\n"}
{"text": " The Trout Creek Mountains are in a very remote area of southeastern Oregon and northern Nevada, in Harney and Humboldt counties. The nearest human settlements are the Whitehorse Ranch, about 20 miles (32 km) directly north from the middle of the mountains; Fields, Oregon, about 23 miles (37 km) to the northwest; Denio, Nevada, about 15 miles (24 km) to the west; and McDermitt, Nevada \u2013 Oregon, about 30 miles (48 km) to the east. The mountains are about 150 miles (240 km) directly southwest of Boise, Idaho, and about 190 miles (310 km) northeast of Reno, Nevada.\n"}
{"text": " The range and surrounding non-mountainous areas cover an area of 811 square miles (2,100 km2). The mountains run 51 miles (82 km) north to south and 36 miles (58 km) east to west. More of the range is in Oregon (78 %) than in Nevada (22 %). The highest point in the range is Orevada View Benchmark, which is 8,506 feet (2,593 m) above sea level and is located in Nevada about one mile south of the Oregon border. About two miles southeast of Orevada View is Disaster Peak, \"a large, symmetrical butte that is visible throughout the region.\" At 7,781 feet (2,372 m), Disaster Peak anchors the southern end of the mountains in a sub-range called The Granites.\n"}
{"text": " The Oregon Canyon Mountains border the Trout Creek Mountains on the east along the Harney \u2013 Malheur county line (according to the United States Geological Survey's definitions), while the Pueblo Mountains are the next range west of the Trout Creek Mountains. The Bilk Creek Mountains in both Oregon and Nevada border the Trout Creek Mountains on the southwest; the two ranges are separated by Log Cabin Creek and South Fork Cottonwood Creek. South of the Trout Creek Mountains is the Kings River Valley, which separates the Bilk Creek Mountains on the west from the Montana Mountains on the east.\n"}
{"text": " The terrain in the Trout Creek Mountains varies from broad, flat basins and rolling ridges to high rock escarpments cut by deep canyons. The canyons have steep walls with loose talus slopes at the bottoms. There are meadows around springs in the mountains, although most streams in the range do not flow year-round. Major streams that flow off the north slopes of the mountains include (from west to east) Cottonwood Creek, Trout Creek, Willow Creek, and Whitehorse Creek. These streams all flow into endorheic basins in Harney County, Oregon. Trout Creek and Whitehorse Creek are the largest of the four. The Kings River and McDermitt Creek each drain an area on the south slopes of the Trout Creek Mountains. The Kings River begins in The Granites and flows south into Nevada, where it meets the Quinn River, which evaporates in the Black Rock Desert. McDermitt Creek begins in Oregon a few miles north of The Granites and flows generally east, crossing the Oregon \u2013 Nevada border five times before disappearing into the floor of the Quinn River Valley south of McDermitt.\n"}
{"text": " == Geology ==\n"}
{"text": " The mountains lie within the Basin and Range Province or Great Basin of the Western United States, which is characterized by a series of parallel fault blocks that form long north \u2013 south mountain ranges separated by wide, high-desert valleys. The Trout Creek Mountains are uplifted and tilted blocks with steep escarpments along the southern and eastern sides of the range. The southern area of the range, known as The Granites, has numerous outcroppings of Cretaceous age granite. These granite outcrops are commonly found in the eroded valleys below the volcanic ridgelines.\n"}
{"text": " The Trout Creek Mountains are composed mostly of basalt from a shield volcano that once stood where Steens Mountain is today. Crustal thinning and the Yellowstone hotspot, which was then beneath southeastern Oregon, induced eruptions from Steens and nearby vents about 17 million years ago, in the Miocene. The vents produced a series of lava flows that spread across the land now known as the Trout Creek Mountains. Eruptions from the Steens volcano lasted for about one million years, and at least 70 separate lava flows occurred. Under the resulting basalt rock lie much older metamorphic rocks that may be related to some of the Triassic age formations of the Blue Mountains in northeastern Oregon. Within these metamorphic rocks are diorite and granodiorite intrusive bodies which were presumably intruded during the Cretaceous Period.\n"}
{"text": " The broad McDermitt Caldera is a prominent geologic feature in the Trout Creek Mountains. The oval-shaped caldera is a collapsed lava dome that straddles the Oregon \u2013 Nevada border on the eastern side of the range and south of the Oregon Canyon Mountains. It is about 28 miles (45 km) long and 22 miles (35 km) wide. The lava dome was created by volcanic eruptions in the early Miocene. A total of five large ash flows were produced along with a large rhyolite dome structure. The caldera formed when the dome collapsed about 16 million years ago. The caldera contains significant ore deposits, and mercury and uranium have been mined at eight or more sites in and around the caldera. Other areas in the caldera were mined for ores of antimony, cesium, and lithium.\n"}
{"text": " == Climate ==\n"}
{"text": " The Trout Creek Mountains are semi-arid because they are in the eastern rain shadow of mountain ranges to the west. When moist air from the Pacific Ocean moves eastward over the Oregon and California coastal ranges and the Cascade Range, most precipitation falls in those mountains before reaching the Trout Creek Mountains. As a result, the average annual precipitation in the Trout Creek Mountains is only 8 to 26 inches (200 to 660 mm) per year, with most areas receiving between 8 and 12 inches (200 and 300 mm) annually. Much of the annual precipitation occurs between the beginning of March and the end of June. Most of the rest falls as snow during the fall and winter months. Snowpack at elevations below 6,000 feet (1,800 m) usually melts by April; however, at the higher elevations, snow can remain until mid-June. Local flooding often occurs in the spring as the snowpack melts.\n"}
{"text": " The prevailing winds are from the west-southwest, and they are normally strongest in March and April. Brief, intense thunderstorms are common between April and October. Thunderstorms in the summer months tend to be more isolated and often produce dry lightning strikes.\n"}
{"text": " == Ecology ==\n"}
{"text": " === Flora ===\n"}
{"text": " Vegetation in the Trout Creek Mountains is dominated by big sagebrush and desert grasses. Other common shrubs include bitterbrush, snowberry, and Ceanothus. There are also patches of mountain mahogany in some areas. Common grass species include Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, cheatgrass, western needlegrass, Sandberg's bluegrass, Thurber's needlegrass, and bottlebrush squirreltail, as well as basin wildrye in some well-drained areas.\n"}
{"text": " Less than one percent of the range consists of meadow wetlands and riparian greenways (vegetation along stream banks). However, these areas are vital to the local ecosystem. The meadows surround springs, which are mostly on gently sloping uplands or in stream bottoms, and range in size from about 1 to 5 acres (0.40 to 2.02 ha). Narrow riparian greenways follow the year-round streams. Many greenway areas have quaking aspen and willow groves. Cottonwood and alder groves can be found at lower elevations where terrain is flatter and stream channels are wider. Sedges and rushes are also native to these stream bottoms. Years of heavy livestock grazing in parts of the range resulted in the loss of some grass species, riparian vegetation, and young aspen and willow trees. Restoration of riparian areas began in the early 1970s, and plans to reduce grazing were implemented in the 1980s and early 1990s. However, large wildfires in southeastern Oregon during the summer of 2012 burned much of the range's vegetation, damaging riparian ecosystems and killing hundreds of grazing cattle.\n"}
{"text": " === Fauna ===\n"}
{"text": " Animals in the Trout Creek Mountains are adapted to the environment of the High Desert. Pronghorn are common in the open, sagebrush-covered basins, while mule deer live in the cottonwood and willow groves. There are also bighorn sheep, cougars, and bobcats in the high country. Jackrabbits and coyotes are prevalent throughout the range. Mustangs sometimes pass through the mountains as they roam the Great Basin. Some other mammals include the northern pocket gopher, mountain cottontail, and Belding's ground squirrel. North American beavers live in and along streams, as do Pacific tree frogs, western spadefoot toads, and garter snakes. Native bird species include the sage grouse, mountain chickadee, gray-headed junco, black-throated gray warbler, Virginia's warbler, MacGillivray's warbler, pine siskin, red crossbill, bushtit, hermit thrush, northern goshawk, and species of raven and eagle.\n"}
{"text": " Several streams in the Trout Creek Mountains are home to trout, including the rare Lahontan cutthroat trout subspecies. These include Willow Creek, Whitehorse Creek, Little Whitehorse Creek, Doolittle Creek, Fifteen Mile Creek, Indian Creek, Sage Canyon Creek, Line Canyon Creek, and some tributaries of McDermitt Creek. Lahontan cutthroat trout live in small, isolated populations that are often confined to individual streams, many of them in the Trout Creek Mountains. These populations have significant genetic differences due to their history of isolation. For most of the 20th century, the trout's numbers declined considerably. It was listed under federal law as an endangered species in 1970 and was reclassified as threatened in 1975. Reasons for the fish's decline included habitat degradation from cattle grazing, drought, overfishing, competition with other fish, and hybridization with introduced rainbow trout, which decreased the number of genetically pure Lahontan cutthroat trout. However, reductions in cattle grazing in riparian zones since the 1980s allowed fish habitat and populations to start to recover.\n"}
{"text": " == Human uses ==\n"}
{"text": " The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) administers most land in the Trout Creek Mountains, but there are also some private lands and some roads in the area. The private lands are mainly used for ranching along mountain streams, while the BLM lands include large grazing allotments for local ranchers' cattle. At least 100 mining claims in the mountains have been recorded since 1892, some of which were staked for gold exploration. Commercial mining has occurred in some areas, mostly near the McDermitt Caldera, where uranium and large amounts of mercury have been extracted. Mines in what was called the Opalite Mining District produced 270,000 flasks of mercury \u2014 \"the richest supply of mercury in the western hemisphere\" \u2014 from cinnabar extracted from the caldera in the 20th century. The two leading mercury-producing mines in North America were the Cordero and McDermitt mines on the edge of the caldera in Nevada. Together, they operated from 1933 to 1989. The McDermitt Mine, the last mercury mine in the United States, closed three years later, in 1992. However, mineral exploration has continued at the Cordero Mine in the 21st century, and waste containing mercury and arsenic was returned there from the community of McDermitt as part of a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency cleanup project.\n"}
{"text": " The entire mountain range is very remote; as a result, there are few visitors, and the range offers a wilderness-like experience. Camping, hunting, fishing, and hiking are the most popular activities. The only developed recreation site nearby is at Willow Creek Hot Springs, just south of the Whitehorse Ranch, where nearby there are miles of trails designated for four-wheel off-road vehicles. Hunters come to the mountains seeking trophy mule deer, pronghorn, chukars, and rabbits. Fishing on some streams is sometimes permitted on a catch-and-release basis. The mountains are also suitable for hiking cross-country or on game trails in natural corridors along canyons and creek bottoms. There are more than 100 archaeological sites in the range that document use by Northern Paiute people as long as 7,000 years ago.\n"}
{"text": " Cattle grazing in the Trout Creek Mountains began in the late 19th century, and the BLM currently oversees grazing allotments in the area. Cattle can be found grazing in some areas during the spring and summer months. The effects of grazing on the local environment were the subject of controversy in the 1980s.\n"}
{"text": " == Land-management compromise ==\n"}
{"text": " By the 1970s and 1980s, a century of intense cattle grazing had reduced much of the riparian vegetation along stream banks in the Trout Creek Mountains and elsewhere in the Great Basin. As a result, stream banks were eroding and upland vegetation was encroaching into riparian zones. Aspen populations declined as grazing cattle eliminated young trees, decreasing shade over streams and raising water temperatures. These conditions put the rare Lahontan cutthroat trout population at risk. Since the Lahontan was officially designated as a threatened species, environmental groups began advocating the cancellation of grazing permits in the Trout Creek Mountains.\n"}
{"text": " Beginning in the early 1970s, the Bureau of Land Management identified damaged riparian zones and began projects to restore natural habitat in those areas. Approximately 20,000 willow trees were planted along streams, small dams were put together to create more pools in the streams, and fencing was added to protect riparian zones from grazing. Next, the agency sought to reform land-use plans to change grazing practices, which became a complex and controversial project.\n"}
{"text": " As environmentalists pressed the BLM to close much of the Trout Creek Mountains to grazing, frustrated ranchers joined the Sagebrush Rebellion seeking to protect their grazing allotments. Initially, it appeared that the issue of grazing in the range would produce prolonged litigation with appeals potentially lasting decades. However, in 1988, interest groups representing all sides of the issue joined to form the Trout Creek Mountain Working Group. The group's goal was to find a solution acceptable to everyone \u2014 a plan that would protect both the land's ecological health and ranchers' economic needs.\n"}
{"text": " Initial members of the Trout Creek Mountain Working Group included:\n"}
{"text": " Over the next several years, the group continued to meet and discuss options for restoring the land while meeting the economic needs of local ranchers. Meetings were all open to the public.\n"}
{"text": " The group eventually endorsed a grazing management plan that provided for both the ecological health of sensitive riparian areas and the economic well-being of ranchers. In 1989, the Whitehorse Ranch agreed to rest two grazing allotments totaling 50,000 acres (20,000 ha) to restore critical stream greenways and mountain pastures. The ranch's allotment on Fifteen Mile Creek was rested for three years, and its Willow Creek pasture received a five-year rest before grazing was resumed. In addition, the grazing season in mountain pastures was reduced from four months to two, and the total number of cattle released in the allotment areas was reduced from 3,800 to 2,200. Finally, sensitive areas were fenced to protect them from cattle, and additional water sources were constructed away from streams. Other ranches also agreed to rest specific pastures including the Trout Creek, Cottonwood Creek, and Whitehorse Butte allotments.\n"}
{"text": " In 1991, the Bureau of Land Management approved a new grazing allotment management plan. It was based on the agreements made by the Trout Creek Mountain Working Group, and it took effect in 1992. Since then, vegetation in riparian areas of the Trout Creek Mountains has recovered, and studies by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service have found that the Lahontan cutthroat trout population, still listed as threatened, is also recovering.\n"}
{"text": " = Mycena inclinata =\n"}
{"text": " Mycena inclinata, commonly known as the clustered bonnet or the oak-stump bonnet cap, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in) in diameter. The thin stem is up to 9 cm (3.5 in) tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print is white. It is a widespread saprobic fungus, and has been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australasia, and North America, where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps, especially of oak. British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo. Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata and M. maculata.\n"}
{"text": " == Taxonomy, phylogeny, and naming ==\n"}
{"text": " First described as Agaricus inclinatus by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1838, it was assigned its current name in 1872 by Lucien Qu\u00e9let. Mycena galericulata var. calopus (named by Karsten in 1879), and its basionym Agaricus galericulatus var. calopus (named by Fries in 1873), are synonyms.\n"}
{"text": " In a molecular study of the large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences of mycorrhizal fungi of the orchid Gastrodia confusa, M. inclinata was found to be closely related to M. aurantiomarginata, M. crocata, and M. leaiana.\n"}
{"text": " The specific epithet inclinata means \"bent in\". The mushroom is commonly known as the \"clustered bonnet\" or the \"oak-stump bonnet cap\".\n"}
{"text": " == Description ==\n"}
{"text": " The cap is light reddish-brown, with a diameter typically ranging from 1 to 4.5 cm (0.4 to 1.8 in). Initially conic to bell-shaped to convex, it flattens during maturity, developing visible surface grooves corresponding to the gills underneath the cap. The margin of the cap has minute but distinct scallops. The surface is moist and smooth, and hygrophanous. The cap frequently develops splits in the margin, or cracks in the disc (the central part of the cap). The flesh of the cap is thick in the center but thin elsewhere, grayish to whitish, fragile, and with a slightly mealy odor and taste. The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stem (that is, running down the length of the stem) and are a pale brownish color with tinges of red. They are broad (between 3 and 6 mm), and have a close to subdistant spacing, with about 26 \u2013 35 gills reaching the stem. The fragile stem is 3 to 9 cm (1.2 to 3.5 in) long by 0.15 to 0.4 cm (0.06 to 0.16 in) thick and yellow to yellow-brown, becoming reddish-brown to orange-brown in the bottom half in maturity. The lower portion of young stems is covered with white flecks. Roughly equal in thickness at the top and bottom, the base of the stem is covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The edibility of the mushroom is \"doubtful\" and consumption \"best avoided\".\n"}
{"text": " === Microscopic characteristics ===\n"}
{"text": " The spores are 7 \u2013 9 by 5 \u2013 6.5 \u03bcm, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, and strongly amyloid (it turns black when treated with Melzer's reagent). The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored. The pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face) are not differentiated. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are embedded in the gill edge and very inconspicuous, club-shaped, 26 \u2013 36 by 5 \u2013 10 \u03bcm, and have tips that are covered with contorted projections that can be slender or thick. The flesh of the gills is homogeneous, and pale yellowish to dirty brown when stained in iodine. The flesh of the cap has a distinct pellicle, a well-differentiated hypoderm (a region of tissue immediately under the pellicle), and a filamentous tramal body (gill tissue); it is pale yellowish to sordid brownish in iodine stain.\n"}
{"text": " === Varieties ===\n"}
{"text": " E.J.H. Corner defined the varieties M. inclinata var. kinabaluensis and var. subglobospora in his 1994 publication on Agaric mushrooms of Malesia, a biogeographical region straddling the boundary of the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozones. The variety kinabaluensis (named after its type locality, Kinabalu) has a cap margin that is not scalloped, little or no odor, and cheilocystidia with shorter processes. It was found growing on the dead wood of Lithocarpus havilandii, a stone oak tree in the beech family. Variety subglobospora, found in Sabah, has spores that are almost spherical.\n"}
{"text": " === Similar species ===\n"}
{"text": " Mycena maculata bears some resemblance to M. inclinata, but is only associated with decaying hardwood logs and stumps, and is found in eastern North America, and sometimes on oak on the West Coast. In age, it develops reddish spots on the gills that are not seen in M. inclinata. M. inclinata is often confused with the edible M. galericulata, a common species that is variable in cap color, size and shape. M. galericulata typically has a bluntly conical cap that is dull gray-brown, and white to grayish veins that have numerous cross-veins. M. polygramma has a ridged stem that is bluish-gray.\n"}
{"text": " == Habitat and distribution ==\n"}
{"text": " Mycena inclinata is a saprobic fungus, deriving its nutrients from decomposing organic matter found in plant litter such as leaves, twigs, bark and branches. It accomplishes this by producing enzymes capable of breaking down the three major biochemical components of plant cell walls found in litter: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.\n"}
{"text": " The fruit bodies of Mycena inclinata grow in dense groups or clusters on decaying hardwood logs and stumps (especially oak and chestnut) during the spring and autumn. The fungus forms a white, woolly mycelium on the surface of decomposing oak leaves. Occasionally, it can be found growing on a living tree. In eastern North America, it is abundant in the area bounded by Nova Scotia, Ontario, Manitoba, Missouri, North Carolina, and New York. It has been found in Oregon, but the species appears to be generally rare along the Pacific Coast. The range of the fungus also includes Europe, the Canary Islands, North Africa, East Siberia, Japan, Malesia, Turkey, and New Zealand.\n"}
{"text": " == Chemistry ==\n"}
{"text": " In a study of the trace metal concentrations of various mushrooms species found in Ordu (Turkey), M. inclinata was found to have comparatively high levels of iron (628 mg per kg) and nickel (21.6 mg / kg), measured on a dry weight basis. Laboratory studies have shown that the fungus is resistant to aluminum. The fungus has been investigated for its ability to decolorize synthetic dyes that are used in the textile, plastics, biomedical and foodstuff industries. The dyes are not readily biodegradable, and when discharged into the environment are persistent and many are toxic.\n"}
{"text": " = Capel Lligwy =\n"}
{"text": " Capel Lligwy (sometimes referred to as Hen Gapel Lligwy) is a ruined chapel near Rhos Lligwy in Anglesey, north Wales, dating back to the first half of the 12th century. The chapel's original purpose is unknown, but it might have been used as a memorial chapel or in connection with a local royal court, or as a chapel of ease in a large parish with a growing population. It was used for a time until the early 18th century as a private place of worship for a nearby house, then later fell into disrepair. The walls still remain, with some traces of render on them internally, but there is no roof.\n"}
{"text": " It contains a 16th-century side chapel with a vault beneath, used as a burial chamber. It is a Grade II listed building, a national designation given to \"buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them\", in particular because it is \"a substantially 12th-century structure\" with the \"unusual 16th-century vaulted south chapel\".\n"}
{"text": " == History and location ==\n"}
{"text": " The oldest parts of Capel Lligwy date from the first half of the 12th century. This was a time when many churches on Anglesey in north-west Wales were first built in stone following the end of Viking raids and attempts by the Normans to gain control of the island. The reason for its construction, and the saint to whom it was dedicated, are unknown. Geraint Jones, author of a 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey, suggests that it may originally have been a memorial chapel, or connected to a royal court nearby. Yates and Longley, authors of a 2001 guide to ancient Anglesey monuments, note that it was built in the large parish of Penrhos Lligwy and was perhaps intended to serving the expanding population in medieval times. Despite this, it seems to have remained as a chapel of ease rather than become a parish church in its own right. The chapel is sometimes referred to as \"Hen Gapel Lligwy\" (\"hen\" being the Welsh word for \"old\" and \"capel\" meaning \"chapel\").\n"}
{"text": " The walls were partially rebuilt in the 14th century, and the upper parts of the walls date from this time. A chapel was added to the south side of the building in the 16th century. A vault under the south chapel was used to bury members of a local family, the Pierce Lloyds. In 1999, the vault was used to record some \"atmospheres\" for the album \"You Have Just Been Poisoned By The Serpents\" by The Serpents, a collective of Welsh musicians including members of Echo and the Bunnymen, Super Furry Animals and Ectogram that was described by one journalist as \"possibly the strangest pop group of all time\".\n"}
{"text": " For a time, Capel Lligwy was used as a private place of worship for Lligwy House, a \"venerable mansion\" once owned by the Lloyd family which came into the possession of William Irby, 1st Baron Boston, in the 18th century. After the early part of the 18th century, however, the chapel became unused and began to fall into disrepair. The walls remain to gable level, with some traces of render on the inside, but the roof has gone.\n"}
{"text": " Capel Lligwy is in the Anglesey countryside near Llanallgo; the parish church of St Gallgo, Llanallgo is about 0.78 miles (1.26 km) away. Part of the churchyard wall remains, showing that it was originally within a mainly circular enclosure, as often found with early churches. It is cared for by Cadw, the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales, and is open to the public.\n"}
{"text": " == Architecture and fittings ==\n"}
{"text": " Capel Lligwy is built from rubble masonry; at about 5 feet (1.5 m) up the walls, the style changes and smaller stones are inserted into spaces between the larger blocks, showing where the 14th-century rebuilding started. The doorway is on the south side, headed by a plain arch, and dates from the 12th century. There is a stone bellcote at the west end. There is no structural division between the nave (where the congregation would have sat) and the chancel (where the altar would have been located). There are no window openings on the north side, but there is a blocked opening to the east (about 5 feet ( 1.5 m) wide ) and there are the remains of a window on the south wall. There is a blocked window in the south wall of the south chapel. The vault, which is about 27 square feet (2.5 m2), is reached by stone steps from inside the south chapel. Limestone slabs form the roof of the vault and the floor of the chapel above. A stone in the nave, about 2 square feet (0.19 m2) with a hole in the top, might once have been used as a churchyard cross.\n"}
{"text": " == Assessment ==\n"}
{"text": " Capel Lligwy has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building \u2013 the lowest of the three grades of listing, designating \"buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them\". It was given this status on 2 September 1952 and has been listed because it is \"important as a substantially 12th-century structure, with some architectural details surviving from this early period\", even though it is now in a \"ruinous condition\". Cadw (which is responsible for the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists) also notes the \"unusual 16th-century vaulted south chapel\".\n"}
{"text": " The 19th-century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd mentioned the church in her history of Anglesey. She said that the architecture was of \"the rudest kind, [which] bears testimony to its great antiquity.\" She recounted that a fox had once taken shelter in the ruins, and when it was dug out, the vault was discovered, \"containing several human skeletons, which crumbled into dust, when exposed to the air\". She added that further exploration of the vault then revealed \"a large mass of human bones, several feet in depth\".\n"}
{"text": " A 1990 book about abandoned churches in Wales refers to the ancient monuments in this part of Anglesey, and calls Capel Lligwy a \"medieval gesture of Christian power in a land so obviously imbued with the spirit of a pagan past\". It notes that \"the wheel has turned full circle and Capel Lligwy today is just another ruined relic of a former age.\" The authors describe the chapel as a \"simple, square building\" with a \"small and ruggedly austere south chapel\", adding that the stone slabs over the vault are \"almost in imitation of the ancient burial chambers which dot the surrounding landscape.\"\n"}
{"text": " = 2011 \u2013 12 Michigan Wolverines men's basketball team =\n"}
{"text": " The 2011 \u2013 12 Michigan Wolverines men's basketball team represented the University of Michigan during the 2011 \u2013 12 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. The team played its home games in Ann Arbor, Michigan at Crisler Center for the 45th consecutive year. It had a seating capacity of 12,721. It was also the team's 95th straight season as a member of the Big Ten Conference. Fifth-year head coach John Beilein led the team, alongside All-Big Ten players Trey Burke, Tim Hardaway, Jr. and Zack Novak. Burke was named Big Ten Freshman of the Year and was Michigan's first Associated Press All-American honoree since 1998.\n"}
{"text": " The team's season began with a preseason media day and practices in October 2011. In February 2012, Michigan hosted ESPN's College GameDay for the first time in a game against Ohio State. It was the eighth time a Big Ten team hosted the show, which began in 2005.\n"}
{"text": " The team was in the national rankings all season and ended as the 2011 \u2013 12 Big Ten co-champion with Michigan State and Ohio State. It had three victories over teams ranked in the top 10 at the time of the meeting (eighth-ranked Memphis, ninth-ranked Michigan State and sixth-ranked Ohio State). The team was undefeated at home until its last home game of the season. Michigan lost in the semifinals of the 2012 Big Ten Conference Tournament and bowed out in the second round of the 2012 NCAA Tournament to end the season with a 24-10 record. The team won the school's first Big Ten Conference Championship since the 1985 \u2013 86 season and had the school's best Big Ten record (13 \u2013 5) since the 1993 \u2013 94 season.\n"}
{"text": " == Preseason ==\n"}
{"text": " === 2011 \u2013 12 incoming team members ===\n"}
{"text": " Before the season began, point guard Darius Morris, the Big Ten assists leader in the 2010-11 season, left the team after being drafted by the Los Angeles Lakers. The incoming class included Carlton Brundidge and 2011 Ohio Mr. Basketball point guard Trey Burke. Both Brundidge and Burke were among Scout.com's top 100 players of the 2011 class; Brundidge ranked 98th and Burke ranked 94th. Max Bielfeldt committed to Michigan in April despite his family's ties to the Illinois Fighting Illini. Illinois University's Bielfeldt Athletic Administration Building was endowed by his family. Sai Tummala, who along with Bielfeldt was recruited by Ivy League schools, rounded out the incoming class. Tummala earned an academic scholarship and was considered a walk-on candidate for the basketball team.\n"}
{"text": " Tim Hardaway, Jr., son of former NBA All-Star Tim Hardaway, returned to the team. He was coming off a freshman season in which he was a unanimous Big Ten All-Freshman, All-Big Ten honorable mention, Collegeinsider.com Freshmen All-America and Team USA FIBA U19 honoree. Jordan Dumars, the son of Detroit Pistons All-Star Joe Dumars, left the team, citing nagging knee issues.\n"}
{"text": " === 2011 \u2013 12 team recruits ===\n"}
{"text": " == Roster ==\n"}
{"text": " Former team captains Travis Conlan (1996 \u2013 97 and 1997 \u2013 98) and C.J. Lee (2008 \u2013 09) served as director of basketball operations and administrative specialist, respectively. Peter Kahler was the team's video coordinator.\n"}
{"text": " == Schedule and results ==\n"}
{"text": " Michigan announced its 14-game non-conference schedule on August 1, 2011. The team began the season in a renovated Crisler Arena: new seats and a high-definition scoreboard were added, but seating capacity was reduced to 12,721 from 13,751 in the previous 10 seasons.\n"}
{"text": " Michigan came in third place in the three-game 2011 Maui Invitational Tournament between November 21 \u2013 23. The team defeated the eighth-ranked Memphis Tigers 73 \u2013 61, lost to the sixth-ranked Duke Blue Devils 82 \u2013 75, and defeated the Pac-12 favorite UCLA Bruins 79 \u2013 63. Tim Hardaway, Jr. was named the Big Ten Player of the Week, and Trey Burke was named Big Ten Freshman of the Week. In an ACC \u2013 Big Ten Challenge game in late November, Michigan lost to Virginia 70 \u2013 58. In its next game, Michigan defeated Iowa State 76 \u2013 66. On December 10, 2011, Michigan beat Oakland 90 \u2013 80, its highest-scoring game since beating Northern Michigan 97-50 on November 14, 2009. It was also Michigan's first game since 2002 with three 20-point scorers (Hardaway, Burke and Evan Smotrycz). Burke earned his second Freshman of the Week honor on December 12 after scoring a season-high 20 points and nine assists in the game. On the same day, Michigan was the highest-rated Big Ten team in the Ratings Percentage Index, although the team trailed several schools in the national polls. In the final two non-conference games of the season, Smotrycz scored his first two double-doubles against Alabama A & M and Bradley on December 17 and December 22.\n"}
{"text": " Heading into the Big Ten Conference schedule, both of the teams Michigan had lost to were ranked (Duke was 7th and 5th in the AP and Coaches'polls and Virginia was 23rd and 24th). On December 29, Michigan won its first Big Ten Conference opener since 2006 \u2013 07, beating Penn State as Smotrycz extended his double-double streak to three games. On January 2, Burke earned his first Big Ten Conference Player of the Week honor and his third Freshman of the Week honor for his 40 points in Michigan's first two conference games. On December 29 against Penn State he posted 13 points, seven assists, five rebounds and no turnovers. On January 1, 2012, he added a career-high 27 points on 8-for-11 shooting with three rebounds and three assists against Minnesota to earn Big Ten Conference Player of the Week the following day.\n"}
{"text": " On January 19, Michigan became the leader in the conference with a 5 \u2013 2 record, thanks to conference wins over ranked Wisconsin and Michigan State teams. Michigan remained in first place until losing to Ohio State ten days later. The team went 5-2 in conference in February, including wins over ranked Indiana and Ohio State teams. Michigan lost its final home game of the season to Purdue on February 25 to finish with a 15 \u2013 1 home record. On March 1, the team defeated Illinois for their first road win in Illinois since 1995. During the game, Michigan's 30th of the season, Trey Burke broke Gary Grant's school freshman assists record, set over the course of 30 games in the 1984-85 season, by pushing his total to 143.\n"}
{"text": " In the first game of the 2012 Big Ten Conference Men's Basketball Tournament against Minnesota, Burke led the team to victory with a career-high 30 points. Burke's total was a school record for the Big Ten Conference Men's Basketball Tournament. In the semifinal contest, however, Michigan was eliminated by Ohio State for the third year in a row. Michigan entered the 2012 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament seeded fourth, but lost to the thirteenth-seeded Ohio Bobcats 65 \u2013 60. Burke became Michigan's first Associated Press All-American honoree since Robert Traylor and Louis Bullock in 1998.\n"}
{"text": " Stu Douglass concluded the season as the school's all-time leader in games played, with 136. He surpassed Loy Vaught, who played in 135 games. Novak set the school record in career minutes played with 4,357, surpassing Louis Bullock, who played 4,356 minutes. Burke had a school record-setting freshman season in assists, ending the year with 156.\n"}
{"text": " == Statistics ==\n"}
{"text": " The team posted the following statistics:\n"}
{"text": " == Rankings ==\n"}
{"text": " == Watchlists and awards ==\n"}
{"text": " === Preseason ===\n"}
{"text": " Five of the 30 nominees for the men's basketball Lowe's Senior CLASS Award were from the Big Ten, including Michigan's Zack Novak.\n"}
{"text": " === In-season ===\n"}
{"text": " Trey Burke was one of nearly 60 Bob Cousy Award candidates named in December 2011. On January 4, Burke was one of 20 finalists. On January 25, Novak was named one of ten finalists for the Lowe's Senior CLASS Award along with three other Big Ten athletes. He was also one of four Big Ten men's basketball players named Academic All-District, putting him among the 40 finalists for the 15-man Academic All-America team. Novak was named a third team Academic All-American.\n"}
{"text": " === Accolades and honors ===\n"}
{"text": " Trey Burke\n"}
{"text": " CBSSports.com Second Team All-American\n"}
{"text": " Big Ten Freshman of the Year (Big Ten media)\n"}
{"text": " Co-Big Ten Freshman of the Year (Sporting News)\n"}
{"text": " All-Big Ten (second team, coaches and media)\n"}
{"text": " All-Freshman (unanimous)\n"}
{"text": " USBWA All-District V Team\n"}
{"text": " Tim Hardaway\n"}
{"text": " All-Big Ten (third team, coaches and media)\n"}
{"text": " Zack Novak\n"}
{"text": " Academic All-District\n"}
{"text": " Academic All-American (third team)\n"}
{"text": " All-Big Ten (honorable mention, media)\n"}
{"text": " Academic All-Big Ten\n"}
{"text": " Josh Bartelstein\n"}
{"text": " Academic All-Big Ten\n"}
{"text": " Matt Vogrich\n"}
{"text": " Academic All-Big Ten\n"}
{"text": " == Roster changes ==\n"}
{"text": " The team lost senior captains Stu Douglass and Zack Novak as well as senior reserve Corey Person to graduation following the season. Person was later granted an extra year of eligibility to return to the team. At the end of the season, three players (Evan Smotrycz, Carlton Brundidge and Colton Christian) decided to leave the program. Smotrycz, who had started in 42 of the 69 games he played in during his first two years, left the program as the program's fifth all-time three-point shooter with a percentage of 40.5. Smotrycz transferred to Maryland, Brundidge transferred to Detroit and Christian transferred to Florida International.\n"}
{"text": " Following the season, Trey Burke first said he was not inclined to enter the 2012 NBA Draft. A few days later, however, the realization that the pool of point guards in the 2012 draft was shallow and Burke's stock was high led to some deliberation for him and his family: \"When you have a season as a freshman like he did, the NBA, they like them young,\" Trey's father, Benji Burke said. \"They think their ceiling is higher when they 're young. Trey had ... a solid season for a freshman. It's going to be one of the weaker point guard drafts in years.\" Some observers thought Burke was at his peak in terms of NBA potential. Eventually, he decided to return to play for Michigan for another year.\n"}
{"text": " === 2012 \u2013 13 team recruits ===\n"}
{"text": " The team announced in September 2010 that Glenn Robinson III, son of former first overall NBA Draft pick Glenn Robinson, verbally agreed to attend Michigan, making him the first commitment in the school's class of 2012. Canadian wing guard Nik Stauskas gave Michigan its second verbal commitment for the class of 2012 on March 26, 2011. On November 3, Mitch McGary, who was ranked as the number-two prospect in the nation at the time, announced his verbal commitment to Michigan. Within hours of the commitment, ESPN said that Michigan's ranked as the fifth-best class in the nation. All three signed a National Letter of Intent with the team on November 9. After several other schools announced their commitments, the McGary's commitment moved Michigan from outside the top 25 to the seventh-best class in the nation, according to ESPN. Michael \"Spike\" Albrecht committed to Michigan on April 6, 2012.\n"}
{"text": " == Team Players Drafted into the NBA ==\n"}
{"text": " = Upsilon Andromedae b =\n"}
{"text": " Upsilon Andromedae b (abbreviated \u03c5 Andromedae b, \u03c5 And b), occasionally designated Upsilon Andromedae Ab (to distinguish it from the red dwarf Upsilon Andromedae B), also named Saffar, is an extrasolar planet approximately 44 light-years away from the Sun in the constellation of Andromeda. The planet orbits the Solar twin star, Upsilon Andromedae A, approximately every five days. Discovered in June 1996 by Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler, it was one of the first hot Jupiters to be discovered. It is also one of the first non-resolved planets to be detected directly. Upsilon Andromedae b is the innermost known planet in its planetary system.\n"}
{"text": " In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names. In December 2015, the IAU announced the winning name was Saffar for this planet. The winning name was submitted by the Vega Astronomy Club of Morocco and honours the 11th Century astronomer Ibn al-Saffar of Muslim Spain.\n"}
{"text": " == Discovery ==\n"}
{"text": " Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, Upsilon Andromedae b was detected by the variations in its star's radial velocity caused by the planet's gravity. The variations were detected by making sensitive measurements of the Doppler shift of Upsilon Andromedae's spectrum. The planet's existence was announced in January 1997, together with 55 Cancri b and the planet orbiting Tau Bo\u00f6tis.\n"}
{"text": " Like 51 Pegasi b, the first extrasolar planet discovered around a normal star, Upsilon Andromedae b orbits very close to its star, closer than Mercury does to our Sun. The planet takes 4.617 days to complete an orbit, with a semimajor axis of 0.0595 AU.\n"}
{"text": " A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Upsilon Andromedae b is that only a lower limit on the mass can be found. In the case of Upsilon Andromedae b, this lower limit is 68.7 % of the mass of Jupiter, though depending on the inclination of the orbit, the true mass may be much greater. However, astronomers found recently that inclination of the orbital plane is around 25\u00b0and the true mass may be about 1.4 MJ. Coplanarity is not to be assumed; the mutual inclination between c and d is 35 degrees.\n"}
{"text": " == Physical characteristics ==\n"}
{"text": " Given the planet's high mass, it is likely that Upsilon Andromedae b is a gas giant with no solid surface.\n"}
{"text": " The Spitzer Space Telescope measured the planet temperature, and found that the difference between the two sides of Upsilon Andromedae b of about 1,400 degrees Celsius, ranging from minus 20 to 230 degrees to about 1,400 to 1,650 degrees Celsius. The temperature difference has led to speculation that Upsilon Andromedae b is tidal locked with the same side always facing Upsilon Andromedae A.\n"}
{"text": " Sudarsky had, on the assumption that the planet is similar to Jupiter in composition and that its environment is close to chemical equilibrium, predicted Upsilon Andromedae b to have reflective clouds of silicates and iron in its upper atmosphere. The cloud deck instead absorbs the sun's radiation; between that and the hot, high pressure gas surrounding the mantle, exists a stratosphere of cooler gas. The outer shell of dark, opaque, hot cloud is assumed to consist of vanadium and titanium oxides (\"pM planets\"), but other compounds like tholins cannot be ruled out yet.\n"}
{"text": " The planet is unlikely to have large moons, since tidal forces would either eject them from orbit or destroy them on short timescales compared to the age of the system.\n"}
{"text": " The planet (with 51 Pegasi b) was deemed a candidate for direct imaging by Planetpol. Preliminary results from polarimetric studies indicate that the planet has predominately blue color, is 1.36 times as large and 0.74 times as massive as Jupiter, meaning that the mean density is 0.36g / cm3. It has a geometric albedo of 0.35 in visible light.\n"}
{"text": " == Effect on its sun ==\n"}
{"text": " Upsilon Andromedae b appears to be responsible for increased chromospheric activity on its parent star. Observations suggest that there is a \"hot spot\" on the star around 169\u00b0away from the sub-planetary point. This may be the result of interactions between the magnetic fields of the planet and the star. The mechanism may be similar to that responsible for the activity of RS Canum Venaticorum variable stars, or the interaction between Jupiter and its moon Io.\n"}
{"text": " = Daniel Radcliffe =\n"}
{"text": " Daniel Jacob Radcliffe (born 23 July 1989) is an English actor who rose to prominence as the title character in the Harry Potter film series. He made his acting debut at 10 years of age in BBC One's 1999 television film David Copperfield, followed by his cinematic debut in 2001's The Tailor of Panama. At age 11, he was cast as Harry Potter in the first Harry Potter film, and starred in the series for 10 years until the release of the eighth and final film in 2011.\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe began to branch out to stage acting in 2007, starring in the London and New York productions of Equus, and in the 2011 Broadway revival of the musical How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying. He starred in the 2012 horror film The Woman in Black, and played beat poet Allen Ginsberg in the 2013 independent film Kill Your Darlings.\n"}
{"text": " He has contributed to many charities, including Demelza Hospice Care for Children, and The Trevor Project for suicide prevention among LGBTQ youth, which gave him its Hero Award in 2011.\n"}
{"text": " == Early life ==\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe was born in West London, England. He is the only child of Alan George Radcliffe, a literary agent, and Marcia Jeannine Gresham (n\u00e9e Marcia Gresham Jacobson), a casting agent who was involved in several films for the BBC, including The Inspector Lynley Mysteries and Walk Away and I Stumble. His father, who was raised in Banbridge, County Down, Northern Ireland, is from \"a very working-class\" Protestant background. His mother is Jewish, and was born in South Africa and raised in Westcliff-on-Sea, Essex. Her family had originally come from Poland and Russia. Radcliffe's parents had both acted as children.\n"}
{"text": " In a 2012 interview, Radcliffe stated: \"There was never [religious] faith in the house. I think of myself as being Jewish and Irish, despite the fact that I 'm English.\" He has stated: \"We were Christmas tree Jews\", and that he is \"very proud of being Jewish\".\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe first expressed a desire to act at the age of five, and in December 1999, aged 10, he made his acting debut in BBC One's televised two-part adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel David Copperfield, portraying the title character as a young boy. He was educated at two independent schools for boys: Sussex House School, a day school in Chelsea's Cadogan Square, and the City of London School, a day school on the North Bank of the River Thames in London's financial district (known as the City of London). Attending school became difficult for Radcliffe after the release of the first Harry Potter film, with some fellow pupils becoming hostile, though he says it was people just trying to \"have a crack at the kid that plays Harry Potter\" rather than jealousy.\n"}
{"text": " As his acting career began to consume his schedule, Radcliffe continued his education through on-set tutors. He admitted he was not very good at school, considering it useless and finding the work \"really difficult.\" He achieved A grades in the three AS-level exams that he took in 2006, but decided to take a break from education and did not go to college or university. Part of his reasoning was that he already knew he wanted to act and write, and that it would be difficult to have a normal college experience. \"The paparazzi, they 'd love it,\" he told Details magazine in 2007. \"If there were any parties going on, they'd be tipped off as to where they were.\"\n"}
{"text": " == Career ==\n"}
{"text": " === Harry Potter ===\n"}
{"text": " In 2000, producer David Heyman asked Radcliffe to audition for the role of Harry Potter for the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the best-selling book by British author J. K. Rowling. Rowling had been searching for an unknown British actor to personify the character, and the movie's director Chris Columbus recalled thinking, \"This is what I want. This is Harry Potter\", after he saw a video of the young actor in David Copperfield. Eight months later, and after several auditions, Radcliffe was selected to play the part. Rowling also endorsed the selection saying, \"I don 't think Chris Columbus could have found a better Harry.\" Radcliffe's parents originally turned down the offer, as they had been told that it would involve six films shot in Los Angeles. Warner Bros. instead offered Radcliffe a two-movie contract with shooting in the UK; Radcliffe was unsure at the time if he would do any more than that.\n"}
{"text": " The release of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (released as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the United States) took place in 2001. Radcliffe received a seven figure salary for the lead role, but asserted that the fee was \"not that important\" to him; his parents chose to invest the money for him. The film was highly popular and was met with positive reviews, and critics took notice of Radcliffe: \"Radcliffe is the embodiment of every reader's imagination. It is wonderful to see a young hero who is so scholarly looking and filled with curiosity and who connects with very real emotions, from solemn intelligence and the delight of discovery to deep family longing,\" wrote Bob Graham of the San Francisco Chronicle.\n"}
{"text": " A year later Radcliffe starred in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second installment of the series. Reviewers were positive about the lead actors'performances but had polarised opinions on the movie as a whole. The 2004 release Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was the third film in the series. Radcliffe's performance was panned by New York Times journalist A. O. Scott, who wrote that Watson had to carry him with her performance. Next was Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire in 2005. The film was the second-highest grossing Harry Potter film at that point, and Radcliffe singled out the humour as being a reason for the movie's creative success.\n"}
{"text": " The future of the franchise was put into question when Radcliffe and his co-leads Emma Watson and Rupert Grint hesitated signing on to continue their roles for the final two episodes; however, by March 2007 Radcliffe had signed for the final films, which put an end to weeks of press \"speculation that he would be denied the role due to his involvement in Equus\", in which he had performed nude on stage. Radcliffe reprised his role for the fourth time in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2007). Radcliffe stated that director David Yates and actress Imelda Staunton made Order of the Phoenix the \"most fun\" film in the series to work on. His performance earned several award nominations, and he received the 2008 National Movie Award for \"Best Male Performance.\" As his fame and the series continued, Radcliffe, Grint, and Watson left imprints of their hands, feet, and wands in front of Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. In July 2009 Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was released, the series' sixth instalment. Radcliffe received nominations for \"Best Male Performance\" and \"Global Superstar\" at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards.\n"}
{"text": " For financial and scripting reasons the last book was divided into two films, shot back to back, which drew criticism from the series' fanbase. Radcliffe defended the split, stating that it would have been impossible to properly adapt the final novel into a single film. He added that the last movie was going to be extremely fast-paced with a lot of action, while the first part would be far more sedate, focusing on character development; he added that, had they combined them, those things would not have made it to the final cut. Filming lasted for a year, concluding in June 2010 and on the last day of shooting, like most of the cast and crew, Radcliffe openly wept.\n"}
{"text": " The final film, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows \u2013 Part 2, was released in July 2011. Radcliffe, along with the film, was critically acclaimed: Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post asked, \"Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors?\"; similarly, Rex Reed said: \"Frankly, I \u2019 m sorry to see [Radcliffe] go\"; while Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers commented on Radcliffe: \"Well played, sir.\" Roger Ebert gave the film a highly positive review, but felt that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson were \"upstaged by the supporting [actors].\"\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe admitted that some people would never be able to separate him from the character, but also said he is \"proud to be associated with this film series forever.\" Despite positive feelings about the movies, he has no interest in doing more Harry Potter films. After Rowling hinted about writing an eighth book, Radcliffe was asked if he would do another film to which he replied: \"[It is] very doubtful. I think 10 years is a long time to spend with one character.\" Despite devoting so much time to the series, Radcliffe has asserted that he did not miss out on a childhood like other child actors: \"I \u2019 ve been given a much better perspective on life by doing Potter.\"\n"}
{"text": " === 2001 \u2013 09 ===\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe made his film debut in The Tailor of Panama, an American 2001 film based on John le Carr\u00e9's 1996 spy novel, and a moderate commercial success. In 2002 he made his stage debut as a celebrity guest in a West End theatre production of The Play What I Wrote, directed by Kenneth Branagh \u2013 who also appeared with him in the second Harry Potter film. In 2007 he appeared in the film December Boys, an Australian family drama about four orphans that was shot in 2005 and released to theatres in mid-September 2007. Also in 2007, Radcliffe co-starred with Carey Mulligan in My Boy Jack, a television drama film shown on ITV on Remembrance Day. The film received mostly positive reviews, with several critics praising Radcliffe's performance as an 18-year-old who goes missing in action during a battle. Radcliffe stated, \"For many people my age, the First World War is just a topic in a history book. But I 've always been fascinated by the subject and think it's as relevant today as it ever was.\"\n"}
{"text": " At age 17, in a bid to show people he was prepared for adult roles, he performed onstage in Peter Shaffer's play Equus, which had not been revived since its first run in 1973, at the Gielgud Theatre. Radcliffe took on the lead role as Alan Strang, a stable boy who has an obsession with horses. Advance sales topped \u00a3 1.7 million, and the role generated significant pre-opening media interest, as Radcliffe appeared in a nude scene. Equus opened on 27 February 2007 and ran until 9 June 2007. Radcliffe's performance received positive reviews as critics were impressed by the nuance and depth of his against-type role. Charles Spencer of The Daily Telegraph wrote that he \"displays a dramatic power and an electrifying stage presence that marks a tremendous leap forward.\" He added: \"I never thought I would find the diminutive (but perfectly formed) Radcliffe a sinister figure, but as Alan Strang ... there are moments when he seems genuinely scary in his rage and confusion.\" The production then transferred to Broadway in September 2008, with Radcliffe still in the lead role. Radcliffe stated he was nervous about repeating the role on Broadway because he considered American audiences more discerning than those in London. Radcliffe's performance was nominated for a Drama Desk Award.\n"}
{"text": " === 2010 \u2013 present ===\n"}
{"text": " After voicing a character in an episode of the animated television series The Simpsons in late 2010, Radcliffe debuted as J. Pierrepont Finch in the 2011 Broadway revival How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying, a role previously held by Broadway veterans Robert Morse and Matthew Broderick. Other cast members included John Larroquette, Rose Hemingway and Mary Faber. Both the actor and production received favourable reviews, with USA Today commenting: \"Radcliffe ultimately succeeds not by overshadowing his fellow cast members, but by working in conscientious harmony with them \u2013 and having a blast in the process.\" Radcliffe's performance in the show earned him Drama Desk Award, Drama League Award and Outer Critics Circle Award nominations. The production itself later received nine Tony Award nominations. Radcliffe left the show on 1 January 2012.\n"}
{"text": " His first post-Harry Potter project was the 2012 horror film The Woman in Black, adapted from the 1983 novel by Susan Hill. The film was released on 3 February 2012 in the United States and Canada, and was released on 10 February in the UK. Radcliffe portrays a man sent to deal with the legal matters of a mysterious woman who has just died, and soon after he begins to experience strange events and hauntings from the ghost of a woman dressed in black. He has said he was \"incredibly excited\" to be part of the film and described the script as \"beautifully written\".\n"}
{"text": " In 2013, he portrayed American poet Allen Ginsberg in the thriller drama Kill Your Darlings, directed by John Krokidas. He also starred in an Irish-Canadian romantic comedy film The F Word directed by Michael Dowseand written by Elan Mastai, based on TJ Dawe and Michael Rinaldi's play Toothpaste and Cigars and then he starred in an American dark fantasy horror film directed by Alexandre Aja Horns. Both of the films premiered at the 38th Toronto International Film Festival.\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe also performed at the No\u00ebl Coward Theatre in the stage play revival of Martin McDonagh's dark comedy The Cripple of Inishmaan as the lead, Billy Claven, for which he won the WhatsOnStage Award for Best Actor in a Play. In 2015, Radcliffe starred as Igor in a science fiction horror film Victor Frankenstein directed by Paul McGuigan and written by Max Landis, which was based on contemporary adaptations of Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein. In 2016, Radcliffe portrayed Manny, a talkative corpse, in the indie film Swiss Army Man.\n"}
{"text": " He is set to star as American reporter Jake Adelstein in Tokyo Vice. In November 2015 he joined the ensemble cast of Shane Carruth's third film, The Modern Ocean alongside Anne Hathaway, Keanu Reeves, Tom Holland, Chlo\u00eb Grace Moretz, Asa Butterfield, Jeff Goldblum and Abraham Attah.\n"}
{"text": " == Personal life ==\n"}
{"text": " In 2008, Radcliffe revealed that he has a mild form of the neurological disorder developmental coordination disorder. The motor skill disorder sometimes prevents him from doing simple activities, such as writing or tying his own shoelaces. \"I was having a hard time at school, in terms of being crap at everything, with no discernible talent,\" Radcliffe commented. In August 2010, he stopped drinking alcohol after finding himself becoming too reliant on it.\n"}
{"text": " In November 2007 Radcliffe published several poems under the pen name Jacob Gershon \u2013 a combination of his middle name and the Jewish version of his mother's maiden name Gresham \u2013 in Rubbish, an underground fashion magazine. He has a close friendship with his Harry Potter co-stars Tom Felton and Emma Watson, and is tight-knit with his family, whom he credits for keeping him grounded.\n"}
{"text": " Sources disagree about Radcliffe's personal wealth; he was reported to have earned \u00a3 1 million for the first Harry Potter film and around \u00a3 15 million for the sixth. Radcliffe appeared on the Sunday Times Rich List in 2006, which estimated his personal fortune to be \u00a3 14 million, making him one of the richest young people in the UK. In March 2009 he was ranked number one on the Forbes \"Most Valuable Young Stars\" list, and by April The Daily Telegraph measured his net worth at \u00a3 30m, making him the 12th richest young person in the UK. Radcliffe was considered to be the richest teenager in England later that year. In February 2010 he was named the sixth highest paid Hollywood male star and placed at number five on Forbes's December list of Hollywood's highest-grossing actors with a film revenue of US $ 780 million, mainly due to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows being released that year.\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe maintains a home in the West Village of Lower Manhattan in New York City. As of October 2012, Radcliffe has been dating American Erin Darke, whom he met on the set of Kill Your Darlings. There were rumours and stories of a possible engagement in mid-2014, but Darke's father Ian Darke denied there were any such plans in December 2014.\n"}
{"text": " === Views and activism ===\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe is an atheist. He has been quoted as saying: \"I 'm an atheist, and a militant atheist when religion starts impacting on legislation\", and in a separate interview, he stated; \"I'm very relaxed about it [being an atheist]. I don 't preach my atheism, but I have a huge amount of respect for people like Richard Dawkins who do. Anything he does on television, I will watch\".\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe is a supporter of the Labour Party. Until 2012 Radcliffe had publicly supported the Liberal Democrats, and before the 2010 general election Radcliffe endorsed Nick Clegg, the Lib Dem leader. In 2012, however, Radcliffe switched his allegiance to Labour, citing disappointment with the performance of Nick Clegg and the Lib Dems in government, and approving of the Labour leader, Ed Miliband. In September 2015, he endorsed Jeremy Corbyn in the 2015 leadership contest to succeed Miliband. He is a supporter of a British republic. At the age of sixteen, Radcliffe became the youngest non-royal ever to have an individual portrait in Britain's National Portrait Gallery (NPG). On 13 April 2006 his portrait, drawn by Stuart Pearson Wright, was unveiled as part of a new exhibition opening at the Royal National Theatre; it was then moved to the NPG where it resides.\n"}
{"text": " Speaking out against homophobia, Radcliffe began filming public service announcements in 2009 for The Trevor Project, promoting awareness of gay teen suicide prevention. He first learned of the organisation while working on Equus on Broadway in 2008 and has contributed financially to it. \"I have always hated anybody who is not tolerant of gay men or lesbians or bisexuals. Now I am in the very fortunate position where I can actually help or do something about it,\" he said in a 2010 interview. In the same interview, he spoke of the importance of public figures advocating for equal rights. Radcliffe considers his involvement to be one of the most important things in his career and, for his work for the organisation, he was given the \"Hero Award\" in 2011.\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe has supported various charities. He designed the Cu-Bed for Habitat's VIP Kids range (a cube made of eight smaller ones which can be made into a bed, chaise-longue or chair) with all the royalties from the sale of the bed going directly to his favourite charity, Demelza House Children's Hospice in Sittingbourne, Kent. Radcliffe has urged his fans to make donations, in lieu of Christmas presents to him, to the charity's Candle for Care program. In 2008 he was among several celebrities who donated their old glasses to an exhibit honouring victims of the Holocaust. During the Broadway run of Equus he auctioned off a pair of jeans and other items worn in the show, for New-York-based Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS. and presenting at the 2011 Gypsy of the Year competition. He has also donated money to Get Connected UK, a London-based free confidential national helpline for troubled youth.\n"}
{"text": " Radcliffe is a fan of the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League.\n"}
{"text": " == Filmography ==\n"}
{"text": " == Awards and nominations ==\n"}
{"text": " = ... Thirteen Years Later =\n"}
{"text": " \"... Thirteen Years Later\" is the fifth episode of the third season of the American crime-thriller television series Millennium. It premiered on the Fox network on October 30, 1998. The episode was written by Michael R. Perry, and directed by Thomas J. Wright. \"... Thirteen Years Later\" featured guest appearances by the members of the band Kiss, performing both as themselves and as minor characters.\n"}
{"text": " In this episode, Federal Bureau of Investigation agents Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) and Emma Hollis (Klea Scott) investigate a series of murders on the set of a horror film \u2014 and realize that the production is based on a case Black solved several years earlier.\n"}
{"text": " \"... Thirteen Years Later\" proved a difficult episode to produce, with filming requiring a large number of shots to be completed and the script to be adjusted on short notice. It has evoked mixed responses from critics, although the guest appearances by the members of Kiss have been more universally criticized.\n"}
{"text": " == Plot ==\n"}
{"text": " Federal Bureau of Investigation agents Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) and Emma Hollis (Klea Scott) travel to Travelers Rest, South Carolina to investigate the deaths of film director Lew Carroll (Paul Stanley) and Marta Danbury, the leading actress in his newest film. As the local sheriff guides Black and Hollis through the murder scene, Black realizes that the film is based on a real murder case he investigated thirteen years previously; he is shocked to learn that the true story is being sensationalized for the screen.\n"}
{"text": " The pair interview the cast and crew as suspects, discovering that many would benefit from either of the deaths \u2014 producer Kenny Neiderman had been having an affair with Danbury; Rowdy Beeman replaced Carroll as director; Ruby Dahl and Ramona Tangent, whose roles in the film will expand without Danbury; and Mark Bianco, a method actor relishing the opportunity to meet Black, whose role he plays. Also questioned is Hugo Winston, the man whose partner was murdered in the earlier case and who is campaigning against what he sees as a disrespectful production.\n"}
{"text": " The production continues, and after the filming of a pool scene the crew gather in catering; Beeman discovers a severed finger in his sandwich, recognizing from its ring that it belonged to Niederman. When the sheriff shuts down production, Black theorizes that the killer may target the crew's hotel; he and Hollis arrive to find the body of the film's publicist hanging from a rope. The next day, a film extra (Gene Simmons) confesses to the killings; Black pokes holes in his story and discovers he is not a credible perpetrator. Regardless, production is resumed \u2014 and shortly afterwards, several crew members are found with their throats cut, while Winston's body hangs nearby in an apparent murder-suicide.\n"}
{"text": " Black doubts that Winston is the killer, and while Hollis stays in the hotel, he visits the production's climactic shoot, set during a performance by the band Kiss. As he looks around him, the sheriff's body is thrown down from the rafters; as the pandemonium settles, Black realizes that horror films end with the leading lady being targeted \u2014 the killer is after Hollis. Racing back to her hotel, Black discover Hollis fending off a chainsaw-wielding Bianco. Black is able to subdue Bianco after Hollis disables the chainsaw; the actor then explains that he lacked Black's insight and had to commit the crimes in order to see through the eyes of a killer.\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " \"... Thirteen Years Later\" is the second episode of Millennium to have been written by Michael R. Perry, who had previously penned the second season episode \"The Mikado\", and would provide a further three scripts in the third season. The episode was directed by Thomas J. Wright, who helmed a total of twenty-six episodes across all three seasons. Wright would also go on to direct \"Millennium\", the series' crossover episode with its sister show The X-Files.\n"}
{"text": " The episode features guest appearances by the members of the band Kiss \u2014 Peter Criss, Ace Frehley, Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley \u2014 who each portray both themselves and a small cameo role. However, the band members insisted during filming that their roles be given an equal amount of dialogue, which led to Perry being asked to amend scenes on short notice and fax updated scripts to the shooting locations; ultimately much of this additional material was filmed but not used in the episode. Ace Frehley was also unenthusiastic towards his role, and requested to play a \"300-pound black man\" instead, wishing to wear a fat suit like those used in the 1996 Eddie Murphy film The Nutty Professor; he was eventually convinced that such a suit would take too long to fabricate.\n"}
{"text": " Perry has described the production \"... Thirteen Years Later\" as being \"one of the most gruelling\" of the series'run, citing its abundance of stunt work and physical effects as the cause of this. Perry praised Wright for his ability to direct the episode within the usual time constraints, as he felt the number of shots involved was more akin to a feature film than a television episode. Guest star Jeff Yagher, who played killer Mark Bianco, is the husband of actress Megan Gallagher, who starred in the first two seasons of Millennium as Black's wife Catherine.\n"}
{"text": " == Broadcast and reception ==\n"}
{"text": " \"... Thirteen Years Later\" was first broadcast on the Fox network on October 30, 1998. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5.4 during its original broadcast, meaning that 5.4 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode. This represented approximately 5.37 million households.\n"}
{"text": " \"... Thirteen Years Later\" received mixed reviews from critics. The A.V. Club's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a \"B\". VanDerWerff felt that the episode's comedic slant was necessary within the wider series, as he considered Millennium's dark tone to be prone to unintentional comedy and that a comic episode provided an outlet for this. VanDerWerff found the script to be at its strongest when satirizing the character of Frank Black, but admitted that it \"falls apart\" when attempting to send up other subjects; he also felt that the guest appearance by Kiss felt unnecessary and contrived. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated \"... Thirteen Years Later\" one star out of five. Shearman felt that the episode had the potential to be much better, but that \"the whole concept drowns in overkill\". He considered the episode's characters to too shallow and its commentary to be too heavy-handed to fully execute anything meaningful; criticism was also levelled at the guest roles by the members of Kiss.\n"}
{"text": " = New Jersey Route 29 =\n"}
{"text": " Route 29 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs 34.76 mi (55.94 km) from an interchange with Interstate 295 (I-295) in Hamilton Township in Mercer County, where it continues as I-195, to Route 12 (Bridge Street / Race Street) in Frenchtown, Hunterdon County. Between the southern terminus and I-95, the route is a mix of freeway and four-lane divided highway that runs along the Delaware River through Trenton. This section includes a truck-restricted tunnel that was built along the river near historic houses and Riverview Cemetery. North of I-95, Route 29 turns into a scenic and mostly two-lane highway. North of the South Trenton Tunnel, it is designated the Delaware River Scenic Byway, a New Jersey Scenic Byway and National Scenic Byway, that follows the Delaware River in mostly rural sections of Mercer County and Hunterdon County. The obsolete Delaware & Raritan Canal usually stands between the river and the highway. Most sections of this portion of Route 29 are completely shaded due to the tree canopy. Route 29 also has a spur, Route 129, which connects Route 29 to U.S. Route 1 (US 1) in Trenton.\n"}
{"text": " Route 29 was initially designated in 1927 to run from downtown Trenton to Newark, following present-day Route 179 and US 202 between Lambertville and Somerville and US 22 between Somerville and Newark. The route between Lambertville and Frenchtown was originally Route 29A. In 1953, Route 29 was shifted to follow the alignment of Route 29A to avoid the concurrencies with the U.S. Routes. Route 29 between South Warren Street in Trenton and I-95 in Ewing Township was upgraded to a four-lane highway, with a portion of freeway, in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1995, the southern freeway part of Route 29 between I-195 / I-295 and Route 129 in Hamilton Township was completed. This freeway section was linked to the rest of Route 29 by a tunnel completed in 2002. A realignment of Route 29 in Lambertville by the 2000s made the route concurrent with the entire length of 0.26-mile-long (0.42 km) Route 165.\n"}
{"text": " == Route description ==\n"}
{"text": " === Mercer County ===\n"}
{"text": " Route 29 begins at a modified cloverleaf interchange with Interstate 195 and Interstate 295 in Hamilton Township, and it serves as the western continuation of Interstate 195, heading to the northwest as a six-lane freeway. The route interchanges with Route 129, a spur of Route 29 which connects to U.S. Route 1, at a partial interchange with a northbound exit and southbound entrance. Route 29 narrows to four lanes past this interchange and crosses into Trenton. The route comes to a southbound exit and entrance for Lamberton Road. At this point, Route 29 becomes the Delaware River Scenic Byway, a state scenic byway that was also designated a National Scenic Byway in 2009. Route 29 runs along the bank of the Delaware River and enters a truck-restricted tunnel that passes by historic houses and Riverview Cemetery. Within this tunnel, Route 29 features a southbound exit and northbound entrance for Lalor Street. The route emerges from the tunnel as the John Fitch Parkway, passes by Arm & Hammer Park, and comes to a traffic light at Thunder Road / Cass Street where it widens back to six lanes. Route 29 meets South Warren Street at another traffic light. The median widens and it passes under the Morrisville-Trenton Railroad Bridge, which carries the Amtrak Northeast Corridor over the Delaware River.\n"}
{"text": " Route 29 passes under the Trenton-Morrisville Toll Bridge, which carries U.S. Route 1 over the Delaware River. Access to U.S. Route 1 southbound is provided by ramps from Route 29 while access to Route 29 from northbound U.S. Route 1 is provided by South Warren Street. Route 29 passes under the Lower Trenton Bridge and the median narrows again. It interchanges with Market Street, which provides access to Route 33, and then features an interchange which provides access to the New Jersey State House with a northbound exit and southbound entrance. Route 29 crosses the Assunpink Creek and features an interchange which provides access to South Warren Street with exits in both directions but only a northbound entrance. Route 29 continues to a cloverleaf interchange with Calhoun Street (County Route 653), which provides access to the Calhoun Street Bridge over the Delaware River. Riverside Avenue exits as a frontage road paralleling the northbound lanes of Route 29 before the road features a northbound exit for Hermitage Avenue. Route 29 comes to a partial interchange with Parkside Avenue, with a northbound exit and southbound entrance, and then features a northbound exit for South Eastfield Avenue.\n"}
{"text": " The freeway portion of Route 29 ends at the intersection with Lee Avenue and it continues northwest along the Delaware River as a four-lane divided highway. The route meets the southern terminus of County Route 579 (Sullivan Way). The median widens again and then narrows as the route meets the southern terminus of Route 175, a former alignment of Route 29 that currently serves as a frontage road. Route 29 crosses into Ewing Township and becomes the Daniel Bray Highway. It passes under the West Trenton Railroad Bridge, which carries CSX and SEPTA \u2019 s West Trenton Line over the Delaware River. Route 29 intersects Route 175 again and then comes to a complex interchange with Interstate 95, with the ramps within the median of Route 29, just to the east of the Scudder Falls Bridge.\n"}
{"text": " Upon crossing the Delaware and Raritan Canal, Route 29 narrows down to a two-lane undivided road called River Road. It continues along the Delaware River, next to the Delaware and Raritan Canal, which runs between Route 29 and the river. The route intersects the northern terminus of Route 175. Farther north, Route 29 enters Hopewell Township and continues into a more rural setting shaded with trees. Route 29 heads to Washington Crossing State Park, where it intersects County Route 546, which heads east on Washington Crossing-Pennington Road, and the approach to the Washington Crossing Bridge, which continues into Pennsylvania as Pennsylvania Route 532. Route 29 continues north along the Delaware River through Titusville, passing by Washington Crossing State Park.\n"}
{"text": " === Hunterdon County ===\n"}
{"text": " Route 29 crosses into West Amwell Township in Hunterdon County. It enters Lambertville, where Route 29 becomes a four-lane divided highway. At the intersection of South Main Street, Route 29 becomes concurrent with Route 165. The route becomes an undivided highway again and meets the western terminus of County Route 518 (Brunswick Street). It meets Route 179 (Bridge Street), where Route 165 ends and Route 29 turns west for a one-block wrong-way concurrency with the two-lane, undivided Route 179, lasting to the intersection of Main Street, where Route 29 turns north on Main Street.\n"}
{"text": " Route 29 follows Main Street north through Lambertville, crossing into Delaware Township. It comes to an interchange with U.S. Route 202 just east of the New Hope-Lambertville Toll Bridge, with access to northbound U.S. Route 202 and from southbound U.S. Route 202 provided by way of Alexauken Creek Road. Route 29 continues along the Delaware River and enters Stockton. The route intersects Bridge Street, which crosses the Delaware River on the Centre Bridge-Stockton Bridge and continues into Pennsylvania as Pennsylvania Route 263. Shortly after that intersection, Route 29 intersects the southern terminus of County Route 523 (Stockton-Flemington Road). Route 29 crosses back into Delaware Township, where it meets the southern terminus of County Route 519 (Kingwood-Stockton Road).\n"}
{"text": " Route 29 makes a sharp left turn and heads west along the river as a rural road, crossing into Kingwood Township, where the name of the road changes from Main Street to Daniel Bray Highway. Here, it intersects with County Route 651 (Byram-Kingwood Road). The route bends to the north and continues along the Delaware River for several miles, crossing into Frenchtown, where the route becomes Trenton Road. Upon entering Frenchtown, an end shield for northbound Route 29 is posted to mark the end of state maintenance, which officially ends at the Washington Street intersection, where maintenance is transferred to the county. Despite this, Route 29 officially continues farther north along Trenton Road to its northern terminus at Route 12 (Bridge Street / Race Street), a short distance east of Route 12 \u2019 s western terminus at the Uhlerstown-Frenchtown Bridge. The southern terminus of County Route 513 is located a block north of the northern terminus of Route 29 along Route 12.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " The current route was originally legislated in 1911 as part of the Delaware River Drive, a named state highway that was proposed to run from along the Delaware River from Trenton to the New York border in Montague Township. Route 29 was originally defined in 1927 to run from Trenton to Newark. The original route ran from downtown Trenton along State Street and Sanhican Drive. From there, it followed its current alignment to Lambertville, where it followed present-day Route 179 to Ringoes to present-day County Route 514, which it followed to Woods Tavern. The route turned north on U.S. Route 206 (also designated Route 31) and followed that route to Somerville, where it followed U.S. Route 22 to Newark. The current alignment of Route 29 from Lambertville to Route 12 in Frenchtown was designated Route 29A in 1927.\n"}
{"text": " The alignment of Route 29 between Ringoes and Somerville was eventually shifted to follow present-day U.S. Route 202, which was also Route 30 (now Route 31) between Ringoes and Flemington and Route 12 between Flemington and Somerville. In 1938, Route 29B was planned as an extension of Route 29A from Frenchtown to Route 28 (now Route 122) in Alpha. While this road was never built, much of the alignment north of Milford is served by County Route 519. In 1948, a spur route, Route S29, was created, running along U.S. Route 202 (Bridge Street) in Lambertville to the New Hope-Lambertville Bridge. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 29 was redefined to continue north from Lambertville to Frenchtown on Route 29A, and the Route 29 designation between Lambertville and Newark was removed in favor of U.S. Route 202 between Lambertville and Somerville and U.S. Route 22 between Somerville and Newark. The section of former Route 29 between Route 29A and Route S29 became Route 165.\n"}
{"text": " Plans for a limited-access route along the Route 29 corridor go back to 1932, when a parkway was proposed along the Delaware River between Trenton and Lambertville; this proposal never materialized. Plans for a freeway were resurrected in the early 1950s to construct a road, the John Fitch Parkway, that was to run from Hamilton Township to Interstate 95 in Ewing Township. This road was built between 1954 and 1957 from South Warren Street in Trenton to present-day Interstate 95 in Ewing Township. Construction of this portion John Fitch Parkway took up much of Trenton \u2019 s available waterfront along the Delaware River. The former alignment of Route 29 in the northern part of Trenton and in Ewing Township became Route 175.\n"}
{"text": " Between 1990 and 1995, the Route 29 freeway was built between the Interstate 195 / Interstate 295 interchange and Route 129 in Hamilton Township. A two-lane street, Lamberton Road, connected the two freeway sections. Plans were then made to fill the gap between the two freeway sections in Trenton. Construction began in 1997 on the Route 29 freeway between Route 129 and the Morrisville-Trenton Railroad Bridge. The road was to include two traffic lights at Cass Street and South Warren Street and a tunnel which was to be built as a covered roadway on the bank of the Delaware River. The tunnel was originally scheduled to be complete by 2001 but was delayed after the Army Corps of Engineers discovered many environmental violations that occurred with construction of the tunnel. The roof was put in place in October 2001 and the tunnel officially opened to traffic on March 2, 2002. A restriction to trucks over 13 tons was put in place and made permanent in November 2002.\n"}
{"text": " By the 2000s, the state gave the part of Route 29 (South Main Street) between Route 165 and Route 179 in Lambertville to the city, and Route 29 was rerouted to use all of Route 165 and one block of Route 179. Prior to this, South Main Street had been turned one-way southbound. Route 165, which is only signed on overhead street signs, still exists, though it is fully concurrent with Route 29.\n"}
{"text": " == Major intersections ==\n"}
{"text": " = First Mongol invasion of Burma =\n"}
{"text": " The first Mongol invasions of Burma (Myanmar) (Burmese: \u1019\u103d\u1014 \u103a \u1002\u102d\u102f \u2013 \u1019\u103c\u1014 \u103a \u1019\u102c \u1005\u1005 \u103a ( \u1041\u1042\u1047\u1047 \u2013 \u1041\u1042\u1048\u1047) ) were a series of military conflicts between Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty, division of the Mongol Empire, and the Pagan Empire that took place between 1277 and 1287. The invasions toppled the 250-year-old Pagan Empire, and the Mongol army seized Pagan territories in present-day Dehong, Yunnan and northern Burma to Tagaung. The invasions ushered in 250 years of political fragmentation in Burma and the rise of Tai-Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia.\n"}
{"text": " The Mongols first demanded tribute from Pagan in 1271 \u2013 72, as part of their drive to encircle the Song dynasty of China. When King Narathihapate refused, Emperor Kublai Khan himself sent another mission in 1273, again demanding tribute. It too was rejected. In 1275, the emperor ordered the Yunnan government to secure the borderlands in order to block an escape path for the Song, and permitted a limited border war if Pagan contested. Pagan did contest but its army was driven back at the frontier by the Mongol Army in 1277 \u2013 78. After a brief lull, Kublai Khan in 1281 turned his attention to Southeast Asia, demanding tribute from Pagan, the Khmer Empire, \u0110\u1ea1i Vi\u1ec7t and Champa. When the Burmese king again refused, the emperor ordered an invasion of northern Burma. Two dry season campaigns (1283 \u2013 85) later, the Mongols had occupied down to Tagaung and Hanlin, forcing the Burmese king to flee to Lower Burma. The Mongols organized northern Burma as the province of Zhengmian.\n"}
{"text": " Ceasefire negotiations began in 1285, and ended with Narathihapate finally agreeing to submit in June 1286. The Burmese embassy, received by the emperor in Beijing in January 1287, agreed to a treaty that acknowledged the suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty or the Mongol Empire over the Pagan Empire and annual payments in taxes to the Yunnan government in exchange for the evacuation of Mongol troops from northern Burma. But the treaty never really took effect as Narathihapate was assassinated in July 1287, and no authority who could honor the treaty emerged. The Mongol command at Yunnan now deemed the imperial order to withdraw void, and ordered an invasion of central Burma. They may not have reached Pagan, and even if they did, after having suffered heavy casualties, they returned to Tagaung.\n"}
{"text": " The Pagan Empire disintegrated and anarchy ensued. The Mongols, who probably preferred the situation, did nothing to restore order in the next ten years. In March 1297, they accepted the voluntary submission of King Kyawswa of Pagan although he controlled little beyond the capital city of Pagan (Bagan). But Kyawswa was overthrown nine months later, and the Mongols were forced to intervene, leading to their second invasion in 1300 \u2013 01.\n"}
{"text": " Marco Polo reported the first invasions (1277 \u2013 87) in his travelogue, Il Milione. The Burmese referred to the invaders as the Taruk (after the central Asian Turkic troops that largely made up the Mongol invasion army); today, the term Taruk (\u1010\u101b\u102f\u1010 \u103a) refers to the Han Chinese instead. King Narathihapate is unkindly remembered in Burmese history as Taruk-Pye Min, (\"the King who Fled from the Taruk\").\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " === Pagan and Dali ===\n"}
{"text": " In the 13th century, the Pagan Empire, along with the Khmer Empire, was one of the two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia. For much of its history, Pagan's neighbor to the northeast was not China but the independent Dali Kingdom and its predecessor Nanzhao, both with Dali as their capital city. Dali-based kingdoms were a power in their own right, at times allying themselves with the Tibetan Empire to their west and at other times with China's Tang and Song dynasties. Indeed, Nanzhao's mounted armies ventured deep into what is today Burma and may have been behind the founding of the medieval city of Pagan and the Pagan Dynasty itself.\n"}
{"text": " Between the newly conquered Mongol territory and Pagan were a wide swath of borderlands stretching from present-day Dehong, Baoshan and Lincang prefectures in Yunnan as well as the Wa and Palaung regions (presumably in present-day northern Shan State), which Pagan and Dali had both claimed and exercised overlapping spheres of influence. Then as now, the borderlands mostly consist of forbidding terrains of high mountain ranges.\n"}
{"text": " === Mongol conquest of Dali ===\n"}
{"text": " The Mongol Empire first arrived at the doorstep of the Pagan Empire in 1252 by invading the Dali Kingdom in its attempt to outflank Song China. The Mongol armies captured the capital, Dali, on 7 January 1253, and went on to pacify much of the kingdom by 1257.\n"}
{"text": " The arrival of the Mongols did not initially upset the existing order at the borderlands as the Mongols were intent on finishing off the Song. For the next dozen years, they consolidated their hold over the newly conquered land, which not only provided them with a base from which to attack the Song from the rear but also was strategically located on the trade routes from China to Burma and India. The Mongols set up military garrisons, manned mostly by Turkic-speaking Muslims from Central Asia, in 37 circuits of the former Dali Kingdom.\n"}
{"text": " === Decline of Pagan ===\n"}
{"text": " By then, the Pagan Empire, despite outward appearances of calm, had been in long and slow decline since the early 13th century. The continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth had greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom. The crown had lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen, inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges. Although it was able to put down the first batch of serious rebellions in 1258 \u2013 60 in South Arakan and Martaban (Mottama), the decline continued. On the eve of the Mongol invasions, between one and two-thirds of Upper Burma's cultivable land had been donated to religion. The crown's ability to mobilize defenses was in serious jeopardy.\n"}
{"text": " == Prelude to war ==\n"}
{"text": " === First Mongol mission (1271 \u2013 72) ===\n"}
{"text": " The period of calm for Pagan ended in the early 1270s. By then, the Song were on the ropes, and Emperor Kublai Khan, who officially founded the Yuan dynasty on 18 December 1271, sought to cut off the retreat of Song refugees in all directions. In Pagan's case, he had ordered the Mongol governor of Dali to tighten control of the borderlands, and in January 1271 to send a mission to Pagan to demand tribute. The tribute he demanded was nominal. Given his higher priority preoccupations elsewhere, the emperor was not looking to replace the regime at Pagan. At the border, the ruler of the Wa and Palaung regions submitted to the Mongols.\n"}
{"text": " When the Mongol envoys led by Qidai Tuoyin showed up, the Pagan court led by Chief Minister Ananda Pyissi was well aware of the military power of the Mongols and advised King Narathihapate to use diplomacy. The king was furious at the demand and kept the Mongol envoys waiting for weeks. The court finally devised a compromise: the envoys were sent back without ever seeing the king. Accompanying them was a Burmese envoy who carried a letter expressing friendly sentiments and the Burmese king's wish to one day worship a Buddha tooth at Beijing. The king then promptly ordered an expedition, which retook the rebellious borderland regions in April 1272. The rebel leader A-Pi (\u1021\u1015\u102d) was brought back to Pagan. Dali relayed the news to Beijing but did not carry out any military action.\n"}
{"text": " === Second Mongol mission (1273) ===\n"}
{"text": " At Beijing, Kublai Khan, who was preparing an invasion of Japan, decided against a war with Pagan \u2014 for the time being. On 3 March 1273, he sent a 4-member delegation led by an imperial ambassador, the First Secretary to the Board Rites, to Pagan. The delegation carried a letter from the emperor. The letter says:\n"}
{"text": " \"If you have finally decided to fulfill your duties towards the All-Highest, send one of your brothers or senior ministers, to show men that all the world is linked with Us, and enter into a perpetual alliance. This will add to your reputation, and be in your own interests; for if it comes to war, who will be the victor? Ponder well, O king, Our words.\"\n"}
{"text": " This time, the Burmese king received the imperial envoys but still refused to submit. (The Burmese chronicles say that the king was so insulted that he had the envoys executed. But both Burmese inscriptional evidence and Yuan records indicate that the envoys were not executed.) At any rate, the imperial envoys did not get back to Yunnan in due time. The newly formed Yunnan government sent another delegation to investigate the whereabouts of the delegation, but the delegation could not reach Pagan because of an ongoing rebellion en route.\n"}
{"text": " === Mongol consolidation of borderlands (1275 \u2013 76) ===\n"}
{"text": " Meanwhile, in 1274, the former Dali Kingdom was officially reorganized as the Province of Yunnan, with Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar as governor. In May 1275, the governor sent a report to the emperor stating that the embassy had not returned; that the Burmese evidently had no intention of submitting; and that war was the only way forward.\n"}
{"text": " But the emperor rejected an outright invasion. Just coming off a disastrous Japanese campaign, the emperor was unwilling to commit the central government troops to what he considered a low priority affair. He was now focused on delivering the final blow against the Song; the emperor ordered the Yunnan provincial army to secure the borderlands in order to block the escape path of the Song refugees. He also sanctioned a limited border war if Pagan contested the takeover. As planned, the Yunnan army proceeded to consolidate the borderlands in 1275 \u2013 76. (Elsewhere, the main Mongol armies had captured most of the Song territory by 1276.)\n"}
{"text": " By 1277, at least one Burmese vassal state named \"Gold Teeth\" (modern Yingjiang) had submitted to the Mongols. Like in 1272, the Burmese government responded by sending an army to reclaim the rebellious state; but unlike in 1272, the Mongols had posted a sizable garrison there. Though it was ultimately under Mongol command, many of the officers and most of the soldiers of the garrison were Turkic-speaking peoples or people from the further west: Turks from Samarkand, Bukhara, Merv and Nishapur, but also captive soldiers from the Persian Khwarazmid empire, the Kipchaks, and even Bulgars from the lower Volga.\n"}
{"text": " == Border war (1277 \u2013 78) ==\n"}
{"text": " What followed was a border war in 1277 \u2013 78. It was reported mainly in the Yuan dynasty chronicle and the travelogue of Marco Polo. Although the Burmese chronicles have no record of the border war, a 1278 Burmese inscription mentions the army's defeat at Ngasaunggyan. The Mongol accounts of the border war contain certain errors of location and numbers although the overall narrative is probably accurate.\n"}
{"text": " === Battle of Ngasaunggyan ===\n"}
{"text": " According to the Yuan dynasty chronicle and Marco Polo's accounts, a Burmese army \"invaded\" the Mongol territory of Gold Teeth, and was defeated by the Mongol army in April 1277. The battle took place either at the Vochang valley (in present-day Baoshan Prefecture) or 110 km southwest at Kanngai (present-day Yingjiang, Dehong Prefecture), which the Burmese called Ngasaunggyan.\n"}
{"text": " The Yuan Chronicle reports that only 700 men defeated a Burmese army of 40,000 to 50,000 with 10,000 horses and 800 elephants. It also reports only one Mongol was killed, in trying to catch an elephant. According to Marco Polo, the Mongol army consisted of 12,000 mounted archers, and the Burmese army numbered 60,000 men with 2000 elephants, \"on each of which was set a tower of timber, well-framed and strong, and carrying from 12 to 16 well-armed fighting men.\" Even then, the 40,000 to 60,000 figures of the Burmese army strength were likely eye estimates and may still be too high; the Mongols may have erred \"on the side of generosity\" not to \"diminish their glory in defeating superior numbers.\"\n"}
{"text": " According to Marco Polo's account, in the early stages of the battle, the Turkish and Mongol horsemen \"took such fright at the sight of the elephants that they would not be got to face the foe, but always swerved and turned back,\" while the Burmese forces pressed on. But the Mongol commander Huthukh did not panic; he ordered his troops to dismount, and from the cover of the nearby treeline, aim their bows directly at the advancing elephants. The Mongol archers' arrows threw the animals into such pain that they fled.\n"}
{"text": " === Raid of Kaungsin ===\n"}
{"text": " The Mongol army pressed on after the monsoon season. In the following dry season of 1277 \u2013 78, c. December 1277, a Mongol army of 3800 led by Nasr al-Din, son of Gov. Sayyid Ajjal, advanced to Kaungsin, which defended the Bhamo Pass. They occupied the fort and destroyed a large number of abandoned stockades. But they found the heat excessive and returned.\n"}
{"text": " == Interlude (1278 \u2013 83) ==\n"}
{"text": " Despite the Mongol military success, the control of the borderlands remained contested. Pagan did not relinquish its claim to the frontier regions, and the Burmese, apparently taking advantage of Mongol preoccupations elsewhere, rebuilt their forts at Kaungsin and Ngasaunggyan later in 1278, posting permanent garrisons commanded by Einda Pyissi. But their control was short-lived. The Great Khan's attention turned to Southeast Asia once more in 1281. He had had mixed success: his vaunted forces had finished off the last of the Song in 1279 but had again failed to take Japan in 1281. That year, the Mongol emperor sent another mission to Pagan, demanding tribute yet again. The Burmese king was to send his ten senior ministers accompanied by one thousand cavalry officers to the emperor's court. (With Champa, the emperor summoned the king of Champa himself to Beijing.)\n"}
{"text": " At Pagan, Narathihapate deliberated with his court for an appropriate response but ultimately refused to submit. The Burmese court may have been counting on another limited border war but the emperor now ordered an invasion of northern Burma. (He also ordered an invasion of Champa, whose king too had refused to submit.) The Burmese king's troubles did not go unnoticed elsewhere in the kingdom. In the same year, a usurper named Wareru seized the southern port city of Martaban (Mottama) by killing its Pagan-appointed governor. Although the king's three sons were viceroys of the nearby Lower Burma cities (in Bassein ( Pathein), Prome (Pyay), and Dala ), the king, preoccupied with much more serious threat in the north, did not (or could not) take any action on Martaban.\n"}
{"text": " Throughout 1282, the Mongol command made preparations for the upcoming invasions of Champa and northern Burma. The objective of the Burma campaign was to take over northern Burma but no further; the emperor did not sanction an attack on Pagan itself. At least one army consisted of 14,000 men of the erstwhile Persian Khwarezmid Empire under the command of Yalu Beg was sent to Yunnan to reinforce the Burma invasion force, which again was made up of Turks and other central Asians. On the Burmese side, the king managed to raise an army although given his low standing with his vassals, he probably could not have raised a large one. By mid-1283, a Burmese army led by generals Ananda Pyissi and Yanda Pyissi was deployed at a fort at Ngasaunggyan.\n"}
{"text": " == Invasion (1283 \u2013 85) ==\n"}
{"text": " === Battle of Ngasaunggyan (1283) ===\n"}
{"text": " The invasion began on 22 September 1283. Prince Sangqudar was the commander-in-chief of the invasion force; his deputies were Vice Governor Taipn, and commander Yagan Tegin. The Mongol armies marched to the border in two columns. One column advanced along the Taping River using over 200 boats; the other proceeded by land and joined the first column at the Burmese fort at Ngasaunggyan. The Burmese chronicles report an overwhelming number of Mongol forces laying siege to the fort although their numbers are greatly exaggerated. (The chronicles say that the Burmese army numbered 400,000 men while the Mongol army numbered 20 million men and 6 million horses.) The Burmese withstood the siege for over two months but the fort fell on 3 December 1283.\n"}
{"text": " === Invasion of northern Burma ===\n"}
{"text": " The defeat at Ngasaunggyan broke the back of Burmese defenses. The Burmese army lost several thousand men as well as senior commanders. Kaungsin, the next fort inline, fell just six days later on 9 December 1283. The Mongol sources say that the Burmese lost 10,000 men at Kaungsin. The Mongol armies pushed farther south into the Irrawaddy valley. They took the ancient Burmese capital of Tagaung, about 380 km north of Pagan on 5 February 1284. There, the invaders paused their advance. They found the heat of the searing Irrawaddy valley excessive, and evacuated Tagaung, allowing the Burmese to return to Tagaung on 10 May 1284. But the Mongol army renewed their offensive in the following dry season. They retook Tagaung, and defeated another Burmese stand south of Tagaung, probably near Hanlin, on 26 January 1285, opening the way to Pagan, about 270 km south. After the defeat, the king panicked, and fled to Lower Burma. The evacuation proved premature. The Mongol forces did not advance on Pagan as it was not part of their invasion plan.\n"}
{"text": " The country fell into chaos. In Lower Burma, the king found himself isolated, let alone plan a counterattack. Although his sons ruled the key Lower Burma ports (Prome, Dala and Bassein), the king did not trust any of them, and he and his court settled at Hlegya, west of Prome. Without the full support of his sons, the presence of the king and his small army impressed no one. The governor of Pegu revolted that same year. The king managed to send two small expeditions to Pegu but they both failed. Now, the entire eastern half of Lower Burma (Pegu and Martaban) was in open revolt.\n"}
{"text": " == Peace negotiations (1285 \u2013 87) ==\n"}
{"text": " === Ceasefire ===\n"}
{"text": " Given his precarious position, Narathihapate decided to buy time, and sue for peace with the Mongols. In November / December 1285, the king ordered his generals Ananda Pyissi and Maha Bo to enter into ceasefire negotiations. The Mongol commanders at Hanlin, who had organized northern Burma as a protectorate named Zhengmian (Chinese: \u5f81\u7dec; Wade \u2013 Giles: Cheng-Mien), agreed to a ceasefire but insisted on a full submission. They repeated their 1281 demand that the Burmese king send a formal delegation to the emperor. The two sides had reached a tentative agreement by 3 March 1286, which calls for a full submission of the Pagan Empire, and central Burma to be organized as the province of Mianzhong (Chinese: \u7dec\u4e2d; Wade \u2013 Giles: Mien-Chung). After a long deliberation, the king agreed to submit but wanted the Mongol troops to withdraw. In June 1286, he sent an embassy led by Shin Ditha Pamauk, a learned monk, to the emperor's court.\n"}
{"text": " === Treaty of Beijing ===\n"}
{"text": " In January 1287, the embassy arrived at Beijing, and was received by the Yuan emperor. The Burmese delegation formally acknowledged Mongol suzerainty of their kingdom, and agreed to pay annual tribute tied to the agricultural output of the country. (Indeed, the tribute was no longer nominal.) In exchange, the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops. For the emperor, the Burma campaign was the only bright spot; his other Southeast Asian expeditions had gone badly. He did not want to invest more troops pacify the rest of the kingdom. He preferred a vassal ruler. The Burmese embassy arrived back at Hlegya in May 1287, and reported the terms to the king.\n"}
{"text": " === Breakdown ===\n"}
{"text": " But the agreement broke down a month later. In late June, the defeated king and his small retinue left their temporary capital for Pagan. But on 1 July 1287, the king was captured en route and assassinated by his second son Thihathu, the Viceroy of Prome. Anarchy ensued. Each region in the country which had not revolted broke away. No successor to Narathihapate, who could honor and enforce the terms of the treaty of Beijing, emerged. Indeed, a king would not emerge until May 1289.\n"}
{"text": " == Mongol intervention (1287) ==\n"}
{"text": " Given the chaos, the governor of Yunnan ignored the imperial orders of evacuation. The Mongol army commanded by Prince Ye-sin Timour, a grandson of the emperor, marched south toward Pagan. According to mainstream traditional (British colonial era) scholarship, the Mongol army ignored the imperial orders to evacuate; fought its way down to Pagan with the loss of 7000 men; occupied the city; and sent out detachments to receive homage, one of which reached south of Prome. But not all colonial period scholars agreed with the assessment as none of the contemporary Mongol / Chinese records specifically mentioned the conquest of Pagan or the temporary completeness of the conquest.\n"}
{"text": " Recent research shows that the Mongol forces most probably never reached Pagan. They were held at bay by the Burmese defenses led by commanders Athinkhaya, Yazathingyan and Thihathu, and probably never got closer than 160 km north of Pagan. (An inscription dated 16 February 1293 by the three brothers claimed that they defeated the Mongol army.) Even if the Mongols did reach Pagan, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. At any rate, the Mongol army suffered heavy casualties, and retreated north to Tagaung. They remained there as the treaty was now void.\n"}
{"text": " == Aftermath ==\n"}
{"text": " The disintegration of the Pagan Empire was now complete. But the Mongols refused to fill in the power vacuum they had created. They would send no more expeditions to restore order. The emperor apparently had no interest in committing troops that would be required to pacify the fragmented country. Indeed, his real aim all along may have been \"to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented.\" It would be another two years until one of Narathihapate's sons, Kyawswa, emerged as king of Pagan in May 1289. But the new \"king\" controlled just a small area around the capital, and had no real army. The real power in central Burma now rested with the three commander brothers.\n"}
{"text": " The uneasy arrangement would persist until 1297. The Mongols continued to occupy northern Burma to Tagaung as the province of Zhengmian (Cheng-Mien) but ended the fictional central Burma province of Mianzhong on 18 August 1290. Meanwhile, the power struggle in central Burma continued with the three brothers blatantly consolidating support. To check their rising power, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognized by the Yuan emperor Tem\u00fcr Khan as King of Pagan on 20 March 1297. The emperor also gave Chinese titles to the brothers as subordinates of Kyawswa. The brothers resented the new arrangement as it directly reduced their power. On 17 December 1297, the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom. The dethronement forced the Mongol government to intervene again, leading to the second Mongol invasion of Burma (1300 \u2013 01). The invasion failed. Two years later, on 4 April 1303, the Mongols abolished the province of Zhengmian (Cheng-Mien), evacuated Tagaung, and returned to Yunnan.\n"}
{"text": " == Legacy ==\n"}
{"text": " The war was one of several near simultaneous wars waged by the Mongol Empire and the Yuan dynasty in the late 13th century. Though it was never more than a minor frontier war to the Mongols, the war set off a series of enduring developments in Burma. The invasions ushered in a period of political fragmentation, and the rise of Tai-Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia.\n"}
{"text": " === Age of political fragmentation ===\n"}
{"text": " The immediate result of the war was the collapse of the Pagan Empire. However, the war merely accelerated the collapse but did not cause it. Pagan's disintegration was \"in fact more prolonged and agonized.\" The kingdom had been in long gradual decline since the early 13th century. Had Pagan possessed a stronger central government, the collapse could have been temporary, and the country \u201c could have risen again \u201d. But the dynasty could not recover, and because the Mongols refused to fill the power vacuum, no viable center emerged in the immediate aftermath. As a result, several minor states fought it out for supremacy for the better part of the 14th century. It was only in the late 14th century that two relatively strong powers emerged in the Irrawaddy basin, restoring some semblance of normalcy. The vast region surrounding the Irrawaddy valley would continue to be made up of several small Tai-Shan states well into the 16th century.\n"}
{"text": " === Rise of Tai-Shan states ===\n"}
{"text": " Perhaps the most enduring legacy of the Mongol invasions was the emergence of Tai-Shan states in mainland Southeast Asia. The Tai-Shan people who came down with the Mongol invasions stayed. By the early 14th century, several Tai-Shan states had come to dominate a vast region from present-day Assam to northern and eastern Myanmar to northern and central Thailand and Laos. Their rise was encouraged by the Mongols, who viewed the states as a useful buffer between Yunnan and the rest of Southeast Asia. The Mongols, who were still trying to incorporate Yunnan into the central administration, were unwilling or unable to make necessary sustained investments to bring the vast regions south of Yunnan into the fold. (The integration of Yunnan itself into \u201c China Proper \u201d was to take several more centuries, and continues to today.) As such, from the newly formed Tai-Shan states in western and central Southeast Asia to Dai Viet and Champa in eastern Southeast Asia, the Mongols elected to receive nominal tribute. Though the rulers of these states were technically governors of the Yuan government, they were the native chieftains, \u201c who would have ruled there in any case, and they did as they pleased. \u201d\n"}
{"text": " === Arrival of China on the Burmese border ===\n"}
{"text": " The war also marked the arrival of China at the doorstep of Burma. The old Dali Kingdom, known to the Burmese as Gandalarit (\u1002\u1014 \u1039 \u1010\u101c\u101b\u102c\u1007 \u103a, after Gandhara Raj) was now a Mongol Chinese province. (The Burmese now called the new powers at Yunnan \"Taruk\" after the Turkic-speaking soldiers of Yunnan. Over the years, the term Taruk came to be used to refer to the Han Chinese. Today, King Narathihapate is remembered as Taruk-Pye Min, ( \" the King who fled from the Taruk [Chinese]). ) From a geopolitical standpoint, the Mongol \u2013 Chinese presence in Yunnan pushed the Shan migrations in the direction of Burma (and parts of the Khmer Empire). The raids by various Shan states into Upper Burma would continue until the mid-16th century.\n"}
{"text": " == Mongolia \u2013 Myanmar relations ==\n"}
{"text": " During the official visit by the President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj to Myanmar in November 2013, Aung San Suu Kyi, the chairperson of National League for Democracy, said this was the first ever Mongol mission since the Mongols came 730 years earlier.\n"}
{"text": " = Battle of Edson's Ridge =\n"}
{"text": " The Battle of Edson's Ridge, also known as the Battle of the Bloody Ridge, Battle of Raiders Ridge, and Battle of the Ridge, was a land battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II between Imperial Japanese Army and Allied (mainly United States Marine Corps) ground forces. It took place from 12 \u2013 14 September 1942, on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands, and was the second of three separate major Japanese ground offensives during the Guadalcanal Campaign.\n"}
{"text": " In the battle, U.S. Marines, under the overall command of U.S. Major General Alexander Vandegrift, repulsed an attack by the Japanese 35th Infantry Brigade, under the command of Japanese Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi. The Marines were defending the Lunga perimeter that guarded Henderson Field on Guadalcanal, which was captured from the Japanese by the Allies in landings on Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942. Kawaguchi's unit was sent to Guadalcanal in response to the Allied landings with the mission of recapturing the airfield and driving the Allied forces from the island.\n"}
{"text": " Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal \u2013 about 12,000 \u2013 Kawaguchi's 6,000 soldiers conducted several nighttime frontal assaults on the U.S. defenses. The main Japanese assault occurred around Lunga ridge south of Henderson Field, manned by troops from several U.S. Marine Corps units, primarily troops from the 1st Raider and 1st Parachute Battalions under U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edson. Although the Marine defenses were almost overrun, Kawaguchi's attack was ultimately defeated, with heavy losses for the Japanese.\n"}
{"text": " Because of the key participation by Edson's unit in defending the ridge, the ridge was commonly referred to as \"Edson's\" ridge in historical accounts of the battle in Western sources. After Edson's Ridge, the Japanese continued to send troops to Guadalcanal for further attempts to retake Henderson Field, affecting Japanese offensive operations in other areas of the South Pacific.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " === Guadalcanal campaign ===\n"}
{"text": " On 7 August 1942, Allied forces (primarily U.S.) landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia. They were also intended to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign to neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul and support the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign.\n"}
{"text": " Taking the Japanese by surprise, by nightfall on 8 August the Allied landing forces had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands, as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point (9\u00b025 \u2032 45 \u2033 S 160\u00b03 \u2032 4 \u2033 E) on the north shore of the island of Guadalcanal east of the present day capital of Honiara. Vandegrift placed his 11,000 troops of the 1st Marine Division on Guadalcanal in a loose perimeter around the Lunga Point area.\n"}
{"text": " On 12 August, the airfield was named Henderson Field after Major Lofton Henderson, a Marine aviator who had been killed at the Battle of Midway. The Allied aircraft and pilots that subsequently operated out of Henderson Field were called the \"Cactus Air Force\" after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal.\n"}
{"text": " In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's 17th Army \u2014 a corps-sized command based at Rabaul (4\u00b011 \u2032 56 \u2033 S 152\u00b09 \u2032 57 \u2033 E) and under the command of Lieutenant-General Harukichi Hyakutake \u2014 with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces. The 17th Army \u2014 heavily involved with the Japanese campaign in New Guinea \u2014 had only a few units available to send to the southern Solomons area. Of these units, the 35th Infantry Brigade \u2014 under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi \u2014 was at Palau, the 4th (Aoba) Infantry Regiment was in the Philippines and the 28th (Ichiki) Infantry Regiment \u2014 under the command of Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki \u2014 was embarked on transport ships near Guam. The different units began to move toward Guadalcanal immediately; Ichiki's regiment \u2014 the closest \u2014 arrived first. The \"First Element\" of Ichiki's unit \u2014 consisting of about 917 soldiers \u2014 landed from destroyers at Taivu Point (9\u00b024 \u2032 38 \u2033 S 160\u00b020 \u2032 56 \u2033 E), about 18 mi (29 km) east of the Lunga perimeter, on August 19.\n"}
{"text": " Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal, Ichiki's First Element conducted a nighttime frontal assault on Marine positions at Alligator Creek on the east side of the Lunga perimeter in the early morning hours of August 21. Ichiki's assault was repulsed with devastating losses for the attackers in what became known as the Battle of the Tenaru: all but 128 of the 917 men of the First Element (including Ichiki himself) were killed in the battle. The survivors returned to Taivu Point, notified 17th Army headquarters of their defeat in the battle and awaited further reinforcements and orders from Rabaul.\n"}
{"text": " By 23 August, Kawaguchi's unit had reached Truk and was loaded onto slow transport ships for the rest of the trip to Guadalcanal. Because of the damage caused by Allied air attack to a separate troop convoy during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, the Japanese decided not to deliver Kawaguchi's troops to Guadalcanal by slow transport ship; instead, the ships carrying Kawaguchi's soldiers were sent to Rabaul. From there, the Japanese planned to deliver Kawaguchi's men to Guadalcanal by destroyers, staging through a Japanese naval base in the Shortland Islands. The Japanese destroyers were usually able to make the round trip down \"The Slot\" to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, minimizing their exposure to Allied air attack. However, most of the soldiers' heavy equipment and supplies, such as heavy artillery, vehicles, and much food and ammunition, could not be taken to Guadalcanal with them. These high-speed destroyer runs to Guadalcanal, which occurred throughout the campaign, were later called the \"Tokyo Express\" by Allied forces and \"Rat Transportation\" by the Japanese. The Japanese controlled the seas around the Solomon Islands during the nighttime and were not challenged by the Allies. However, any Japanese ship remaining within the 200 mi (320 km) range of the aircraft at Henderson Field in daylight was in great danger from air attacks. This \"curious tactical situation\" held for several months.\n"}
{"text": " === Troop movement ===\n"}
{"text": " On 28 August, 600 of Kawaguchi's troops were loaded onto the destroyers Asagiri, Amagiri, Yugiri, and Shirakumo, designated Destroyer Division 20 (DD20). Because of a shortage of fuel, DD20 could not make the entire round trip to Guadalcanal at high speed in one night, but had to start the trip earlier in the day so that they could complete the trip by the next morning at a slower speed which conserved fuel. At 18: 05 that day, 11 U.S. dive bombers from VMSB-232 under the command of Lt. Col. Richard Mangrum, flew from Henderson Field and located and attacked DD20 about 70 mi (110 km) north of Guadalcanal, sinking Asagiri and heavily damaging Yugiri and Shirakumo. Amagiri took Shirakumo in tow and the three destroyers returned to the Shortlands without completing their mission. The attack on DD20 killed 62 of Kawaguchi's soldiers and 94 crew members.\n"}
{"text": " Subsequent \"Express\" runs were more successful. Between 29 August and 4 September, various Japanese light cruisers, destroyers, and patrol boats were able to land almost 5,000 troops at Taivu Point, including all of the 35th Infantry Brigade, one battalion of the Aoba Regiment, and the rest of Ichiki's regiment. General Kawaguchi, who landed at Taivu Point on the 31 August Express run, was placed in command of all the Japanese troops on Guadalcanal. On the night of 4 / 5 September, as three of the Express destroyers \u2014 Y\u016bdachi, Hatsuyuki, and Murakumo \u2014 prepared to shell Henderson Field after landing their troops, they detected and sank two U.S. ships in the vicinity, the small, old destroyer transports (called \"APDs\" by the U.S. Marines) USS Little and Gregory that were used to shuttle Allied troops around the Guadalcanal / Tulagi area.\n"}
{"text": " In spite of the successes of the destroyer runs, Kawaguchi insisted that as many soldiers of his brigade as possible be delivered to Guadalcanal by slow barges. Therefore, a convoy carrying 1,100 of Kawaguchi's troops and heavy equipment in 61 barges, mainly from the 2nd Battalion, 124th Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel Akinosuka Oka, departed the northern coast of Santa Isabel Island on 2 September. On 4 \u2013 5 September, aircraft from Henderson Field attacked the barge convoy, killing about 90 of the soldiers in the barges and destroying much of the unit's heavy equipment. Most of the remaining 1,000 troops were able to land near Kamimbo (9\u00b015 \u2032 32 \u2033 S 159\u00b040 \u2032 18 \u2033 E), west of the Lunga perimeter over the next few days. By 7 September, Kawaguchi had 5,200 troops at Taivu Point and 1,000 west of the Lunga perimeter. Kawaguchi was confident enough that he could defeat the Allied forces facing him that he declined an offer from the 17th Army for delivery of one more infantry battalion to augment his forces. Kawaguchi believed that there were only about 2,000 U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal.\n"}
{"text": " During this time, Vandegrift continued to direct efforts to strengthen and improve the defenses of the Lunga perimeter. Between 21 August and 3 September, he relocated three Marine battalions \u2014 including the 1st Raider Battalion, under U.S. Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edson (Edson's Raiders), and the 1st Parachute Battalion \u2014 from Tulagi and Gavutu to Guadalcanal. These units added about 1,500 troops to Vandegrift's original 11,000 men defending Henderson Field. The 1st Parachute battalion, which had suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo in August, was placed under Edson's command.\n"}
{"text": " == Battle ==\n"}
{"text": " === Prelude ===\n"}
{"text": " Kawaguchi set the date for his attack on the Lunga perimeter for 12 September and began marching his forces west from Taivu towards Lunga Point on 5 September. He radioed 17th Army and requested that it carry out air strikes on Henderson Field beginning on 9 September, and that naval warships be stationed off Lunga Point on September 12 to \"destroy any Americans who attempted to flee from the island.\" On 7 September, Kawaguchi issued his attack plan to \"rout and annihilate the enemy in the vicinity of the Guadalcanal Island airfield.\" Kawaguchi's plan called for his forces to split into three, approach the Lunga perimeter inland, and launch a surprise night attack. Oka's force would attack the perimeter from the west while Ichiki's Second Echelon \u2014 renamed the Kuma Battalion \u2014 would attack from the east. The main attack would be by Kawaguchi's \"Center Body\", numbering 3,000 men in three battalions, from the south of the Lunga perimeter. By 7 September, most of Kawaguchi's troops had started marching from Taivu towards Lunga Point along the coastline. About 250 Japanese troops remained behind to guard the brigade's supply base at Taivu.\n"}
{"text": " Meanwhile, native island scouts \u2014 directed by British government official and officer in the British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force, Martin Clemens \u2014 told the Marines of Japanese troops at Taivu, near the village of Tasimboko, about 17 mi (27 km) east of Lunga. Edson launched a raid against the Japanese troops at Taivu. Destroyer transports USS McKean and Manley and two patrol boats took 813 of Edson's men to Taivu in two trips. Edson and his first wave of 501 troops landed at Taivu at 05: 20 (local time) on 8 September. Supported by aircraft from Henderson Field and gunfire from the destroyer transports, Edson's men advanced towards Tasimboko village but were slowed by Japanese resistance. At 11: 00, the rest of Edson's men landed. With this reinforcement and more support from the Henderson Field aircraft, Edson's force pushed into the village. The Japanese defenders, believing a major landing was underway after observing the concurrent approach of an Allied supply ship convoy heading towards Lunga Point, retreated into the jungle, leaving behind 27 dead. Two Marines were killed.\n"}
{"text": " In Tasimboko, Edson's troops discovered the supply base for Kawaguchi's forces, including large stockpiles of food, ammunition and medical supplies, and a shortwave radio. The Marines seized documents, equipment and food supplies, destroyed the rest, and returned to the Lunga perimeter at 17: 30. The quantities of supplies and intelligence from the captured documents revealed that at least 3,000 Japanese troops were on the island and apparently planning an attack.\n"}
{"text": " Edson and Colonel Gerald Thomas, Vandegrift's operations officer, believed that the Japanese attack would come at the Lunga Ridge, a narrow, grassy, 1,000 m (1,100 yd) long, coral ridge (9\u00b026 \u2032 39 \u2033 S 160\u00b02 \u2032 50 \u2033 E) parallel to the Lunga River just south of Henderson Field. The ridge offered a natural avenue of approach to the airfield, commanded the surrounding area and was almost undefended. Edson and Thomas tried to persuade Vandegrift to move forces to defend the ridge, but Vandegrift refused, believing that the Japanese were more likely to attack along the coast. Finally, Thomas convinced Vandegrift that the ridge was a good location for Edson's Raiders to \"rest\" from their actions of the preceding month. On 11 September, the 840 men of Edson's unit \u2014 including the 1st Raiders and the Paramarines \u2014 deployed onto and around the ridge and prepared to defend it.\n"}
{"text": " Kawaguchi's Center Body of troops was planning to attack the Lunga perimeter at the ridge, which they called \"the centipede\" (mukade gata) because of its shape. On 9 September, Kawaguchi's troops left the coast at Koli Point. Split into four columns, they marched into the jungle towards their predesignated attack points south and southeast of the airfield. Lack of good maps, at least one faulty compass, and thick, almost impenetrable jungle caused the Japanese columns to proceed slowly and zigzag, costing a lot of time. At the same time, Oka's troops approached the Lunga perimeter from the west. Oka had some intelligence on the Marine defenses, extracted from a U.S. Army pilot captured on 30 August.\n"}
{"text": " During the day of 12 September, Kawaguchi's troops struggled through the jungle toward their assembly points for that night's attacks. Kawaguchi wanted his three Center Body battalions in place by 14: 00, but they did not reach their assembly areas until after 22: 00. Oka was also delayed in his advance towards the Marine lines in the west. Only the Kuma battalion reported that they were in place on time. Despite the problems in reaching the planned attack positions, Kawaguchi was still confident in his attack plan because a captured U.S. pilot disclosed that the ridge was the weakest part of the Marine defenses. Japanese bombers attacked the ridge during daytime on 11 \u2013 12 September, causing a few casualties, including two killed.\n"}
{"text": " === First night's action ===\n"}
{"text": " The Americans knew of the approach of the Japanese forces from reports from native scouts and their own patrols, but did not know exactly where or when they would attack. The ridge around which Edson deployed his men consisted of three distinct hillocks. At the southern tip and surrounded on three sides by thick jungle was Hill 80 (so named because it rose 80 ft ( 24 m) above sea level ). Six hundred yards north was Hill 123 (123 ft ( 37 m) high ), the dominant feature on the ridge. The northernmost hillock was unnamed and about 60 ft (18 m) high. Edson placed the five companies from the Raider battalion on the west side of the ridge and the three Parachute battalion companies on the east side, holding positions in depth from Hill 80 back to Hill 123. Two of the five Raider companies, \"B\" and \"C\", held a line between the ridge, a small, swampy lagoon, and the Lunga River. Machine-gun teams from \"E\" Company, the heavy weapons company, were scattered throughout the defenses. Edson placed his command post on Hill 123.\n"}
{"text": " At 21: 30 on 12 September, the Japanese cruiser Sendai and three destroyers shelled the Lunga perimeter for 20 minutes and illuminated the ridge with a searchlight. Japanese artillery began shelling the Marine lines, but did little damage. At the same time, scattered groups of Kawaguchi's troops began skirmishing with Marines around the ridge. Kawaguchi's 1st Battalion \u2014 led by Major Yukichi Kokusho \u2014 attacked the Raider's \"C\" company between the lagoon and the Lunga River, overrunning at least one platoon and forcing the Marine company to fall back to the ridge. Kokusho's unit became entangled with troops from Kawaguchi's 3rd Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Kusukichi Watanabe, who were still struggling to reach their attack positions, and the resulting confusion effectively stopped the Japanese attack on the ridge that night. Kawaguchi, who was having trouble locating where he was in relation to the U.S. Marine lines as well as coordinating his troops' attacks, later complained, \"Due to the devilish jungle, the brigade was scattered all over and was completely beyond my control. In my whole life I have never felt so disappointed and helpless.\" Twelve U.S. Marines were killed; Japanese casualties are unknown but perhaps somewhat greater. Although both Oka in the west and the Kuma unit in the east tried to attack the Marine lines that night, they failed to make contact and halted near the Marine lines at dawn.\n"}
{"text": " At first light on 13 September, Cactus Air Force aircraft and Marine artillery fired into the area just south of the ridge, forcing any Japanese out in the open to seek cover in the nearby jungle. The Japanese suffered several casualties, including two officers from Watanabe's battalion. At 05: 50, Kawaguchi decided to regroup his forces for another attack that night.\n"}
{"text": " === Second night's action on the ridge ===\n"}
{"text": " Expecting the Japanese to attack again that night, Edson directed his troops to improve their defenses on and around the ridge. After a failed attempt by two companies to retake the ground on the Marine right flank lost to Kokusho the night before, Edson repositioned his forces. He pulled his front back about 400 yd (370 m) to a line that stretched 1,800 yd (1,600 m), starting at the Lunga River and crossing the ridge about 150 yd (140 m) south of Hill 123. Around and behind Hill 123 he placed five companies. Any Japanese attackers surmounting Hill 80 would have to advance over 400 yd (370 m) of open terrain to close with the Marine positions at Hill 123. With only a few hours to prepare, the Marines were only able to construct rudimentary and shallow fortifications. They were low on ammunition, with one or two grenades for each Marine. Vandegrift ordered a reserve force consisting of the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment (2 / 5) to move into a position just to the rear of Edson's troops. In addition, a battery of four 105mm howitzers from the 11th Marine Regiment moved to a location from where it could provide direct fire onto the ridge, and a forward artillery observer was placed with Edson's front line units.\n"}
{"text": " Late in the afternoon, Edson stepped onto a grenade box and addressed his exhausted troops, saying,\n"}
{"text": " You men have done a great job, and I have just one more thing to ask of you. Hold out just one more night. I know we 've been without sleep a long time. But we expect another attack from them tonight and they may come through here. I have every reason to believe that we will have reliefs here for all of us in the morning.\n"}
{"text": " Edson's speech \"raised the spirits\" of the Raiders and helped them prepare mentally for the night ahead.\n"}
{"text": " As the sun set on 13 September, Kawaguchi faced Edson's 830 Marines with 3,000 troops of his brigade, plus an assortment of light artillery. The night was pitch black, with no moon. At 21: 00, seven Japanese destroyers briefly bombarded the ridge. Kawaguchi's attack began just after nightfall, with Kokusho's battalion assaulting Raider Company B on the Marine right flank, just to the west of the ridge. The force of the assault caused Company B to fall back to Hill 123. Under Marine artillery fire, Kokusho reassembled his men and continued his attack. Without pausing to try to \"roll-up\" the other nearby Marine units, whose flanks were now unprotected, Kokusho's unit surged forward through the swampy lowlands between the ridge and the Lunga River, heading for the airfield. Kokusho's men came upon a pile of Marine supplies and rations. Not having eaten adequately for a couple of days, they paused to \"gorge themselves\" on the \"C\" and \"K\" rations. Kokusho ordered his men to continue the attack. At about 03: 00, he led them against the Marine units around the northern portion of the ridge, just short of the airfield, as well as Hill 123. In the heavy fighting that followed, Kokusho and around 100 of his men were killed, ending that attack.\n"}
{"text": " Meanwhile, Kawaguchi's 2nd Battalion, under Major Masao Tamura, assembled for their planned assault against Hill 80 from the jungle south of the ridge. Marine observers spotted Tamura's preparations and called in artillery fire. At about 22: 00, a barrage from twelve 105 mm (4.1 in) guns hit Tamura's position. In response, two companies of Tamura's troops \u2014 numbering about 320 men \u2014 charged up Hill 80 with fixed bayonets behind their own barrage of mortar fire and grenades. Tamura's attack hit Company B of the Marine Parachute battalion and also Raider Company B, pushing the Parachutists off the east side of the ridge into a draw below the ridgeline. To protect the exposed Raider Company B, Edson immediately ordered them to pull back onto Hill 123.\n"}
{"text": " At the same time, a Japanese company from Watanabe's battalion infiltrated through a gap between the east side of the ridge and Parachute Company C. Deciding that their positions were now untenable, Parachute Companies B and C climbed onto the ridge and retreated to a position behind Hill 123. In the darkness and confusion of the battle, the retreat quickly became confused and disorganized. A few Marines began yelling that the Japanese were attacking with poison gas, scaring other Marines who no longer possessed their gas masks. After arriving behind Hill 123, some of the Marines continued on towards the airfield, repeating the word \"withdraw\" to anyone within earshot. Other Marines began to follow them. Just at the moment that it appeared that the Marines on the hill were about to break and head for the rear in a rout, Edson, Major Kenneth D. Bailey from Edson's staff, and other Marine officers appeared and, with \"vivid\" language, herded the Marines back into defensive positions around Hill 123.\n"}
{"text": " As the Marines formed into a horseshoe-shaped line around Hill 123, Tamura's battalion began a series of frontal assaults on the hill, charging up the saddle from Hill 80 and up from below the east side of the ridge. Under the light of parachute flares dropped by at least one Japanese floatplane, the Marines repulsed the first two attacks by Tamura's men. Tamura's troops hoisted a 75 mm (2.95 in) \"regimental\" gun to the top of Hill 80 in an effort to fire it directly at the Marines. This gun, which \"could have turned the tide in favor of the Japanese,\" however, was disabled by a faulty firing pin. At midnight, during a short lull in the fighting, Edson ordered Parachute Companies B and C to advance from behind Hill 123 to strengthen his left flank. With fixed bayonets, the Paramarines swept forward, killing Japanese soldiers who had overrun the Marine lines and were apparently preparing to roll up the Marine lines from the flank, and took position on the east side of the hill. Marines from other units, as well as members of Edson's command staff, including Major Bailey, took ammunition and grenades under fire to the Marines around Hill 123, who were running critically low. Said Marine participant Captain William J. McKennan, \"The Japanese attack was almost constant, like a rain that subsides for a moment and then pours the harder ... When one wave was mowed down - and I mean mowed down - another followed it into death.\"\n"}
{"text": " The Japanese hit Edson's left flank just after the Parachutists took position but were again stopped by Marine rifle, machine-gun, mortar, and grenade fire. Marine 105 mm and 75 mm artillery was also taking a heavy toll on the attacking Japanese. A captured Japanese soldier later said that his unit was \"annihilated\" by the Marine artillery fire, which only 10 % of his company survived.\n"}
{"text": " By 04: 00, after withstanding several more assaults, some of which resulted in hand-to-hand fighting, and severe sniper fire from all sides, Edson's men were joined by troops from the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment, who helped repulse two more Japanese attacks before dawn. Throughout the night, as Kawaguchi's men came close to overrunning the Marine defenses, Edson remained standing about 20 yd (18 m) behind the Marine firing line on Hill 123, exhorting his troops and directing their defensive efforts. Said Marine Captain Tex Smith, who was in position to observe Edson for most of the night, \"I can say that if there is such a thing as one man holding a battalion together, Edson did it that night. He stood just behind the front lines \u2013 stood, when most of us hugged the ground.\"\n"}
{"text": " During the heavy fighting, portions of three Japanese companies, including two from Tamura's and one from Watanabe's battalions, skirted the Marine defenses on the ridge, while suffering heavy losses from Marine gunfire, and reached the edge of \"Fighter One\", a secondary runway of Henderson Field. A counterattack by the Marine engineers stopped one Japanese company's advances and forced it to retreat. The other two companies waited at the edge of the jungle for reinforcements to arrive before attacking into the open area around the airfield. When no reinforcements joined them, both companies went back to their original positions south of the ridge after daybreak. Most of the rest of Watanabe's battalion did not participate in the battle because they lost contact with their commander during the night.\n"}
{"text": " As the sun rose on 14 September, pockets of Japanese soldiers remained scattered along both sides of the ridge. But with Tamura's battalion shattered after losing \u00be of its officers and men, and with heavy casualties to his other attacking units as well, Kawaguchi's assault on the ridge had effectively ended. About 100 Japanese soldiers still remained in the open on the south slope of Hill 80, perhaps preparing for one more charge on Hill 123. At first light, three U.S. Army aircraft from the 67th Fighter Squadron at Henderson Field, acting on a request personally delivered by Bailey, strafed the Japanese near Hill 80 and killed most of them, with the few survivors retreating back into the jungle.\n"}
{"text": " === Kuma and Oka attacks ===\n"}
{"text": " As the battle on the ridge took place, Kawaguchi's Kuma and Oka units also attacked the Marine defenses on the east and west sides of the Lunga perimeter. The Kuma battalion \u2014 led by Major Takeshi Mizuno \u2014 attacked the southeastern sector of the Lunga perimeter, defended by Marines of the 3rd Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment (3 / 1). Mizuno's attack started around midnight, with one company attacking through Marine artillery fire and engaging in hand-to-hand combat with the Marine defenders before being thrown back. Mizuno was killed in the attack. After daybreak, the Marines, believing that the rest of Mizuno's battalion was still in the area, sent forward six light tanks without infantry support to sweep the area in front of the Marine lines; four Japanese 37 mm (1.46 in) anti-tank guns destroyed or disabled three of them. After abandoning their burning tanks, several of the disabled tanks' crewmembers were bayoneted and killed by the Japanese. One tank tumbled down an embankment into the Tenaru River, drowning its crew.\n"}
{"text": " At 23: 00 on 14 September, the remnants of the Kuma battalion conducted another attack on the same portion of the Marine lines, but were repulsed. A final \"weak\" attack by the Kuma unit on the evening of 15 September was also defeated.\n"}
{"text": " Oka's unit of about 650 men attacked the Marines at several locations on the west side of the Lunga perimeter. At about 04: 00 on 14 September, two Japanese companies attacked positions held by the 3rd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment (3 / 5) near the coast and were thrown back with heavy losses. Another Japanese company captured a small ridge somewhat inland but was then pinned down by Marine artillery fire throughout the day and took heavy losses before withdrawing on the evening of 14 September. The rest of Oka's unit failed to find the Marine lines and did not participate in the attack.\n"}
{"text": " == Aftermath ==\n"}
{"text": " At 13: 05 on 14 September, Kawaguchi led the survivors of his shattered brigade away from the ridge and deeper into the jungle, where they rested and tended to their wounded all the next day. Kawaguchi's units were then ordered to withdraw west to the Matanikau River valley to join with Oka's unit, a 6 mi (9.7 km) march over difficult terrain. Kawaguchi's troops began the march on the morning of 16 September. Almost every soldier able to walk had to help carry the wounded. As the march progressed, the exhausted and hungry soldiers, who had eaten their last rations on the morning before their withdrawal, began to discard their heavy equipment and then their rifles. By the time most of them reached Oka's positions at Kokumbona five days later, only half still carried their weapons. The Kuma battalion's survivors, attempting to follow Kawaguchi's Center Body forces, became lost, wandered for three weeks in the jungle, and almost starved to death before finally reaching Kawaguchi's camp.\n"}
{"text": " In total, Kawaguchi's forces lost about 830 killed in the attack, including 350 in Tamura's battalion, 200 in Kokusho's battalion, 120 in Oka's force, 100 in the Kuma battalion, and 60 in Watanabe's battalion. An unknown number of wounded also died during the withdrawal march to the Matanikau. On and around the ridge, the Marines counted 500 Japanese dead, including 200 on the slopes of Hill 123. The Marines suffered 80 killed between 12 and 14 September.\n"}
{"text": " On 17 September, Vandegrift sent two companies from the 1st Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment (1 / 1) to pursue the retreating Japanese. The Marines were ambushed by two Japanese companies acting as rear-guards for the withdrawal, and one Marine platoon was pinned down as the rest of the Marines retreated. The Marine company commander requested permission to attempt to rescue his platoon but was denied by Vandegrift. By nightfall, the Japanese overran and nearly annihilated the platoon, killing 24 Marines with only a few wounded members of the platoon surviving. On 20 September, a patrol from Edson's Raiders encountered stragglers from Kawaguchi's retreating column and called in artillery fire that killed 19 of them.\n"}
{"text": " As the Japanese regrouped west of the Matanikau, the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses. On 14 September, Vandegrift moved another battalion, the 3rd Battalion, 2nd Marine Regiment (3 / 2), from Tulagi to Guadalcanal. On 18 September, an Allied naval convoy delivered 4,157 men from the 3rd Provisional Marine Brigade (the U.S. 7th Marine Regiment augmented by additional support units) to Guadalcanal. These reinforcements allowed Vandegrift \u2014 beginning on 19 September \u2014 to establish an unbroken line of defense around the Lunga perimeter. Vandegrift's forces' next significant clashes with the Japanese occurred along the Matanikau River from 23 \u2013 27 September and 6 \u2013 9 October.\n"}
{"text": " == Significance ==\n"}
{"text": " On 15 September, General Hyakutake at Rabaul learned of Kawaguchi's defeat, the Imperial Japanese Army's first defeat involving a unit of this size in the war. The general forwarded the news to the Imperial General Headquarters in Japan. In an emergency session, the top Japanese army and navy command staffs concluded that, \"Guadalcanal might develop into the decisive battle of the war.\" The results of the battle began to have a telling strategic impact on Japanese operations in other areas of the Pacific. Hyakutake realized that, in order to send sufficient troops and materiel to defeat the Allied forces on Guadalcanal, he could no longer support the major Japanese offensive on the Kokoda Track in New Guinea. Hyakutake \u2014 with the concurrence of the General Headquarters \u2014 ordered his troops on New Guinea, who were within 30 mi (48 km) of their objective of Port Moresby \u2014 to withdraw until the Guadalcanal matter was resolved. The Japanese were never able to restart their drive towards Port Moresby; the defeat at Edson's Ridge contributed not only to Japan's defeat in the Guadalcanal campaign, but also to Japan's ultimate defeat throughout the South Pacific.\n"}
{"text": " After delivering more forces during the next month the Japanese mounted a major ground offensive on Guadalcanal, led by Hyakutake, in late October 1942 at the Battle for Henderson Field, but it resulted in an even more decisive defeat for the Japanese. Vandegrift later stated that Kawaguchi's assault on the ridge in September was the only time during the entire campaign he had doubts about the outcome and that had it succeeded, \"we would have been in a pretty bad condition.\" Historian Richard B. Frank adds, \"The Japanese never came closer to victory on the island itself than in September 1942, on a ridge thrusting up from the jungle just south of the critical airfield, best known ever after as Bloody Ridge.\"\n"}
{"text": " = New Jersey Route 50 =\n"}
{"text": " Route 50 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs 26.02 mi (41.88 km) from an intersection with U.S. Route 9 (US 9) and the Garden State Parkway in Upper Township, Cape May County to an intersection with US 30 and County Route 563 (CR 563) in Egg Harbor City, Atlantic County. The route, which is mostly a two-lane undivided road, passes through mostly rural areas of Atlantic and Cape May counties as well as the communities of Tuckahoe, Corbin City, Estell Manor, and Mays Landing. NJ 50 intersects several roads, including Route 49 in Tuckahoe, US 40 in Mays Landing, and US 322 and the Atlantic City Expressway in Hamilton Township.\n"}
{"text": " The portion of current Route 50 between Seaville and Petersburg received funding in 1910 to become a spur of the Ocean Highway. In 1917, what is now Route 50 was designated a part of pre-1927 Route 14, a route that was to run from Cape May to Egg Harbor City. Route 50 was designated onto its current alignment in 1927, replacing this portion of pre-1927 Route 14. In 1960, a freeway was proposed for Route 50, running from the Garden State Parkway in Dennis Township to US 30 in Mullica Township. This proposal was canceled by the mid-1970s due to financial and environmental concerns as well as lack of traffic. The interchange between Route 50 and the Atlantic City Expressway was reconstructed into a full interchange, with completion in June 2010.\n"}
{"text": " == Route description ==\n"}
{"text": " Route 50 begins at an intersection with US 9 in the Seaville section of Upper Township, Cape May County, heading to the north on a two-lane undivided road. From the southern terminus, a ramp provides access to and from the southbound Garden State Parkway. The road heads north through mostly rural wooded areas with some buildings. It intersects CR 671 in Greenfield before coming to a junction with CR 616. Later, Route 50 Cedar Swamp Creek in an area of marshland. At this crossing, the road runs closely parallel to a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line before entering Petersburg, where it splits from the railroad tracks and comes to a crossroad with CR 610. Upon leaving Petersburg, Route 50 turns to the north again and crosses over the Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line, intersecting CR 631. It continues to Tuckahoe and comes to CR 669. Past this intersection, the route meets CR 557 and CR 664. Route 50 forms a concurrency with CR 557 and the two routes head north and encounter the eastern terminus of Route 49 before leaving Tuckahoe.\n"}
{"text": " Not far after Route 49, the road crosses the Tuckahoe River into Corbin City, Atlantic County. In Corbin City, it heads into residential areas, with CR 611 looping to the west of the route. Route 50 and CR 557 continue northwest and intersect CR 648, where the road turns north into more forested areas. At the junction with CR 645, the route turns to the northeast and enters Estell Manor, becoming Broad Street. CR 557 splits from Route 50 by heading northwest on Buena Tuckahoe Road and Route 50 heads through some agricultural clearings concurrent with CR 557 Truck, passing to the west of the MacNamara Wildlife Area, which is known as a breeding ground for several species of birds. The route intersects CR 637, turning to the northeast.\n"}
{"text": " After passing some homes and Stephen Lake, the road turns to the north and passes to the west of Estell Manor County Park. The route crosses the South River into Weymouth Township, passing the residential community of Belcoville to the east and meeting CR 669. It soon enters Hamilton Township, where the name of the road becomes Mill Street and it comes to a junction with US 40 (Harding Highway). CR 557 Truck heads to the west on US 40 at this point while Route 50 heads east on US 40, and CR 616 continues north.\n"}
{"text": " US 40 and NJ 50 follow the Harding Highway, a two-lane undivided road, turning to the northeast and crossing the Great Egg Harbor River. Upon passing over the river, enters Mays Landing and turns north, encountering CR 617 before passing over an abandoned railroad line and heading into the downtown area of Mays Landing. Here, the road crosses CR 559, and US 40 splits from NJ 50 by turning east along that road. Meanwhile, Route 50 continues north on Cape May Avenue, passing through developed areas. It leaves Mays Landing and heads into back into forests. The route turns to the northeast, passing near the Clover Leaf Lakes residential development, before coming to an interchange with US 322 (Black Horse Pike).\n"}
{"text": " Past this interchange, Route 50 widens to a four-lane divided highway and reaches a full interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway. The route becomes a two-lane undivided road again and continues through inhabited areas, crossing into Galloway Township, where there is an intersection with CR 686. A short distance later, the road crosses New Jersey Transit \u2019 s Atlantic City Line near the Egg Harbor City Station and enters Egg Harbor City, turning into Philadelphia Avenue. A block after the railroad crossing, Route 50 ends at an intersection with US 30 and CR 563 (White Horse Pike), with CR 563 continuing north on Philadelphia Avenue at this point.\n"}
{"text": " Route 50 is an important route linking the Atlantic City Expressway with the Jersey Shore resorts in Cape May County, serving as an alternate to more congested routes. It also serves as evacuation route from Cape May County to inland areas in the event of a hurricane.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " The portion of current Route 50 between Seaville and Petersburg received funding to become a spur of the Ocean Highway in 1910. The modern-day alignment of Route 50 was legislated as part of pre-1927 Route 14 in 1917, a route that was to run from Cape May to Egg Harbor City. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, the portion of pre-1927 Route 14 between Seaville and Egg Harbor City was designated as Route 50, the highest state route number assigned in the renumbering. Route 50 retained its current routing in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering. A freeway was proposed for Route 50 around 1960, running from the Garden State Parkway in Dennis Township north to US 30 in Mullica Township. This proposed freeway was intended to provide economic development to the region as well as provide a better route to the Jersey Shore resorts of Cape May County for travelers from the Delaware Valley. However, this freeway was canceled by the mid-1970s due to financial and environmental concerns as well as lack of traffic along Route 50. On November 21, 2008, construction began on making the interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway a full interchange as part of a series of improvements set for the Atlantic City Expressway. This project was completed on June 18, 2010.\n"}
{"text": " == Major intersections ==\n"}
{"text": " = Air Rhodesia Flight 825 =\n"}
{"text": " Air Rhodesia Flight 825 was a scheduled passenger flight that was shot down by the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) on 3 September 1978, during the Rhodesian Bush War. The aircraft involved, a Vickers Viscount named the Hunyani, was flying the last leg of Air Rhodesia's regular scheduled service from Victoria Falls to the capital Salisbury, via the resort town of Kariba.\n"}
{"text": " Soon after Flight 825 took off, a group of ZIPRA guerrillas scored a direct hit on its starboard wing with a Soviet-made Strela 2 surface-to-air infrared homing missile, critically damaging the aircraft and forcing an emergency landing. An attempted belly landing in a cotton field just west of Karoi was foiled by an unseen ditch, which caused the plane to cartwheel and break up. Of the 52 passengers and four crew, 38 died in this crash; the insurgents then approached the wreckage, rounded up the 10 survivors they could see and massacred them with automatic gunfire. Three passengers survived by hiding in the surrounding bush, while a further five lived because they had gone to look for water before the guerrillas arrived.\n"}
{"text": " ZIPRA leader Joshua Nkomo publicly claimed responsibility for shooting down the Hunyani in an interview with the BBC's Today programme the same evening, saying the aircraft had been used for military purposes, but denied that his men had killed survivors on the ground. The majority of Rhodesians, both black and white, saw the attack as an act of terrorism. A fierce white Rhodesian backlash followed against perceived enemies, with many whites becoming violently resentful and suspicious of blacks in general, even though few black Rhodesians supported attacks of this kind. Reports viewing the attack negatively appeared in international journals such as Time magazine, but there was almost no acknowledgement of it by overseas governments, much to the Rhodesian government's indignation.\n"}
{"text": " Talks between Nkomo and Prime Minister Ian Smith, which had been progressing promisingly, were immediately suspended by the furious Rhodesians, with Smith calling Nkomo a \"monster\". On 10 September, Smith announced the extension of martial law over selected areas. The Rhodesian Security Forces launched several retaliatory strikes into Zambia and Mozambique over the following months, attacking both ZIPRA and its rival, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA). The attack on ZIPRA in particular brought great controversy as many of those killed were refugees camping in and around guerrilla positions. Five months later, in February 1979, ZIPRA shot down Air Rhodesia Flight 827, another civilian flight, in an almost identical incident.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " A dispute over the terms for the granting of full sovereignty to the self-governing colony of Rhodesia (or Southern Rhodesia) led the colonial government, headed by Prime Minister Ian Smith, to unilaterally declare independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The idea of \"no independence before majority rule\" had recently gained ground in Britain and elsewhere amid decolonisation, and Rhodesia's government was dominated by the country's white minority, so the unilateral declaration went unrecognised internationally. Britain and the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia.\n"}
{"text": " Two rival communist-backed black nationalist groups initiated military campaigns to overthrow the government and introduce majority rule: the Chinese-aligned Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), mostly comprising Shonas, created the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and adopted aspects of Maoist doctrine, while the Ndebele-dominated Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), aligned with Soviet-style Marxism \u2013 Leninism and the Warsaw Pact, mobilised the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). These guerrilla armies proceeded to wage what they called the \"Second Chimurenga\" against the Rhodesian government and security forces. The resulting conflict, the Rhodesian Bush War, began in earnest in December 1972, when ZANLA attacked Altena and Whistlefield Farms in north-eastern Rhodesia.\n"}
{"text": " After the security forces mounted a successful counter-insurgency campaign during 1973 and 1974, developments overseas caused the conflict's momentum to shift in the insurgents' favour. The leftist Carnation Revolution of April 1974 caused Portugal to withdraw its key economic support for Smith's administration, and led to Mozambique's independence the following year as a communist state openly allied with ZANU. Around the same time, Rhodesia's other main backer, South Africa, adopted a d\u00e9tente initiative that forced a ceasefire, giving the guerrillas time to regroup. Following the abortive Victoria Falls Conference of August 1975, Smith and the ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo held unsuccessful talks between December 1975 and March 1976. ZANU and ZAPU announced in October 1976, during the run-up to the unsuccessful Geneva Conference in December, that they would henceforth attend conferences as a joint \"Patriotic Front\".\n"}
{"text": " In March 1978, Smith and non-militant nationalist groups headed by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole and Chief Jeremiah Chirau agreed what became the \"Internal Settlement\". This created a joint black \u2013 white transitional government, with the country due to be reconstituted as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979, pursuant to multiracial elections. ZANU and ZAPU were invited to participate, but refused; Nkomo sardonically dubbed Smith's black colleagues \"the blacksmiths\". ZANU proclaimed 1978 to be \"The Year of the People\" as the war continued. Officials from Muzorewa's United African National Council, sent to the provinces to explain the Internal Settlement to rural blacks, were killed by Marxist \u2013 Leninist guerrillas. Insurgents also began to target Christian missionaries, climaxing in the killing of nine British missionaries and four children at Elim Mission near the Mozambican border on 23 June.\n"}
{"text": " The transitional government was badly received abroad, partly because the Internal Settlement kept control of law enforcement, the military, the judiciary and the civil service under white control. No country recognised Rhodesia's interim administration. Smith again worked to bring Nkomo into the government, hoping this would lend it some credence domestically, prompt diplomatic recognition overseas, and help the security forces defeat ZANLA. Starting on 14 August 1978, he attended secret meetings with Nkomo in Lusaka, Zambia (where ZAPU was based), doing so with the assistance of the mining corporation Lonrho. Attempts were made to also involve the ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, but Mugabe would have no part in the talks. According to the South African military historian Jakkie Cilliers, negotiations between Smith and Nkomo progressed well and \"seemed on the verge of success\" by the start of September 1978. On 2 September, Smith and Nkomo revealed publicly that the secret meetings had taken place.\n"}
{"text": " == Incident ==\n"}
{"text": " === Prior threats to Rhodesian air traffic ===\n"}
{"text": " Rhodesian air traffic was not seriously threatened until about 1977, in the latter stages of the war; before this time, neither revolutionary force had the weapons to launch a viable attack against an aerial target. The weapon that made such attacks feasible for ZIPRA was the Strela 2 shoulder-launched surface-to-air missile launcher, supplied by the Soviet Union from the mid-1970s as part of the Warsaw Pact's materiel support. By September 1978, there had been 20 reported attempts to shoot down Rhodesian military aircraft using these weapons, none of which had been successful. Some Rhodesian Air Force Dakotas had been hit, but all had survived and landed safely. No civilian aircraft had yet been targeted during the Bush War.\n"}
{"text": " === Flight ===\n"}
{"text": " Air Rhodesia was the country's national airline, established by the government on 1 September 1967 to succeed Central African Airways, which was dissolved at the end of that year. Based at Salisbury Airport, Air Rhodesia's flight network during the late 1970s comprised a domestic programme of passenger and cargo flights, as well as international services to the South African cities of Johannesburg and Durban.\n"}
{"text": " The Flight 825 aircraft was a Vickers Viscount 782D, a British-made turboprop aircraft with two engines on each wing. It was named the Hunyani after the river of the same name, which flowed between Lake Kariba and the Rhodesian capital Salisbury.\n"}
{"text": " The Hunyani was on the second and final leg of its regular scheduled journey between Victoria Falls and Salisbury, stopping over in the resort town of Kariba. Despite the occasional rocket and mortar attacks launched on Kariba by ZIPRA guerrillas on the northern side of the Zambezi (in Zambia), the resort had endured as one of Rhodesia's choice tourist destinations. The flight on 3 September 1978, Sunday afternoon, from Kariba to Salisbury carried four crew members and 52 passengers, most of whom were holidaymakers from Salisbury, returning home after a weekend at the lake. The flight took off from Kariba Airport on schedule soon after 17: 00 Central Africa Time.\n"}
{"text": " Flight 825 was piloted by 36-year-old Captain John Hood, a native of Bulawayo who had gained his commercial pilot licence in 1966. He had flown Viscounts for Air Rhodesia since 1968, and had also served in the Rhodesian Air Force on a voluntary basis. His first officer, Garth Beaumont, was 31 years old, and had lived in Rhodesia for most of his life, having immigrated as a child from South Africa. The two air stewardesses were Dulcie Esterhuizen, 21 years old and from Bulawayo, and 23-year-old Louise Pearson, from Salisbury.\n"}
{"text": " === Shootdown ===\n"}
{"text": " A group of ZIPRA guerrillas, armed with a Strela-2 launcher, waited in the bush beneath Flight 825's flightpath, and fired on the Hunyani about five minutes after it took off, while the aircraft was still in the climb phase of its flight. The heat-seeking missile hit the plane's starboard wing and exploded, causing the inner engine to also explode. A fuel tank and hydraulic lines ruptured, creating a fire that the passengers and crew could not put out. The second starboard engine failed almost immediately, leaving Hood with only his two port engines. Heaving wildly, the Hunyani began to descend rapidly.\n"}
{"text": " At 17: 10 Captain Hood sent a distress call to air traffic control, informing them that he had lost the two starboard engines and was going to crash. \"We 're going in,\" he radioed. Telling his passengers to brace for an emergency landing, he aimed for an open field of cotton in the Whamira Hills, in the bush to the west of Karoi, intending to belly land the craft. The landing was relatively stable until the Hunyani hit a previously unseen ditch, cartwheeled and exploded. The remaining fuel tanks ruptured and caught fire, setting the wrecked cabin ablaze.\n"}
{"text": " === Massacre on the ground ===\n"}
{"text": " Of the 56 people on board, 38, including Hood and Beaumont, died in the crash. Eighteen survived, albeit with injuries, and climbed out of the wreckage. After briefly settling the others, one of the passengers, Dr Cecil MacLaren, led four others \u2014 young newlyweds Robert and Shannon Hargreaves, Mrs Sharon Coles, and her four-year-old daughter Tracey \u2014 off in the direction of a nearby village in search of water. The other 13 remained close to the wreckage. Meanwhile, nine guerrillas made their way towards the crash site, and reached it at about 17: 45. Three of the 13 survivors remaining at the crash site hid on seeing figures approaching: Rhodesian Army reservist Anthony Hill, 39, took cover in the surrounding bush, while businessman Hans Hansen and his wife Diana did the same. This left 10 passengers in full view near the wreckage, including four women and two girls (aged 11 and 4).\n"}
{"text": " The guerrillas, who were armed with AK-47 rifles, presented themselves to the 10 passengers as friendly, saying they would summon help and bring water. They spoke in English, both to the survivors and among themselves. They told the passengers to congregate around a point a few metres from the wreckage; when the survivors said that some of them were too badly injured to walk, the insurgents told the able-bodied men to carry the others. The passengers were assembled into an area of about 10 square metres (110 sq ft). Standing roughly 15 metres (49 ft) away, the cadres now raised their weapons. \"You have taken our land,\" one of them said. \"Please don 't shoot us!\" one of the passengers cried, just before they were killed by a sustained burst of automatic gunfire.\n"}
{"text": " Having collected water from the nearby village, MacLaren and his companions were almost back at the crash site when they heard the shots. Thinking it was personal ammunition in the luggage exploding in the heat, they continued on their way, and called out to the other passengers, who they thought were still alive. This alerted the insurgents to the presence of more survivors; one of the guerrillas told MacLaren's group to \"come here\". The insurgents then opened fire on their general location, prompting MacLaren and the others to flee. Hill and the Hansens also ran; they revealed their positions to the fighters in their haste, but successfully hid themselves behind a ridge. After Hill and the others had hidden there for about two hours, they saw the attackers return to the crash site at about 19: 45. The guerrillas looted the wrecked cabin and some of the suitcases strewn around the site, filled their arms with various passengers' belongings, then left again.\n"}
{"text": " The survivors were found over the following days by the Rhodesian Army and police; Hill and Mr and Mrs Hansen were taken to Kariba Hospital, while MacLaren and his group were airlifted to Andrew Fleming Hospital in Salisbury.\n"}
{"text": " === Nkomo claims responsibility, but denies killing survivors ===\n"}
{"text": " Nkomo claimed responsibility for the attack in an interview with the BBC's Today radio programme the next day, laughing as he did so, to the horror of most Rhodesian observers, both black and white. He said that he had received intelligence that the Hunyani was being used for military purposes. Nkomo said he regretted the deaths as it was not his party's policy to kill civilians, and denied that his men had killed any survivors on the ground; by contrast, he said that his men had helped them, and had left them alive. He also accused Air Rhodesia of surreptitiously hauling troops and war materiel for the government, an allegation that Captain Pat Travers, Air Rhodesia's general manager, called a \"downright, deliberate lie\".\n"}
{"text": " According to Eliakim Sibanda, a professor and human rights speaker who wrote a history of ZAPU, Nkomo was implying that responsibility for the massacre actually lay with security force pseudo-guerrillas, more specifically the mixed race Selous Scouts unit, which had often been accused of brutalising rural civilians with the goal of shifting public opinion. Sibanda asserts that the massacre \"cannot be put beyond\" the Scouts, and also supports Nkomo's claim that the Hunyani had been used militarily, suggesting that ZIPRA might have believed there to be Rhodesian soldiers on board. \"Rhodesian television, before attacks on ZANLA in Mozambique, had shown Viscounts ferrying paratroopers for the job,\" he writes, \"... [and] ZIPRA intelligence knew there were paratroopers stationed [at Victoria Falls]\".\n"}
{"text": " == Reactions ==\n"}
{"text": " === White Rhodesians turn against blacks ===\n"}
{"text": " A report published in the American magazine Time a fortnight later described the incident as \"a genuine horror story, calculated to make the most alarming of Rhodesian doomsday prophecies seem true.\" Indeed, the white community in Rhodesia heard the news with fury, and many turned their minds to exacting retribution for what they and many others saw as an act of terrorism. The prominent Indian-Rhodesian Gulab family was particularly affected by the incident, having lost eight members in the attack. Though Rhodesian authorities did not immediately acknowledge the cause of the crash, doing so only after four days' investigation, the truth was common knowledge in Salisbury within hours. Smith wrote in his memoirs that the \"degree of anger ... [was] difficult to control\". White South Africans were similarly enraged, particularly after reports appeared in the South African press that the killers had raped the female passengers before massacring them. A Friends of Rhodesia Society in South Africa offered a reward of R100,000 to anybody who would either kill Nkomo or bring him to Salisbury to stand trial.\n"}
{"text": " Geoffrey Nyarota, who was then one of the few black reporters at the Rhodesia Herald newspaper, later wrote in his memoirs that many whites became resentful and wary towards blacks in general, believing them all to be \"terrorist sympathisers\". Describing the Herald newsroom the night of the incident, he relates a \"vile collective temper\" among the white sub-editors: \"They cursed until their voices became hoarse, threatening dire consequences for all terrs and munts or kaffirs ... I sensed that some of the more derogatory remarks made in unnecessarily loud voices that evening were meant specifically for my ears.\"\n"}
{"text": " Several racially motivated incidents occurred over the following days. According to the Time article, a group of whites entered an unsegregated Salisbury bar \"fingering the triggers of rifles\" and forced blacks drinking there to leave. Time also reported a rumour that two white youths, on learning of the massacre, shot the first black man they saw. Smith says that several would-be vigilante groups sought his permission to venture into the bush around the crash site to \"make the local people pay for their crime of harbouring and assisting the terrorists\". He instructed them not to, according to his memoirs, telling them that many rural blacks only assisted the guerrillas under extreme duress, and that it would not do to attack them. Many Rhodesians also resented the apparent lack of sympathy emanating from overseas governments, especially considering the character of the attack and its civilian target.\n"}
{"text": " === Memorial service, 8 September 1978 ===\n"}
{"text": " At a memorial service held on 8 September 1978 for Flight 825's passengers and crew at Salisbury's Anglican Cathedral, about 2,000 people crowded inside, with another 500 standing outside on the steps and pavement, many listening to the service inside on portable radio sets. Prominent among those present in the cathedral were uniformed Air Rhodesia and South African Airways personnel, as well as Rhodesian Special Air Service soldiers and senior officers from other military units. Smith and several government ministers also attended, including P K van der Byl, the co-Minister of Foreign Affairs.\n"}
{"text": " Dean John de Costa gave a sermon damning what he described as a \"deafening silence\" from overseas. \"Nobody who holds sacred the dignity of human life can be anything but sickened at the events attending the Viscount,\" he said. \"But are we deafened with the voice of protest from nations who call themselves civilised? We are not! Like men in the story of the Good Samaritan, they pass by on the other side ... The ghastliness of this ill-fated flight from Kariba will be burnt upon our memories for years to come. For others, far from our borders, it is an intellectual matter, not one which affects them deeply. Here is the tragedy!\"\n"}
{"text": " === Smith \u2013 Nkomo talks halted ===\n"}
{"text": " The talks between Smith and the ZAPU leader that had been progressing so promisingly were immediately halted by Salisbury. Smith himself called Nkomo a \"monster\". Cilliers comments that the ending of the Smith \u2013 Nkomo talks at this time was \"potentially the most serious result of the Viscount massacre\", as the talks had been progressing well before the incident. He surmises that an agreement between the two \"at this critical stage\" might have helped the transitional Rhodesian government to secure international recognition.\n"}
{"text": " On 10 September, the Prime Minister announced to the nation that certain areas of the country would be placed under a variation of martial law, which he said would be applied in particular regions as and when needed. He declared Rhodesia's intent to \"liquidate the internal workings of those organisations associated with terrorism\", and warned neighbouring countries to prepare for \"any defensive strikes we might undertake\" against guerrilla bases in their respective territories. He claimed that the war had escalated because Britain and the United States were supporting the Patriotic Front. William Irvine, the co-Minister of Transport, warned the guerrillas that Rhodesia \"w [ould] not let these innocents go unavenged\".\n"}
{"text": " == Rhodesia strikes back ==\n"}
{"text": " === Operation Snoopy; Rhodesia hits New Chimoio ===\n"}
{"text": " Because ZAPU and ZIPRA were based in Zambia, many Rhodesians clamoured for a massive retaliatory strike against terrorist targets in that country, but the first external target hit by the security forces following the Viscount shootdown was the prominent cluster of ZANLA bases around Chimoio in Mozambique. The Rhodesian military had struck these bases extensively in November 1977 during Operation Dingo, destroying much of the ZANLA presence there, but the insurgents had since built a complex called \"New Chimoio\", slightly to the east; the new camps were distributed across a far larger area than the originals. In a combined airborne-ground assault called Operation Snoopy, the Rhodesian Air Force, Rhodesian Light Infantry and Special Air Service wiped out much of New Chimoio on 20 September 1978. Mozambique sent armour to ZANLA's aid in the form of nine Soviet-made T-54 tanks and four Russian BTR-152 armoured personnel carriers, but the former were routed and one of the latter destroyed by the Rhodesian security forces. According to Rhodesian figures, there were \"several hundred\" guerrillas killed, while the security forces lost only two soldiers, one of whom was accidentally killed by a friendly air strike.\n"}
{"text": " === Operation Gatling; the \"Green Leader\" raid ===\n"}
{"text": " Rhodesia then attacked ZIPRA's bases in Zambia, in what Group Captain Peter Petter-Bowyer later described as \"payback time\" for Flight 825. Operation Gatling, launched on 19 October 1978, was another joint-force operation between the Air Force and the Army, which contributed Special Air Service and Rhodesian Light Infantry paratroopers. Gatling's primary target, just 16 kilometres (10 miles) north-east of central Lusaka, was the formerly white-owned Westlands Farm, which had been transformed into ZIPRA's main headquarters and training base under the name \"Freedom Camp\". ZIPRA presumed that Rhodesia would never dare to attack a site so close to Lusaka. About 4,000 guerrillas underwent training at Freedom Camp, with senior ZIPRA staff also on site. The Rhodesian operation's other targets were Chikumbi, 19 kilometres (12 miles) north of Lusaka, and Mkushi Camp; all three were to be attacked more or less simultaneously in a coordinated sweep across Zambia. Assaulting targets deep inside Zambia was a first for the Rhodesian forces; previously only guerrillas near the border had been attacked.\n"}
{"text": " Led by Squadron Leader Chris Dixon, who identified himself to Lusaka Airport tower as \"Green Leader\", a Rhodesian Air Force group flew into Zambia at very low altitudes (thereby avoiding Zambian radar) and took control of the country's airspace for about a quarter of an hour during the initial assault on Westlands Farm, informing Lusaka tower that the attack was against \"Rhodesian dissidents, and not against Zambia\", and that Rhodesian Hawker Hunters were circling the Zambian airfields under orders to shoot down any fighter that attempted to take off. The Zambians obeyed all of Green Leader's instructions, made no attempt to resist and temporarily halted civil air traffic. Using Rufunsa airstrip in eastern Zambia as a forward base, the Rhodesian military suffered only minor casualties during the three-day operation, and afterwards claimed to have killed over 1,500 ZIPRA personnel, as well as some Cuban instructors.\n"}
{"text": " Historians Paul Moorcraft and Peter McLaughlin write that this exaggerated considerably the actual number of guerrillas killed, as most of Nkomo's army, then numbering about 10,000 fighters, had not been touched. On the other hand, unarmed refugees often camped in or around insurgent positions, and hundreds of these had been killed in the Rhodesian raid. Moorcraft and McLaughlin comment that for the Rhodesian airmen, it would have been \"impossible to distinguish innocent refugees from young ZIPRA recruits.\" Sibanda describes Freedom Camp as \"a refugee camp for boys\", and says \"351 boys and girls\" were killed. He claims that the Red Cross and the UN Refugee Agency \"confirmed ZAPU's claim that Smith's forces struck at defenseless, civilian trainees\".\n"}
{"text": " == Aftermath ==\n"}
{"text": " The Rhodesian attacks on ZANLA and ZIPRA bases did much to restore white morale following the Viscount incident, though they had not actually made much impact on the respective guerrilla campaigns. Nkomo and the Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda all the same requested further military aid and better weapons from the Soviets and the British respectively. Martial law was quickly extended across Rhodesia's rural areas, and covered three-quarters of the country by the end of 1978. Air Rhodesia, meanwhile, began developing anti-Strela shielding for its Viscounts. Before this work was completed, ZIPRA shot down a second Viscount, Air Rhodesia Flight 827, on 12 February 1979. This time there were no survivors.\n"}
{"text": " Following the second shootdown, Air Rhodesia created a system whereby the underside of the Viscounts would be coated with low-radiation paint, with the exhaust pipes concurrently shrouded. According to tests conducted by the Air Force, a Viscount so treated could not be detected by the Strela's targeting system once it was over 2,000 feet (610 m). There were no further Viscount shootdowns in Rhodesia.\n"}
{"text": " In the elections held the following year under the Internal Settlement terms, boycotted by ZANU and ZAPU, Muzorewa won a majority, and became the first Prime Minister of the reconstituted, majority-ruled state of Zimbabwe Rhodesia on 1 June 1979. This new order failed to win international acceptance, however, and in December 1979 the Lancaster House Agreement was agreed in London by Zimbabwe Rhodesia, the UK government and the Patriotic Front, returning the country to its former colonial status. The UK government suspended the constitution and took direct control for an interim period. Fresh elections were won by Mugabe, who took power in April 1980, concurrently with the country's recognised independence as Zimbabwe.\n"}
{"text": " == Legacy and memorial ==\n"}
{"text": " In modern Zimbabwe, it is not the Viscount shootdowns but rather the retributory Rhodesian strikes against nationalist guerrilla camps that endure predominantly in the cultural memory. State media in Zimbabwe, prominently the Herald newspaper, often claim that Rhodesian forces indiscriminately and deliberately slaughtered thousands of helpless refugees during such operations. ZIPRA's downing of civilian planes is meanwhile portrayed as a legitimate act of war on the grounds that the guerrillas might have believed them to have military personnel or equipment on board. The massacre of surviving Flight 825 passengers at the crash site is often omitted or attributed to forces other than ZIPRA; in his 1984 memoirs Nkomo repeated his claim that ZIPRA fighters had helped the survivors, and wrote simply that \"I truly have no idea how the ten died\".\n"}
{"text": " A monument to those killed in the Rhodesian attack on Chikumbi was built in Zambia in 1998, and dedicated jointly by the Zambian and Zimbabwean governments. A memorial to the victims of the two Rhodesian Viscount incidents, dubbed the Viscount Memorial, was erected on the grounds of the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria, South Africa in 2012, and inaugurated on 1 September that year. The names of the dead passengers and crew are engraved on two granite slabs that stand upright, side by side, the pair topped by an emblem symbolising an aircraft. A pole beside the monument flies the Rhodesian flag.\n"}
{"text": " A British parliamentary motion put forward by Labour MP Kate Hoey in February 2013 to retrospectively condemn the Viscount attacks and memorialise the victims on the anniversary of the second shootdown prompted outcry in the Zimbabwean press, with the Herald branding it a racist \"Rhodie motion\" intended to antagonise the Mugabe administration and its supporters. Dumiso Dabengwa, a former ZIPRA commander, described the move as a provocation motivated by race that went against the spirit of the amnesty enacted at Lancaster House. Christopher Mutsvangwa, a diplomat and political analyst, took a similar line, calling Hoey's proposed commemoration \"a provocation ... [that] means they only regard the death of white people alone during the struggle. There is no mention of what happened to our sons and daughters in and outside the country.\" ZAPU's official response to Hoey's motion included the assertion that in all conflicts \"civilians get caught up in cross-fires due to faulty intelligence reports and other communication errors\", and juxtaposed the civilians killed in the Viscount shootdowns with those killed at Chikumbi.\n"}
{"text": " === Newspaper and journal articles ===\n"}
{"text": " = Tikal =\n"}
{"text": " Tikal (/ ti\u02c8k\u00e4l /) (Tik \u2019 al in modern Mayan orthography) is the ruins of an ancient city found in a rainforest in Guatemala. Ambrosio Tut, a gum-sapper, reported the ruins to La Gaceta, a Guatemalan newspaper, which named the site Tikal. After the Berlin Academy of Sciences'magazine republished the report in 1853, archeologists and treasure hunters began visiting the forest. Today tourism to the site may help protect the rainforest. It is one of the largest archaeological sites and urban centers of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is located in the archaeological region of the Pet\u00e9n Basin in what is now northern Guatemala. Situated in the department of El Pet\u00e9n, the site is part of Guatemala's Tikal National Park and in 1979 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n"}
{"text": " Tikal was the capital of a conquest state that became one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient Maya. Though monumental architecture at the site dates back as far as the 4th century BC, Tikal reached its apogee during the Classic Period, c. 200 to 900 AD. During this time, the city dominated much of the Maya region politically, economically, and militarily, while interacting with areas throughout Mesoamerica such as the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. There is evidence that Tikal was conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century AD. Following the end of the Late Classic Period, no new major monuments were built at Tikal and there is evidence that elite palaces were burned. These events were coupled with a gradual population decline, culminating with the site \u2019 s abandonment by the end of the 10th century.\n"}
{"text": " Tikal is the best understood of any of the large lowland Maya cities, with a long dynastic ruler list, the discovery of the tombs of many of the rulers on this list and the investigation of their monuments, temples and palaces.\n"}
{"text": " == Etymology ==\n"}
{"text": " The name Tikal may be derived from ti ak 'al in the Yucatec Maya language; it is said to be a relatively modern name meaning \"at the waterhole\". The name was apparently applied to one of the site's ancient reservoirs by hunters and travelers in the region. It has alternatively been interpreted as meaning \"the place of the voices\" in the Itza Maya language. Tikal, however, is not the ancient name for the site but rather the name adopted shortly after its discovery in the 1840s. Hieroglyphic inscriptions at the ruins refer to the ancient city as Yax Mutal or Yax Mutul, meaning \"First Mutal\". Tikal may have come to have been called this because Dos Pilas also came to use the same emblem glyph; the rulers of the city presumably wanted to distinguish themselves as the first city to bear the name. The kingdom as a whole was simply called Mutul, which is the reading of the \"hair bundle\" emblem glyph seen in the accompanying photo. Its precise meaning remains obscure.\n"}
{"text": " == Location ==\n"}
{"text": " The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometres (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometres (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometres (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometres (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometres (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometres (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize.\n"}
{"text": " The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometres (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometres (220 sq mi).\n"}
{"text": " The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east \u2013 west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (Ceiba pentandra) the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (Cedrela odorata), and Honduras mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla). Regarding the fauna, agouti, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, jaguarundis, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. For centuries this city was completely covered under jungle. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimetres (76.6 in).\n"}
{"text": " One of the largest of the Classic Maya cities, Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archaeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use.\n"}
{"text": " The Tikal National Park covers an area of 575.83 square kilometres (222.33 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropolog\u00eda e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala.\n"}
{"text": " == Population ==\n"}
{"text": " Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants, with the most likely figure being at the upper end of this range.\n"}
{"text": " The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC \u2013 AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometres (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometres (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archaeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high.\n"}
{"text": " == Rulers ==\n"}
{"text": " The dynastic line of Tikal, founded as early as the 1st century AD, spanned 800 years and included at least 33 rulers.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " === Preclassic ===\n"}
{"text": " There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber.\n"}
{"text": " Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400 \u2013 300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time \u2013 a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize.\n"}
{"text": " Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red.\n"}
{"text": " In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city.\n"}
{"text": " === Early Classic ===\n"}
{"text": " Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax-Moch-Xoc, perhaps in the 3rd century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland.\n"}
{"text": " Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities.\n"}
{"text": " The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal.\n"}
{"text": " There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city.\n"}
{"text": " ==== Tikal and Teotihuacan ====\n"}
{"text": " The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich 'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich 'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD. On the same day, Siyah K \u2019 ak \u2019 (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as \"Lord of the West\". Siyah K \u2019 ak \u2019 was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K \u2019 ak \u2019 led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak 'appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the tenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak 'for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.\n"}
{"text": " R\u00edo Azul, a small site 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean.\n"}
{"text": " Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San Jos\u00e9 near Lake Pet\u00e9n Itz\u00e1 became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometres (16 mi) in every direction.\n"}
{"text": " Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometres (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose.\n"}
{"text": " ==== Tikal and Cop\u00e1n ====\n"}
{"text": " In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Cop\u00e1n, whose founder K 'inich Yax K'uk 'Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Cop\u00e1n itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Cop\u00e1n dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K 'inich Yax K'uk 'Mo' arrived in Cop\u00e1n in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K 'uk' Mo '(lord K'uk 'Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as \"Lord of the West\", much like Siyah K \u2019 ak \u2019. At the same time, in late 426, Cop\u00e1n founded the nearby site of Quirigu\u00e1, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries.\n"}
{"text": " A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title kaloomte ', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to \"high king\".\n"}
{"text": " The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the \"Lady of Tikal\", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich 'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B 'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord \"Bird Claw\", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. .\n"}
{"text": " === Late Classic ===\n"}
{"text": " ==== Tikal hiatus ====\n"}
{"text": " In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The \"Tikal hiatus\" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab 'Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period.\n"}
{"text": " The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archaeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic.\n"}
{"text": " ==== Tikal and Dos Pilas ====\n"}
{"text": " In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometres (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasi\u00f3n River. B 'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B 'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy, and attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B 'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B 'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas and Caracol.\n"}
{"text": " In 682, Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of kaloomte', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a programme of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory.\n"}
{"text": " ==== Tikal after Teotihuac\u00e1n ====\n"}
{"text": " By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K 'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Pet\u00e9n Itz\u00e1. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today.\n"}
{"text": " In 738, Quirigu\u00e1, a vassal of Cop\u00e1n, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Cop\u00e1n and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Cop\u00e1n.\n"}
{"text": " In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers.\n"}
{"text": " === Terminal Classic ===\n"}
{"text": " By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K 'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph.\n"}
{"text": " As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost the majority of its population during the period from 830 to 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbat\u00fan region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources.\n"}
{"text": " In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K 'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier to find tombs being looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century.\n"}
{"text": " The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal.\n"}
{"text": " === Modern history ===\n"}
{"text": " In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hern\u00e1n Cort\u00e9s passed within a few kilometres of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andr\u00e9s de Avenda\u00f1o became lost in the Pet\u00e9n forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal.\n"}
{"text": " As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839-40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto M\u00e9ndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Pet\u00e9n, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archaeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s.\n"}
{"text": " In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archaeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984.\n"}
{"text": " Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the first Star Wars film, Episode IV: A New Hope, released in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote.\n"}
{"text": " Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964.\n"}
{"text": " == Site description ==\n"}
{"text": " Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 metres (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica.\n"}
{"text": " The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs.\n"}
{"text": " The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-metre (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. The 16 square kilometres (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi) (see below). Population estimates place the demographic size of the site between 10,000 and 90,000, and possibly 425,000 in the surrounding area. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought.\n"}
{"text": " === Causeways ===\n"}
{"text": " By the Late Classic, a network of sacbeob (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometres through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 metres ( 2,460 ft) to the west ) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometre ( 0.62 mi) to the southeast ). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archaeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and M\u00e9ndez causeways. They assisted the passage everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams.\n"}
{"text": " The Maler Causeway runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic.\n"}
{"text": " The Maudsley Causeway runs 0.8 kilometres (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H.\n"}
{"text": " The Mendez Causeway runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometres (0.81 mi).\n"}
{"text": " The Tozzer Causeway runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV.\n"}
{"text": " === Architectural groups ===\n"}
{"text": " The Great Plaza lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis.\n"}
{"text": " The Central Acropolis is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza.\n"}
{"text": " The North Acropolis, together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 metres (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period.\n"}
{"text": " The South Acropolis is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square metres (220,000 sq ft).\n"}
{"text": " The Plaza of the Seven Temples is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side.\n"}
{"text": " The Mundo Perdido is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250 \u2013 300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the talud-tablero form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250 \u2013 600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archaeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it.\n"}
{"text": " Group G lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper storey. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask.\n"}
{"text": " Group H is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic.\n"}
{"text": " There are nine Twin-Pyramid Complexes at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east \u2013 west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids, and lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or k 'atun) intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic.\n"}
{"text": " Group Q is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K 'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected.\n"}
{"text": " Group R is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway.\n"}
{"text": " === Structures ===\n"}
{"text": " There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archaeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I - VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 metres (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years.\n"}
{"text": " Temple I (also known as the Temple of Ah Cacao or Temple of the Great Jaguar) is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K 'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740 \u2013 750. The temple rises 47 metres (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe.\n"}
{"text": " Temple II (also known as the Temple of the Mask) it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 metres (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K 'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York.\n"}
{"text": " Temple III (also known as the Temple of the Jaguar Priest) was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 metres (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers.\n"}
{"text": " Temple IV is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 metres (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik \u2019 in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid \u2019 s summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994: 169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador.\n"}
{"text": " Temple V stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 metres (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal - only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century.\n"}
{"text": " Temple VI is also known as the Temple of the Inscriptions and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-metre (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored.\n"}
{"text": " Temple 33 was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 metres (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archaeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction.\n"}
{"text": " Structure 34 is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other.\n"}
{"text": " Structure 5D-43 is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a talud-tablero platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical tablero panels are set between sloping talud panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping talud panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century.\n"}
{"text": " Structure 5C-49 possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a talud-tablero fa\u00e7ade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid.\n"}
{"text": " Structure 5C-53 is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure.\n"}
{"text": " The Lost World Pyramid (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal \u2019 s central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich 'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 metres (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories.\n"}
{"text": " Structure 5D-96 is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs.\n"}
{"text": " Group 6C-16 is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred metres south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics.\n"}
{"text": " The Great Plaza Ballcourt is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis.\n"}
{"text": " The Bat Palace is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows.\n"}
{"text": " Complex 1 lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711.\n"}
{"text": " === Altars ===\n"}
{"text": " Altar 5 is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III.\n"}
{"text": " Altar 8 is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueolog\u00eda y Etnolog\u00eda in Guatemala City.\n"}
{"text": " Altar 9 is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI.\n"}
{"text": " Altar 10 is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion.\n"}
{"text": " Altar 35 is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV.\n"}
{"text": " === Lintels ===\n"}
{"text": " At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region.\n"}
{"text": " Lintel 3 from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik 'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin.\n"}
{"text": " === Stelae ===\n"}
{"text": " Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows:\n"}
{"text": " Stela 1 dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II in a standing position.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 4 is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 5 was dedicated in 744 by Yik 'in Chan K'awiil.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 6 is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the \"Lady of Tikal\" who celebrated the end of the 4th K 'atun in that year.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 10 is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte 'B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 11 was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K 'awiil II.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 12 is linked to the queen known as the \"Lady of Tikal\" and king Kaloomte 'B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 16 was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 18 was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the k 'atun-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 19 was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 20 was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueolog\u00eda y Etnolog\u00eda in Guatemala City.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 21 was dedicated in 736 by Yik 'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 22 was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 23 was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called \"Lady of Tikal\", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich 'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 24 was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 26 was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 29 bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archaeologists in 1959.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 30 is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 31 is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak ' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 32 is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 39 is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich 'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 40 bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468.\n"}
{"text": " Stela 43 is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV.\n"}
{"text": " === Burials ===\n"}
{"text": " Burial 1 is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid.\n"}
{"text": " Burial 10 is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top.\n"}
{"text": " Burial 48 is generally accepted as the tomb of Siyaj Chan K 'awil. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact.\n"}
{"text": " Burial 85 dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb ' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels.\n"}
{"text": " Burial 116 is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself.\n"}
{"text": " Burial 195 was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archaeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K 'awiil, the wooden originals long gone.\n"}
{"text": " Burial 196 is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God.\n"}
{"text": " = Tropical Storm Josephine (2008) =\n"}
{"text": " Tropical Storm Josephine was the tenth tropical storm of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season. Josephine developed out of a strong tropical wave which moved off the African coast on August 31. The wave quickly became organized and was declared Tropical Depression Ten while located 170 mi (270 km) to the south-southeast of the Cape Verde Islands on September 2. The depression was quickly upgraded to Tropical Storm Josephine around noon the same day. Over the next several days, Josephine moved in a general west-northwest direction and reached its peak intensity early on September 3. Strong wind shear, some due to the outflow of Hurricane Ike, and dry air caused the storm to weaken. On September 6, the combination of wind shear, dry air, and cooling waters caused Josephine to weaken into a tropical depression. Josephine deteriorated into a remnant low shortly after as convection continued to dissipate around the storm. The low ultimately dissipated while located 520 mi (835 km) east of Guadeloupe on September 10. However, the remnant moisture led to minor flooding on the island of St. Croix.\n"}
{"text": " == Meteorological history ==\n"}
{"text": " Tropical Storm Josephine formed as a tropical wave that emerged off the west coast of Africa near the end of August 2008. It tracked south of Cape Verde and slowly developed, and on September 2 the disturbance became Tropical Depression Ten while located south-southeast of the Cape Verde islands. As the depression became more organized, an eye-like feature developed in the upper levels of the system. The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Josephine six hours after forming. Josephine was located in an area which was supportive for rapid intensification but was not forecast to intensify quickly.\n"}
{"text": " Josephine continued to intensify throughout the afternoon as the storm became more symmetrical. However, due to the location of the storm, there was a lack of accurate wind speed readings, and the National Hurricane Center was uncertain of its actual intensity. Despite the lack of wind shear around the storm, the center became slightly exposed and ceased further intensification. The storm was also heading into an area where shear was forecasted to significantly increase due to an upper-level trough diving southward. Despite convection being partially removed from the center of Josephine, the storm intensified slightly in the early morning hours on September 3 as thunderstorm activity to the south of the center became more organized. The intensification was forecast to be short in duration as the trough to the north was deepening, causing the wind shear to the west to become stronger.\n"}
{"text": " Josephine reached its peak intensity of 65 mph (100 km / h) around 8 a.m. (EDT) as it continued to become more organized. However, there were indications that it had already begun to weaken. Outflow towards the north was becoming restricted and arc clouds began emanating from the storm, a sign that dry air was entering the system. During the afternoon hours, the structure of Josephine began to rapidly deteriorate as strong wind shear and dry air took their toll. By the late night, the center was almost completely exposed and only a band of convection persisted near the center.\n"}
{"text": " Despite continuing effects from the strong wind shear, a large, deep burst of convection formed in the northern semicircle of Josephine. The center was found to have shifted towards the new convection leading to an increase in intensity. The forecast showed a slight decrease in wind shear as Josephine continued westward and no change in intensity over the 5-day forecast was predicted. However, the convection decreased once more and the low became completely exposed by the late morning hours and Josephine weakened again. By the afternoon, the center of Josephine was only a swirl of clouds, devoid of convection. During the overnight hours on September 4 into the morning of September 5, convection associated with Josephine began to redevelop somewhat, mostly to the north of the circulation, due to the strong southerly wind shear. By mid-morning, Josephine re-intensified slightly due to the redevelopment of some convection. However, the redevelopment was short lived and wind shear again took its toll on Josephine by late morning. The convection around the system became dislocated from the center and Josephine weakened slightly.\n"}
{"text": " The weakening trend continued through the afternoon as the storm was being affected by strong southerly shear. Josephine became almost fully devoid of any convection by mid-afternoon and the storm weakened to 40 mph (65 km / h), barely holding on to tropical storm status. Josephine regained a small amount of convection in the late night hours, but not enough to still be classified a tropical storm. Due to the lack of convection, Josephine was downgraded to a Tropical Depression at 11p.m. (EDT) with winds of 35 mph (55 km / h). Since there was no convection around the system, it would have normally been classified a remnant low but, due to the possibility of the storm regenerating over the next several days, it was considered a tropical depression. The next morning, Josephine was downgraded to a remnant low as strong wind shear and dry air caused the demise of the storm. No redevelopment was expected with Josephine as it began to move over colder waters and remain under strong wind shear until it dissipated.\n"}
{"text": " However, the remnant low associated with Josephine began to show signs of redevelopment during the afternoon on September 7. Convection around the system increased significantly and the low was no longer exposed. On September 8, wind shear took over the system again. Convection around the remnant low was torn away and the low was exposed once more. The National Hurricane Center did not state the chance of regeneration once the low became exposed. Finally, on September 9, wind shear and dry air led to the remnants of Josephine deteriorating into an open wave. However, on September 10, the remnants of Josephine redeveloped and global models picked up on the reformed system. Once more, the chance of regeneration was possible as the remnants of Josephine headed towards the Bahamas. However, on September 14, dry air and wind shear caused the remnants to dissipate entirely.\n"}
{"text": " == Impact ==\n"}
{"text": " As Josephine passed to the south of the Cape Verde islands on September 2, outer rain bands produced minor rainfall, totaling around 0.55 inches (14 mm). There were no reports of damage or flooding from the rain and overall effects were minor.\n"}
{"text": " Several days after the low dissipated, the remnant moisture from Josephine brought showers and thunderstorms to St. Croix where up to 1 in (25.4 mm) of rain fell. The heavy rains led to minor street flooding and some urban flooding. No known damage was caused by the flood.\n"}
{"text": " = Mount Elbert =\n"}
{"text": " Mount Elbert is the highest summit of the Rocky Mountains of North America and the highest point in the U.S. state of Colorado and the entire Mississippi River drainage basin. The ultra-prominent 14,440-foot (4401.2 m) fourteener is the highest peak in the Sawatch Range and the second-highest summit in the contiguous United States after Mount Whitney. Mount Elbert is located in San Isabel National Forest, 12.1 miles (19.4 km) southwest (bearing 223 \u00b0) of the City of Leadville in Lake County, Colorado.\n"}
{"text": " The mountain was named in honor of Colorado statesman Samuel Hitt Elbert, who was active in the formative period of the state and Governor of the Territory of Colorado from 1873 to 1874. Henry W. Stuckle of the Hayden Survey was the first to record an ascent of the peak, in 1874. The easiest and most popular climbing routes are categorized as Class 1 to 2 or A + in mountaineering parlance. Mount Elbert is therefore often referred to as the \"gentle giant\" that tops all others in the Rocky Mountains.\n"}
{"text": " == Geography ==\n"}
{"text": " Mount Elbert is visible to the southwest of Leadville, often snow-capped even in the summer. Many other fourteeners surround Elbert in all directions, and it is very close to central Colorado's Collegiate Peaks. The neighboring Mount Massive, to the north, is the second-highest peak in the Rocky Mountains and the third-highest in the contiguous United States, and La Plata Peak, to the south, is the fifth-highest in the Rockies. The community of Twin Lakes lies at the base of Mount Elbert, Denver is about 130 miles (209 km) to the east, Vail is 50 miles (80 km) to the north, and Aspen is 40 miles (64 km) to the west. Leadville, about 16 miles (26 km) to the northeast, is the nearest large town. Elbert's parent peak is Mount Whitney in California. Including Alaska and Hawaii, Mount Elbert is the fourteenth-highest mountain in the United States.\n"}
{"text": " Weather conditions often change rapidly, and afternoon thunderstorms are common in the summertime; hailstorms and snow are possible year-round. An electrical storm on the mountain's summit was considered remarkable enough to be reported in the July 1894 issue of Science.\n"}
{"text": " == Geology ==\n"}
{"text": " Mount Elbert is part of the Sawatch Range, an uplift of the Laramide Orogeny which separated from the Mosquito Range to the east around 28 million years ago. The tops of this range were heavily glaciated, leaving behind characteristic summit features and other such clues. For example, the base of Elbert on the eastern side exhibits large igneous and metamorphic rocks deposited when the glaciers receded, which lie on a lateral moraine. Further up the eastern side there is a large cirque with a small tarn. There are also lakes to both the north and south, Turquoise and Twin Lakes respectively; the Twin Lakes are a result of the natural dam of end moraines, and Turquoise Lake was created by the manmade Sugar Loaf Dam.\n"}
{"text": " Mount Elbert is composed largely of quartzite. However, the summit ridge consists of metamorphic basement rock, which is Pre-Cambrian in origin and about 1.7 billion years old. There are various igneous intrusions including pegmatite, as well as \"bands\" of gneiss and schist. Unlike mountains of similar altitude elsewhere, Elbert lacks both a permanent snowpack and a prominent north-facing cirque, which can be attributed to its position amongst other mountains of similar height, causing it to receive relatively small quantities of precipitation.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " Mount Elbert was named by miners in honor of Samuel Hitt Elbert, the governor of the then-Territory of Colorado, because he brokered a treaty in September 1873 with the Ute tribe that opened up more than 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km2) of reservation land to mining and railroad activity. The first recorded ascent of the peak was by H.W. Stuckle in 1874, who was surveying the mountain as part of the Hayden Survey.\n"}
{"text": " Originally measured as 14,433 feet (4,399 m) in height, Mount Elbert's elevation was later adjusted to 14,440 feet (4,400 m) following a re-evaluation of mapped elevations, which sparked protests. The actual change was made in 1988 as a result of the North American Vertical Datum of 1988; it seems the original measurement resulted from the Sea Level Datum of 1929. A matter of some contention arose after the Great Depression over the heights of Elbert and its neighbor, Mount Massive, which differ in elevation by only 12 feet (3.7 m). This led to an ongoing dispute that came to a head with the Mount Massive supporters building large piles of stones on the summit to boost its height, only to have the Mount Elbert proponents demolish them. The effort was ultimately unsuccessful and Mount Elbert has remained the highest peak in Colorado. The first motorized ascent of Elbert occurred in 1949, when a Jeep was driven to the summit, apparently to judge suitability for skiing development.\n"}
{"text": " == Flora and fauna ==\n"}
{"text": " The summit of Mount Elbert is an alpine environment, featuring plants such as Phacelia sericea (sky-pilot), Hymenoxys grandiflora (old-man-of-the-mountain), and Geum rossii (alpine avens). Also noted are Carex atrata var. pullata, Salix desertorum, Platanthera hyperborea, Thalictrum fendleri, Aquilegia canadensis, Chenopodium album, Gentiana detonsa var. hallii, and Bigelovia parryi. Below treeline the mountain is heavily forested, with the lower slopes covered with a mixture of lodgepole pine, spruce, aspen and fir.\n"}
{"text": " Some of the fauna reported on the climb to the summit include black bears, marmots, mule deer, pikas, and pocket gophers; there are also many species of avifauna. Elk, grouse, turkey and bighorn sheep are present in the area during the summer.\n"}
{"text": " == Climbing ==\n"}
{"text": " There are three main routes which ascend the mountain, all of which gain over 4,100 feet (1,200 m) of elevation. The standard route ascends the peak from the east, starting from the Colorado Trail just north of Twin Lakes. The 4.6 miles (7.4 km) long North (Main) Elbert Trail begins close to the Elbert Creek Campground, and gains about 4,500 feet (1,400 m). The trail is open to equestrians, mountain bikers and hunters during season. An easier, but longer route, the South Elbert Trail, is 5.5 miles (8.9 km) long, climbing 4,600 feet (1,400 m) at a less-punishing gradient than the North Elbert Trail, approaching from the south and then climbing the eastern ridge.\n"}
{"text": " The most difficult of the main routes is the Black Cloud Trail, a Class 2 climb that takes ten to fourteen hours depending on pace, gains 5,300 feet (1,600 m) in elevation, and also involves an ascent of the sub-peak, South Elbert, at 14,134 feet (4,308 m). Even healthy and experienced climbers report great difficulty on this route, and despite the fact that there is a trail, the route is extremely steep, unstable, and rocky in places. The elevation gain is not evenly distributed over the 5.5-mile ascent. There are also routes approaching from the western face, and southwestern ridge, from South Halfmoon Creek Trailhead and Echo Canyon Trailhead respectively.\n"}
{"text": " Although strenuous and requiring physical fitness, none of the conventional routes require specialist mountaineering skills or technical rock climbing. The main dangers of the mountain are those common to all high mountains, particularly altitude sickness. This can affect anyone, even those who are acclimatized. In serious cases, it can lead to high-altitude pulmonary edema and cerebral edema, which can lead to difficulties with breathing, paralysis, and death. Climbers are advised to begin their ascent at or before 6 a.m. and to summit and descend before early afternoon to minimize exposure to possible afternoon thunderstorms while at high altitudes. Although the most conventional form of ascent is by hiking, Anna Elizabeth Dickinson, the orator, ascended the mountain on a mule borrowed from the U.S. government.\n"}
{"text": " = Scientology in Germany =\n"}
{"text": " The Church of Scientology has been present in Germany since 1970. German authorities estimate that there are 4,000 active Scientologists in Germany today; the Church of Scientology gives a membership figure of around 12,000. The Church of Scientology has encountered particular antagonism from the German press and government and occupies a precarious legal, social and cultural position in Germany.\n"}
{"text": " German courts have so far not resolved whether Scientology should be accorded the legal status of a religious or worldview community, and different courts have reached contradictory conclusions. The German domestic intelligence service has monitored the organization's activities. The German government does not recognize Scientology as a religion. It views it as an abusive business masquerading as a religion and believes that it pursues political goals that conflict with the values enshrined in the German constitution. This stance has been criticized, most notably by the U.S. government, which recognizes Scientology as a religion and has raised concerns about the violation of individual rights posed by sect filters.\n"}
{"text": " Scientologists in Germany face specific political and economic restrictions. They are barred from membership in some major political parties, and businesses and other employers use so-called \"sect filters\" to expose a prospective business partner's or employee's association with the organization. German federal and state interior ministers started a process aimed at banning Scientology in late 2007, but abandoned the initiative a year later, finding insufficient legal grounds. Despite this, polls suggest that most Germans favor banning Scientology altogether.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " Scientology, founded in the early 1950s in the United States by L. Ron Hubbard and today claiming to be represented in 150 countries, has been a very controversial new religious movement. Its stated utopian aim is to \"clear the planet\", to bring about an enlightened age in which every individual has overcome their psychological limitations. Scientology teaches that the source of people's unhappiness lies in \"engrams\", psychological burdens acquired in the course of painful experiences, which can be cleared through a type of counselling called \"auditing\" made available by the Church of Scientology.\n"}
{"text": " The fact that Scientologists have to pay large fees for auditing and other Scientology services has brought controversy to Scientology throughout much of its history, with governments classing it as a profit-making enterprise rather than as a religion. Critics maintain that Scientology is \"a business-driven, psychologically manipulative, totalitarian ideology with world-dominating aspirations\", and that it tricks its members into parting with significant sums of money for Scientology courses. Scientology has fought innumerable lawsuits to defend itself against such charges and to pursue legal recognition as a religion. These efforts have been partly successful \u2013 Scientology has gained recognition as a tax-exempt religious group in a number of countries, most notably in Australia in 1983 and the United States in 1993, and in 2007 won an important case at the European Court of Human Rights, which censured Russia for failing to register Scientology as a religion.\n"}
{"text": " The German government has said that it does not consider Scientology a religion, but a \"commercial enterprise with a history of taking advantage of vulnerable individuals and an extreme dislike of any criticism\" whose \"totalitarian structure and methods may pose a risk to Germany's democratic society\". Accordingly, the German government has taken a very strong stance against the organization. Germany is not alone in opposing Scientology; in France, the Church of Scientology was convicted of organized fraud in October 2009, after a court found that members had been manipulated into paying large sums for Scientology products, and the Church only narrowly escaped being banned altogether. Scientology is similarly controversial in Belgium, Greece and the UK.\n"}
{"text": " On the subject of Scientology's status as a religion, the German government has pointed to a 1995 decision by the Federal Labor Court of Germany. That court, noting Hubbard's instruction that Scientologists should \"make money, make more money \u2013 make other people produce so as to make more money\", came to the conclusion that \"Scientology purports to be a 'church' merely as a cover to pursue its economic interests\". In the same decision, the court also found that Scientology uses \"inhuman and totalitarian practices\". Given the lessons of Germany's 20th-century history, in which the country came to be dominated by a fascist movement that started from similarly small beginnings, Germany is very wary of any ideological movement that might appear to be seeking a position of absolute power. References in Scientology writings to the elimination of \"parasites\" and \"antisocial\" people who stand in the way of progress towards Scientology's utopian world \"without insanity, without criminals and without war\" evoke uncomfortable parallels with Nazism, and have led to Scientology being classified as an \"extremist political movement\".\n"}
{"text": " To further justify its stance, the German government has also pointed to the long history of U.S. court cases involving Scientology, including the conviction of 11 top Scientologists in 1979 and 1980 for a conspiracy involving the infiltration of U.S. government agencies, wiretapping and the theft of government documents, a 1994 U.S. Supreme Court finding that Scientology practices took place in a \"coercive environment\", and Scientology's track record of pursuing its critics through malicious court cases and private investigators. In examining the potential threat posed by Scientology the German government has noted that Scientology organizations are \"structured so as to make the individual psychologically and financially dependent on a Scientology system\", and that members often abandon contact with friends and family.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " === Scientology presence in Germany ===\n"}
{"text": " Scientology first became active in Germany in 1970. By 2007, there were ten major centres (\"Scientology Churches\"), as well as fourteen minor centres (\"Scientology Missions\") in Germany. The German Scientology Churches are located in the big cities \u2013 Munich, Hamburg, Berlin, D\u00fcsseldorf, Frankfurt am Main, Hanover and Stuttgart. Of the Scientology Missions, nine are in Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg, and three in Bavaria. Following German re-unification, Scientology proved unable to gain significant numbers of followers in the territories of the former German Democratic Republic; most adherents are found in Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg, Bavaria and North-Rhine Westphalia.\n"}
{"text": " Scientology is represented by a large number of independent associations or Vereine in Germany; their umbrella organisation is the Scientology Kirche Deutschland e.V. Germany's domestic intelligence service, the Bundesamt f\u00fcr Verfassungsschutz (BfV, or Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution), estimates that there are 4,000 Scientologists in Germany, down from earlier estimates of 5,000 to 6,000. The Church of Scientology reported around 30,000 members from the mid-1990s onwards; this number remained stable for many years. However more recently Scientology has said it has only 12,000 members. Discrepancies in Scientology membership numbers arise because the Church of Scientology applies more inclusive criteria in establishing its figures, essentially including anyone who has purchased a book or participated in courses, regardless of their subsequent involvement. The number of contractually bound Scientology staff members working in German Scientology organizations is unlikely to exceed a few hundred.\n"}
{"text": " Scientology formulated a \"Clear Germany\" strategy in 1994 \u2013 similar to equivalent strategies pursued by Scientology in other countries and regions of the world \u2013 with the long-term aim of transforming German society in line with the Scientological ideal: a non-pluralist society in which Scientology enjoys overriding influence. The programme sought to address Scientology's image problems in Germany, to identify weak points in Germany that could be exploited for political gain, such as Germany's National Socialist history, and to increase both membership figures and political influence in German society, with a special emphasis on manoeuvring Scientologists into key positions in industry and government. As most religions seek to widen their influence in society, such a programme could of course also be defended as a missionary effort, much like those many religions engage in. However, according to the BfV, the strategy has not had any significant success. By 1998, 90 government officials had been suspected of being Scientologists and in 48 cases the suspicions were confirmed, but apart from some isolated cases, most of the officials concerned had not used their positions to advertise Scientology. According to Fifka & Sydora (2009), it is unknown to what degree the \"Clear Germany\" programme is still being pursued.\n"}
{"text": " === Public opposition ===\n"}
{"text": " German public discourse does not regard Scientology as a religion, but generally characterizes it as a Sekte (cult or sect), or as an exploitative profit-making venture preying on vulnerable minds. Public concerns about the potential dangers posed by cults date back to the early 1970s, when widespread debate took place about \"youth religions\" such as the Unification Church, ISKCON, Children of God, and the Divine Light Mission. The most prominent critics of these new religious movements were the \"sect commissioners\" (Sektenbeauftragte) of Germany's Protestant Churches, who also actively promoted the establishment of private \"initiatives of parents and concerned persons\". Aktion Bildungsinformation (\"Educational Information Campaign\") became an important organization dedicated to opposing Scientology; taking an activist stance, it warned people not to get involved with Scientology, filed successful lawsuits against the Church of Scientology over its proselytizing in public places, and published an influential book, The Sect of Scientology and its Front Organizations. In 1981, the organization's founder, Ingo Heinemann, became the director of Aktion f\u00fcr geistige und psychische Freiheit (\"Campaign for Intellectual and Psychic Freedom\"), Germany's most prominent anti-cult organization. Warnings from sect experts about the influence of new religious movements gained media attention which put political pressure on the government to deal with the situation; as the movements were not doing anything illegal, the government resorted to issuing a range of leaflets and public statements giving general warnings about religious sects, the earliest of these publications appearing in 1979.\n"}
{"text": " Fueled by events such as the Waco Siege in 1993, the murders and suicides associated with the Order of the Solar Temple, and the 1995 Aum Shinrikyo incidents in Japan, German fears and concerns about new religious movements gained in intensity in the 1990s, with Scientology attracting particular attention. Perceptions that Scientology had a totalitarian character were reinforced when Robert Vaughn Young, an American ex-Scientologist and former PR official in the Church of Scientology, visited German officials in late 1995 and wrote an article in Der Spiegel, a widely-read weekly magazine, describing Scientology as a totalitarian system operating a gulag \u2013 the Rehabilitation Project Force \u2013 for members of Scientology's Sea Org found guilty of transgressions. From the mid-1990s onward, press articles, reports and essays on Scientology appeared on an almost daily basis, accompanied by books and television programmes that reached a mass audience.\n"}
{"text": " As noted by the religious scholar Hubert Seiwert, Scientology came to be seen as a \"serious political danger that not only threatened to turn individuals into will-less zombies, but was also conspiring to overthrow the democratic constitution of the state\". This view of Scientology as a public enemy, Seiwert adds, \"became a matter of political correctness\": senior political figures became involved in launching campaigns against Scientology, and being suspected of any association with it resulted in social ostracism. Stephen A. Kent, writing in 1998, noted that officials at all levels of German government shared the insistence that Scientology should be suppressed. Scientology was viewed as \"a totalitarian, business-driven organization [...] guilty of significant human rights abuses.\" Officials examining primary and secondary sources, legal documents, and the testimony of former members, concluded that the organization was \"antithetical to a democratic state\". Federal ministries and state governments were asked to use all legal means at their disposal to check the activities of Scientology.\n"}
{"text": " Government publications on the dangers of sects increased between 1996 and 1998, and a significant number of them dealt with the Church of Scientology. The German courts had approved such publications in 1989, seeing them as part of the government's responsibility to keep the public informed, and finding that they did not interfere with religious freedom. In 1996, the German parliament launched an Enquete (Enquiry) Commission to investigate sects and similar groups, in large part because of public concerns about Scientology. Its final report, published in June 1998, concluded that Scientology, alone among new religious movements, required monitoring by Germany's domestic intelligence services.\n"}
{"text": " An area of widespread concern in the German media has been the alleged \"infiltration\" of businesses by Scientologists, in line with Scientology's declared aim to penetrate society, politics and business in preparation for world domination. Attempts to infiltrate businesses have reportedly been most successful among small and medium-size companies, such as estate agents, management consultants and management-training companies. Management-consultancy firms led by Scientologists often conceal their association with Scientology; once they have recruited members of their clients' upper management, these managers may send employees to Scientology trainers, as part of company education and training programmes, without informing them as to the origin of the training methods used. An expensive commercial version of Scientology's Oxford Capacity Analysis, usually offered free as part of Scientology proselytizing in public places, temporarily entered some major German companies (who were unaware of its provenance) via such a management-consultancy firm.\n"}
{"text": " In the mid-2000s, German sect experts expressed concerns that Scientologists were becoming active in the German after-school tutoring market. These concerns arose because customers of around 20 after-school tutoring centres operated by Scientologists in Frankfurt, Hamburg, Stuttgart and elsewhere might be unaware that their children were being taught by Scientologists, using Scientology methods. Brochures advertising the tutoring services would at most mention the name of L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of Scientology, but not Scientology itself.\n"}
{"text": " In early 2008, Thomas Gandow, Sect Commissioner of the German Lutheran Church in Berlin and Brandenburg, and the historian Guido Knopp both likened the Scientologist Hollywood actor Tom Cruise to Goebbels, the Nazi propaganda minister. Gandow and Knopp cited a leaked Scientology video in which Cruise was seen asking the audience whether Scientologists should \"clean up\" the world, the audience responding with enthusiastic cheers \u2013 cheers which Gandow and Knopp felt were reminiscent of the audience's response to Goebbels' famous question, \"Do you want total war?\" Gandow's and Knopp's comments found few critics in Germany. Most Germans consider Scientology a subversive organization. In 1997, Time reported that 70 % of Germans favoured banning Scientology; a poll conducted in September 2008 by Der Spiegel found 67 % support for a ban.\n"}
{"text": " German scholars such as Brigitte Sch\u00f6n and Gerald Willms have commented that rhetoric dominates public discourse around Scientology in Germany: in their view, efforts to \"frame\" information in such a way as to shape opinion have long been more important than the underlying realities. In Sch\u00f6n's words, this includes both the \"efforts of German politicians to enhance their popularity with strong-worded statements\" and \"Scientology's efforts to present itself as the victim of unjust persecution\"; commenting on foreign reporting on Scientology in Germany, she adds that \"the American press may prefer sensationalist news to boring investigation and may frame the issue according to American stereotypes\". Both Willms and Sch\u00f6n assert that the situation is compounded by the general paucity of scientific studies of Scientology. Sch\u00f6n as well as Irving Hexham, Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Calgary in Canada, have remarked in particular on the lack of academic studies by German scholars. Hexham attributes this situation to the strong influence of the Christian churches in Germany, which has made German academics wary of approaching the subject, because they fear repercussions for their research funding and for their prospects of future employment if they involve themselves in the debate.\n"}
{"text": " In 2010 a German public broadcaster, ARD, showed the film Until Nothing Remains, a dramatized account of the effect Scientology had on one German family. Said to be based on a true story, the film attracted widespread media attention and a viewership of 8.69 million.\n"}
{"text": " == Legal status ==\n"}
{"text": " While there have been calls for Scientology to be banned, the Church of Scientology remains legal in Germany and is allowed to operate there. Its precise legal status however is unresolved. Two points are contested: first, whether or not the teachings of Scientology qualify as a \"religion or worldview\" (Religion or Weltanschauung; these are equal before German law), and secondly, whether or not these teachings are only used as a pretext for purely commercial activity; if the latter were the case, this would most likely imply that Scientology would not qualify for protection as a \"religious or worldview community\" (Religions- oder Weltanschauungsgemeinschaft) under Article 4 of the German constitution, which guarantees the freedom of belief, religion and worldview. Status as a \"religious or worldview community\" also affects a broad range of other issues in Germany, such as taxation and freedom of association.\n"}
{"text": " The Federal Court of Justice of Germany has not yet made an explicit decision on the matter, but implicitly assumed in 1980 that Scientology represented a religious or worldview community. The Upper Administrative Court in Hamburg explicitly asserted in 1994 that Scientology should be viewed as a worldview community. In 1995, the Federal Labor Court of Germany decided that the Church of Scientology merely pursued commercial aims and did not represent a religious or worldview community entitled to protection under Article 4 of the German Constitution, although another decision by the same court left the question open again in 2003. In another 2003 decision, the Administrative Court of Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg in Mannheim said there were no indications that the teachings of Scientology merely served as a pretext for commercial activity. In 2005, the Federal Administrative Court of Germany explicitly granted a Scientologist protection under Article 4.1 of the German Constitution, which declares the freedom of religion and worldview inviolate.\n"}
{"text": " Many courts have declined to assess the religious status of Scientology, finding that the question was irrelevant to deciding the case at hand. The Federal Administrative Court for example ruled in 1997 that the question whether or not Scientology was a religion was irrelevant, and that its legal status should be judged by its business activities. The German government does not consider the Church of Scientology to be a religious or worldview community and asserts that Scientology is a profit-making enterprise, rather than a religion. Recent years have seen a number of court decisions in Scientology's favour, despite the very widespread negative attitude to Scientology among politicians and the general public.\n"}
{"text": " == Government surveillance ==\n"}
{"text": " Given the history of Nazism's rise to power in Germany in the 1930s, the present German state has committed itself to taking active steps to prevent the rise of any ideology that threatens the values enshrined in the German constitution. The BfV domestic intelligence service (Bundesamt f\u00fcr Verfassungsschutz, or Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution) regards the aims of Scientology as running counter to Germany's free and democratic order, and has been monitoring Scientology since 1997, as have the Offices for the Protection of the Constitution in a number of German L\u00e4nder. Minister for Family Policy Claudia Nolte instituted the surveillance, saying that the church had totalitarian tendencies and that she would oppose Scientology with all the means at her disposal.\n"}
{"text": " The German Church of Scientology has repeatedly challenged the legality of this surveillance in court. In December 2001, the Administrative Court in Berlin ruled against the Berlin Office for the Protection of the Constitution and ordered it to stop the recruitment and deployment of staff and members of the Church of Scientology Berlin as paid informants. The court ruled that the use of informants was disproportionate. In 2003, the same court ruled that it was illegal for the Berlin Office for the Protection of the Constitution to include the activities of Scientology in its report, given that the report did not document any activities that were opposed to the constitution.\n"}
{"text": " At the federal level, Scientology lost a complaint against continued surveillance by the BfV in November 2004. The federal court based its opinion on its judgment that the aims of Scientology, as outlined by L. Ron Hubbard in his writings, were incompatible with the German constitution. Lawyers acting for the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution pointed out that Hubbard had written that civil rights, for example, should be restricted to Scientologists, and they asserted that the Scientology organization was taking systematic steps to infiltrate society and government institutions in order to prevent anti-Scientology legislation. Opposing counsel acting for the Church of Scientology had contended that Scientology was non-political, its aims were the liberation of the human being, and that Hubbard's instructions were valid only within the Church of Scientology and were subject to interpretation, and at any rate there was no effort to implement these instructions in Germany. The court disagreed and ruled that many sources, some of them not accessible to the general public, indicated that the aims of the Church of Scientology did include the abrogation of the principle of equality and other essential human rights.\n"}
{"text": " In Saarland, surveillance was stopped by a court as inappropriate in 2005, because there is no local branch of Scientology and few members. As of 6 May 2008, the Church of Scientology in Germany dropped the legal battle to prevent surveillance of its activities by the BfV after the North Rhine-Westphalia Higher Administrative Court in M\u00fcnster refused to hear an appeal on the matter. Being suspected of maintaining \"ambitions against the free, democratic basic order\", the Scientology organization added a declaration on human rights and democracy to its bylaws.\n"}
{"text": " There is at least one example of surveillance of Scientology by the German intelligence services outside of Germany. In 1998, the Swiss government detained an agent of the German government, charging him with \"carrying out illegal business for a foreign state, working for a political information service and falsifying identity documents\". The German government posted bail for the agent. He was eventually given a 30-day suspended jail sentence for spying on Scientology, and the German government apologized to Switzerland for the incident.\n"}
{"text": " == \"Sect filters\" ==\n"}
{"text": " A \"sect filter\", also known as a \"protective declaration\" (Schutzerkl\u00e4rung), is a document that requires prospective business partners or employees to acknowledge any association with a sect or new religious movement before entering a business or employment contract. Such sect filters, primarily used to screen out Scientologists, have been drafted by German government agencies for use by businesses. \"Sect commissioner's\" offices exist in Germany as part of regional or local government.\n"}
{"text": " A work instruction introduced in 1996 requires government staff in the Arbeits\u00e4mter \u2013 local employment agencies and social security offices operated by the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs \u2013 to mark companies owned by Scientologists with the letter \"S\". Where companies are suspected of having Scientologist staff, prospective employees are alerted to this fact by government staff. Government officials have publicised the names of individual Scientologists and conducted media campaigns against their businesses; some businesspeople have placed advertisements in the press saying they are not Scientologists in order to avoid the associated stigma.\n"}
{"text": " Due to concerns about possible government infiltration by Scientologists, applicants for civil service positions in Bavaria are required to declare whether or not they are Scientologists, and a similar policy has been instituted in Hesse. Companies tendering for government contracts were likewise required to state they are not Scientologists; in 2001, this requirement was changed, and firms are now asked to sign a form stating that \"the technology of L. Ron Hubbard will not be used in executing the contract\". When it became known that Microsoft's Windows 2000 operating system included a disk defragmenter developed by Executive Software International (a company headed by a Scientologist), this caused concern among German government officials and clergy over data security and the potential for espionage. To assuage these concerns, Microsoft Germany agreed to provide a means to disable the utility. Following letters of complaint about discrimination from Scientology lawyers, some American companies such as General Electric, IBM and Ford Motor Company instructed their German subsidiaries to cease the use of protective declarations.\n"}
{"text": " The city-state of Hamburg set up a full-time office dedicated to opposing Scientology, the Scientology Task Force for the Hamburg Interior Authority, under the leadership of Ursula Caberta. In 2005, in a case brought by a Scientologist, the Federal Administrative Court of Germany ordered the city of Hamburg to cease recommending the use of protective declarations to its business community, finding that the practice infringed religious freedom. In June 2008, the Hamburg Administrative Court fined the city of Hamburg 5,000 Euros ($ 7,000) for not complying with court instructions banning the use of \"sect filters.\" Internet links to sample filters to be used by businesses had continued to remain available. Eileen Barker, a professor of sociology at the London School of Economics, has noted that \"Germany has gone further than any other Western European country in restricting the civil rights of Scientologists.\" The Hamburg task force was closed down in August 2010 as a result of budget cuts; Caberta moved to a position within the Hamburg interior authority, where she continues her work on Scientology.\n"}
{"text": " Scientologists have been banned from joining major political parties in Germany such as the Christian Democratic Union, the Christian Social Union of Bavaria, the Social Democratic Party of Germany and the Free Democratic Party. Existing Scientologist members of these parties have been \"purged\", according to Time Magazine. Scientologists have been prevented from running employment and au pair agencies in Germany; Scientologists who were running such agencies had their permits revoked. In 1995, a sports scientist and former member of the German national fencing team was dismissed from his job at the German Olympic fencing centre after he stated in an interview that he had enjoyed reading books by L. Ron Hubbard and had participated in a course run by a Scientologist management and communication consultancy firm. Thomas Gottschalk, a German TV presenter, was falsely accused in 1993 of having taken part in Scientology courses; Gottschalk responded by announcing that he had not, and that he would henceforth cease all contact with a friend who had links to Scientology. In 2007, G\u00fcnther Oettinger, the Minister-President of the German state of Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg, expressed concern that Scientologist John Travolta was to appear on Gottschalk's programme, and asked the ZDF TV station to consider revoking the invitation; the ZDF said that uninviting Travolta would cause greater damage, and that Scientology was not going to be discussed in the programme.\n"}
{"text": " In 2010, the Bavarian Administrative Court ruled that a woman working in a children's daycare centre, whose employment had been terminated when her ex-husband identified her as a Scientologist, should be reinstated. The woman had demonstrated to the court's satisfaction that her Scientological beliefs were irrelevant to her work. According to the agreement that concluded the case, she promised not to use Scientology methods in her work, and to inform the children's parents of her membership in Scientology.\n"}
{"text": " == Initiative to ban Scientology ==\n"}
{"text": " In March 2007, it was reported that German authorities were increasing their efforts to monitor Scientology in response to the opening of a new Scientology headquarters in Berlin. On December 7, 2007, German federal and state interior ministers expressed the opinion that the Scientology organization was continuing to pursue anti-constitutional goals, restricting \"essential basic and human rights like the dignity of man or the right to equal treatment\", and asked Germany's domestic intelligence agencies to collect and evaluate the information required for a possible judicial inquiry aimed at banning the organization.\n"}
{"text": " The move was criticized by German politicians from all sides of the political spectrum, with legal experts and intelligence agencies expressing concern that an attempt to ban the organization would likely fail in the courts. Sabine Weber, president of the Church of Scientology in Berlin, called the accusations \"unrealistic\" and \"absurd\" and said that the German interior ministers'evaluation was based on \"a few sentences out of 500,000 pages of Scientological literature\". She added, \"I can also find hundreds of quotes in the Bible that are totalitarian but that doesn't mean I will demand the ban of Christianity.\"\n"}
{"text": " In November 2008, the government abandoned its attempts to ban Scientology, after finding insufficient evidence of illegal or unconstitutional activity. The report by the BfV cited knowledge gaps and noted several points that would make the success of any legal undertaking to ban Scientology doubtful. First, the BfV report stated there was no evidence that Scientology could be viewed as a foreign organization; there were German churches and missions, a German board, German bylaws, and no evidence that the organization was \"totally remote-controlled\" from the United States. A foreign organization would have been much easier to ban than a German one. The second argument on which those proposing the ban had counted was Scientology's aggressive opposition to the constitution. Here, the report found that Scientology's behaviour gave no grounds to assume that Scientology aggressively sought to attack and overthrow Germany's free and democratic basic order. \"Neither its bylaws nor any other utterances\" supported the \"conclusion that the organization had criminal aims\". The BfV also considered whether there were grounds to act against the Church of Scientology on the basis that they were practising medicine without a licence, but expressed doubts that a court would accept this reasoning.\n"}
{"text": " Commenting on the decision to drop the ban attempt, Ehrhart K\u00f6rting, Berlin's interior minister, said, \"This organization pursues goals \u2013 through its writings, its concept and its disrespect for minorities \u2013 that we cannot tolerate and that we consider in violation of the constitution. But they put very little of this into practice. The appraisal of the Government at the moment is that [Scientology] is a lousy organization, but it is not an organization that we have to take a hammer to.\" The Church of Scientology expressed satisfaction with the decision, describing it as the \"only one possible\". Monitoring of Scientology's activities by the German intelligence services continues.\n"}
{"text": " In February 2009, the Berlin Administrative Court ruled that a poster placed by local city authorities on an advertising column next to a bus stop in front of the Berlin Scientology headquarters, warning passers-by of the potential dangers Scientology activities posed to democracy and individual freedom, should be removed. The decision was upheld in July 2009 by the Upper Administrative Court of Berlin-Brandenburg which ruled that the poster violated Scientologists' basic religious rights.\n"}
{"text": " == Criticism of Germany's stance ==\n"}
{"text": " The United States media, while generally reporting negatively on Scientology in domestic news, has taken an at least partially supportive stance towards Scientology in relation to Germany. Richard Cohen for example, writing in the Washington Post, said in 1996: \"Scientology might be one weird religion, but the German reaction to it is weirder still \u2013 not to mention disturbing.\" Alan Cowell, writing in the New York Times, wrote in 1997 that the German response to Scientology \u2013 motivated by officials'fear that Scientology \"was a totalitarian movement growing, like the Nazi party, from inconsequential beginnings\" \u2013 was itself redolent of \"the Nazi era's authoritarianism\".\n"}
{"text": " The U.S. Department of State has repeatedly claimed that Germany's actions constitute government and societal discrimination against minority religious groups and expressed its concerns over the violation of Scientologists' individual rights posed by sect filters. The U.S. Department of State began to include the issue of Scientology in Germany in its annual human rights reports after the 1993 agreement between the Church of Scientology and the U.S. Internal Revenue Service, through which Scientology gained the status of a tax-exempt religion in the United States. That decision also marked the beginning of more intense lobbying efforts by the Church of Scientology in Washington, using paid lobbyists. The State Department's 1996 human rights report on Germany, released in January 1997, warned that artists and businesses with Scientology connections \"may face boycotts and discrimination, sometimes with government approval.\" Past targets of such actions had included Scientologist actors Tom Cruise and John Travolta, as well as jazz pianist Chick Corea.\n"}
{"text": " Also in January 1997, an open letter to then-Chancellor Helmut Kohl appeared, published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune, drawing parallels between the \"organized oppression\" of Scientologists in Germany and Nazi policies espoused by Germany in the 1930s. The letter was conceived and paid for by Hollywood lawyer Bertram Fields, whose clients have included Tom Cruise and John Travolta, and was signed by 34 prominent figures in the U.S. entertainment industry, including the top executives of MGM, Warner Bros., Paramount, Universal and Sony Pictures Entertainment as well as actors Dustin Hoffman and Goldie Hawn, director Oliver Stone, writers Mario Puzo and Gore Vidal and talk-show host Larry King. It echoed similar parallels drawn by the Church of Scientology itself, which until then had received scant notice, and was followed by lobbying efforts of Scientology celebrities in Washington.\n"}
{"text": " U.S. Department of State spokesman Nicholas Burns rejected the Nazi comparisons in the open letter as \"outrageous\" and distanced the U.S. government from Nazi comparisons made by the Church of Scientology, saying, \"We have criticized the Germans on this, but we aren 't going to support the Scientologists' terror tactics against the German government.\" Chancellor Kohl, commenting on the letter, said that those who signed it \"don 't know a thing about Germany and don't want to know.\" German officials argued that \"the whole fuss was cranked up by the Scientologists to achieve what we won 't give them: tax-exempt status as a religion. This is intimidation, pure and simple.\" Officials explained that precisely because of Germany's Nazi past, Germany took a determined stance against all \"radical cults and sects, including right-wing Nazi groups\", and not just against Scientology. Kohl's Christian Democratic Union party denounced the letter as \"absurd\" and cited German court rulings stating that Scientology had primarily economic goals and could legitimately be referred to using phrases such as a \"contemptuous cartel of oppression\".\n"}
{"text": " In February 1997, a United States immigration court judge granted asylum to a German Scientologist who claimed she would be subject to religious persecution in her homeland. In April 1997, John Travolta met personally with U.S. President Bill Clinton at a conference in Philadelphia. Travolta later said Clinton assured him that he would \"really love to help\" with the \"issue over in Germany with Scientology\". According to Travolta, Clinton recalled that \"he had a roommate years ago who was a Scientologist and had really liked him, and respected his views on it\", stating that Scientologists \"were given an unfair hand in [Germany] and that he wanted to fix it\". In September 1997, John Travolta, Chick Corea and fellow Scientologist Isaac Hayes were heard by the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE, also known as the Helsinki Commission), voicing their complaints about the treatment of Scientologists in Germany, and had a briefing with United States National Security Advisor Sandy Berger, whom Clinton had assigned to be \"the administration's Scientology point person\". The German ambassador responded with a letter to the CSCE stating that the German government had come to the conclusion that Scientology's \"pseudo-scientific courses can seriously jeopardize individuals'mental and physical health and that it exploits its members\", adding that \"membership can lead to psychological and physical dependency, to financial ruin, and even to suicide. In addition, there are indications that Scientology poses a threat to Germany's basic political principles.\"\n"}
{"text": " A United Nations report in April 1998 raised concerns about the violation of individual rights posed by sect filters. However, it rejected the comparison of the treatment of Scientologists with that of Jews during the Nazi era.\n"}
{"text": " In 2000, the German Stern magazine published the results of its investigation of the asylum case. It asserted that several rejection letters which the woman had submitted as part of her asylum application \u2013 ostensibly from potential employers who were rejecting her because she was a Scientologist \u2013 had in fact been written by fellow Scientologists at her request and that of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs, and that she was in personal financial trouble and about to go on trial for tax evasion at the time she applied for asylum. On a 2000 visit to Clearwater, Florida, Ursula Caberta of the Scientology Task Force for the Hamburg Interior Authority likewise alleged that the asylum case had been part of an \"orchestrated effort\" by Scientology undertaken \"for political gain\", and \"a spectacular abuse of the U.S. system\". German expatriate Scientologists resident in Clearwater, in turn, accused Caberta of stoking a \"hate campaign\" in Germany that had \"ruined the lives and fortunes of scores of Scientologists\" and maintained that Scientologists had not \"exaggerated their plight for political gain in the United States.\" Mark Rathbun, a (former) top Church of Scientology official, said that although Scientology had not orchestrated the case, \"there would have been nothing improper if it had.\"\n"}
{"text": " In 2003, Joachim G\u00fcntner, writing in the Swiss Neue Z\u00fcrcher Zeitung, noted that Gerhard Besier, a German Christian theologian, director of the Hannah Arendt Institute for Research into Totalitarianism in Dresden and recipient of an honorary doctorate from Lund University, Sweden, for his championing of religious freedom, had been pressured to forego publication of his scientific study of Scientology after having found himself the subject of widespread criticism in the German media for advocating a more tolerant attitude towards Scientology. G\u00fcntner concluded that \"alarmism\" had \"triumphed\" over science and noted an apparent lack of confidence in Germany's ability to engage in open public discourse on the matter.\n"}
{"text": " The U.S. Department of State's 2012 report on religious freedom in Germany, published in 2013, stated that \"The status of the Church of Scientology remains in limbo. The Constitutional Court and various courts at the state level have not explicitly ruled that Scientology is a religion. Government agencies at the federal and state level have rules and procedures that discriminate against Scientology as a group and against its members. Four of the major political parties (the Christian Democratic Union, Christian Social Union, Social Democratic Party, and Free Democratic Party) ban Scientologists from party membership. [...] Scientologists reported instances of governmental discrimination. Although courts at the state and federal level condemned the improper use of so-called' sect filters'to blacklist and boycott Scientologists, they remained in use in the public sector.' Sect filters' typically asked potential new employees to confirm in writing that they had no contact with Scientology, did not participate in its training courses, and rejected its doctrines. [...] Catholic and Protestant churches continued to oppose Scientology publically [sic], although press reporting and public reactions to Scientology decreased. Several private organizations issued warnings about after-school study programs run by Scientologists.\"\n"}
{"text": " === Scholarly sources ===\n"}
{"text": " === Journalistic sources ===\n"}
{"text": " === Government and court documents ===\n"}
{"text": " === Scientology sources ===\n"}
{"text": " === Scientology sites ===\n"}
{"text": " Scientology.de (German)\n"}
{"text": " Menschenrechtsbuero.de \u2013 Human Rights website of the German Church of Scientology (German)\n"}
{"text": " === German government sites ===\n"}
{"text": " Scientology: Publications of German regional governments \u2013 Website of the German Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (German)\n"}
{"text": " Website of the Hamburg Scientology Task Force (German)\n"}
{"text": " = Japanese battleship Asahi =\n"}
{"text": " Asahi (\u671d\u65e5, Asahi) was a pre-dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) in the late 1890s. As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships itself, the ship was designed and built in the United Kingdom. Shortly after her arrival in Japan, she became flagship of the Standing Fleet, the IJN's primary combat fleet. She participated in every major naval battle of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 \u2013 05 and was lightly damaged during the Battle of the Yellow Sea and the Battle of Tsushima. Asahi saw no combat during World War I, although the ship participated in the Siberian Intervention in 1918.\n"}
{"text": " Reclassified as a coastal defence ship in 1921, Asahi was disarmed two years later to meet the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty, after which she served as a training and submarine depot ship. She was modified into a submarine salvage and rescue ship before being placed in reserve in 1928. Asahi was recommissioned in late 1937, after the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, and used to transport Japanese troops. In 1938, she was converted into a repair ship and based first at Japanese-occupied Shanghai, China, and then Cam Ranh Bay, French Indochina, from late 1938 to 1941. The ship was transferred to occupied Singapore in early 1942 to repair a damaged light cruiser and ordered to return home in May. She was sunk en route by the American submarine USS Salmon, although most of her crew survived.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " Combat experience in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894 \u2013 95 convinced the Imperial Japanese Navy of weaknesses in the Jeune \u00c9cole naval philosophy, which emphasized torpedo boats and commerce raiding to offset expensive heavily armoured ships. Therefore, Japan promulgated a ten-year naval build-up in early 1896, to modernize and expand its fleet in preparation for further confrontations, with the construction of six battleships and six armoured cruisers at its core. These ships were paid for from the \u00a3 30,000,000 indemnity paid by China after losing the First Sino-Japanese War. As with the earlier Fuji and Shikishima classes, Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships, and turned again to the United Kingdom for the four remaining battleships of the programme. Asahi, the fifth Japanese battleship to be built in Britain, was ordered from the Clydebank Engineering & Shipbuilding Company shipyard in Clydebank, Scotland in the 1897 annual naval programme.\n"}
{"text": " == Design and description ==\n"}
{"text": " Asahi's design was a modified version of the Formidable-class battleships of the Royal Navy, with two additional 6-inch (152 mm) guns. The ship had an overall length of 425 feet 3 inches (129.6 m), a beam of 75 feet (22.9 m), and a normal draught of 27 feet 3 inches (8.3 m). She displaced 15,200 long tons (15,400 t) at normal load. Asahi had a complete double bottom with 55 watertight compartments. Her hull was also subdivided into 223 watertight compartments. She was fitted as a flagship and her crew numbered about 773 officers and enlisted men, including the admiral's staff.\n"}
{"text": " The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines built by Humphrys, Tennant, each driving one propeller, using steam generated by 25 Belleville boilers at a working pressure of 17.03 bar (1,703 kPa; 247 psi). The engines were rated at 15,000 indicated horsepower (11,000 kW), using forced draught, and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots (33 km / h; 21 mph) although Asahi reached 18.3 knots (33.9 km / h; 21.1 mph) from 16,335 indicated horsepower (12,181 kW) during her sea trials on 23 March 1900. She carried a maximum of 2,000 long tons (2,032 t) of coal which allowed her to steam for 9,000 nautical miles (17,000 km; 10,000 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km / h; 12 mph). The ship was fitted with three steam-driven 4.8-kilowatt (6.4 hp) dynamos.\n"}
{"text": " Asahi's main battery consisted of the same four Elswick Ordnance Company 40-calibre twelve-inch guns used in all of Japan's preceding battleships. They were mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure. The hydraulically powered mountings allowed the guns to be loaded at all angles of traverse, at a fixed elevation of + 13.5 \u00b0. Each mount could traverse a total of 240 degrees. They fired 850-pound (386 kg) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2,400 ft / s (730 m / s).\n"}
{"text": " The ship's secondary armament consisted of fourteen 45-calibre 6-inch (152 mm) quick-firing (QF) guns mounted in casemates. Eight of these guns were positioned on the main deck and the other six guns were placed above them in the superstructure. They fired 100-pound (45 kg) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2,300 ft / s (700 m / s). Protection against torpedo-boat attacks was provided by twenty QF 12-pounder 12 cwt guns. The 12-pounders fired 3-inch (76 mm), 12.5-pound (5.7 kg) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2,359 ft / s (719 m / s). Lighter guns consisted of eight 47-millimetre (1.9 in) three-pounder Hotchkiss guns and four 47-millimetre 2.5-pounder Hotchkiss guns. The former were mounted in the superstructure and the latter in the fighting tops. The three-pounder gun fired 3.19-pound (1.45 kg) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 1,927 ft / s (587 m / s), while the 2.5-pounder fired 2.5-pound (1.1 kg) shells at a muzzle velocity of 1,420 ft / s (430 m / s). The ship was also equipped with four submerged 18-inch torpedo tubes, two on each broadside.\n"}
{"text": " The waterline main belt of Asahi consisted of Harvey armour 8 feet (2.44 m) high, of which 3 feet 8 inches (1.11 m) was above the waterline at normal load, and had a maximum thickness of 9 inches (229 mm) for the middle 224 feet (68.28 m) of the ship. It was only 4 inches (102 mm) thick at the ends of the ship and was surmounted by a six-inch strake of armour that ran between the barbettes. The barbettes were 14 inches (356 mm) thick, but only 10 inches (254 mm) behind the upper armour strake. The barbette hoods were protected by 10 inches of armour on their face while their sides were 6 inches thick and the roof was 1.5 inches (38 mm) thick. Diagonal bulkheads connecting the barbettes to the side armour were 12 \u2013 14 inches thick, but only 6 inches thick at the lower deck level. The frontal armour of the casemates protecting the secondary armament was also 6 inches thick with the rear protected by 2-inch (51 mm) armour plates. The flat portion of the deck armour was 2.5 inches (64 mm) thick and 4 inches (102 mm) thick where it sloped down to the sides of the ship. The conning tower was protected by 14 inches of armour.\n"}
{"text": " Asahi, like all the other Japanese battleships of the time, was fitted with four Barr and Stroud FA3 coincidence rangefinders that had an effective range of 8,000 yards (7,300 m). The ships were also fitted with 24-power magnification telescopic gunsights.\n"}
{"text": " == Construction and career ==\n"}
{"text": " Asahi, meaning \"rising sun\", a poetic name for Japan from a stanza of waka poetry, was laid down on 1 August 1898 in Clydebank, Scotland, by the Clydebank Engineering & Shipbuilding Co. and completed by John Brown & Company, which purchased the firm before Asahi was completed. She was launched on 13 March 1899 and completed on 31 July 1900. Her completion was delayed by about three months when her bottom plating required repairs after running aground off Southsea following sea trials. The ship departed England, after repairs in Portsmouth, on the day of her completion, and arrived at Yokosuka, Japan, on 23 October 1900. Asahi became flagship of the Standing Fleet on 22 May 1901 and was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of the 1st Fleet when the Combined Fleet was re-formed on 28 December 1903.\n"}
{"text": " At the start of the Russo-Japanese War, Asahi, commanded by Captain Hikohachi Yamada, was assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet. She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904, when Vice Admiral T\u014dg\u014d Heihachir\u014d led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur. T\u014dg\u014d had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was, anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened, but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack. The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin, which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russian defences. T\u014dg\u014d chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns. Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight-inch (203 mm) and six-inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships, which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect. Although many ships on both sides were hit, Russian casualties numbered only 17, while the Japanese suffered 60 killed and wounded before T\u014dg\u014d disengaged. Asahi was not hit during the engagement.\n"}
{"text": " The ship participated in the action of 13 April, when T\u014dg\u014d successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron, including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov's flagship, the battleship Petropavlovsk. When Makarov spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division, he turned back for Port Arthur and Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night. The Russian battleship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded, and Makarov was one of the 677 killed. Emboldened by his success, T\u014dg\u014d resumed long-range bombardment missions, prompting the Russians to lay more minefields, which sank two Japanese battleships the following month.\n"}
{"text": " During the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August, Asahi, now commanded by Captain Tsunaakira Nomoto, was second in line of the column of Japanese battleships, behind Mikasa, and was one of the primary targets of the Russian ships. She was only hit by a single 12-inch shell that wounded two crewmen. Both guns in her aft 12-inch gun turret, however, were disabled by shells that detonated prematurely in their barrels. In turn she concentrated most of her fire upon the battleships Poltava and Tsesarevich although both ships were only lightly damaged by the Japanese shells, which generally failed to penetrate any armour and detonated on impact. The ship made the critical hits of the battle, however, when two of her 12-inch shells struck the bridge of Tsesarevich, killing the Russian squadron commander, Vice Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft, two of his staff officers and the ship's quartermaster. The ship's wheel was jammed to port by wreckage and then slowed to a halt which threw the rest of the Russian ships into total confusion. The second-in-command, Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky, eventually gained control of the remainder of the squadron and headed back to Port Arthur. Slightly more than two months later, on 26 October, Asahi struck a mine off Port Arthur while on blockade duty. Severely damaged, she was under repair at Sasebo Naval Arsenal from November 1904 to April 1905. Russian naval forces in the Far East had been destroyed or neutralized by this time and the Russians were forced to transfer ships from the Baltic Fleet that did not arrive until May.\n"}
{"text": " === Battle of Tsushima ===\n"}
{"text": " At the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905, Asahi again followed the battleship Mikasa into combat, this time against the Second and Third Pacific Squadrons. Mikasa opened fire at the battleship Knyaz Suvorov, the Russian flagship, at 14: 10, and was joined by Asahi and the armoured cruiser Azuma shortly afterwards. Within an hour the Japanese ships had started a serious fire aboard the Russian ship, badly wounded the fleet commander, Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky, knocked out her rear 12-inch gun turret, and jammed Knyaz Suvorov's steering so that she fell out of formation. The Russian ships were concentrating their fire on Mikasa during the early part of the battle and Asahi was not damaged during this time. T\u014dg\u014d was able to cross the T of the Russian squadrons. Knyaz Suvorov's steering was later repaired, but she blundered between the Japanese and Russian fleets several times later in the battle and was heavily damaged. Asahi seems to have mostly engaged the battleships Borodino and Oryol in the late stages of the battle, although Fuji fired the shots that caused the Borodino's magazines to explode and sink her. Asahi fired more twelve-inch shells, 142, than any other ship during the battle. In total, the ship was hit six times during the battle, but none of them damaged her significantly. While Asahi's casualties are not precisely known, the Japanese only lost 110 men killed and 590 wounded to all causes during the battle. The battle was a total Japanese victory with five Russian battleships captured and incorporated into the IJN.\n"}
{"text": " Captain W. C. Pakenham, the Royal Navy's official military observer under the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, took notes of the battle's progress from a deck chair on Asahi's exposed quarterdeck. His report confirmed the superiority of Japanese training and tactics and publicized the victory in the West.\n"}
{"text": " === Later career ===\n"}
{"text": " In 1908, Asahi was part of the Japanese fleet that escorted the American Great White Fleet through Japanese waters during its round-the-globe voyage. The ship was assigned to the 1st Fleet in 1908 and 1910 \u2013 11. Asahi became a gunnery training ship in 1914, and was re-armed in 1917 with Japanese guns replacing her original British-made guns. The same year, she was assigned to the 5th Division of the 3rd Fleet. In 1918, Asahi became flagship of her division and participated in the Japanese intervention in the Russian Civil War. She escorted troop convoys to the Russian Far East and was guard ship at Kamchatka from January to August 1918. Asahi was reclassified as a first-class coastal defence ship on 1 September 1921, and began disarmament in 1922 at Yokosuka in compliance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. She was reclassified as a training and submarine depot ship on 1 April 1923 and her disarmament was completed in July of that same year. Her displacement dropped to 11,441 long tons (11,625 t) with the loss of her armour and guns, and her speed was limited to 12 knots (22 km / h; 14 mph).\n"}
{"text": " The navy decided to convert Asahi into a submarine salvage ship and she began the first stage of her conversion with the installation of specialized salvage equipment from February to August 1925. From 1926 to October 1927, the ship's 25 Belleville boilers were replaced with four Kanpon Type RO boilers at Kure Naval Arsenal. One of her two funnels was also removed, and two large lifting frames were installed as part of the second stage of her conversion. The ship conducted experiments in submarine rescue using the old German submarine 0-1 (ex-U-125). In May 1928, Asahi was fitted with a 62-foot-4-inch (19 m) compressed-air aircraft catapult on her forecastle and successfully launched an E2N1 Type 15 seaplane. After repeated accidents, the catapult was replaced by one powered by gunpowder. On the completion of testing in 1928, Asahi was placed in reserve.\n"}
{"text": " Reclassified as a repair ship on 16 August 1937, Asahi was taken out of reserve in November, after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident that started the Second Sino-Japanese War, and was used as a transport to land troops in an amphibious landing at Hangzhou Bay. Afterwards she began conversion at Kure, Japan, into a repair ship; this was completed on 18 December 1938. Asahi was fitted with a dummy wooden main battery fore and aft to resemble an old battleship after her arrival in Shanghai on 29 December. In May 1939 she was modified to act as a torpedo depot ship and carried out patrols between 29 May and 7 November 1940. She was transferred to Camranh Bay, French Indochina, on 15 November 1940 and later transported the 11th Base Unit from Kure to Camranh Bay 19 November \u2013 7 December 1941.\n"}
{"text": " From 13 March 1942, Asahi was stationed at Singapore, and in April her crew performed repairs on the light cruiser Naka, which had been torpedoed by the submarine USS Seawolf off Christmas Island. Departing Singapore for Kure on 22 May, escorted by the subchaser CH-9, Asahi was sighted by the submarine USS Salmon on the night of 25 / 26 May 1942, 100 miles (160 km) southeast of Cape Padaran, Indochina. Of Salmon's four torpedoes, two hit the ship in her port central boiler room and aft spaces. At 01: 03, moments after being hit, Asahi sank at 10\u00b000 \u2032 1 110\u00b000 \u2032 E. Sixteen men were killed in the attack; the ship's captain and 582 crewmen were rescued by CH-9.\n"}
{"text": " = Training Day (The Office) =\n"}
{"text": " \"Training Day\" is the twentieth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office and the shows 146th episode overall. It originally aired on NBC on April 14, 2011. The episode was written by Daniel Chun and directed by Paul Lieberstein. This episode marks the first appearance of Deangelo Vickers (Will Ferrell) in the series.\n"}
{"text": " The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In the episode, Michael Scott's (Steve Carell) replacement appears in the office, to start receiving training from Michael. The new manager, Deangelo Vickers (Will Ferrell), has everyone hoping to make good first impressions: Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) finds himself awkwardly typecast while Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) worry that they've come on too strong. Only Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) is apathetic about the new leader.\n"}
{"text": " \"Training Day\" received mixed reviews from television critics, with many commenting on Ferrell's appearance. The episode was also viewed by 4.16 million viewers and received a 4.0 / 11 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, ranking first in its timeslot. The episode ultimately ranked as the highest-rated NBC series of the night.\n"}
{"text": " == Synopsis ==\n"}
{"text": " Michael is waiting in a hotel bar for his replacement Deangelo Vickers (Will Ferrell) to show up. While waiting, he meets a man at the bar and the two instantly hit it off. When Michael calls Vickers to see where he is, it is revealed that the man Michael has been talking to is actually Deangelo, though it takes the two some time to actually realize this.\n"}
{"text": " Deangelo comes to the branch the next day, and most of the staff is eager to make a good first impression. Kevin wears his toupee, Jim and Pam believe they have started off well by mentioning their baby, and Deangelo designates Andy as the office \"funny guy\" when he reveals that he carries name tags around to avoid situations like the one Deangelo and Michael were in. Meanwhile, Dwight is not pleased that he was not selected to replace Michael, believing that Michael put in a good recommendation for him. Michael becomes disturbed, however, when Deangelo wants to make some changes, such as how Erin answers the phone.\n"}
{"text": " While Deangelo gets annoyed with Jim and Pam, he loves the antics of Andy, who has resorted to physical comedy when his jokes fall flat, getting to the point where he pours hot coffee on his pants and (at Deangelo's urging) eats soap; Andy tells the camera with dazed sadness that \"this is my life now\". Deangelo's popularity with the employees causes Michael to get jealous to the point where he passes out peanut butter sandwiches, despite Deangelo's peanut allergy. Deangelo then assembles the staff in the \"multipurpose room\", including Dwight, who learned from Gabe that Michael did not put in a recommendation and thus snubs Michael. Jim quietly tells Michael that he chose to resign his job and needs to come to terms with both that choice and the fact that life is going to go on at the office. Deangelo then steps out of his meeting and asks Michael for advice for how to run the meeting, saying that he's a good manager and Dunder Mifflin won 't be the same without him. The two make up with a reverse hug, Deangelo telling him that he should start enjoying his retirement. Michael returns to his office while Deangelo conducts his meeting in the conference room.\n"}
{"text": " In another effort to impress Deangelo, Jim and Pam bring in Cece, to which Deangelo reacts positively. While they celebrate getting back on his good side, Deangelo reveals to the camera that he is in fact indifferent to Cece and was just being polite.\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " The episode was written by co-executive producer Daniel Chun, his fourth writing credit of the series. It was directed by then-showrunner Paul Lieberstein, his sixth directing credit of the series. The episode marked the first appearance of Will Ferrell's four-episode arc on the series and is also one of series star, Carell's last episodes as a regular on the series. Ferrell signed on to appear in Steve Carell's final three episodes, and the first episode without Carell, \"The Inner Circle\", to make Carell's transition easier. Carell had decided to leave the series, because \"I just think it's time ... I want to fulfill my contract. When I first signed on I had a contract for seven seasons, and this coming year is my seventh. I just thought it was time for my character to go\". Ferrell initially called the producers and offered to appear in Carell's last season, because he's \"a fan and wanted to commemorate Carell \u2019 s swan song\". He had previously starred alongside Carell, in the 2004 film, Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy.\n"}
{"text": " The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. The cut scenes include a sequence in which Michael and Deangelo discuss cancer jokes and the 2010 film Megamind \u2014 an animated film that featured the voice of Ferrell \u2014 while drinking vodka, shots of Michael and Deangelo discussing their enjoyment for coffee, and Dwight attempting to appease his new boss.\n"}
{"text": " == Reception ==\n"}
{"text": " === Ratings ===\n"}
{"text": " In its original American broadcast, \"Training Day\" was viewed by an estimated 7.871 million viewers and received a 4.0 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 4.0 % of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 11 % of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a rise in the ratings from the previous episode, \"Garage Sale\", which can be attributed to Ferrell's guest appearance. The episode ranked first in its timeslot, beating the Fox crime drama Bones, which scored a 3.5 / 10 percent relating in the 18-49 demographic; a rerun of the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy and a rerun of the CBS crime drama CSI: Crime Scene Investigation.\n"}
{"text": " === Reviews ===\n"}
{"text": " \"Training Day\" received mixed reviews from television critics. IGN writer Cindy White wrote that Deangelo was not given a proper introduction and that he wasn 't distinguished from Michael's character. She also went on to criticize Jim, Pam and Dwight's reaction to Deangelo as the new manager, particular that of Jim and Pam, writing that \"it's becoming painfully obvious that the longtime writers don 't know what to do with them anymore\". However, she concluded that the episode continued the seventh season's improvement over the sixth, and that it showed potential for future episodes of the season. She ultimately gave the episode a 7.5 out of 10 rating, denoting a \"good\" episode. The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt praised Michael's reactions to the office easily ignoring him for Deangelo, calling the final shot of him walking into his office alone \"quite effective\", and that Dwight's reaction to not being suggested to be Michael's replacement made it more \"meaningful\". Despite this, he continued by saying that the series was not \"sophisticated\" enough to use this plotline effectively and criticized the writing for the cast, which made them look \"stupid\" for \"cheap humor\" and a \"enormously shallow laughter\". He ultimately gave the episode a \"C +\". Alan Sepinwall, a columnist for HitFix, complimented the chemistry between Ferrell and Carell, but criticized the storyline which eventually came down to Michael \"being petulant about not being the center of attention every minute of every day\", negatively comparing it to \"Viewing Party\". Despite this, he noted that Ferrell's presence did involve several funny moments.\n"}
{"text": " Bonnie Stiernberg, for Paste, was more positive, writing that she preferred the use of comedy, following the emotional episode, \"Garage Sale\". She ultimately gave it an 8.7 out of 10. Will Ferrell's performance was especially noted by critics. McNutt complimented Ferrell's \"nuanced\" performance, but called his character \"uninteresting\". Stiernberg praised his dynamic with Carell, comparing it to their previous roles in Anchorman. His later appearances in the series also received similar mixed reviews For instance, McNutt called Ferrell's scenes a \"momentum killer\" in \"Goodbye, Michael\", whereas Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone called his performance in the same episode \"pure magic\".\n"}
{"text": " = J. C. W. Beckham =\n"}
{"text": " John Crepps Wickliffe Beckham (August 5, 1869 \u2013 January 9, 1940) was the 35th Governor of Kentucky and a United States Senator from Kentucky. He was the state's first popularly elected senator following passage of the Seventeenth Amendment.\n"}
{"text": " Descended from a prominent political family, Beckham was chosen as Democrat William Goebel's running mate in the gubernatorial election of 1899 despite the fact that he was not yet of legal age to serve as governor if called to do so. Goebel lost the election to Republican William S. Taylor, but the Kentucky General Assembly disputed the election results. During the political wrangling that followed, an unknown assassin shot Goebel. A day later the General Assembly invalidated enough votes to give the election to Goebel, who was sworn into office on his deathbed. Taylor claimed the election had been stolen by the Democratic majority in the General Assembly and a legal fight ensued between him and Beckham over the governorship. Beckham ultimately prevailed and Taylor fled the state.\n"}
{"text": " Following his term as governor, Beckham made a bid to become a U.S. Senator. His stance in favor of prohibition cost him the votes of four legislators in his own party and the seat went to Republican William O. Bradley. Six years later Beckham secured the seat by popular election, but he lost his re-election bid largely because of his pro-temperance views and his opposition to women's suffrage. Though he continued to play an active role in state politics for another two decades, he never returned to elected office, failing in his gubernatorial bid in 1927 and his senatorial campaign in 1936. He died in Louisville on January 9, 1940.\n"}
{"text": " == Early life ==\n"}
{"text": " J. C. W. Beckham was born at Wickland, near Bardstown in Nelson County, Kentucky, son of William Netherton and Julia Tevis (Wickliffe) Beckham. His maternal grandfather, Charles A. Wickliffe, was governor of Kentucky from 1839 to 1840 and served as postmaster general in the administration of John Tyler. His uncle, Robert C. Wickliffe, served as governor of Louisiana.\n"}
{"text": " Beckham obtained his early education at Roseland Academy in Bardstown. In 1881 he served as a page in the Kentucky House of Representatives at the age of 12. Later, he enrolled at Central University (now Eastern Kentucky University) in Richmond, Kentucky but was forced to quit school at the age of 17 to support his widowed mother. Two years later, he became principal of Bardstown public schools, serving from 1888 to 1893. Concurrently, he studied law at the University of Kentucky, where he earned his law degree in 1889. He was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice in Bardstown in 1893. He also served as president of the Young Democrats' Club of Nelson County.\n"}
{"text": " == Political career ==\n"}
{"text": " Beckham's political career began in 1894 when he was elected without opposition to the Kentucky House of Representatives. He served four consecutive terms and was Speaker of the House in 1898, his final year in the House. He also served as a delegate to every Democratic National Convention from 1900 to 1920.\n"}
{"text": " === Governor of Kentucky ===\n"}
{"text": " Democrat William Goebel chose Beckham as his running mate in the Kentucky gubernatorial election of 1899. Goebel was hesitant about the selection because he wanted someone who could deliver the vote of his home county in the general election, and Beckham's native Nelson County was already committed to a rival candidate. But friends of Goebel assured him that Beckham would be loyal to Goebel's reform agenda, whereas the two other men Goebel was considering as running mates would \"stack the Senate committees against him.\" Beckham was not yet 30, the minimum age to serve as governor, at the time of his selection.\n"}
{"text": " Goebel lost a close election to Republican William S. Taylor. When the General Assembly's session opened on January 2, 1900, the election results were immediately challenged. With Democrats in control of both houses of the Assembly, the results seemed sure to be reversed. The Assembly was still deliberating on January 30, 1900, when Goebel was shot by an unknown assailant as he entered the state capitol building. The following day, as Goebel was being treated for his wounds at a local hotel, the General Assembly invalidated enough votes to give him the election. He was sworn into office from his bed the same day. Three days later Goebel died, never having risen from the bed.\n"}
{"text": " Legislative chaos ensued as Taylor refused to acknowledge the Assembly's decision and vacate the governorship. The Republicans in the legislature obeyed Taylor's orders, while the Democrats ignored Taylor and followed the orders of their leadership. Finally, on February 21, 1900, Taylor and Beckham agreed to let the courts settle the matter. The case first went before the Louisville Circuit Court, which found in favor of Beckham. Republicans appealed to the Kentucky Court of Appeals, at that time the court of last resort in the state. On April 6, 1900, the Court of Appeals upheld the ruling of the lower court. Taylor appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, which declined to hear the case on May 21, 1900. Taylor's only supporter on the court was Kentuckian John Marshall Harlan.\n"}
{"text": " Following the Supreme Court ruling, Taylor fled to Indianapolis, Indiana, fearing he would be implicated in Goebel's assassination. Beckham became acting governor, but because of the unusual circumstances surrounding the election, a special election was held November 6, 1900, to determine who would complete Goebel's unexpired term. Beckham (now of age) won the election over Republican John W. Yerkes by fewer than 4,000 votes. Shortly following the special election, Beckham married Jean Raphael Fuqua of Owensboro. The couple had two sons.\n"}
{"text": " As governor Beckham sought to unite his party and the state. As part of this effort he supported changes to the blatantly partisan Goebel Election Law, authored by his late running mate while the latter was a member of the General Assembly. He stressed non-controversial issues such as improvements to roads and the state's educational system. He recommended passage of a law to set uniform school textbook prices, a reform both he and Goebel had advocated during the gubernatorial campaign. However, his passive leadership ensured that the General Assembly did little to address his agenda. The only major pieces of legislation passed during Beckham's term were a tax increase that added a half million dollars to the state's revenue and a child labor law that forbade children under 14 to work without their parents' consent.\n"}
{"text": " === Second term ===\n"}
{"text": " Although the Kentucky Constitution prohibited governors from serving consecutive terms, Beckham announced he would seek a full term as governor in 1903. His candidacy was challenged in court, but the court ruled Beckham had not served a full first term and was eligible to run. Due to his record of reconciliation and supporting non-controversial reforms, he had no significant opposition in winning his party's nomination. His record also deprived his Republican opponent, Morris B. Belknap, of any significant campaign issue in the general election. Beckham defeated Belknap and three minor candidates.\n"}
{"text": " In his message to the legislature in 1904, Beckham again raised the issue of a uniform school textbook law, which had not passed during his first term. The law was one of few significant reforms that passed during the 1904 session. During the session funds were approved for building a new capitol building and a memorial to the late Governor Goebel.\n"}
{"text": " In March 1904, Beckham signed the Day Law mandating racial segregation of all schools in Kentucky. Berea College, a private college in eastern Kentucky that had been integrated since the 1850s, immediately filed suit to challenge the law. The substance of the law was upheld in the circuit court and the Kentucky Court of Appeals. Berea appealed to the Supreme Court, and in 1908 the court handed down an 8 \u2013 1 decision against the college. Only John Marshall Harlan dissented.\n"}
{"text": " Near the close of the 1904 session, legislators approved the creation of Beckham County from parts of Carter, Elliott, and Lewis counties. Olive Hill was made the county seat. Soon the county's existence was challenged in court on grounds that it fell short of the 400 square miles (1,000 km2) required by the state constitution and that it reduced the counties it was carved from to less than 400 square miles (1,000 km2). Carter County joined the lawsuit, claiming the border of Beckham County passed too close to Grayson, the seat of Carter County, and Vanceburg, the seat of Lewis County. The state constitution forbade county borders to pass within 10 miles (16 km) of a county seat. On April 29, 1904, the Kentucky Court of Appeals found in favor of the plaintiffs and dissolved Beckham County.\n"}
{"text": " During the 1906 legislative session, Beckham urged investigation and prosecution of corrupt insurance companies, following the lead of New York attorney Charles Evans Hughes. In particular, he recommended reducing the practice of deferred dividends, which allowed the insurance companies to keep large stores of cash on-hand for illegal purposes. He further advocated that insurance companies doing business in the state be required to invest a certain percentage of their earnings in Kentucky, bolstering the its economy and providing policyholders some protection against fraud.\n"}
{"text": " Beckham refused to send troops into the western part of the state to quell the ongoing Black Patch Tobacco Wars. He cited constitutional reasons for his refusal, but more probably his reasons were political \u2013 the Democrats were dominant in this region and he didn 't want to challenge his own party. By collecting some old Civil War debts from the federal government, Beckham virtually eliminated the state's debt. Encouraged by the state's improved finances, the General Assembly voted to expand two of the state's normal schools, Western State Teachers College in Bowling Green (later Western Kentucky University) and Eastern State Teachers College in Richmond (later part of Eastern Kentucky University).\n"}
{"text": " With a successful legislative session behind him, Beckham made a bold political move in June 1906: he orchestrated an effort to set the Democratic gubernatorial and senatorial primaries in November \u2013 a full year before the gubernatorial election and two years before the senatorial election. Beckham wanted the Senate seat, and moving the primary up two years would allow him to secure his party's nomination while he was still governor. It also allowed him to use his influence as governor to sway the party's choice of his potential successor as governor. State Auditor Samuel Wilbur Hager was Beckham's choice for governor and easily won the early primary over challenger N.B. Hays. Former governor James B. McCreary challenged Beckham for the senatorial nomination, but Beckham won by more than 11,000 votes.\n"}
{"text": " === U.S. Senator ===\n"}
{"text": " Beckham's term as governor ended December 10, 1907. In January 1908 he faced the legislature as the Democratic nominee for a seat in the U.S. Senate by virtue of the primary held two years earlier. The Republicans nominated former governor William O. Bradley. On the first ballot Beckham secured 66 of the needed 69 votes; Bradley received 64 votes. Seven Democrats had not voted for Beckham. Over the next six weeks, 25 more votes were taken with neither man securing a majority, even though William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic nominee for president, campaigned for Beckham. Some Democrats pressured Beckham to withdraw and allow a more palatable Democrat to run, but he refused. On the 29th ballot, taken near the end of February 1908, Bradley finally secured a majority after four Democrats crossed party lines to vote for him.\n"}
{"text": " Beckham's ardent support of prohibition likely cost him the election. His position put him at odds with Henry Watterson, editor of the powerful Louisville Courier-Journal. As governor Beckham had crossed the liquor interests and the political machinery in Louisville. When the Kentucky Court of Appeals invalidated the results of Louisville's municipal elections due to interference by the city's \"whiskey ring\" in May 1907, Beckham appointed Robert Worth Bingham, a young lawyer and fellow prohibitionist, as interim mayor until elections could be held in November. Bingham eliminated grafting in the police department, closed gambling houses and enforced blue laws closing saloons on Sunday. Following this, the whiskey ring announced Beckham had forfeited the support of Louisville's legislators. In the senatorial election in 1908, three of the four Democrats who voted against Beckham were from Louisville. Following his defeat, Beckham returned to his law practice.\n"}
{"text": " Six years later Beckham again attempted to win the Senate seat. Due to the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment, the senator would not be elected by the legislature, but by popular vote. In the Democratic primary Beckham defeated Augustus O. Stanley, a 12-year veteran congressman. The Republican nominee was former governor Augustus E. Willson. Bolstered by his support of President Woodrow Wilson, Beckham won the election by 32,000 votes.\n"}
{"text": " Beckham served as chairman of the Senate Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Labor from 1915 to 1917 and on the Senate Committee on Military Affairs. In the latter position he was influential in securing two large military training posts for Kentucky, Camp Zachary Taylor and Fort Knox. Though Camp Zachary Taylor was abandoned after World War I, Fort Knox became the home of the United States Bullion Depository. When the United States entered World War I, Beckham continued to back President Wilson and supported the League of Nations.\n"}
{"text": " True to his prohibitionist stance, Beckham supported passage of the Eighteenth Amendment forbidding the import and sale of alcohol in the United States. The amendment was ratified and became effective in January 1920. Believing women should be protected from involvement in politics, Beckham opposed the Nineteenth Amendment, which granted women's suffrage. The amendment failed on February 10, 1919, but passed on June 4, 1919. Beckham voted against it both times.\n"}
{"text": " The Democrats renominated Beckham without opposition in 1920. His opponent in the general election was Republican Richard P. Ernst. Prohibition had destroyed the distilling industry and the saloon business in the state, and in areas where these industries were prominent Beckham received more than 5,000 fewer votes than Democratic presidential nominee James M. Cox. He was also hurt by the women's vote and by his support of President Wilson, who had lost popularity since Beckham's election in 1914. Ernst won the election by fewer than 5,000 votes, winning the race with 50.3 percent of the vote to Beckham's 49.7 percent. During his single term in the Senate Beckham served alongside three other U.S. Senators from Kentucky: Ollie M. James, George B. Martin and Augustus O. Stanley.\n"}
{"text": " == Later life and death ==\n"}
{"text": " Following his term in the Senate, Beckham resumed his legal practice in Louisville. He sought another term as governor in 1927. This time he had the support of the Louisville Courier-Journal, which had been purchased by his ally, Robert W. Bingham. He was opposed by a powerful political machine known as the Jockey Club, whose main interest was securing legislation to allow parimutuel betting at the state's horse racetracks.\n"}
{"text": " The Jockey Club ran a candidate in both parties'primary elections. In the Democratic primary Beckham defeated the Club's relatively obscure candidate, Robert T. Crowe. Flem D. Sampson, the Club's nominee in the Republican primary, won his party's nomination. In the general election Beckham could not secure the support of Democratic governor William J. Fields, who had been elected with the help of the Jockey Club. Despite the Democrats winning every other contest on the ballot, including the race for lieutenant governor, Beckham lost to Sampson by more than 32,000 votes. It was estimated that the Club spent over $ 500,000 to defeat him.\n"}
{"text": " Beckham was expected to be the Democrats'nominee for governor in 1935, but the death of his son in late 1934 left him distraught and his wife opposed to another campaign. The Democrats turned to A. B. \"Happy\" Chandler of Henderson, who won the election. Beckham supported Chandler's bid, and in return Chandler appointed him to the Kentucky Public Service Commission in 1936. Beckham also served on the Department of Business Regulations Commission and chaired the State Government Reorganization Commission.\n"}
{"text": " Beckham attempted to return to the Senate in 1936. The head of the Jockey Club, James B. Brown, had lost his fortune and influence when his banking empire crashed in 1930. In 1933 Beckham's ally, Robert Bingham, had been appointed ambassador to the Court of St. James's, increasing his prominence and influence. Beckham also enjoyed the support of the United Mine Workers and Louisville mayor Neville Miller. The race was complicated, though, by the entry of John Y. Brown, a Democrat who was a U.S. Representative and former Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives. He had agreed to support Chandler's bid for the governorship in exchange for Chandler's support in his run for the Senate. However, Chandler threw his support to Beckham, and while Brown was not able to win the seat without the support of Bingham and Chandler, he did garner 85,000 votes, most of them at Beckham's expense. Democratic incumbent M. M. Logan retained the seat by 2,385 votes.\n"}
{"text": " Beckham died in Louisville on January 9, 1940, and was buried in Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort, Kentucky. Beckham County, Oklahoma, was named in his honor at the suggestion of a Kentuckian who was serving as a delegate to Oklahoma's constitutional convention in 1907. Wickland, his birthplace, was added to the National Register of Historic Places on February 16, 1973.\n"}
{"text": " = 1888 \u2013 89 New Zealand Native football team =\n"}
{"text": " The 1888 \u2013 89 New Zealand Native football team was a New Zealand rugby union team that toured Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand in 1888 and 1889. It mostly comprised players of M\u0101ori ancestry, and also included some P\u0101keh\u0101 (white New Zealanders). A wholly private endeavour, the tour was not under the auspices of any official rugby authority; it was organised by New Zealand international player Joseph Warbrick, promoted by civil servant Thomas Eyton, and managed by James Scott, a publican. The Natives were the first New Zealand team to perform a haka, and also the first to wear all black. They played 107 rugby matches during the tour, as well as a small number of Victorian Rules football and association football matches in Australia. Having made a significant impact on the development of New Zealand rugby, the Natives were inducted into the International Rugby Board Hall of Fame in 2008.\n"}
{"text": " After a preliminary tour of New Zealand in 1888, the side travelled to England via Melbourne and Suez. The M\u0101ori players initially provoked curiosity due to their race, but the British press subsequently expressed some surprise that the side was not as \"M\u0101ori\" as they had expected. Playing their first match, on 3 October against Surrey, the team was subjected to a taxing match schedule, and frequently played three matches per week. Their early matches included a 9 \u2013 0 loss to Middlesex, but their form improved in November, when they won 10 of their 13 matches. The team played its first international match on 1 December, against Ireland, and won 13 \u2013 4. This was followed by a win over one of the strongest English county teams, Yorkshire, and a 5 \u2013 0 defeat against the Wales national team. By January 1889 the Natives had played 36 matches in less than three months, winning 22 of them; they had spent most of their time in the north of England, where the playing strength was strongest and the crowds largest and most profitable.\n"}
{"text": " In a return match on 19 January, Yorkshire fielded a stronger side than in the first match and inflicted one of the Natives' heaviest losses, a 16 \u2013 4 defeat. The team then went undefeated until 16 February, when they faced England. Officials of the strictly amateur Rugby Football Union (RFU) had become increasingly concerned at the behaviour of the New Zealanders, regarding them as unsportsmanlike, and tensions reached a nadir in the aftermath of the England international, during which the RFU secretary George Rowland Hill, refereeing the game, awarded a number of controversial tries to England, prompting three of the Natives to temporarily leave the field in protest; England eventually won 7 \u2013 0. The Natives apologised afterwards for their behaviour, but the damage was not repaired. The New Zealanders left England without an official send-off, and travelled to Australia where they toured Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. They then returned to New Zealand, where they displayed a level of combination not seen in their home country before. They went 31 games undefeated before losing their final match, on 24 August 1889, 7 \u2013 2 to Auckland.\n"}
{"text": " The Natives'final record in rugby matches was 78 wins, 6 draws and 23 losses. They introduced a number of tactical innovations to New Zealand rugby on their return home, and their tour contributed to the formation of the New Zealand Rugby Football Union in 1892. Seventeen of the team's 26 players went on to play provincially in New Zealand, and two, Thomas Ellison and David Gage, subsequently captained the New Zealand national rugby team.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " The idea for assembling a team of M\u0101ori footballers to tour Britain was conceived by Joseph Warbrick, a rugby player who had toured with the first New Zealand national team in 1884. He initially proposed a team of M\u0101ori or part-M\u0101ori to play the touring British side in 1888; this developed into a venture to have a M\u0101ori team tour Britain if a preliminary tour of New Zealand were successful. Hearing of Warbrick's plans, civil servant Thomas Eyton contacted him to offer help managing the tour, which Warbrick accepted. When James Scott, a publican, subsequently joined the partnership, the three men decided that Warbrick would be the team's captain, Scott its manager and Eyton its promoter.\n"}
{"text": " Warbrick started assembling a team for the tour in early 1888. He had difficulties assembling a squad due to player availability, and failed to secure the talented Jack Taiaroa due to his university commitments. Some M\u0101ori players who initially agreed to play later pulled out when the eligibility criteria were relaxed to allow squad members who were only part-M\u0101ori. Twenty M\u0101ori or part-M\u0101ori players joined the squad; five P\u0101keh\u0101 (white New Zealand) players were added after the team lost to Auckland. Due to the inclusion of these P\u0101keh\u0101 players the team was renamed from the \"New Zealand Maori\" to the \"New Zealand Native Football Representatives\". The final squad comprised 26 players (including Warbrick); of these at least five were full-blooded M\u0101ori, while fourteen had a M\u0101ori mother and a P\u0101keh\u0101 father. The parentage of some of the players is unknown.\n"}
{"text": " The team toured New Zealand before departing overseas, playing against Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Nelson, Wellington, Canterbury, South Canterbury, and Otago. The first game was contested against Hawke's Bay in Napier on 23 June 1888. They played nine games in their preliminary tour of New Zealand, and won seven of them. Their last New Zealand match before departure, against Otago played in Dunedin on 31 July 1888, was won by one try to nil.\n"}
{"text": " The team sailed for Australia from Dunedin, leaving on 1 August 1888. In Melbourne, Scott recruited Jack Lawlor to train the players in Victorian Rules football in Britain as preparation for possible Victorian Rules matches on their return to Australia. The team played two rugby matches against the Melbourne Rugby Union team, winning the first and drawing the second, before continuing to Britain via Suez. They arrived in London on 27 September 1888.\n"}
{"text": " == Arrival in England and early matches ==\n"}
{"text": " The team were met in Britain by local rugby administrators, including an official of England's Rugby Football Union (RFU). The first match of the tour was against Surrey, where the team became the first New Zealand side to perform a haka, and also the first to wear an all black uniform. That the team was predominantly M\u0101ori provoked curiosity from the British press \u2013 at the time, most Britons had not seen non-white people \u2013 but there was some surprise that the team were not as \"M\u0101ori\" as had been expected. \"They are not unlike Europeans,\" a Scottish reporter wrote in November 1888; \"that is their resemblance is great when one remembers that they were a savage tribe no further back than a generation\". The Surrey match, which was refereed by the RFU secretary George Rowland Hill, was won 4 \u2013 1 by the Natives after they scored two tries.\n"}
{"text": " The Natives next defeated both Northamptonshire and Kent, before defeats by Moseley and Burton-on-Trent. Both defeats were unexpected, and in the Moseley match, injuries played a part \u2013 the tourists played most of the match at least two men down, as replacements were then not allowed. The team recovered to win their next game, against Midlands Counties in Birmingham. Their next fixture was against Middlesex in a match not open to the public, and hosted by the Earl of Sheffield at Sheffield Park, Uckfield. The Middlesex side contained a number of international players, including Arthur Gould. Middlesex won easily, with the Natives play characterised by poor tackling. The final score was 9 \u2013 0, with three tries conceded by the New Zealanders. Prior to the match both sides had enjoyed lunch with wine \u2013 an indulgence the Natives were not used to. A report in the Auckland Star had this to say of the game:\n"}
{"text": " The New Zealanders expected to meet a mere exhibition 15 of scratch players, whereas Mr Rowland Hill had carefully collected the best possible team available. Such \"passing\" as the Home men displayed the Maoris frankly admit they have never previously witnessed. Said McCausland whilst we were on the platform waiting for the London train, \"I think they would have just beaten us, even if we had been in good form.\"\n"}
{"text": " Following the match against Middlesex, the team travelled to the north, where the strongest English rugby teams were based. Yorkshire and Lancashire dominated the county championship until many of their respective member clubs split from the RFU in 1895 over the issue of \"broken time\" payments. The New Zealanders lost to Hull 1 \u2013 0, defeated Dewsbury, then lost to Wakefield. After their first draw of the tour (against Northumberland County) they defeated Stockton-on-Tees and Tynemouth. Joe Warbrick appeared in the match against Tynemouth, but aggravated the foot injury that had kept him out of the side until that point. These victories were followed by a 13 \u2013 4 defeat to Halifax on 10 November. The team then won seven matches in a row, including one against Hawick RFC, their only Scottish opposition of the tour. The last two matches that month were a loss to Swinton and a 9 \u2013 0 victory over Liverpool and District. The team had played thirteen fixtures during November and won ten of them. By this point, the team was beset by injuries \u2013 of the fifteen players that played against Westmorland County on 24 November, five had injuries. The squad comprised only 26 players, and the tourists were often struggling to field a side. Nevertheless, their heavy schedule continued; on 30 November 1888 they left for Dublin, where a match had been organised against the Ireland national team.\n"}
{"text": " == Ireland, further English matches, and Wales ==\n"}
{"text": " The Ireland fixture was played at Lansdowne Road, Dublin, on 1 December 1888. Both teams had a number of leading players out injured \u2013 the Irish were forced to make four changes to their original selection. Ireland led 3 \u2013 0 at half-time after scoring a converted try, but the Natives improved considerably in the second-half, scoring four tries. Patrick Keogh scored the first two tries, and his play was praised by the local press. The third try scored was by Thomas Ellison after a counter-attack by George Williams. The try was not converted, but the strong finish from the New Zealanders gave the visitors a 13 \u2013 4 victory. The Irish press were surprised by the loss and strongly criticised their team, but Ireland did go on to defeat Wales two tries to nil in the 1889 Home Nations Championship. Following their defeat of Ireland, the Natives played Trinity College and then North of Ireland. The match against Trinity College was drawn 4 \u2013 4, and despite Keogh not playing, the Native side played much better than their previous fixture. The team then travelled to Belfast, where they defeated North of Ireland 2 \u2013 0 on 5 December; scoring two tries to nil.\n"}
{"text": " After returning to England, the Natives faced Lancashire in Manchester, where they lost 1 \u2013 0. Two days later they drew with Batley Bulldogs, despite their opposition scoring five tries. Their next match was against Yorkshire, who were one of the strongest counties in the country, and went on to win the inaugural County Championship that season. Yorkshire fielded a weakened team, and were subsequently defeated 10 \u2013 6 by the Natives, who scored six tries. After a further two victories, the team travelled to Wales, where they lost 3 \u2013 0 to Llanelli, before facing Wales on 22 December.\n"}
{"text": " At the start of the match the home crowd were fairly hostile towards the Welsh team due to fans of both Swansea and Llanelli feeling slighted by the lack of selection of their players. Four teams dominated Welsh international selection at the time, and out of the 15-man team only William Towers and William Bowen of Swansea and Dan Griffiths of Llanelli had been selected. The match was played in Swansea, and the lack of local players may have contributed to a poor crowd, with gate receipts of only \u00a3 120 recorded. The crowd's hostility impacted on the players, and debutant Norman Biggs was \"palpably nervous\" at the start of the match. Biggs, aged 18 years and 49 days, became the youngest Welsh international player \u2013 a record he held until the debut of Tom Prydie in 2010. Despite the heckles aimed primarily at Biggs, Charlie Arthur and George Thomas, the Welsh team produced an excellent effort, especially from the forwards.\n"}
{"text": " Towers scored the first Welsh try, which was converted by Jim Webb. The Natives replied with a spirited run by Ellison, but he failed to break through the Welsh defence. The tourists trailed even further after George Thomas scored a breakaway try frrm the half-way line, which went some way to silence the heckles from the crowd. Webb, playing in out of position at full-back, missed the conversion and then failed at a long distance goal from a mark. The Natives continued to push, with Elliot coming within five-yards of the try line, and when Ellison did manage to cross the line he was carried back into the 25-yard line before he could touch down. In the second half Wales continued to push their advantage when Alexander Bland dribbled the ball into the Natives' 25; this was collected by Sydney Nicholls, who managed to get the ball across the try line, allowing Jim Hannan to score. Warbrick for the Natives and Stadden for Wales both subsequently came close to scoring tries, but there were no further scores in the game.\n"}
{"text": " The match was also of historical importance because of the Welsh tactics employed. In the 1886 Home Nations Championship Wales had trialled the four three-quarter system, wherein the team would play with eight forwards rather than nine, and instead employ an extra centre three-quarter. The system was deemed a failure and was particularly unpopular with star Welsh player Arthur Gould, whose formidable ability as a back allowed his club team Newport to retain the additional forward. With Gould working in the West Indies, Wales again tried the four three-quarter system against the Natives, and its success saw the team permanently adopt the system. Within six years the other three Home Countries had adopted four three-quarter style of play.\n"}
{"text": " Before they left Wales, the Natives played Swansea and two other local clubs, Newport, and Cardiff. They defeated Swansea for their first win in Wales, and followed this up with a victory over Newport in front of 8,000 spectators. They finished their Welsh matches, and the year, with a 4 \u2013 1 loss to Cardiff in front of a partisan crowd.\n"}
{"text": " == Return to England ==\n"}
{"text": " The side entered 1889 having played 36 matches for 22 wins and three draws. The Natives' play had improved throughout November and December following poorer form in their October matches; positive press reports reflected this improvement. The team would go on to play a further 17 matches before their 16 February international against England. January started with a 4 \u2013 1 loss to Bradford, during which 25 police officers were required to keep many of the 12,000 spectators, many of them non-paying, in order. This was followed by victories over Leeds Parish Church, Kirkstall, Brighouse Rangers, and Huddersfield. Following further matches against Stockport, Castleford, and Warrington, where the team drew, lost, then won, the side faced Yorkshire for a second time.\n"}
{"text": " Yorkshire had been criticised in the press for fielding a weakened line-up against the Natives when the sides first met in December. After the unexpected loss, Yorkshire were determined to make amends and a strong side was selected for the county, including Fred Bonsor, Richard Lockwood and John Willie Sutcliffe, all of whom would appear for England against the Natives later that season. Described as \"knocked about\" and \"stale\", the Natives struggled to compete against such strong opposition, and Yorkshire scored three converted tries before a try to Ellison left the scores at 9 \u2013 1 at half-time. The second-half was little better for the Natives; they conceded a further two tries as well as a drop-goal. The second of these tries was scored by Lockwood after he ran the ball from his own half. Ellison scored a converted try late in the match, but this didn 't prevent the Natives suffering their largest defeat of the tour: 16 \u2013 4 to the Yorkshiremen. Ellison later described the match as \"without a murmur, the biggest beating we received in our whole tour\".\n"}
{"text": " After a victory over Spen Valley District, the team travelled west to play Somersetshire, Devonshire, Taunton, and Gloucestershire, and won all five games. The victory over Somerset was the New Zealanders' largest of the tour; they scored nine tries in a 17 \u2013 4 victory. Half-back Keogh played outstandingly for the Natives, while the entire side demonstrated superior passing and combination to their opposition. Devonshire and Tauton suffered heavy defeats by the New Zealanders, before a strong Gloucestershire side was dismissed. After defeating Midland Counties, the Natives returned to London.\n"}
{"text": " The team had two further matches before their international against England. The first was against one of the strongest clubs in England, Blackheath. Andrew Stoddart, who had toured New Zealand and Australia with the 1888 British Isles side, played for the club in their 9 \u2013 3 defeat to the Natives. The New Zealanders won having scored four tries, including two by Keogh. Their next opposition was a United Services side mainly comprising Royal Navy players. The Natives were again victorious, this time 10 \u2013 0. The match against Oxford University was postponed due to heavy frost, and so the team had a seven-day break from playing \u2013 their longest of the tour.\n"}
{"text": " == England international ==\n"}
{"text": " The match against England was causing the Natives'players and management problems before it had even begun. The team manager, Scott, was in dispute with the RFU over where the match should be played \u2013 the RFU were adamant that the match should take place at Blackheath's ground, but Scott wanted the game to proceed at The Oval, where a larger crowd, and therefore higher gate receipts, could be secured. The strictly amateur RFU establishment were already suspicious of the profit-making motives of the Natives, and were unwilling to yield on the selection of venue. The RFU was also in dispute with the other Home Unions over the formation of the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB). Following a disputed try in an England \u2013 Scotland international match in 1888, the Scottish authorities had pushed for the establishment of an international body to oversee the game, but the RFU insisted that they would only join if they held a deciding vote, arguing that they deserved this as they were, they asserted, the senior body, and had the most member clubs. Ireland, Wales and Scotland consequently refused to play against England until 1891, when, following arbitration, the RFU relented and joined the IRFB. The absence of international matches was a factor in England agreeing to face the Natives on 16 February 1889.\n"}
{"text": " The line-ups selected for the 16 February match were both strong, and close to full strength. Though 12 of the England side had not played internationally before, all were experienced at domestic level. The match was refereed by Rowland Hill, who had also officiated the Natives' first match in Britain, against Surrey. The opening of the first half was a scoreless affair, with much tackling and scrummaging on the heavy ground. Later in the half England scored two tries through Harry Bedford, but both were disputed by the Natives, who claimed that one of their players had grounded the ball in-goal. England took the two-try advantage into the second half.\n"}
{"text": " Early in the second half a third disputed try was scored by the English. The try and its aftermath caused controversy and a rift between the Natives and the RFU. Ellison attempted to tackle the English player Stoddart, and in the process ripped his shorts off. The Natives quickly formed a circle around Stoddart to allow him to replace his clothing without being seen. While this was happening one of the English players, Frank Evershed, picked up the ball and scored a try. The New Zealanders protested, believing that play had stopped after claiming Stoddart had called \"dead ball\" \u2013 but Hill awarded the try, prompting three of the Native players, Dick Taiaroa, Williams, and Sherry Wynyard, to leave the field in protest. The aggrieved players were eventually persuaded to return, but not before Hill had restarted play. Ellison was very critical of Hill, particularly because he was also Secretary of the RFU. Ellison wrote after the tour that \"gross as these errors were, they were insignificant when compared with another that Mr Hill committed at the outset of the game, viz, refereeing at all in that game\". The disputed try was followed by a final try for the English, who ultimately won 7 \u2013 0.\n"}
{"text": " The RFU, at Hill's instigation, promptly demanded an apology from the Natives' captain of the day, Edward McCausland, who had led the team as Joe Warbrick was injured. The English authorities of the time believed that the decision of a referee was above question, and that protesting a decision as the New Zealanders had done was unsportsmanlike. The RFU threatened to bar any of their affiliated players \u2013 in other words, the entire rugby playing population of England \u2013 from facing the Natives if they did not apologise. McCausland swiftly sent an apology by telegram, but this was deemed inadequate; he therefore sent another, four days after the game:\n"}
{"text": " The London establishment that governed the game were disturbed by the New Zealanders'approach to the game; reports of rough and over-aggressive play by the Natives had steadily increased in frequency since their arrival in Britain. In the north of England, criticism of the visitors' sportsmanship was rarer; the tourists were accepted as playing the game in the same spirit as their local opponents, which in the north was a more working class sport than in the south. Some of the Natives, including Joe Warbrick, accused the RFU and the English press of hypocrisy, claiming that they were quick to criticise the New Zealanders for rough play, yet tolerant of similar behaviour from their own players.\n"}
{"text": " == Later matches and departure from England ==\n"}
{"text": " The Natives remained in London following the England international. They defeated London Welsh on 18 February, before losing first to Cambridge, then Oxford University. From there they travelled north and won two matches before losing to Leigh. After a win over Runcorn, there was a defeat to Oldham, played on a ground Eyton said was so frozen it was dangerous. After reversing their previous loss to Halifax with a 6 \u2013 0 win, the Natives suffered a loss to Barrow and District on 7 March. The New Zealanders then had a run of seven straight wins before a 1 \u2013 1 draw with Hull. Widnes were then defeated for the second time in two weeks in the tourists' last match in northern England.\n"}
{"text": " The team struggled to find an opponent for their final match in Britain. They eventually played Southern Counties, and beat them 3 \u2013 1. This was their 74th match in the British Isles and their 49th victory. The authorities and press in London continued to view the team negatively, and the Natives boarded ship without a formal farewell. This perceived affront from the RFU provoked some criticism from the press outside London, as well as from the team manager Scott, who felt that with the team's official apology after the England match, the controversy should have put to rest.\n"}
{"text": " == Australia ==\n"}
{"text": " The majority of the Natives left Plymouth on 29 March (Eyton and Pie Wynyard followed a week later). They arrived in Melbourne in May, where the team played mostly Victorian Rules football, hoping to make more money that way. Although the side had employed Jack Lawlor to coach them in Victorian Rules during their tour of the British Isles, the heavy schedule and high injury count had left little time and energy for such training. As a result, the Victorian Rules matches were a failure; the players' unfamiliarity with the rules, combined with the fact that most of the Natives were rugby forwards (and therefore less suited to the more open Victorian Rules), ensured that they failed to perform well on the field and struggled to attract large crowds. The side played nine Victorian Rules matches in total, including one in New South Wales, but won only three of them, all against relatively weak opposition.\n"}
{"text": " The side's success in their rugby matches contrasted to their failure in Victorian Rules \u2013 the New Zealanders played three rugby matches while in Victoria: against Melbourne, a Navy selection, and Victoria. The matches were all won, with their game against Victoria a 19 \u2013 0 victory. After this they left for Sydney for further rugby matches, and defeated New South Wales 12 \u2013 9. After two further victories, the side again faced New South Wales, and won the match 16 \u2013 12. Another two victories followed, before the team played their only association football matches of the tour \u2013 both defeats.\n"}
{"text": " The team travelled north to Queensland, where, as in New South Wales, rugby was the dominant code of football. Consequently, the team exclusively played rugby while in the region. The Natives faced Queensland at the Association Ground in Brisbane. The 8000 spectators witnessed the New Zealanders overwhelm the Queenslanders to win 22 \u2013 0; the Natives did not exert themselves in the win, and the score did not reflect their dominance. After a further two matches, against Toowoomba and Ipswich (both of whom were comfortably defeated), the team returned to Brisbane for a rematch with Queensland. In contrast to their first meeting, the first-half was a close affair, and the two sides were tied at the conclusion of the half. Billy Warbrick suffered a kick to the head, and had to retire early in the second-half. Following the loss of Warbrick, the play of the Natives improved and they recovered to win 11 \u2013 7. Not long after the game concluded rumours circulated that some of the players had been offered \u20a4 50 by bookmakers to throw the game. Eyton later said:\n"}
{"text": " It was on the occasion of this match that four of our players were thought, in racing parlance, to be playing \"stiff\", and that they had been got by some bookies; at all events, when accused of it at half-time and cautioned, they played a different game in the second half.\n"}
{"text": " The response from the team's management was to suspend four players. The team travelled to Toowoomba, where they defeated the locals 19 \u2013 0. The Natives included a replacement player for only the second time, Charles Speakman, after the suspensions reduced the playing strength of the side. The team then travelled back to New Zealand, and arrived in Invercargill on 5 August.\n"}
{"text": " == Return to New Zealand ==\n"}
{"text": " Two days after their return, the Natives faced Southland, who they defeated 5 \u2013 1 in front of a crowd of 2,000. The side suffered further injury, to Harry Lee, and recruited Southlander W. Hirst for their match against Mataura District on 8 August. Despite playing the match two players down, the Natives comfortably defeated Mataura 16 \u2013 3. Following the side's return to New Zealand, the Otago Rugby Football Union demanded that the team's management explain the accusations levelled at them in Queensland. Eyton responded by insisting that the players had only been suspended while an investigation was conducted, and that the management was confident no wrongdoing had occurred. The Northern Rugby Union (since renamed Queensland Rugby Union) summarised the incident and aftermath in the 1889 Queensland Rugby Union Annual:\n"}
{"text": " ... it was apparent to a judge of the game that something was wrong with the Maori, as they were not showing their usual dash and combination. Four members of the team were suspended, a charge being made against them of attempting the sell the match. The matter was bought before the Otago Union, who passed the following resolution: That, having heard all available evidence regarding the charges against certain members of the Native Team, and having received an explicit denial of charges from the accused members and a satisfactory explanation from the management, we are of opinion that there are no facts before us justifying the allegations ...\n"}
{"text": " It is unlikely, given the attitude of the Otago Rugby Union to the Natives before their departure, that they would have dismissed the allegations if incriminating evidence had existed. The side was back to full strength following the return of their suspended players when the side faced Otago in Dunedin. The Natives outscored their opponents five tries to two, and won 11 \u2013 8. The side's star player and half-back, Keogh, stayed in Dunedin when the team departed for Christchurch. The side faced Hawke's Bay, who were touring, in Christchurch, and handily defeated them 13 \u2013 2. The Natives'play was praised by The Press: \"... the wearers of the black passed with remarkable accuracy and quickness between their legs, over their shoulders, under their arms and with their feet\". The side then faced Canterbury on 17 August, who they thrashed 15 \u2013 0. The report published in The Press said of the Natives' performance:\n"}
{"text": " The play showed on Saturday afternoon was a fine exhibition of what several months of combination and practice will do ... it must be admitted they were far and away too good for our local men. In the loose, in the scrum, dribbling, passing, collaring, or running they were very much indeed Canterbury's superior. Such runs as were made by Warbrick at full back, by Madigan, Gage, and W. Wynyard, the passing of H. Wynyard, F. Warbrick, and all the backs as well as several forwards, the rushes of Alf Warbrick, Maynard, Taare, Taiaroa, and Rene, and the dodging and fending powers of nearly every one, nonplussed their opponents ...\n"}
{"text": " The side left Christchurch and travelled north where they played Wairarapa in Masterton. The match was won 10 \u2013 8, and the next day they faced Wellington, who they also defeated. The fixture against Wellington was nearly abandoned because Scott and the Wellington Rugby Union could not agree on a venue; the match went ahead only when the Wellington officials agreed to cede the Natives all profit from the match. After this the Natives travelled to Auckland where they played their last match, against the province on 24 August. The match was lost 7 \u2013 2 after each team scored two tries each, but the Aucklanders kicked a drop-goal and a conversion. The loss ended a remarkable run of matches \u2013 the Natives had a 31-game unbeaten streak in rugby matches that started with their victory over Widnes on 9 March; the side won 30, and drew one match between the defeats.\n"}
{"text": " == Impact and legacy ==\n"}
{"text": " The tour had a significant impact on the development of rugby within New Zealand. It was the first tour of the British Isles by a team from the Southern Hemisphere, and the longest in the history of the sport. By the time the Natives returned to New Zealand, they had developed into a side superior to any in the country, and introduced a number of tactical innovations. Seventeen of the 26 players went on to play provincially in New Zealand, and two, Ellison and David Gage, subsequently captained New Zealand.\n"}
{"text": " The tour also prompted the eventual formation of the New Zealand Rugby Football Union (NZRFU, later renamed New Zealand Rugby Union) in 1892; one reason for its formation was to ensure greater control over any future touring New Zealand sides. The NZRFU sent an officially sanctioned New Zealand team, captained by Ellison, to tour Australia in 1893. The Natives are also the forefathers of the M\u0101ori All Blacks, a representative team organised by the NZRFU, that first played in 1910. The Native team, along with Joe Warbrick, was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame in 2008 \u2013 the seventh inductee.\n"}
{"text": " == Squad ==\n"}
{"text": " The squad consisted of 26 players. The exact names of several of the players is unknown. The number of matches played is a minimum number only \u2013 the line-ups for a number of matches in Britain and Australia are either incomplete or unknown.\n"}
{"text": " == Matches played ==\n"}
{"text": " === Overall ===\n"}
{"text": " === Internationals ===\n"}
{"text": " ==== Ireland ====\n"}
{"text": " Ireland: T Edwards, DC Woods, A Walpole, MJ Bulger, J Stevenson, RG Warren capt., HW Andrews, EG Forrest, JH O 'Conor, JG Moffatt, JN Lytle, J Waites, R Stevenson, JC Jameson, FO Stoker\n"}
{"text": " New Zealand Natives: William Warbrick, David Gage, Edward McCausland, Frederick Warbrick, Patrick Keogh, Tabby Wynyard, Charles Madigan, William Elliot, George Williams, Dick Taiaroa, Thomas Ellison, W Anderson, Joe Warbrick, Richard Maynard, Charles Goldsmith\n"}
{"text": " ==== Wales ====\n"}
{"text": " Wales: Jim Webb (Newport), George Thomas (Newport), Dickie Garrett (Penarth), Charlie Arthur (Cardiff), Norman Biggs (Cardiff), Charlie Thomas (Newport), William Stadden (Cardiff), Frank Hill (Cardiff) capt., Alexander Bland (Cardiff), Sydney Nicholls (Cardiff), Jim Hannan (Newport), Theo Harding (Newport), William Towers (Swansea), William Bowen (Swansea), Dan Griffiths, (Llanelli)\n"}
{"text": " New Zealand Natives: William Warbrick, Edward McCausland, William Thomas Wynyard, David Gage, William Elliot, Frederick Warbrick, Patrick Keogh, George Wynyard, Alexander Webster, Teo Rene, George Williams, Arthur Warbrick, David Stewart, Wi Karauria, Thomas Ellison\n"}
{"text": " ==== England ====\n"}
{"text": " England: Arthur \"Artie\" V. Royle, John William \"J.W.\" Sutcliffe, Andrew Stoddart, Richard \"Dicky\" Evison Lockwood, William Martin Scott, Fernand \"Fred\" Bonsor capt., Frank Evershed, Donald \"Don\" Jowett, Charles Anderton, Harry James Wilkinson, Harry Bedford, William Yiend, John W. Cave, Frederick Lowrie, Arthur Robinson\n"}
{"text": " New Zealand Natives: William Warbrick, Edward McCausland, Tabby Wynyard, Charles Madigan, William Elliot, David Gage, Patrick Keogh, George Wynyard, Teo Rene, Harry Lee, Thomas Ellison, George Williams, W Anderson, Dick Taiaroa, Richard Maynard\n"}
{"text": " = \u00c9va Gauthier =\n"}
{"text": " \u00c9va Gauthier (September 20, 1885 \u2013 December 20, 1958) was a Canadian-American mezzo-soprano and voice teacher. She performed and popularised songs by contemporary composers throughout her career and sang in the American premieres of several works by Erik Satie, Maurice Ravel and Igor Stravinsky, including the title role in the latter's Pers\u00e9phone.\n"}
{"text": " The niece of Lady Laurier and Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who also were her patrons, she initially trained and performed in Europe. She then travelled to Java and for four years immersed herself in its native music, which she introduced to North American audiences on her return. She retired from performing in 1937, and opened a voice studio in New York, where she became a founding member of the American Guild of Musical Artists and served on its board of governors. Gauthier was praised for the many qualities her singing brought to music. The citation from the Campion Society of San Francisco, which she received in 1949, said: \"... her rare open-mindedness and unorthodox enthusiasm having been initially responsible for the recognition of many vital and important modern composers\"\n"}
{"text": " == Singing career ==\n"}
{"text": " Born in Ottawa, Ontario, Gauthier received musical lessons as a child, in harmony, voice, and piano. The custom of the time dictated that North American musicians travel to Europe for training if they desired a reputable professional career, and in July 1902, at the age of seventeen, Gauthier set out for Europe, financed by her aunt and uncle, Lady Zo\u00e9 Laurier and Sir Wilfrid Laurier.\n"}
{"text": " === Training in Europe ===\n"}
{"text": " Gauthier travelled to France, where she received private voice lessons from Auguste-Jean Dubulle of the Paris Conservatory. Nodules on her vocal cords were problematic, but they were removed surgically. She later began training under Jacques Bouhy, whom she would later credit for her vocal technique. In 1906, Gauthier was retained by fellow Canadian singer Emma Albani to accompany her on a tour of England and her Canadian farewell tour. Albani provided a degree of mentorship to Gauthier during the 30 week tour of Canada.\n"}
{"text": " Lord Strathcona awarded Gauthier a scholarship in 1906 that allowed her to return to Europe and continue her vocal studies. She returned there and continued both to study and give performances. Her first operatic performance came in 1909 in Pavia, Italy as Mica\u00ebla in Bizet's Carmen. She landed a second operatic role as Mallika in Delibes' Lakm\u00e9, which was being performed by the London Covent Garden opera company. The opera opened in June 1910. Supposedly, Luisa Tetrazzini, the prima donna soprano of the company, feared that Gauthier's voice would outshine her own, and demanded that Gauthier be removed from the opera. The company's director acquiesced to Tetrazzini's demands, informing Gauthier on opening night that she would not be performing. Gauthier reacted badly, and quit opera entirely.\n"}
{"text": " === Move to Java ===\n"}
{"text": " Disappointed by her blocked entry into the operatic scene, Gauthier departed Europe and travelled to Java. There, she met a Dutch importer and plantation manager named Frans Knoote. Gauthier and Knoote married on May 22, 1911. Gauthier studied the music of Java, and began to include this in her repertoire. Her accompanying pianist was Paul Seelig, who had previously been the conductor for the Kraton of Surakarta, which afforded Gauthier a number of opportunities. On permission of the Javanese court, she studied the gamelan, probably being the first western woman with a classical music education to be afforded this opportunity. While living in Java, Gauthier travelled extensively, giving performances in China, Japan, Singapore, Malaya, Australia, and New Zealand. She remained in Java for four years, but with the outbreak of World War I she decided to travel back to North America, arriving in New York City in the fall of 1915.\n"}
{"text": " === Return to North America ===\n"}
{"text": " Arriving in New York, Gauthier struggled to find a niche in an already crowded music scene. She put on a performance in Vaudeville entitled Songmotion, which combined Javan music with dancers. New York was already home to many North American and European musical performers, so Gauthier focused on her Javan musical repertoire, which she combined with knowledge and skill in modernist western singing. Gauthier began giving annual recitals at Aeolian Hall, and in November 1917 her performance there caught the eye of many leading composers. She developed her own reputation quickly, known as a \"... sensitive purveyor of interesting, untried songs\". She gave renditions of three songs by Maurice Ravel. Her performance then also included American premieres of Stravinsky's Three Japanese Lyrics and Griffes' Five Poems of Ancient China and Japan. The performance was a great success, and she began to receive invitations to perform premieres of songs by contemporary composers. Stravinsky arranged to have Gauthier to premiere all of his vocal pieces.\n"}
{"text": " Gauthier travelled to Paris in 1920 at the behest of the Music League of America. Sent there to arrange a tour of North America by Maurice Ravel, she struck up a friendship and professional correspondence not only with him, but also with Erik Satie and Les six. This led to more music being sent to her by various composers that she would premiere in concert. She accepted and premiered almost all works sent to her, the only exception being a refusal to perform Pierrot Lunaire by Arnold Schoenberg. Through this, Gauthier performed large amounts of contemporary French music across the United States. She also included American music in all of her concerts. Gauthier toured America frequently and returned to Europe in 1922, and again in 1923. She began to explore Jazz music in concert as well, earning her negative reviews by many musical critics.\n"}
{"text": " Her 1923 annual performance at Aeolian Hall entitled \"Recital of Ancient and Modern Music for Voice\" became a historic occasion when she presented the works of George Gershwin, the first time his works were performed by a classical singer in concert. The first half of the programme presented works considered serious music at the time. She performed both classical works by Vincenzo Bellini and Henry Purcell, mixing them with modernist and neoclassical works by Arnold Schoenberg, Darius Milhaud, B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k, and Paul Hindemith. The second half of her performance would upset the musical establishment, however. She opened with Alexander's Ragtime Band by Irving Berlin, then performed works by Jerome Kern and Walter Donaldson, and finally finished with three works by George Gershwin: I'll Build a Stairway to Paradise, Innocent Ing\u00e9nue Baby, and Swanee. Gershwin played the piano for these pieces. Important figures in the audience included Ernestine Schumann-Heink, Virgil Thomson, and Paul Whiteman. Although some musical critics panned her decision to include Jazz music, the performance was overall a huge success, and provoked serious discussion among conservative audiences whether jazz music could be considered serious art.\n"}
{"text": " Gauthier continued to present music that was thought poorly of by conservative audiences. On some occasions, such as her performances of Gershwin in New York in 1923 and 1925, as well as in London in 1925, this was quite successful. A critic in Vienna welcomed her musical selection as a reprieve from the usual fare of classical performances - Schubert, Brahms, Wolf, Richard Strauss - while praising her skill with more classical choices. Other performances suffered \u2013 she was booed while performing works by Heitor Villa-Lobos at the Festival of the International Society of Contemporary Music in Venice. She became a celebrity, and continued giving performances across the United States, Europe, and her native Canada. On the sixtieth anniversary of Canadian Confederation in 1927, she gave a performance in Ottawa which was the first transcontinental radio broadcast in Canada. Although she toured Canada from time to time, and attended performances of Canadian music in New York, she held a negative opinion of Canada's treatment of native musicians, saying \"Canadians. .. would rather listen to foreigners than their own people.\"\n"}
{"text": " === Retirement from the stage ===\n"}
{"text": " Illness forced Gauthier to halt giving performances in the late 1920s, but she would return to the stage in 1931, giving a concert in Havana, Cuba. As time passed she began to engage more and more in teaching, and less and less in stage performing. Her income from teaching was substantially better than from touring. She retired from performing entirely in 1937, and opened a music studio in New York. There she became a founding member of the American Guild of Musical Artists, serving on its board of governors. She died on December 20, 1958.\n"}
{"text": " == Views of critics and audiences ==\n"}
{"text": " Gauthier was a controversial musician in her time. Her choice of music for performance was often condemned, and often praised. The appropriateness of jazz music for a classically trained singer, combined with the performances taking place in concert halls lead some critics to cheer her for promoting otherwise overlooked music, and others to condemn her for taking lowbrow music into a highbrow venue.\n"}
{"text": " A May 1, 1917 review by the New York Times praised her natural talent, with some reservations about the unpolished quality of her voice. Her ability to capture the spirit of the pieces was also praised: \"... her singing of songs by Frenchmen of today and the day before yesterday gave pleasure because of her understanding of them and the appropriate expression which she found for them.\"\n"}
{"text": " A November 12, 1923 Time review of her performance of historic Italian songs, as well as modern English, French, Austrian, German and American numbers focused on her choice to include selections of contemporary jazz music. The critic remarked \"Her voice was much too good for jazz.\" Here she was praised as a serious, scholarly artist whose performance was \"... neat and expressive.\" The audience received the concert very enthusiastically.\n"}
{"text": " Her performance in Fargo in 1923 resulted in a headline in the Fargo Forum the next day that was headed Eva Gauthier \u2019 s Program Sets Whole Town Buzzing: Many People Are of Two Minds Regarding Jazz Numbers \u2013 Some Reluctantly Admit That They Like Them \u2013 Others Keep Silent or Condemn Them. The review divides the audience and critics into various camps: those who openly enjoyed and applauded the performance; those who openly disliked and condemned it; those unsure how to react to a performance they liked but felt was inappropriate; and those who liked the performance but would not show approval for fear of looking foolish or uncultured.\n"}
{"text": " == Archival materials ==\n"}
{"text": " \u00c9va Gauthier papers, 1899-1960 Music Division, The New York Public Library.\n"}
{"text": " = Battle of Sullivan's Island =\n"}
{"text": " The Battle of Sullivan's Island or the Battle of Fort Sullivan was fought on June 28, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War. It took place near Charleston, South Carolina, during the first British attempt to capture the city from American rebels. It is also sometimes referred to as the First Siege of Charleston, owing to a more successful British siege in 1780.\n"}
{"text": " The British organized an expedition in early 1776 for operations in the rebellious southern colonies of North America. Delayed by logistical concerns and bad weather, the expedition reached the coast of North Carolina in May 1776. Finding conditions unsuitable for their operations, General Henry Clinton and Admiral Sir Peter Parker decided instead to act against Charleston. Arriving there in early June, troops were landed on Long Island, near Sullivan's Island where Colonel William Moultrie commanded a partially constructed fort, in preparation for a naval bombardment and land assault. General Charles Lee, commanding the southern Continental theater of the war, would provide supervision.\n"}
{"text": " The land assault was frustrated when the channel between the two islands was found to be too deep to wade, and the American defenses prevented an amphibious landing. The naval bombardment had little effect due to the sandy soil and the spongy nature of the fort's palmetto log construction. Careful fire by the defenders wrought significant damage on the British fleet, which withdrew after an entire day's bombardment. The British withdrew their expedition force to New York, and did not return to South Carolina until 1780.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, the city of Charleston in the colony of South Carolina was a center of commerce in southern North America. The city's citizens joined other colonists in opposing the British parliament's attempts to tax them, and militia recruitment increased when word arrived of the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord. Throughout 1775 and into 1776, militia recruits arrived in the city from the colony's backcountry, the city's manufacturers and tradesmen began producing war materiel, and defensive fortifications began to take shape around the city.\n"}
{"text": " === British operations ===\n"}
{"text": " British army forces in North America were primarily tied up with the Siege of Boston in 1775. Seeking bases of operations where they had more control, the British planned an expedition to the southern colonies. Major General Henry Clinton, then in Boston, was to travel to Cape Fear, North Carolina, where he would join with largely Scottish Loyalists raised in the North Carolina backcountry, and a force of 2,000 men from Ireland under the command of Major General Charles Cornwallis.\n"}
{"text": " The plan was beset by difficulties from the start. The Irish expedition, originally supposed to depart at the beginning of December 1775, was delayed by logistical difficulties, and its 2,500 troops did not depart until February 13, 1776, escorted by 11 warships under the command of Admiral Sir Peter Parker. Clinton left Boston on January 20 with two companies of light infantry, and first stopped at New York City to confer with William Tryon, New York's royal governor. Major General Charles Lee, sent by Major General George Washington to see to the defense of New York, coincidentally arrived there the same day as Clinton. New York was at that time extremely tense; Patriot forces were beginning to disarm and evict Loyalists, and the British fleet anchored there was having difficulty acquiring provisions. Despite this, Clinton made no secret that his final target was in the south. Lee observed that this was \"certainly a droll way of proceeding; to communicate his full plan to the enemy is too novel to be credited.\" This was not even the first notice of the expedition to the colonists; a letter intercepted in December had already provided intelligence that the British were planning to go to the South.\n"}
{"text": " Clinton arrived at Cape Fear on March 12, expecting to find the European convoy already there. He met with the royal governors of North and South Carolina, Josiah Martin and William Campbell, and learned that the recruited Scottish Loyalists had been defeated at Moore's Creek Bridge two weeks earlier. Clinton also received pleas for assistance from the royal governor of Georgia, James Wright, who had been arrested, and then escaped to a navy ship.\n"}
{"text": " Parker's fleet had an extremely difficult crossing. Battered by storms and high seas, the first ships of the fleet did not arrive at Cape Fear until April 18, and Cornwallis did not arrive until May 3. After several weeks there, in which the British troops raided Patriot properties, Clinton, Cornwallis and Parker concluded that Cape Fear was not a suitable base for further operations. Parker had sent out some ships on scouting expeditions up and down the coast, and reports on the partially finished condition of the Charleston defenses were sufficiently promising that the decision was made to go there.\n"}
{"text": " === American defenses ===\n"}
{"text": " John Rutledge, recently elected president of the General Assembly that remained as the backbone of South Carolina's revolutionary government, organized a defense force under the command of 46-year-old Colonel William Moultrie, a former militiaman and Indian fighter. These forces comprised three infantry regiments, two rifle regiments, and a small artillery regiment; they were augmented by three independent artillery companies, and the total force numbered about 2,000. These forces were further augmented by the arrival of Continental regiments from North Carolina and Virginia (1,900 troops), as well as militia numbering 2,700 from Charleston and the surrounding backcountry.\n"}
{"text": " Moultrie saw Sullivan's Island, a sandy spit of land at the entrance to Charleston Harbor extending north about 4 miles (6.4 km) long and a few hundred yards wide, as a place well suited to build a fort that could protect the entrance from intruding enemy warships. A large vessel sailing into Charleston first had to cross Charleston Bar, a series of submerged shoals lying about 8 miles (13 km) southeast of the city, and then pass by the southern end of Sullivan's Island as it entered the channel to the inner harbor. Later it would also have to pass the northern end of James Island, where Fort Johnson commanded the southeastern approach to the city. Moultrie and his 2nd South Carolina Regiment arrived on Sullivan's Island in March 1776, and began construction of a fortress to defend the island and the channel into Charleston Harbor. The construction moved slowly; Captain Peter Horry of the Patriot naval detachment described the site as \"an immense pen 500 feet long, and 16 feet wide, filled with sand to stop the shot\". The gun platforms were made of planks two inches thick and fastened with wooden spikes.\n"}
{"text": " Congress had appointed General Lee to command the Continental Army troops in the southern colonies, and his movements by land shadowed those of Clinton's fleet as it sailed south. Lee wrote from Wilmington on June 1 that the fleet had sailed, but that he did not know whether it was sailing for Virginia or South Carolina. He headed for Charleston, saying \"[I] confess I know not whether I shall go to or from the enemy.\" He arrived in Charleston shortly after the fleet anchored outside the harbor, and took command of the city's defenses. He immediately ran into a problem: the South Carolina troops (militia or the colonial regiments) were not on the Continental line, and thus not formally under his authority. Some South Carolina troops resisted his instructions, and Rutledge had to intervene by proclaiming Lee in command of all South Carolina forces.\n"}
{"text": " Square-shaped Fort Sullivan consisted only of the completed seaward wall, with walls made from palmetto logs 20 feet (6.1 m) high and 16 feet (4.9 m) wide. The walls were filled with sand, and rose 10 feet (3.0 m) above the wooden platforms on which the artillery were mounted. A hastily erected palisade of thick planks helped guard the powder magazine and unfinished northern walls. An assortment of 31 cannon, ranging from 9- and 12-pounders to a few British 18-pounders and French 26-pounders, dotted the front and rear walls. General Lee, when he had seen its unfinished state, had recommended abandoning the fort, calling it a \"slaughter pen\". President Rutledge refused, and specifically ordered Colonel Moultrie to \"obey [Lee] in everything, except in leaving Fort Sullivan\". Moultrie's delaying tactics so angered Lee that he decided on June 27 that he would replace Moultrie; the battle began the next day before he could do so. Lee did make plans for an orderly retreat to Haddrell's Point.\n"}
{"text": " === British arrival ===\n"}
{"text": " The British fleet weighed anchor at Cape Fear on May 31, and arrived outside Charleston Harbor the next day. Moultrie noticed a British scout boat apparently looking for possible landing points on nearby Long Island (now known as the Isle of Palms), just a few hundred yards from Sullivan's Island; troops were consequently sent to occupy the northern end of Sullivan's. By June 8, most of the British fleet had crossed the bar and anchored in Five Fathom Hole, an anchorage between the bar and the harbor entrance. With the fort on Sullivan's Island only half complete, Admiral Parker expressed confidence that his warships would easily breach its walls. Optimistically believing he would not even need Clinton's land forces, he wrote to Clinton that after the fort's guns were knocked out, he would \"land seamen and marines (which I have practiced for the purpose) under the guns\" and that they could \"keep possession till you send as many troops as you think proper\".\n"}
{"text": " The British fleet was composed of nine man-of-war ships: the flagship 50-gun Bristol, as well as the 50-gun Experiment and frigates Actaeon, Active, Solebay, Siren, Sphinx, Friendship and the bomb vessel Thunder, in total mounting nearly 300 cannon. The army forces in the expedition consisted of the 15th, 28th, 33rd, 37th, 54th, and 57th Regiments of Foot, and part of the 46th. On June 7, Clinton issued a proclamation calling on the rebel colonists to lay down their arms. However, the inexperienced defenders fired on the boat sent to deliver it (which was flying a truce flag), and it was not delivered until the next day. That same day, Clinton began landing 2,200 troops on Long Island. The intent was that these troops would wade across the channel (now known as Breach Inlet) between Long and Sullivan's, which the British believed to be sufficiently shallow to do so, while the fleet bombarded Fort Sullivan.\n"}
{"text": " General Lee responded to the British landing with several actions. He began reinforcing positions on the mainland in case the British were intending to launch an attack directly on Charleston. He also attempted to build a bridge of boats to provide an avenue of retreat for the fort's garrison, but this failed because there were not enough boats to bridge the roughly one mile (1.6 km) channel separating the island from Charleston; the unwillingness of Moultrie and Rutledge to support the effort may also have played a role. The Americans also constructed an entrenchment at the northern end of Sullivan's Island, which was manned by more than 750 men and three small cannons, and began to fortify a guard post at Haddrell's Point on the mainland opposite Fort Sullivan.\n"}
{"text": " General Clinton encountered the first major problem of the attack plan on June 17. An attempt to wade the channel between the two islands established that part of the channel was at least shoulder-deep, too deep for troops to cross even without the prospect of enemy opposition. He considered using boats to ferry the troops across, but the Americans, with timely advice from General Lee, adopted a strong defensive position that was virtually impossible to bombard from ships or the Long Island position. As a result, the British and American forces faced each other across the channel, engaging in occasional and largely inconsequential cannon fire at long range. Clinton reported that this meant that Admiral Parker would have \"the glory of being defeated alone.\" The attack was originally planned for June 24, but bad weather and contrary wind conditions prompted Parker to call it off for several days.\n"}
{"text": " == Battle ==\n"}
{"text": " On the morning of June 28, Fort Sullivan was defended by Colonel Moultrie, commanding the 2nd South Carolina Regiment and a company of the 4th South Carolina Artillery, numbering 435 men. At around 9: 00 am that morning, a British ship fired a signal gun indicating all was ready for the attack. Less than an hour later, nine warships had sailed into positions facing the fort. Thunder and Friendship anchored about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from the fort while Parker took Active, Bristol, Experiment and Solebay to a closer position about 400 yards (370 m) from Sullivan's Island, where they anchored facing broadside to the fort. Each of these ships began to fire upon the fort when it reached its position, and the defenders returned the fire. Although many of Thunder's shots landed in or near the fort, they had little effect; according to Moultrie, \"We had a morass in the middle, that swallowed them up instantly, and those that fell in the sand in and about the fort, were immediately buried\". Thunder's role in the action was also relatively short-lived; she had anchored too far away from the fort, and the overloading of her mortars with extra powder to increase their range eventually led to them breaking out of their mounts. Owing to shortage of gunpowder, Moultrie's men were deliberate in the pace of their gunfire, and only a few officers actually aimed the cannons. They also fired in small volleys, four cannon at a time. One British observer wrote, \"Their fire was surprisingly well served\" and it was \"slow, but decisive indeed; they were very cool and took care not to fire except their guns were exceedingly well directed.\"\n"}
{"text": " General Clinton began movements to cross over to the northern end of Sullivan's Island. Assisted by two sloops of war, the flotilla of longboats carrying his troops came under fire from Colonel William Thomson's defenses. Facing a withering barrage of grape shot and rifle fire, Clinton abandoned the attempt.\n"}
{"text": " Around noon the frigates Sphinx, Syren, and Actaeon were sent on a roundabout route, avoiding some shoals, to take a position from which they could enfilade the fort's main firing platform and also cover one of the main escape routes from the fort. However, all three ships grounded on an uncharted sandbar, and the riggings of Actaeon and Sphinx became entangled in the process. The British managed to refloat Sphinx and Syren, but Acteon remained grounded, having moved too far onto the submerged sandbar. Consequently, none of these ships reached its intended position, a piece of good fortune not lost on Colonel Moultrie: \"Had these three ships effected their purpose, they would have enfiladed us in such a manner, as to have driven us from our guns.\"\n"}
{"text": " At the fort, Moultrie ordered his men to concentrate their fire on the two large man-of-war ships, Bristol and Experiment, which took hit after hit from the fort's guns. Chain shot fired at Bristol eventually destroyed much of her rigging and severely damaged both the main- and mizzenmasts. One round hit her quarterdeck, slightly wounding Parker in the knee and thigh. The shot also tore off part of his britches, leaving his backside exposed. By mid-afternoon, the defenders were running out of gunpowder, and their fire was briefly suspended. However, Lee sent more ammunition and gunpowder over from the mainland, and the defenders resumed firing at the British ships; Lee even briefly visited the fort late in the day, telling Colonel Moultrie, \"I see you are doing very well here, you have no occasion for me, I will go up to the town again.\" Admiral Parker eventually sought to destroy the fort's walls with persistent broadside cannonades. This strategy failed due to the spongy nature of the palmetto wood used in its constructions; the structure would quiver, and it absorbed the cannonballs rather than splintering. The exchange continued until around 9: 00 pm, when darkness forced a cessation of hostilities, and the fleet finally withdrew out of range.\n"}
{"text": " At one point during the battle, the flag Moultrie had designed and raised over the fort was shot down. Sergeant William Jasper reportedly ran to the battlement and raised the flag again, holding it up and rallying the troops until a flag stand could be provided. He was credited by Moultrie with reviving the troops'spirits, and later given commendations for bravery. A painting of this event (pictured above) depicts Jasper's actions.\n"}
{"text": " Counting casualties, Parker reported 40 sailors killed and 71 wounded aboard Bristol, which was hit more than 70 times with much damage to the hull, yards, and rigging. Experiment was also badly damaged with 23 sailors killed and 56 wounded. Active and Solebay reported 15 casualties each. The Americans reported their casualties at only 12 killed and 25 wounded. The following morning, the British, unable to drag the grounded Acteon off the sandbar, set fire to the ship to prevent her from falling into enemy hands. Patriots in small boats sailed out to the burning ship, fired some of its cannons at the British ships, took what stores and loot they could, and retreated shortly before the ship's powder magazine exploded.\n"}
{"text": " == Aftermath ==\n"}
{"text": " The British did not attempt to take the fort again. Within days of the battle, Charlestonians learned of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. The British troops were reembarked on their transports, and on July 21 the British fleet withdrew northward to help the main British army in its campaign against New York City. To add insult to injury, one of the British transports grounded off Long Island and was captured by Patriot forces.\n"}
{"text": " The British did not return to Charleston until 1780, when General Clinton successfully besieged the city and captured an entire army. Until the South again became a focus of the war in late 1778, its states provided military supplies to the northern war effort and produced trade goods that brought in valuable hard currency to fund the war effort.\n"}
{"text": " Admiral Parker and General Clinton engaged in a war of words after the battle, each seeking to cast the blame on the other for the expedition's failures. Although Clinton was not blamed by the government, popular opinion held him responsible, and Parker was lauded for his personal bravery.\n"}
{"text": " == Legacy ==\n"}
{"text": " Fort Sullivan was renamed Fort Moultrie shortly after the battle to honor Colonel William Moultrie for his successful defense of the fort and the city of Charleston. Extensively modified in the years after the battle, it was supplanted by Fort Sumter as the principal defense of Charleston prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War. In 1876, to celebrate the centennial, companies from Savannah, Augusta, Macon, Columbia, New York and Boston were invited to Charleston. The site was turned over to the National Park Service in 1960, and is now part of Fort Sumter National Monument.\n"}
{"text": " A small monument to the Battle of Sullivan's Island has been placed at the northeastern tip of the island, overlooking the inlet where General Clinton's soldiers had hoped to cross. The monument includes historical markers describing the events surrounding the engagement.\n"}
{"text": " One iconic emblem of the battle was the flag designed by Colonel Moultrie. Commissioned by the colonial government, he designed a blue flag with a white crescent in the top left corner, which was flown at the fort during the battle. Despite being shot down during the siege, it was seen as a symbol of this successful defense (and famously raised during victory). It came to be known as the Moultrie flag or Liberty Flag. When Charleston (lost to the British in the 1780 siege) was reclaimed by American forces at the end of the war, the flag was returned to the city by General Nathanael Greene.\n"}
{"text": " = Hu Zhengyan =\n"}
{"text": " Hu Zhengyan (Chinese: \u80e1\u6b63\u8a00; c. 1584 \u2013 1674) was a Chinese artist, printmaker and publisher. He worked in calligraphy, traditional Chinese painting, and seal-carving, but was primarily a publisher, producing academic texts as well as records of his own work.\n"}
{"text": " Hu lived in Nanjing during the transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing dynasty. A Ming loyalist, he was offered a position at the rump court of the Hongguang Emperor, but declined the post, and never held anything more than minor political office. He did, however, design the Hongguang Emperor's personal seal, and his loyalty to the dynasty was such that he largely retired from society after the emperor's capture and death in 1645. He owned and operated an academic publishing house called the Ten Bamboo Studio, in which he practised various multi-colour printing and embossing techniques, and he employed several members of his family in this enterprise. Hu's work at the Ten Bamboo Studio pioneered new techniques in colour printmaking, leading to delicate gradations of colour which were not previously achievable in this art form.\n"}
{"text": " Hu is best known for his manual of painting entitled The Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Painting and Calligraphy, an artist's primer which remained in print for around 200 years. His studio also published seal catalogues, academic and medical texts, books on poetry, and decorative writing papers. Many of these were edited and prefaced by Hu and his brothers.\n"}
{"text": " == Biography ==\n"}
{"text": " Hu was born in Xiuning County, Anhui Province in 1584 or early 1585. Both his father and elder brother Zhengxin (\u6b63\u5fc3, art name Wusuo, \u7121\u6240) were physicians, and after he turned 30 he travelled with them while they practised medicine in the areas around Lu 'an and Huoshan. It is commonly stated that Zhengyan himself was also a doctor, though the earliest sources attesting to this occur only in the second half of the 19th century.\n"}
{"text": " By 1619, Hu had moved to Nanjing where he lived with his wife Wu. Their home on Jilongshan (\u96de\u7c60\u5c71, now also known as Beiji Ge), a hill located just within the northern city wall, served as a meeting-house for like-minded artists. Hu named it the Ten Bamboo Studio (Shizhuzhai, \u5341\u7af9\u9f4b), after the ten bamboo plants that grew in front of the property. It functioned as the headquarters for his printing business, where he employed ten artisans including his two brothers Zhengxin and Zhengxing (\u6b63\u884c, art name Zizhu, \u5b50\u8457) and his sons Qipu (\u5176\u6a38) and Qiyi (\u5176\u6bc5, courtesy name \u81f4\u679c).\n"}
{"text": " During Hu's lifetime, the Ming dynasty, which had ruled China for over 250 years, was overthrown and replaced by China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing. Following the fall of the capital Beijing in 1644, remnants of the imperial family and a few ministers set up a Ming loyalist regime in Nanjing with Zhu Yousong on the throne as the Hongguang Emperor. Hu, who was noted for his seal-carving and facility with seal script, created a seal for the new Emperor. The court offered him the position of Drafter for the Secretariat (zhongshu sheren, \u4e2d\u66f8\u820d\u4eba) as a reward, but he did not accept the role (although he did accord himself the title of zhongshu sheren in some of his subsequent personal seals).\n"}
{"text": " According to Wen Ruilin's Lost History of the South (Nanjiang Yishi, \u5357\u7586\u7e79\u53f2), prior to the Qing invasion of Nanjing Hu studied at the National University there, and whilst a student was employed by the Ministry of Rites to record official proclamations; he produced the Imperial Promotion of Minor Learning (Qin Ban Xiaoxue, \u5fa1\u9812\u5c0f\u5b78) and the Record of Displayed Loyalty (Biaozhong Ji, \u8868\u5fe0\u8a18) as part of this work. As a result, he was promoted to the Ministry of Personnel and gained admittance to the Hanlin Academy, but before he could take up this appointment, Beijing had fallen to the Manchu rebellion. Since contemporaneous biographies (Wen's work was not published until 1830) make no mention of these events, it has been suggested that they were fabricated after Hu's death.\n"}
{"text": " Hu retired from public life and went into seclusion in 1646, after the end of the Ming dynasty. Xiao Yuncong and L\u00fc Liuliang recorded visiting him during his later years, in 1667 and 1673 respectively. He died in poverty at the age of 90, sometime around late 1673 or early 1674.\n"}
{"text": " == Seal-carving ==\n"}
{"text": " Hu Zhengyan was a noted seal-carver, producing personal seals for numerous dignitaries. His style was rooted in the classical seal script of the Han dynasty, and he followed the Huizhou school of carving founded by his contemporary He Zhen. Hu's calligraphy, although balanced and with a clear compositional structure, is somewhat more angular and rigid than the classical models he followed. Huizhou seals attempt to impart an ancient, weathered impression, although unlike other Huizhou artists Hu did not make a regular practice of artificially aging his seals.\n"}
{"text": " Hu's work was known outside his local area. Zhou Lianggong, a poet who lived in Nanjing around the same time as Hu and was a noted art connoisseur, stated in his Biography of Seal-Carvers (Yinren Zhuan, \u5370\u4eba\u50b3) that Hu \"creates miniature stone carvings with ancient seal inscriptions for travellers to fight over and treasure\", implying that his carvings were popular with visitors and travellers passing through Nanjing.\n"}
{"text": " In 1644, Hu took it upon himself to create a new Imperial seal for the Hongguang Emperor, which he carved after a period of fasting and prayer. He presented his creation with an essay, the Great Exhortation of the Seal (Dabao Zhen, \u5927\u5bf6\u5370), in which he bemoaned the loss of the Chongzhen Emperor's seal and begged Heaven's favour in restoring it. Hu was concerned that his essay would be overlooked because he had not written it in the form of rhyming, equally-footed couplets (pianti, \u99e2\u9ad4) used in the Imperial examinations, but his submission and the seal itself were nevertheless both accepted by the Southern Ming court.\n"}
{"text": " == Ten Bamboo Studio ==\n"}
{"text": " Despite his reputation as an artist and seal-carver, Hu was primarily a publisher. His publishing house, the Ten Bamboo Studio, produced reference works on calligraphy, poetry and art; medical textbooks; books on etymology and phonetics; and copies of as well as commentaries on the Confucian Classics. Unlike other publishers in the area, the Ten Bamboo Studio did not publish works of narrative fiction such as plays or novels. This bias towards academia was likely a consequence of the studio's location: the mountain on which Hu took up residence was just to the north of the Nanjing Guozijian (National Academy), which provided a captive market for academic texts. Between 1627 and 1644, the Ten Bamboo Studio produced over twenty printed books of this kind, aimed at a wealthy, literary audience. The studio's earliest publications were medical textbooks, the first of which, Tested Prescriptions for Myriad Illnesses (Wanbing Yanfang, \u842c\u75c5\u9a57\u65b9) was published in 1631 and proved popular enough to be reissued ten years later. Hu's brother Zhengxin was a medical practitioner and appears to have been the author of these books.\n"}
{"text": " During the 1630s the Ten Bamboo Studio also produced political works extolling the rule of the Ming; these included the Imperial Ming Record of Loyalty (Huang Ming Biaozhong Ji, \u7687\u660e\u8868\u5fe0\u7d00), a biography of loyal Ming officials, and the Edicts of the Imperial Ming (Huang Ming Zhaozhi, \u7687\u660e\u8a54\u5236), a list of Imperial proclamations. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Hu renamed the studio the Hall Rooted in the Past (Digutang, \u8fea\u53e4\u5802) as a sign of his affiliation with the previous dynasty, although the Ten Bamboo imprint continued to be used. Despite Hu's withdrawal from society after 1646, the studio continued to publish well into the Qing dynasty, for the most part focussing on seal impression catalogues showcasing Hu's carving work.\n"}
{"text": " The Ming dynasty had seen considerable advancement in the process of colour printing in China. At his studio, Hu Zhengyan experimented with various forms of woodblock printing, creating processes for producing multi-coloured prints and embossed printed designs. As a result, he was able to produce some of China's first printed publications in colour, using a block printing technique known as \"assorted block printing\" (douban yinshua, \u997e\u677f\u5370\u5237). This system made use of multiple blocks, each carved with a different part of the final image and each bearing a different colour. It was a lengthy, painstaking process, requiring thirty to fifty engraved printing blocks and up to seventy inkings and impressions to create a single image. Hu also employed a related form of multiple-block printing called \"set-block printing\" (taoban yinshua, \u5957\u677f\u5370\u5237), which had existed since the Yuan period some 200 years earlier but had only recently come into fashion again. He refined these block printing techniques by developing a process for wiping some of the ink off the blocks before printing; this enabled him to achieve gradation and modulation of shades which were not previously possible.\n"}
{"text": " In some images, Hu employed a blind embossing technique (known as \"embossed designs\" ( gonghua, \u62f1\u82b1) or \"embossed blocks\" (gongban, \u62f1\u677f), using an uninked, imprinted block to stamp designs onto paper. He used this to create white relief effects for clouds and for highlights on water or plants. This was a relatively new process, having been invented by Hu's contemporary Wu Faxiang, who was also a Nanjing-based publisher. Wu had used this technique for the first time in his book Wisteria Studio Letter Paper (Luoxuan Biangu Jianpu, \u863f\u8ed2\u8b8a\u53e4\u7b8b\u8b5c), published in 1626. Both Hu and Wu used embossing to create decorative writing papers, the sale of which provided a sideline income for the Ten Bamboo Studio.\n"}
{"text": " == Major works ==\n"}
{"text": " Hu's most notable work is the Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Painting and Calligraphy (Shizhuzhai Shuhuapu, \u5341\u7af9\u9f4b\u66f8\u756b\u8b5c), an anthology of around 320 prints by around thirty different artists (including Hu himself), published in 1633. It consists of eight sections, covering calligraphy, bamboo, flowers, rocks, birds and animals, plums, orchids and fruit. Some of these sections had been released previously as single volumes. As well as a collection of artworks, it was also intended as an artistic primer, with instructions on correct brush position and technique and several pictures designed for beginners to copy. Although these instructions only appear in the sections on orchids and bamboo, the book still remains the first example of a categorical and analytical approach to Chinese painting. In this book, Hu used his multiple-block printing methods to obtain gradations of colour in the images, rather than obvious outlines or overlaps. The manual is bound in the \"butterfly binding\" (hudie zhuang, \u8774\u8776\u88dd) style, whereby whole-folio illustrations are folded so that each occupies a double-page spread. This binding style allows the reader to lay the book flat in order to look at a particular image. Cambridge University Library released a complete digital scan of the manual, including all writings and illustrations in August, 2015. Said Charles Aylmer, Head of the Cambridge University Chinese Department, \"The binding is so fragile, and the manual so delicate, that until it was digitized, we have never been able to let anyone look through it or study it \u2013 despite its undoubted importance to scholars.\"\n"}
{"text": " This volume went on to influence colour printing across China, where it paved the way for the later but better-known Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden (Jieziyuan Huazhuan \u82a5\u5b50\u5712\u756b\u50b3), and also in Japan, where it was reprinted and foreshadowed the development in ukiyo-e of the colour woodblock printing process known as nishiki-e \u9326\u7d75. The popularity of the Ten Bamboo Studio Manual was such that print runs continued to be produced all the way through to the late Qing dynasty.\n"}
{"text": " Hu also produced the work Ten Bamboo Studio Letter Paper (Shizhuzhai Jianpu, \u5341\u7af9\u9f4b\u7b8b\u8b5c), a collection of paper samples, which made use of the gonghua stamped embossing technique to make the illustrations stand out in relief. Whilst primarily a catalogue of decorative writing papers, it also contained paintings of rocks, people, ritual vessels and other subjects. The book was bound in the \"wrapped back\" (baobei zhuang, \u5305\u80cc\u88dd) style, in which the folio pages are folded, stacked, and sewn along the open edges. Originally published in 1644, it was reissued in four volumes between 1934 and 1941 by Zheng Zhenduo and Lu Xun, and revised and republished again in 1952.\n"}
{"text": " === Other publications ===\n"}
{"text": " Other works produced by Hu's studio included a reprint of Zhou Boqi's manual of seal-script calligraphy, The Six Styles of Calligraphy, Correct and Erroneous (Liushu Zheng 'e, \u516d\u66f8\u6b63\u8b4c) and the related Necessary Investigations into Calligraphy (Shufa Bi Ji, \u66f8\u6cd5\u5fc5\u7a3d), which discussed common errors in the formation of characters. With his brother Zhengxin, Hu edited a new introductory edition of the Confucian classics, entitled The Standardised Text of the Four Books, Identified and Corrected (Sishu Dingben Bianzheng, \u56db\u66f8\u5b9a\u672c\u8fa8\u6b63) (1640), giving the correct formation and pronunciation of the text. A similar approach was taken with the Essentials of the Thousand Character Classic in Six Scripts (Qianwen Liushu Tongyao, \u5343\u6587\u516d\u66f8\u7d71\u8981) (1663), which Hu compiled with the aid of his calligraphy teacher, Li Deng. It was published after Li's death, partly in homage to him.\n"}
{"text": " The three Hu brothers worked together to collate a student primer on poetry by their contemporary Ye Tingxiu, which was called simply the Discussion of Poetry (Shi Tan, \u8a69\u8b5a) (1635). Other works on poetry from the studio included Helpful Principles to the Subtle Workings of Selected Tang Poems (Leixuan Tang Shi Zhudao Weiji, \u985e\u9078\u5510\u8a69\u52a9\u9053\u5fae\u6a5f), which was a compilation of several works on poetry and included colophons by Hu Zhengyan himself.\n"}
{"text": " Among the studio's more obscure publications was a text on Chinese dominoes entitled Paitong Fuyu (\u724c\u7d71\u6d6e\u7389), written under a pseudonym but with a preface by Hu Zhengyan.\n"}
{"text": " == Gallery ==\n"}
{"text": " Images from the '' Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Painting and Calligraphy ''\n"}
{"text": " = Raid on Manila (1798) =\n"}
{"text": " The Raid on Manila of January 1798 was a Royal Navy false flag military operation during the French Revolutionary Wars intended to scout the strength of the defences of Manila, capital of the Spanish Philippines, capture a Manila galleon and assess the condition of the Spanish Navy squadron maintained in the port. Spain had transformed from an ally of Great Britain in the War of the First Coalition into an enemy in 1796. Thus the presence of a powerful Spanish squadron at Manila posed a threat to the China Fleet, an annual convoy of East Indiaman merchant ships from Macau in Qing Dynasty China to Britain, which was of vital economic importance to Britain. So severe was this threat that a major invasion of the Spanish Philippines had been planned from British India during 1797, but had been called off following the Treaty of Campo Formio in Europe and the possibility of a major war in India between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore.\n"}
{"text": " To ensure the safety of the merchant ships gathering at Macau in the winter of 1797 \u2013 98, the British commander in the East Indies, Rear-Admiral Peter Rainier, sent a convoy to China escorted by the frigates HMS Sybille and HMS Fox and commanded by Captain Edward Cooke. After completing his mission Cooke decided to investigate the state of readiness of Spanish forces in Manila himself. He was also intrigued by reports that a ship carrying treasure was due to sail from Manila, which would make a valuable prize. Sailing in Sybille and accompanied by Captain Pulteney Malcolm in Fox, Cooke reached the Spanish capital on 13 January 1798.\n"}
{"text": " Anchored in Manila Bay, Cooke pretended that his ships were French vessels and successfully lured successive boatloads of Spanish officials aboard, taking them prisoner in turn. Once he had determined from his captives the state of defences in Manila, that the treasure ship had been unloaded at Cavite and that the Spanish squadron was undergoing extensive repairs and thus unavailable for operations, he sent a raiding party against a squadron of gunboats in the mouth of the Pasig River. Capturing the gunboats in a bloodless attack, Cooke then released his prisoners and sailed southwards, unsuccessfully assaulting Zamboanga before returning to Macau.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " In 1796, after three years of the French Revolutionary Wars, Spain and the French Republic signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso. The secret terms of this treaty required Spain to renounce its alliance with Great Britain and subsequently to declare war on its former ally. In the East Indies this shift of political allegiance meant that the dominant British forces in the region were faced with the threat of attack from the Spanish Philippines to the east. Britain dominated the East Indies in 1796, controlling the trade routes through the Indian Ocean from the ports of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Dutch Ceylon, the Dutch Cape Colony and parts of the Dutch East Indies had been captured in 1795, and the French presence in the region had been confined to \u00cele de France and a few subsidiary islands in the Western Indian Ocean.\n"}
{"text": " Some of the most important trade routes began at Canton and Macau in Qing Dynasty China. Early in each year a large convoy known as the \"China Fleet\", composed of large East Indiaman merchant ships in the employ of the British East India Company, sailed westwards to Europe from Macau laden with tea and other commercial cargo. This convoy was economically significant to Britain: one convoy in 1804 was valued at over \u00a3 8 million (the equivalent of \u00a3 600,000,000 as of 2016). In January 1797 the convoy had been attacked by the French squadron in the East Indies, comprising six frigates commanded by Contre-amiral Pierre C\u00e9sar Charles de Sercey. In the ensuing Bali Strait Incident the commander deceived Sercey into believing that the unescorted convoy contained disguised ships of the line and the French admiral retreated, only learning of his error on his return to \u00cele de France. There was considerable concern in India that Sercey might try again in 1798, or that the Spanish, who maintained a powerful squadron at Cavite, might make an attempt of their own.\n"}
{"text": " Rainier's initial impulse on learning in November 1796 of the impending declaration of war between Britain and Spain was to draw up plans for a major invasion of the Philippines, centred on Manila in repetition of the successful British capture of Manila in 1762. Co-operating with the Governor-General of India Sir John Shore and Colonel Arthur Welleley among others, a substantial naval and military forces were earmarked for the operation which was in the advance planning stages, when unexpected news arrived in India in August 1797 announcing the Treaty of Campo Formio which brought the War of the First Coalition to an end. Britain now faced France and Spain alone, while emissaries from the Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore, an old opponent of Britain in Southern India, were seeking French assistance with a renewed outbreak of hostilities. The resources planned for the operation against Manila were therefore retained in India and the operation cancelled, but the protection of the China Fleet was still essential and Rainier diverted some of his squadron eastwards to China.\n"}
{"text": " A number of merchant ships had gathered at Bombay in the spring of 1797 in preparation for the trip to Macau to load trade goods and join the China Fleet. To escort this force, Rainier provided the 40-gun frigate HMS Sybille, captured from the French at the Battle of Mykonos in 1794, and the 50-gun HMS Centurion, which sailed with the convoy in July, taking passage through the Straits of Malacca, joined there by the ships of the line HMS Victorious and HMS Trident and the 32-gun frigate HMS Fox under Captain Pulteney Malcolm for the final voyage to Macau. The convoy arrived without incident on 13 December 1797, although the crews had been substantially weakened by tropical illnesses.\n"}
{"text": " == Cooke's raids ==\n"}
{"text": " === Reconnaissance of Manilla ===\n"}
{"text": " With his convoy safely at anchor in Macau and the China Fleet several weeks from sailing, Cooke decided to reconnoitre Manila and make observations on the port and the Spanish squadron based there. As an added motivation, rumours in Macau suggested that the annual Manila galleon was due to arrive. This ship brought up to two million Spanish silver dollars from Acapulco across the Pacific Ocean stopping at Guam on its way to Manila. Depositing its dollars in the Philippines, the ship then loaded trade goods from the East Indies for the return journey to New Spain. This round trip was essential to the maintenance of the Spanish Empire in the East Indies, which operated at an enormous financial loss only mitigated by the substantial subsidy from New Spain. Spanish dollars were the accepted currency across most of the East Indies, and disruption of this financial system could have profound effects on regional trade; but British sailors had nevertheless been attacking the Manila galleons since Thomas Cavendish in 1587.\n"}
{"text": " Leaving the heavier warships at Macau, Cooke sailed on 5 January 1798 only with Sybille and Fox, the latter carrying a Mr. Bernard, an experienced linguist. Passing Luzon, Cooke's ships encountered a small Spanish merchant vessel, which was lured towards the frigates, which were flying French tricolors. Seizing the Spanish vessel, Cooke closely questioned the captain and learned that most of the Spanish squadron in Manila were undergoing extensive repairs at Cavite and were unfit to sail. Cooke rewarded the captain by releasing his vessel with its cargo intact, although he did remove 3,900 silver dollars. The Spanish squadron had suffered badly in a typhoon in April 1797 and much of the damage had still not been repaired by the time Cooke's small squadron arrived off Manila. Cooke had taken precautions to disguise his ships as French vessels, modelling Sybille on the powerful 40-gun Forte and Fox on the smaller Prudente.\n"}
{"text": " === Dinner on Sybille ===\n"}
{"text": " Late in the afternoon of 13 January 1798, Sybille and Fox arrived in Manila Bay, slipping unchallenged past the fortress of Corregidor and then sailing across the bay on the morning of 14 January, anchoring between Manila and Cavite. From his vantage point Cooke could see the Spanish squadron dismasted and under repair in Cavite, the ships of the line San Pedro, Europa and Monta\u00f1\u00e9s and the frigates Maria de la Cabeya and Luisa in dock and unfit for action. To Cooke's disappointment he could also see the Manila galleon, Marquesetta being unloaded at the Cavite docks and another valuable merchant ship Rey Carlos aground in the harbour. The Spanish had learned only shortly before Cooke's arrival that the British frigate HMS Resistance under Captain Edward Pakenham was in Philippine waters and had decided to remove the valuable cargo from the treasure ship rather than risk an attack.\n"}
{"text": " Fox was the first British ship into the anchorage, and was consequently approached by the guardboat, whose crew came aboard. Malcolm, like Cooke, spoke French fluently and with Bernard translating was able to persuade the officer in charge that the new arrivals were Forte and Prudente seeking supplies and Spanish reinforcements for commerce raiding operations. The officer offered supplies but cautioned that none of the Spanish ships would be in a position to sail until March at the earliest. Cooke then joined the party on the deck of Fox, claiming to be Commodore Latour, a French officer who, unknown to the Spanish, had been killed in the Action of 9 September 1796 off Sumatra. The Spanish officer was now completely convinced by the ruse, which had been augmented by fake French uniforms. Inviting the visitor below decks, Cooke then passed wine around and together they drank a series of toasts, including \"the downfall of England\".\n"}
{"text": " For an hour the officers drank, Malcolm and Cooke learning detailed information about the state of the defences and squadron in the Philippines, until a second boat pulled alongside Fox containing more officers keen to greet the French arrivals. This vessel was the personal barge of the Spanish commander at Cavite, Rear-Admiral Don Ignacio Mar\u00eda de \u00c1lava, who was not aboard, but who sent a message via an aide in a third boat. Each time, the officers were escorted below to join the festivities whereupon their crews were seized at gunpoint and taken below decks as prisoners of war. In Malcolm's cabin, the captured officers were informed of their situation, promised release before the British frigates sailed, and offered more wine. The crew of Fox meanwhile forced the captured Spanish sailors to strip and donned their clothing. Climbing into the Spanish boats this party rowed for the mouth of the nearby Pasig River, where they had learned that three heavy gunboats were moored. Taking the crews by surprise, the British boarding parties drove off the Spanish without a fight and brought all three boats alongside Fox. These vessels normally carried crews of thirty and were well-armed, one with a 32-pounder long gun and two with 24-pounder long guns, each supplemented by four swivel guns.\n"}
{"text": " The harbour captain reached Fox shortly afterwards, furious at the seizure of the gunboats and demanding they be returned. Malcolm received him with a tirade of near incomprehensible French and brought him to join the other captured officers in his cabin, while the boat's crew were imprisoned below decks. Shortly afterwards, at 16: 00, Cooke and Malcolm hosted a large dinner for their officer captives and sent food and grog to the crew, the total number of Spanish sailors on Fox now numbering approximately 200. Once the meal was finished, Cooke allowed all of the captives to return to their boats and row for shore without the conditions of parole, although he retained the captured gunboats.\n"}
{"text": " === Zamboanga ===\n"}
{"text": " Cooke led his small squadron past Corregidor on 15 January and turned south. Four days later in a storm one of the gunboats broke its tow line and was never seen again, lost with its twelve crew. The frigates subsequently scouted Mindanao before reaching Zamboanga on 22 January. There Cooke raised Spanish colours in an attempt to deceive the authorities into supplying food and water to his squadron but Sybille grounded on a sandbank at the entrance to the port which raised the suspicions of a guardboat sent by the governor of Zamboanga, Raymundo Espa\u00f1ol. The captain of the Spanish boat asked the British ships the names of their captains, and on receiving no answer but a volley of rifle fire, he put the town on alert. With the defenders forewarned, Cooke abandoned his ruse and after refloating Sybille the following morning, ordered a bombardment of the fort protecting the harbour. This had little effect, though later the Spanish recovered at least 450 cannonballs from different calibers, and Malcolm then attempted an amphibious landing in order to storm the landward side of the fort. The boats came under heavy fire, one smashed by a cannonball, killing two and wounding four. Another boat grounded on a sandbar and became stuck; so with his force in disarray, as 250 villagers armed with lances ambushed and drove the British from the beach, Malcolm called off the operation. After exchanging shot for an hour both frigates cut their anchor cables and retreated out of range, with two dead and one wounded on Sybille and eight wounded on Fox, in addition to those lost in the boats. The defenders lost a single man killed and 4 wounded.\n"}
{"text": " With his frigates now requiring repairs, Cooke withdraw half a league from Zamboanga and spent three days refitting the masts and rigging of the ships. Then he sailed north, scuttling the two remaining gunboats as he did not believe they would survive the return journey to Canton. Four days later, on 27 January the squadron halted at a village named \"Pullock\" in the north of the Sultanate of Maguindanao to collect fresh water. On the beach a boat party from Sybille was set upon by Lumad tribesmen. Two were killed and nine others taken captive and dragged into the forest before rescuers could arrive. Cooke complained to Sultan Kibab Sahriyal at Kuta Wato and the captured sailors were eventually recovered, although not before Sybille and Fox had sailed for China to escort the merchant convoy back to India.\n"}
{"text": " == Aftermath ==\n"}
{"text": " Cooke's opportunistic diversion had determined that the Spanish forces in the Philippines posed no immediate threat, although the mission had cost 18 lives: Admiral Rainier later expressed his satisfaction with the outcome in a letter to the Admiralty. More might have been achieved with reinforcements: Historian C. Northcote Parkinson suggests that had Cooke's squadron united with Resistance together they may have been able to destroy the disarmed Spanish warships at Cavite. He also notes however that in this scenario Pakenham would have been commanding officer, a man with considerably less imagination and guile than Cooke. Historian Richard Woodman was critical of the mission, considering the operation to have \"no glorious outcome\" and citing the failure to capture the treasure ships as its greatest short-coming.\n"}
{"text": " The 1798 China Fleet sailed without further incident. During the ensuing year Resistance was destroyed by an accidental explosion in July in the Bangka Strait, and the majority of Rainier's forces were focused on disrupting the French occupation of Suez in the Red Sea. This diversion of British resources created gaps in the coverage in merchant shipping and Sercey was able to send the frigate Preneuse and corvette Br\u00fble-Gueule to Manila late in the year to join the repaired Spanish squadron. At the beginning of February 1799, this combined force sailed to Macau, taking the British defences by surprise. The British commander Captain William Hargood counterattacked, advancing on the Franco-Spanish force which retreated during the day and disappeared under cover of darkness that evening in the Wanshan Archipelago. The combined squadron then dispersed and the China Fleet was not attacked again until the Battle of Pulo Aura in 1804, at which a French squadron was again driven off in confusion. The frigates Cooke had mimicked, Forte and Prudente were sent to operate independently against British trade in the Indian Ocean in early 1799. Prudente was captured by HMS Daedalus at the Action of 9 February 1799 near Southern Africa, and Forte was intercepted by HMS Sybille under Cooke on 28 February near Balasore in Bengal. In the ensuing battle Forte was captured but Cooke mortally wounded, dying on 25 May.\n"}
{"text": " = B of the Bang =\n"}
{"text": " B of the Bang was a sculpture by Thomas Heatherwick next to the City of Manchester Stadium in Manchester, England, which was commissioned to mark the 2002 Commonwealth Games; it was one of the tallest structures in Manchester and the tallest sculpture in the UK until the completion of Aspire in 2008. It was taller and leaned at a greater angle than the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The sculpture took its name from a quotation of British sprinter Linford Christie, in which he said that he started his races not merely at the \"bang\" of the starting pistol, but at \"the B of the Bang\".\n"}
{"text": " The sculpture was commissioned in 2003; construction overran and the official unveiling was delayed until 12 January 2005. Six days before the launch, the sculpture suffered the first of three visible structural problems as the tip of one of the spikes detached and fell to the ground. Legal action started a year later, resulting in an out-of-court settlement totalling \u00a3 1.7 million.\n"}
{"text": " In February 2009, Manchester City Council announced that the sculpture would be dismantled and placed in storage. Despite the promise of storage and potential reassembly, the core and legs of the sculpture were cut apart during removal. The core was sold for scrap in July 2012, while the 180 spikes remain in storage.\n"}
{"text": " == Design and statistics ==\n"}
{"text": " B of the Bang originally stood 56 metres (184 ft) tall with 180 hollow tapered steel columns or spikes radiating from a central core. It was angled at 30 degrees and supported by five 25 m (82 ft) long, tapered steel legs which connected to the spikes 22 m (72 ft) above the ground. The sculpture weighed 165 tonnes, with the concrete in the foundations weighing over 1,000 tonnes, including a 400 m2 (4,300 sq ft) reinforced concrete slab. The foundations are 20 m (66 ft) deep.\n"}
{"text": " The sculpture was made from the same weathering steel (also known as Cor-Ten) as the Angel of the North sculpture, which gradually develops a tightly adhering oxide layer as it is exposed to the elements. This layer inhibits further corrosion by reducing its permeability to water. As part of the design, the spikes swayed slightly in the wind in order to withstand gusts in excess of 100 mph (160 km / h). At the time of construction a time capsule was placed in one of the spikes of the sculpture, containing children's poems and paintings, due to be opened circa 2300. The location of the time capsule after dismantling is currently unknown.\n"}
{"text": " B of the Bang was located next to the City of Manchester Stadium at Sportcity, in Beswick, at the corner of Alan Turing Way and Ashton New Road;. It took its name from a quotation of British sprinter Linford Christie in which he said that he started his races not merely at the 'bang' of the starting pistol, but at 'The B of the Bang'. The artwork had been nicknamed KerPlunk by the locals after the popular children's game from the 1970s.\n"}
{"text": " Prior to the construction of Aspire at the University of Nottingham, B of the Bang was Britain's tallest sculpture at well over twice the height of the Angel of the North, which stands at 66 feet (20 m). It was designed to look like an exploding firework and was taller and leaned at a greater angle than the Leaning Tower of Pisa. It was commissioned by New East Manchester Limited to commemorate the 2002 Commonwealth Games. The design was selected by a panel consisting of both local residents and art experts via a competition in 2002 and was designed by Thomas Heatherwick.\n"}
{"text": " == Construction and funding ==\n"}
{"text": " The sculpture was constructed in Sheffield by Thomas Heatherwick Studio, Packman Lucas, Flint and Neill and Westbury Structures. It was approved at the start of 2003, with the central core arriving in Manchester on 13 June 2004. This was the largest load that could be transferred via road from the factory, and required a police escort. This central core was lifted into place in August 2004, after which the 180 spikes could begin being attached. Early estimates had given an optimistic completion date of July 2003, which contributed to the sculpture gaining the nickname G of the Bang.\n"}
{"text": " The official unveiling by Linford Christie took place on 12 January 2005.\n"}
{"text": " In total the sculpture cost \u00a3 1.42 million to design and construct \u2014 twice the original estimate, as the initial costing had neglected to include installation costs. Funding was sourced from a European Regional Development Fund contribution of \u00a3 700,000, the North West Development Agency, contributing \u00a3 500,000, and Manchester City Council providing \u00a3 120,000.\n"}
{"text": " == Structural problems and legal action ==\n"}
{"text": " The tip of one of the 2.1 m (6.9 ft) spikes detached and fell from the sculpture on 6 January 2005, only six days before the official unveiling. After inspection, the event went ahead as planned.\n"}
{"text": " Four months later, in May 2005, a second spike had to be cut off by firefighters after it was discovered hanging loose. At that time the sculpture was closed off to the public, and the junction and pathway near the sculpture were temporarily closed. As a result, some of the joints were re-welded, with equipment put in place to prevent excessive movement. This consisted of retrofitting tip weights to 70 % of the spikes' weights.\n"}
{"text": " Despite these modifications, B of the Bang remained fenced off, prompting a local newspaper campaign to 'Get It Sorted'. In May 2006 a total of nine spikes were removed from the sculpture and taken away for metallurgical analysis, to discover the stresses being placed on the steel.\n"}
{"text": " It was announced in October 2007 that Manchester City Council were taking legal action against the makers of the sculpture, with the aim of completing the necessary repairs to the sculpture. In November 2008 this culminated in an out-of-court settlement being reached between Manchester City Council, the project's designers Thomas Heatherwick Studio Ltd, and the engineering and construction subcontractors Packman Lucas Ltd, Flint and Neill Partnership and Westbury Structures Ltd. The agreement was to pay the council \u00a3 1.7m in damages for breach of contract and negligence.\n"}
{"text": " == Dismantling ==\n"}
{"text": " Acting on a report in January 2009, the city council recommended that B of the Bang should be dismantled and placed in storage until funds could be raised for its safe reinstatement. The report recognised the sculpture's aesthetic value for Manchester and Manchester City Council committed itself to working with the artist to reach a long-term solution. One possibility involved the replacement of the steel spikes with alternatives made from carbon fibre, although the report underlined the necessity for extensive testing.\n"}
{"text": " In January 2009, Antony Gormley, creator of the Angel of the North \u2014 to which B of the Bang is often compared \u2014 spoke out in support of the sculpture, stating that, \"It is a great tribute to Manchester that this ground-breaking work was commissioned. To allow it to disappear would be a loss not just of an inspirational artwork but also of the council's nerve.\"\n"}
{"text": " Despite Gormley's plea, removal of B of the Bang began in April 2009. More substantial hoarding was erected around the site and demolition firm Connell Brothers Limited began removing the spikes with oxyacetylene cutting equipment.\n"}
{"text": " Although the council had promised to store the complex central core and legs, these too were cut apart during removal, casting doubt on future prospects for the landmark sculpture's return, and in early July 2012 the core was sold as scrap for \u00a3 17,000.\n"}
{"text": " = Battle of the Hongorai River =\n"}
{"text": " The Battle of the Hongorai River took place during the Second World War and involved Australian, New Zealand and Japanese forces. Part of the wider Bougainville Campaign of the Pacific theatre, the battle was fought in the southern sector of Bougainville Island. Coming after the Battle of Slater's Knoll in which a strong Japanese counterattack was defeated, the battle occurred in two distinct periods between 17 April and 22 May 1945, as elements of the Australian 15th Brigade advanced south along the Buin Road.\n"}
{"text": " The initial phase saw the Australians advance towards the Hongorai River. Following the end of the early fighting, the Australian advance towards the main Japanese concentration at Buin continued as they struck out towards the Hari and Mivo Rivers. This continued until torrential rain and flooding brought the advance to a halt short of the objective, washing away many bridges and roads upon which the Australians relied for supplies. As the Australian advance stalled, the Japanese began harassing the Australian line of communications, and as the rain stopped and the flooding subsided in late-July and into August, the Australians began making preparations to resume the advance towards Buin again. Ultimately, though, the war came to an end before the final Australian advance began, bringing the campaign to an end.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " === Strategic situation ===\n"}
{"text": " Japanese forces had landed on Bougainville in early 1942, capturing it from the small force of Australians garrisoning the island. They had subsequently developed several airbases on the island, using it to conduct operations in the northern Solomon Islands and to attack the Allied lines of communication between the United States, Australia and the Southwest Pacific Area. These bases also helped protect Rabaul, the major Japanese garrison and naval base in Papua New Guinea, and throughout 1943, Allied planners determined that Bougainville was vital for neutralising the Japanese base around Rabaul.\n"}
{"text": " US Marines conducted an amphibious landing at Cape Torokina, on the western coast of the island, north of Empress Augusta Bay, in November 1943. After an initial counter-attack, the US Marines had been replaced by a garrison of US Army troops who began consolidating their position around Torokina, establishing a strong perimeter. In March 1944, the Japanese launched a heavy counter-attack, which was turned back with heavy casualties. After this, the situation on Bougainville became largely static, as the Japanese focused primarily on subsistence, and the US forces chose to adopt a mainly defensive posture focused on maintaining the perimeter around Torokina.\n"}
{"text": " In late 1944, as part of plans to free US troops up for the Philippines campaign, the Australian II Corps \u2014 consisting of mainly Militia troops under the command of Lieutenant General Stanley Savige \u2014 took over responsibility for Allied operations on Bougainville from the American XIV Corps. Australian forces began arriving on the island between November and December 1944, initially establishing themselves around the US base at Torokina. Due to inaccurate intelligence, Savige mistakenly believed that the Japanese forces on the island numbered just 17,500 men, and he consequently decided that the Australians would pursue an aggressive campaign to clear the Japanese from Bougainville in order to free their troops for subsequent operations elsewhere, rather than maintaining the defensive posture the US forces had adopted. However, Allied estimates of Japanese strength were later found to be grossly inaccurate and after the war it was found that the number of Japanese on the island at this time was closer to 40,000.\n"}
{"text": " The campaign that Australian planners developed entailed three separate drives: in the north, it was planned that Japanese forces would be forced into the narrow Bonis Peninsula and contained; in the centre the seizure of Pearl Ridge would give the Australians control of the east \u2013 west avenues of approach, as well as affording them protection against further counter-attacks, while also opening the way for a drive to the east coast; and the main campaign in the south, where the bulk of the Japanese forces were concentrated around Buin.\n"}
{"text": " === Preliminary moves ===\n"}
{"text": " Following the capture of Pearl Ridge in December 1944, the Australian 7th Brigade had been moved south and allocated to the drive towards Buin. In late March and early April 1945, they had fought the Battle of Slater's Knoll after which a brief lull followed as the Australians paused to shorten their supply lines. Meanwhile, the survivors of the Japanese force, heavily demoralised by their defeat, withdrew towards the Hongorai River. The Australian 3rd Division was then ordered to resume its advance south, being tasked with capturing the Hari River, while the Hongorai was also included as an \"intermediate objective\". Japanese strength in the southern sector was estimated by the Australians at about 10,500 men, of which 2,300 were believed to be directly opposing the 3rd Division. The 15th Brigade was considered to be the most experienced of the Australian units on Bougainville at the time and was moved up to relieve the 7th Brigade, which was in need of rest.\n"}
{"text": " Under the command of Brigadier Heathcote Hammer the 15th Brigade consisted of three infantry battalions as well as two troops of tanks from the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment, engineers from the 15th Field Company, a battery of 155-mm guns from 'U' Heavy Battery, field artillery from the 2nd Field Regiment, and a number of smaller support units. The 58th / 59th Infantry Battalion took over responsibility for Slater's Knoll replacing the 25th Infantry Battalion while the 24th Infantry Battalion took up a position across the Buin Road. The brigade's third battalion \u2014 the 57th / 60th Infantry Battalion \u2014 did not join them until the beginning of May, and so the 7th Brigade's 9th Infantry Battalion continued patrolling operations north of the Huio River, in the Rumiki area, until the 57th / 60th could dispatch elements to relieve them. Further inland, the 2 / 8th Commando Squadron advanced in a wide arc to the south-east, defending the brigade's left, or eastern, flank.\n"}
{"text": " The Japanese forces opposing the Australians belonged to the 6th Division, under the command of Lieutenant General Tsutomu Akinaga. Akinaga had been ordered to delay the Australian advance between the Hongorai and the Hari for as long as possible, and with these orders in mind he had installed a number of strong points along the Australian's expected line of advance. The division's infantry had suffered heavily in the previous battle around Slater's Knoll and as a consequence, several units had to be reorganized or amalgamated. The front line positions were assigned to the 6th Field Artillery Regiment, while the 13th Infantry Regiment was to hold five strongpoints to their rear along and astride the Buin Road, designated' A 'through to' E '. The 6th Field and 4th Field Heavy Artillery Regiments both held strongpoints further back, designated' F 'and' G '. The 23rd Infantry Regiment was placed in the rear, where it was being reconstituted following losses suffered during the attack on Slater's Knoll.\n"}
{"text": " == Battle ==\n"}
{"text": " === Advance to the Hongorai ===\n"}
{"text": " The 15th Brigade took over the forward positions from the 7th Brigade on 17 April. Initial dispositions had the 24th Infantry Battalion on the Buin Road around Kero Creek, with the 58th / 59th around Barara, north-east of Slater's Knoll, and the 57th / 60th, when it arrived to relieve the 9th, would be positioned further east astride a secondary, parallel track known to the Australians as the Commando Road. Two days later, Hammer received the order to commence the advance towards the Hongorai from Savige, who offered him the support of the 29th Brigade as a mobile reserve in case of sudden counter-attack. In a change to the tactics that the Australians had previously employed prior to the fighting around Slater's Knoll, from early May they advanced on a two-battalion front, instead of one. The 24th Infantry Battalion was in the van, moving along the Buin Road with the 58th / 59th protecting its flank and rear; while 5,000 yd (4,600 m) further inland the 57th / 60th Infantry Battalion, commencing on 3 May, advanced along the Commando Road from Rumiki, after taking over from the 9th Infantry Battalion.\n"}
{"text": " Moving forward under a creeping barrage as they moved beyond Tokinotu, the 24th Infantry Battalion was the first to contact the Japanese, carrying out an attack against Japanese positions around Dawe's Creek on 17 April. Supported by a troop of Matilda tanks from the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment, an artillery barrage which fired over 700 shells, two infantry companies \u2014' C 'and' D '\u2014 from the 24th attacked the position while another \u2014' A 'Company \u2014 carried out a flanking manoeuvre to cut another track further north towards Kindara and Hatai. The left forward company \u2014' D 'Company \u2014 reached its objective without trouble; however,' C 'Company \u2014 on the right along with the troop of tanks \u2014 came up against stiff Japanese resistance and became bogged down.' A 'Company also became embroiled in heavy fighting along the Hatai track. In support of' A 'Company, Matilidas came forward and raked the jungle, hacking through the undergrowth to reveal several Japanese pillboxes, which were destroyed by the Australian armour. As night fell,' C ' Company dug in before resuming the attack the next morning. Engineers were brought forward, as was a bulldozer, and the gap was bridged. Amidst heavy fighting, the Australians forced their way across the creek. By the time that the position had been taken in the afternoon and the infantry had advanced to the line of exploitation 400 yd (370 m) beyond the creek, 37 Japanese had been killed for the loss of seven Australians killed and 19 wounded. After this, the Australians continued their advance towards Sindou Creek, which was a further 1 mi (1.6 km) to the southeast. In response, the Japanese launched a number of determined counterattacks over the course of the following week, although these were turned back. During this time, the Australians sent a number of patrols out in front of their forward elements, one of which managed to slip through the Japanese defensive positions either side of the Buin Road and carried out a reconnaissance of the Hongorai River about 1,000 yd (910 m) south of the main crossing. Further patrols were carried out, as well as a number of ambushes, before the advance was resumed on 26 April.\n"}
{"text": " Resuming their advance, the Australians were supported by three squadrons of Corsairs from the Royal New Zealand Air Force \u2014 Nos. 14, 22 and 26 Squadrons \u2014 which bombed and strafed the ground in front of the advancing infantry, as well as a creeping barrage of artillery and mortar fire. With such strong support the Japanese offered little resistance and over the course of two days the 24th Infantry Battalion covered almost a third of the distance to the Hongorai, for just one man wounded. Further progress was made over the next week, but on 4 May the advance was slowed when they encountered a roadblock defended by a field gun along with a machine gun, mines and other improvised explosive devices. After this, the 15th Brigade's engineer support were called upon to regularly carry out route clearance and proving operations as the Japanese became increasingly desperate to destroy the Australian armour, to the extent that they were prepared to sacrifice an artillery piece in order to lure the Australian tanks into a trap where they could be destroyed by mines. The Japanese began to adapt their tactics in other ways also. To negate the effectiveness of the Australian tanks, the Japanese began to position themselves off the roads, forcing the infantry to fight without their armoured support. Additionally, the Japanese began to concentrate their artillery with increasing accuracy upon the advancing infantry, which they kept under constant observation and fire.\n"}
{"text": " Meanwhile, the previous day, 3 May, the 57th / 60th Infantry Battalion had begun operating along the parallel Commando Road to the north. Here they had a number of encounters and suffered casualties due to their inexperience in patrolling, which resulted in them being ambushed. They also kept up a steady advance and eventually beat the main force in reaching, and crossing the river, arriving there on 6 May. On 5 May, along the Buin Road, the 24th Infantry Battalion had pressed forward again. Advancing with a tank troop in support, they came up against a concealed field gun defended by approximately 100 Japanese. After the lead Matilda's machine gun jammed, the field gun opened fire on it, damaging it and wounding its crew. Moving around the stricken tank, the second Matilda, armed with a howitzer, opened fire and destroyed the field gun before sweeping the Japanese defenders from the position. That night, the Japanese artillery opened up on the Australian position with a heavy barrage, and the following morning put in a company-sized counter-attack. The fighting lasted for over two-and-a-half hours, but when it was over the Australians remained in possession of the position having repulsed the attack. In doing so, they suffered one killed and nine wounded, while the attacking Japanese had suffered heavily, losing 58 men killed. It was the biggest loss since the action at Slater's Knoll and it spelt the end of their attempt to defend the Hongorai.\n"}
{"text": " After this, the Australians were able to resume their advance to the river on 7 May without further opposition. The previous three weeks in which they had advanced 7,000 yd (6,400 m) to the Hongorai had been costly for them, however, with the Australian 24th Infantry Battalion losing 25 killed and 95 wounded. Against this, the Japanese had lost at least 169 killed.\n"}
{"text": " === Crossing the Hongorai ===\n"}
{"text": " Following the advance to the Hongorai, there was a pause of about a week as the Australians had to wait for roads to be improved and supplies to be brought up, before attempting to cross the Hongorai en masse. This allowed Savige to re-evaluate the situation and to issue new orders for the advance towards the Hari and Mivo Rivers. As they waited for the advance to resume, the Australians carried out reconnaissance patrols deep into Japanese held territory and there were a couple of significant engagements during this time. As a part of these, the 24th Infantry Battalion sent a company across the Hongorai and subsequently located a strong Japanese position on a feature that became known as Egan's Ridge, which, due to its location, commanded the main Australian axis of advance.\n"}
{"text": " The main crossing was planned for 20 May, with the 58th / 59th Infantry Battalion on the right tasked to cut the Buin Road and the Aitara Track to the east of the river, while on the left the 57th / 60th Infantry Battalion would divert the attention of the Japanese off the 24th Infantry Battalion which would make the main frontal assault from the centre of the Australian line, crossing at the Pororei ford, advancing straight up the Buin Road. Preliminary moves began before this, and on 15 May a platoon from the 24th Infantry Battalion along with two tanks attempted to carry out an attack on Egan's Ridge. After one of the tanks was held up and knocked out by a Japanese field gun, they were forced to withdraw. Meanwhile, the RNZAF Corsair squadrons \u2014 now reinforced by No. 16 Squadron \u2014 began an eight-day aerial campaign, attacking along the length of the Buin and Commando Roads. During this period, the New Zealanders flew 381 sorties, while artillery and mortars fired \"thousands of rounds\".\n"}
{"text": " Two days later, on 17 May, the 57th / 60th Infantry Battalion began its diversionary move on the left flank, crossing the Hongorai inland and advancing along the Commando Road with 32 Corsairs and two batteries of artillery in support. Crossing 500 yd (460 m) north of the ford, the centre company carried out an attack along the far bank of the river without its armoured support which had been unable to negotiate the crossing. Nevertheless, shortly before noon they had secured the crossing and began to fan out, carrying out further flanking moves before establishing a firm base to receive supplies and from where it began patrolling operations on 20 May.\n"}
{"text": " In the centre, the main attack along the Buin Road began at 08: 30 on 20 May after 20 minutes of strafing by New Zealand Corsairs had prepared the ground. Advancing under a creeping barrage, and with mortar and machine gun support, the 24th Infantry Battalion moved forward with three companies up front and one held back in reserve, along with two troops of Matilda tanks. Mostly the forward companies reached their objectives, but one of the companies was halted just short of their objective and was forced to dig-in overnight after coming under heavy small arms and artillery fire and losing four killed and five wounded. The attack was resumed the following day, and the Australians were able to advance to the Pororei ford; however, they were prevented from moving any further as the Japanese were still concentrated in large numbers further to the west where an Australian patrol encountered 70 Japanese and were forced to go to ground. Finally, a company from the 24th Infantry Battalion was able to move on to the high ground on Egan's Ridge, which they found to be heavily mined and booby trapped. Engineers and assault pioneers were called up to clear the feature.\n"}
{"text": " On the right flank, the 58th / 59th Infantry Battalion carried out a wide flanking move along a track that had been carved out of the west bank of the Hongorai by bulldozer. Beginning their move two days earlier, a number of patrols had had contacts with the Japanese. Meanwhile, using tractors to drag the tanks through the mud, the Australian armour had crossed the river also and by 16: 00 on 20 May the battalion had managed to establish itself in an assembly area to the east of the river, unbeknown to the Japanese. The following day, the battalion left the line of departure and began to advance on its primary objective, which it reached in the early afternoon despite being held up while the tanks attempted to affect a creek crossing, and further delayed by stiff resistance. Later, after one of the battalion's patrols came under heavy fire, the tanks moved up and attacked a Japanese gun position which the defenders quickly abandoned, leaving behind a 70 mm gun and a large amount of ammunition.\n"}
{"text": " By 22 May, although there were still a number of Japanese in the area which continued to harass and ambush their line of communications, most of the Australian objectives had been secured and mopping up operations began. The last remaining defensive location before the Hongorai was Egan's Ridge, where the Japanese were sheltering in tunnels. A heavy aerial and artillery bombardment devastated the position and forced them to abandon the ridge. It was subsequently occupied by a company of Australian infantry. Within a short period of time the Buin Road was subsequently opened, providing the Australians with the means with which to bring up supplies for the next stage of the campaign, being the advance to the Hari, Mobiai, and Mivo Rivers. The final phase of the battle cost the Japanese 106 killed, while the Australians lost 13 killed and 64 wounded.\n"}
{"text": " == Aftermath ==\n"}
{"text": " During the course of the fighting around the Hongorai, the Australians lost 38 men killed and 159 wounded, while the Japanese lost at least 275 men killed. Following the battle, the Australians continued their advance towards Buin at the southern end of the island. Throughout the remainder of the month and into June, the 15th Brigade advanced along the Buin Road, crossing the Hari on 10 June. Beyond the river, the Japanese resolved to hold the food growing areas in order to protect their precarious food supply, and they consequently occupied a series of deep entrenchments. These were steadily reduced with airstrikes and artillery, and the 15th Brigade subsequently crossed Mobiai River before being relieved by Brigadier Noel Simpson's 29th Brigade in early July.\n"}
{"text": " As the 29th Brigade advanced toward the Mivo River, torrential rain and flooding ultimately brought the advance to a halt. The height of the river rose 2 metres (6.6 ft). The Buin Road was reduced, in the words of Gavin Long, \"to a sea of mud\" and many of the bridges upon which the Australian supply system was dependent were washed away. This rendered large-scale offensive infantry operations impossible and as the situation worsened for a period of time the Australians even ceased patrolling operations across the Mivo; meanwhile, the Japanese continued to harass the Australians, probing their positions and setting mines and traps, targeting the Australian line of communications. On 9 July, the 15th Infantry Battalion fought off a series of attacks around Siskatekori, at the junction of the Mivo River and the Buin Road, which included a heavy Japanese artillery bombardment. Australian patrols were resumed in late July and continued into August. These attacks proved very costly, particularly amongst the Australian engineers that were tasked with rebuilding the bridges and roads that had been destroyed in the flooding.\n"}
{"text": " Fighting in the northern sector continued during this time also, and although preparations in the south for the final advance towards Buin continued into August, combat operations on the island ceased as the war came to an end before these were completed. As a result, the final Australian operations on Bougainville took place on the Ratsua front in the northern sector, where the Australians had been conducting a holding action since the failed landing at Porton Plantation had forced them to abandon plans for an advance into the Bonis Peninsula. By mid-August, however, following the dropping of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan's subsequent unconditional surrender, a cease fire was ordered on the island and although there were minor clashes following this, it spelt an end to major combat operations.\n"}
{"text": " Following the end of the war, the Australian Army awarded three battle honours for the fighting around the Hongorai River. The 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment, and the 9th, 24th, 57th / 60th and 58th / 59th Infantry Battalions received the battle honour \"Hongorai River\". A second battle honour \u2014 \"Egan's Ridge \u2013 Hongorai Ford\" \u2014 was also awarded to the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment, and the 24th and 58th / 59th Infantry Battalions for the second stage of the fighting, while the 57th / 60th Infantry Battalion received the separate battle honour of \"Commando Road\" for this period.\n"}
{"text": " = Sonic the Hedgehog (1991 video game) =\n"}
{"text": " Sonic the Hedgehog is a platform video game developed by Sonic Team and published by Sega for the Sega Genesis console. The game was first released in North America, Europe and Australia in June 1991, and in Japan the following month. The game features an anthropomorphic hedgehog named Sonic in a quest to defeat Dr. Robotnik, a scientist who has imprisoned animals in robots and stolen the magical Chaos Emeralds. Sonic the Hedgehog's gameplay involves collecting rings as a form of health and a simple control scheme, with jumping and attacking controlled by a single button.\n"}
{"text": " The game's development began in 1990, when Sega ordered its AM8 development team to create a game featuring a mascot for the company. After considering a number of suggestions, the developers decided on a blue hedgehog with spikes along his head and spine and renamed themselves \"Sonic Team\" to match their character. Sonic the Hedgehog, designed for fast gameplay, was influenced by the games of Super Mario series creator, Shigeru Miyamoto. Sonic the Hedgehog uses a novel technique that allows Sonic's sprite to roll along curved scenery, which originated in a tech demo created by the game's programmer, Yuji Naka.\n"}
{"text": " The game was well received by critics, who praised its visuals, music, and speed of gameplay. The game was also commercially successful, establishing the Genesis as a key player in the 16-bit era and allowing it to compete with Nintendo and their Super NES console. It has been ported a number of times, and inspired several clones, a successful franchise, and adaptations by other media.\n"}
{"text": " == Plot ==\n"}
{"text": " In an attempt to steal the six Chaos Emeralds and harness their power, the game's antagonist, Dr. Ivo Robotnik, has trapped the animal inhabitants of South Island in aggressive robots and stationary metal capsules. The player controls Sonic, who aims to halt Robotnik's plans by freeing his animal friends and collecting the emeralds himself.\n"}
{"text": " If the player collects all the Chaos Emeralds and completes the game, a reward ending sequence is shown. If all the emeralds are not collected, Robotnik taunts the player while juggling the Chaos Emeralds instead.\n"}
{"text": " == Gameplay ==\n"}
{"text": " Sonic the Hedgehog is a 2D, side-scrolling platformer, whose gameplay centers around Sonic's ability to run at high speed through levels incorporating springs, slopes, high falls, and loop-the-loops. The levels contain hazards in the form of robots (\"badniks\" in the Western game manuals) inside of which Dr. Robotnik has trapped animals. Although destroying a robot frees the animal within, this is not required to complete the game. The player must avoid rows of sharp spikes, falling into bottomless pits, being crushed by moving walls or platforms, and drowning (which can be avoided by breathing air bubbles periodically released from vents). Sonic's main attack is his spin, where he curls into a ball and rotates rapidly (damaging enemies and some obstacles). This can be performed by jumping in the air or rolling on the ground.\n"}
{"text": " Scattered around each level map are gold rings, and collecting 100 rings rewards the player with an extra life. Rings are a layer of protection against hazards; if Sonic has at least one ring when he collides with an enemy (or obstacle), he will survive. However, all his rings will be scattered; they will flicker and disappear in a few seconds if they are not picked up again. If Sonic is hit without any rings, he loses a life. Although shields and temporary invincibility may be collected to provide additional protection, certain hazards (such as drowning, being crushed, falling down a bottomless pit or running out of time) will cost Sonic a life regardless of rings or other protection.\n"}
{"text": " The game is divided into six zones (Green Hill, Marble, Spring Yard, Labyrinth, Star Light, and Scrap Brain), each with its own visual style and enemies. A player must navigate through each zone (subdivided into three acts) to progress. At the end of each zone's third act, the player confronts Dr. Robotnik (who pilots a different vehicle each time) in a boss fight. After the sixth zone, the player continues directly to the Final Zone for a last encounter with Robotnik.\n"}
{"text": " The player begins with three lives (power-ups and rings add more), which are lost when Sonic collides with hazardous enemies (or objects) without rings, falls off-screen or exceeds an act's ten-minute time limit. Lampposts acting as checkpoints allow Sonic to return to the most-recently activated post when he loses a life. If he loses a life as a result of time running out but has another life, the timer will reset to 0: 00 when he returns to the checkpoint. If all lives are lost at any point in the game, the game over screen will appear (when the player can return to the beginning of the act with three lives, if they have any continues).\n"}
{"text": " When Sonic reaches the end of act one or act two of a zone with at least fifty rings, a large ring appears through which he can jump to enter a Special Stage (a \"Secret Zone\" in the original Genesis manual). In each of six Special Stages, Sonic bounces off the bumpers and walls of a rotating maze in spin attack. Although the player earns a continue with each 50 rings found, their main goal is to obtain the Chaos Emerald at the end of the maze without colliding with a \"goal block\" (which ends the level).\n"}
{"text": " == Development ==\n"}
{"text": " === Background and character design ===\n"}
{"text": " In 1990, Sega ordered its in-house development studio, AM8, to develop a game featuring a mascot for the company. This was a position already held by the character Alex Kidd, but he was considered similar to Mario and deemed unsatisfactory; Sega president Hayao Nakayama wanted a character as iconic as Mickey Mouse. Sega had competition from Nintendo and its mascot, Mario, in mind; Nintendo was dominant at the time, particularly after the release of the successful Super Mario Bros. 3, and Sega wanted a foothold in the industry. Although the company had some success with Genesis ports of its arcade titles, it knew this would not be enough.\n"}
{"text": " AM8 developed ideas for characters, an engine, and gameplay mechanics. Development emphasized speed, so AM8 eliminated character designs not associated with fast animals, as well as fast creatures like kangaroos and squirrels. One idea, a rabbit able to grasp objects with prehensile ears, showed promise at first but was too complex for the available hardware. The team narrowed its search to animals that can roll into a ball, their idea for an attacking move. Designers then realized that this would not seem aggressive enough, so they focused on two animals with spikes: armadillos and hedgehogs. The hedgehog character, first proposed by Naoto Ohshima, prevailed, although the armadillo would later become the basis for Mighty the Armadillo (who first appeared in 1993's SegaSonic the Hedgehog). Ohshima has admitted since that he created Sonic's basic design by combining Felix the Cat's head with Mickey Mouse's body.\n"}
{"text": " Sonic was originally teal-colored, then a light shade of blue, but he was changed to dark blue so he would stand out against certain backgrounds and to match the Sega logo. His shoes were colored red through the inspiration of Michael Jackson's boots on the album cover for Bad and the outfit of Santa Claus, whom Ohshima saw as the most \"famous character in the world\". Sonic's spikes were emphasized to make him look sleeker, and he was given the ability to spin while jumping (so attacking and jumping could be controlled with one button). The new character was originally named \"Mr. Needlemouse\", but the eight-member AM8 changed his name to \"Sonic\" and their studios to Sonic Team. Ideas proposed to flesh out the character included placing him in a rock band, giving him vampire fangs, and giving him a human girlfriend named Madonna, but Sega of America scrapped these ideas to keep his identity simple. Sega of America also expressed concerns that most Americans would not know what a hedgehog is and initially proposed a full-scale recreation of the character, but compromised with Sonic Team to simply make design changes. The antagonist ended up being named \"Dr. Eggman\" in Japan and \"Dr. Robotnik\" in other regions as a result of a dispute between Sega's American and Japanese divisions.\n"}
{"text": " === Programming and prototyping ===\n"}
{"text": " With a satisfying protagonist completed, Sega turned to esteemed programmer Yuji Naka, who had impressed them through his work on Phantasy Star and the Genesis port of Ghouls'n Ghosts. The gameplay originated with a tech demo by Naka, who developed an algorithm allowing a sprite to move smoothly on a curve by determining its position with a dot matrix. Naka's prototype was a platform game with a fast-moving character rolling in a ball through a long, winding tube, and this concept was fleshed out with Ohshima's character designs and levels by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara. Yasuhara originally intended to work on the game for three months due to the delay of his planned move to the United States by the outbreak of the Gulf War, but was engrossed in the project for nearly a year. His designs for levels were intended to attract both hardcore and casual gamers by integrating occasional challenging set pieces into the mostly accessible level design. The game's color scheme was influenced by the work of pop artist Eizin Suzuki, and the aesthetics of Green Hill were influenced by the geography of California.\n"}
{"text": " In designing the game mechanics, Naka was inspired by Shigeru Miyamoto, whose games he had enjoyed playing years earlier. Admiring the simplicity of Miyamoto's mechanics in complex environments, Naka decided that Sonic would be controlled with only a directional pad for movement and a single button for jumping. He also wanted his creation to be more action-oriented than the Mario series; while playing Super Mario Bros., he had wondered why the levels could not be cleared more quickly. Due to the need to demonstrate the Genesis' technological prowess, the developing game underwent extensive testing and redesign, a process taking over six months. The developers'efforts were rewarded; according to Yuji Naka, the game had the fastest-ever character speed in a video game and a rotation effect in the special stages that was considered impossible on the console. The team intended to add a two-player mode displayed via split-screen, but Naka's programming knowledge was insufficient to implement this feature. However, such a mode would later appear in sequel Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (1992), where the second player would control Sonic's best friend Miles \"Tails\" Prower. Naka, Oshima, and Yasuhara worked 19 hours a day on the project for several months.\n"}
{"text": " Naka's relationship with Sega of Japan was tenuous during this time; he received little credit for his involvement in the game. He left the company shortly after the game's release, although Sega of America hired him later. Before leaving, however, he defied Sega of Japan's prohibition of developer credits by displaying a few names in black text on a black background, identifiable only by looking at the game's code.\n"}
{"text": " === Music ===\n"}
{"text": " The music for Sonic the Hedgehog was composed and produced by Masato Nakamura, bassist and lead songwriter of the J-pop band Dreams Come True. The game uses onboard Yamaha YM2612 and SN76489 programmable sound generators to produce a variety of stereo sound effects and music. It was originally intended to have a sound test menu with animations of Sonic breakdancing to the music of a \"Sonic Band\" of Sharps Chicken on guitar, Max Monkey on bass, Mach Rabbit on drums, and Vector the Crocodile on keyboard. The playable Vector became a recurring character in the series, also appearing in Knuckles' Chaotix, Sonic Heroes, and Sonic Free Riders. The development schedule scrapped the feature, and Yuji Naka replaced the test with the \"Se-ga!\" chant used in TV commercials (which reportedly used one-eighth of the memory of the four-megabit cartridge).\n"}
{"text": " On October 19, 2011, twenty years after the game's release, a three-disc compilation of music from Sonic the Hedgehog and Sonic the Hedgehog 2 was released in Japan. The first disc features original tracks from both games, the second contains Masato Nakamura's demo recordings and the third comprises songs by Dreams Come True and their Akon remixes.\n"}
{"text": " === Packaging and release ===\n"}
{"text": " Game-package illustrator Akira Watanabe said that his goal was to make the characters \"colorful\", using clear lines and gradation to \"finish them neatly\". According to Watanabe, the developers asked him to create a package design \"similar to pop art ... without being particular to conventional packages\" \u2013 something \"original\" and \"stylish\". The game was released in North America, Europe, and Australia on June 23, 1991, and in Japan on July 26. Sega of America packaged it with American Genesis consoles, replacing Altered Beast. Genesis owners who bought their consoles before the switch could request free copies of Sonic the Hedgehog by mail. Sega of America created a large-scale marketing campaign to promote the game and Sonic as a mascot for the company.\n"}
{"text": " == Alternate versions and ports ==\n"}
{"text": " === 8-bit version ===\n"}
{"text": " A version of Sonic the Hedgehog was developed by Ancient and released in 1991 for Sega's 8-bit consoles, the Master System and Game Gear. Its plot and gameplay mechanics are similar to the 16-bit version, with different level themes and digital assets. The level design is flatter, with no vertical loops, and Sonic cannot re-collect his rings after being hit. The game has a different soundtrack, composed by chiptune musician Yuzo Koshiro and including his compositions and adaptations of music from the 16-bit version. It was the final game released for the Master System in North America. The Master System version was re-released for Wii's Virtual Console service in North America on August 4, 2008, and in Europe on August 8. The Game Gear version was re-released for the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console on June 13, 2013, and included as an unlockable game in Sonic Adventure DX: Director's Cut for GameCube and Windows and Sonic Mega Collection Plus for PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Windows.\n"}
{"text": " === Sonic the Hedgehog Genesis ===\n"}
{"text": " A port, Sonic the Hedgehog Genesis, was released for the Game Boy Advance (GBA) on November 14, 2006 in United States to mark the game's fifteenth anniversary. It included several new features, such as the ability to save game progress, a level select option, and an Anniversary Mode with the Spin Dash move (not originally implemented until Sonic the Hedgehog 2). Its screen is slightly zoomed in, and adapted to the GBA's widescreen aspect ratio. The game received poor reviews, with a Metacritic score of 33 percent; the chief complaints concerned its poor conversion to the Game Boy Advance (resulting in a slow frame rate), remixed chunky music, and poor preservation of the original gameplay.\n"}
{"text": " === Compilation releases ===\n"}
{"text": " With its sequels for the Genesis, Sonic the Hedgehog has been ported for a wide range of home and handheld consoles and personal computers. It has appeared in Sonic Compilation (1995) for the Genesis, Sonic Jam (1997) for the Sega Saturn and Game.com, Sonic Mega Collection (2002), Sonic Mega Collection Plus (2004), Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection (2009) for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, and Sonic Classic Collection (2010) for the Nintendo DS. Additionally, the game is an unlockable reward in the console versions of Sonic Generations.\n"}
{"text": " === Downloadable releases ===\n"}
{"text": " Sonic the Hedgehog has been available for all three major seventh-generation video game consoles. It was part of the Wii Virtual Console at the service's 2006 introduction, and was released for the Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network shortly afterwards. The game was released for the iPod Classic, iPod video, and video-capable iPod Nano models in 2007 and for Apple's iOS service (compatible iPhone and iPod touch models) in April 2009. Sonic the Hedgehog became available on GameTap in September 2009. In October 2010, it was released as a Microsoft Windows download which was ported to Steam. The game was ported to two online app services (Google Play and the Amazon Appstore) in December 2012. A remastered mobile port, created using Christian Whitehead's Retro Engine previously used in the 2011 rerelease of Sonic CD, was released on iOS, replacing the original port, on May 15, 2013 with an Android version released the following day. The port features widescreen graphics, the optional ability to spin dash, a time attack mode, and the unlockable option to play as Tails or Knuckles the Echidna. The game was also released as part of the Nintendo 3DS 3D Classics line in May 2013 in Japan, and worldwide in December.\n"}
{"text": " == Reception ==\n"}
{"text": " Sonic the Hedgehog was critically praised at its release and in retrospective reviews, with an 86-percent approval rating at the review aggregator GameRankings based on nine reviews. The game rivaled the Mario series, particularly Super Mario World (which was recently released for Genesis rival Super Nintendo Entertainment System). Paul Rand of Computer and Video Games compared the two in depth and characterized Sonic the Hedgehog as being faster, with brighter colors, and Super Mario World as having more \"depth of play\".\n"}
{"text": " Reviewers noted the game's colorful, detailed graphics. Rand called its color scheme \"lively, but never garish\", praising the interaction of color with detail in the sprites, backgrounds, and animations and describing its graphics as the best available for the Genesis. Reviewer Boogie Man of GamePro called the intricate backgrounds \"eye-popping\" and \"gorgeous\", which was echoed by Mean Machines. According to the Lessers (Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk) of Dragon, \"The graphics and animation in Sonic the Hedgehog make this a serious contender for the best video game of the year\" and GameZone called the animation \"some of the smoothest and fastest ... ever seen\". The music and sound effects were also well received; Dragon called them \"great\", and GameZone \"amazing\". Rand noted \"stacks of catchy tunes and jingles\", calling some of the sound effects \"absolutely brilliant\". Although Mean Machines called the songs \"vaguely appealing\", the game's sound effects were better appreciated.\n"}
{"text": " Critics cited the fast gameplay, unprecedented in platformers. GamePro's Boogie Man noted its \"lightning-fast action\" and, according to Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM), \"If you thought the Enterprise was quick, wait till you see Sonic at warp speed.\" The game's difficulty was disputed, described as \"impossible\" by Rand and \"average\" by EGM. Rand said about the gameplay in general that it \"plays like a dream\"; according to GameZone it would enchant players for hours, and Boogie Man praised Sonic Team's ability to provide an engaging experience primarily from running and jumping. Although EGM, Dragon, and Paul of Mean Machines praised the level design (especially the hidden rooms), Paul found losing all of one's rings frustrating.\n"}
{"text": " Sonic the Hedgehog has maintained its popularity, appearing on lists of the greatest video games of all time. Frank Provo of GameSpot described the game as \"one of the best platformers of all time\", noting that despite technical issues in the Game Boy Advance port \"after all these years, the underlying graphics, audio, and gameplay still hold up\". Lucas M. Thomas of IGN agreed that it stood the test of time: \"You 'll be impressed by the clarity and color that come through ... Few people realize how difficult it was to create Sonic's graphics engine, which allowed for the incredible rate of speed the game's known for. But the technical achievement impressed back in' 91, and still does so today.\" Mega ranked the game its third-favorite Genesis title, and in 2001 Game Informer called it the 24th-greatest game of all time. Sonic the Hedgehog has been a commercial success; the original Genesis version sold over 15 million copies by February 2009, and the mobile version had eight million paid downloads by 2008.\n"}
{"text": " == Legacy ==\n"}
{"text": " === Effect on the industry ===\n"}
{"text": " Primarily because of its Genesis bundling, Sonic the Hedgehog contributed to the console's North American popularity. During October \u2013 December 1991, the Genesis outsold the Super NES by a two-to-one ratio, and at its January 1992 peak claimed 65 percent of the market for 16-bit consoles. Although Nintendo eventually again overtook Sega, this was the first time since December 1985 that the company did not lead the console market.\n"}
{"text": " Sonic the Hedgehog added speed and momentum-based physics to the standard platform formula. Set-pieces and mechanics introduced by the game (such as loops, springs, and acceleration pads) have appeared in other games and become associated with the Sonic series.\n"}
{"text": " A flood of \"animal with attitude\" platformers, each featuring a cartoon mascot, were released after Sonic the Hedgehog: Bubsy, Aero the Acro-Bat, James Pond 3, Earthworm Jim, Zero the Kamikaze Squirrel, Awesome Possum, Ty the Tasmanian Tiger, Gex. This carried into the PlayStation era with games like Punky Skunk and Crash Bandicoot.\n"}
{"text": " === Sequels and other media ===\n"}
{"text": " The game's success led Sega to develop an extensive media franchise. A 1992 sequel, Sonic the Hedgehog 2, gave Sonic a best friend (and sidekick) named Miles \"Tails\" Prower and continued the fight against Dr. Robotnik. Sonic has generated dozens of additional games and a large cast of recurring characters (keeping Sonic and Robotnik as mainstays), surviving the end of Sega console manufacturing after the Dreamcast. The series has ventured from platformers to fighting, racing, role-playing, and sports games, and has expanded into anime and manga, cartoons and comic books, novels, and toys. Sonic the Hedgehog has become one of the best-selling video game franchises of all time, with over 150 million copies sold by May 2014. The game's first stage, Green Hill Zone, has also been re-purposed for use in several other titles such as Sonic Adventure 2, Sonic Generations and the Super Smash Bros. series.\n"}
{"text": " = The Same Old Story =\n"}
{"text": " \"The Same Old Story\" is the second episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe. The episode was written by executive producer Jeff Pinkner and co-creators J. J. Abrams, Alex Kurtzman, and Roberto Orci. When developing the series, they sought to find a medium between serialized drama and the crime procedural. \"The Same Old Story\" was the first regular episode of Fringe, and journalists viewed it as an example of what they could expect from the series. It was directed by Paul A. Edwards.\n"}
{"text": " After a newborn baby rapidly ages into an 80-year-old man, Fringe division agent Olivia Dunham (Anna Torv) and consultants Peter (Joshua Jackson) and Walter Bishop (John Noble) investigate. They tie the case to the murders of young women, who have all had their pituitary glands removed. It is revealed that Dr. Claus Penrose (Mark Blum), an expert in progeria, is working to help his son Christopher (Derek Cecil) stay alive, as he suffers from rapid aging syndrome.\n"}
{"text": " \"The Same Old Story\" first aired in the United States on September 16, 2008 on Fox. An estimated 13.272 million viewers watched the episode, a 45 percent increase from the series premiere. The episode received mixed reviews from television critics \u2013 reviewers thought it was an improvement from the previous episode but faulted it for containing plot contrivances.\n"}
{"text": " == Plot ==\n"}
{"text": " A prostitute is abandoned by an unknown man at a hospital, dangerously in labor. She dies as the doctors perform a caesarean section, but the child ages rapidly in minutes, soon dead having aged to the likes of an 80-year-old man. Olivia Dunham (Anna Torv), Peter Bishop (Joshua Jackson), and Walter Bishop (John Noble), new members of the Fringe division, are called to investigate by division head Phillip Broyles (Lance Reddick), believing the case to be part of \"The Pattern\", a string of mysterious incidents. The woman is identified as having recently left a local motel, and Olivia finds evidence that points to a past serial murder case she and her former partner John Scott were not able to solve. Olivia explains to Peter that their murderer would paralyze his victims, young women, then make an incision along their face to extract a piece of brain material, killing the victim in the process. Walter takes both corpses back to his lab and determines that the woman had only been pregnant minutes before giving birth, her child having accelerated aging disease. Walter is reminded of having previously done work in this field, and remembers where he stashed his car that contains the related files. Once they are retrieved, Olivia makes a connection to the pituitary gland which controls growth in humans, and informs Charlie Francis (Kirk Acevedo) to monitor recent cases where the victims' pituitary gland has been removed.\n"}
{"text": " Olivia and Peter turn to an expert in progeria, Dr. Penrose (Mark Blum), to trying to learn more about rapid aging, but Dr. Penrose cannot help them further, though Peter suspects he is hiding something. Unseen by the Fringe division, Dr. Penrose visits an abandoned warehouse and meets the murderer, Christopher (Derek Cecil), his son, who suffers from rapid aging syndrome. Penrose warns Christopher to be careful and that they only need one more woman to complete the process. By this time, Charlie has found a recent murder victim killed in the same fashion as Olivia's serial murderer. At Walter's lab, they identify the pituitary gland has been removed. They rationalize the murderer must extract hormones from the glands to slow down his own aging process. Walter hypothesizes they can discover the location of the crime by looking at the images left in the woman's optical nerves induced by the paralyzing sedative. Borrowing an electronic pulse camera from Massive Dynamic, they discover the image of a suspension bridge near Stoughton and identify the likely location from which it was viewed \u2014 the same warehouse that Dr. Penrose visited. The FBI converge on the building, and Olivia and Peter find Penrose about to cut into another victim. Olivia chases off after Christopher, who eventually succumbs to his rapid aging and dies, while Peter, after nicking Penrose with a bullet, confers with Walter to apply a makeshift defibrillator to bring the victim back to life.\n"}
{"text": " As they wrap up the case, Olivia, Peter, and Walter complete forms to finalize their position in the Fringe division. When Peter is out of earshot, Walter learns from Olivia that the FBI medical files on Peter's childhood are void of any details.\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " Co-creators J. J. Abrams, Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci, and executive producer Jeff Pinkner wrote the episode. Paul A. Edwards served as the director, his first such credit for the series. In developing Fringe, the co-creators did not want to make the series too serialized, as this was a complaint often directed at Abrams'television series Alias. They wanted to find a balance between standalone stories and serialized content, and studied procedural dramas such as Law and Order and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation for inspiration. Kurztman explained, \"While we make sure that our episodes are self-contained \u2013 have a beginning, a middle, and an end \u2013 the character stories can be serialized. They don't have to resolve themselves over the course of one show.\" \"The Same Old Story\" was Fringe's first regular episode, and some journalists viewed it as an example of how the series would be structured.\n"}
{"text": " The episode was based on actual recent research and involved much collaboration among the series'different departments. For the scene in which they remove the victim's eyeball, the special effects crew created a mold based on actress Elizabeth Stanley's head. Using plaster to make a prosthetic, they \"drilled out the eyeball and sculpt [ed] it open and [went] through a series of molds.\" Stanley stated that \"it's really cool to see the head because it really does look just like me, even though it's very gruesome because the eyeball's popping out.\" The prop department rigged a weapon which they called a \"photon gun\"; according to prop master Peter Gelfman, this gun was based on real devices employed in airport security that look through people's clothing for concealed weapons. VFX Supervisor Christopher Scollard explained that for the eye's last vision, they used \"a lot of actual photographic reference on the set and on the location,\" which they then used to \"take that imagery and composite it into the various computer monitors and displays in the lab.\"\n"}
{"text": " \"The Same Old Story\" featured guest appearances by actors Derek Cecil as Christopher Penrose and Mark Blum as his father, Dr. Claus Penrose. Other guest actors included Betty Gilpin as Loraine \"Amber\" Daisy Alcott, Bernie McInerney as old Christopher Penrose, Carmen Goodine as Amy, Ty Jones as a doctor, and Karin Agstam as John Scott's sister.\n"}
{"text": " == Reception ==\n"}
{"text": " === Ratings ===\n"}
{"text": " \"The Same Old Story\" was watched by 13.272 million viewers in the United States, a 45 percent increase of four million from the pilot. Fox claimed that this ratings improvement was the best for any new network drama series in over five years. Its high-rated lead-in, House, helped boost Fringe's ratings for the night, as 93 percent of House's total audience and 95 percent of 18- to 49-year-olds stayed to watch Fringe. Fringe was also the highest rated program for male 18- to 54-year-olds that evening.\n"}
{"text": " === Reviews ===\n"}
{"text": " \"The Same Old Story\" received mixed reviews from television critics. TV Squad writer Jane Boursaw thought the episode seemed \"all over the place\", and wasn 't sure what to think. She stated the two most interesting parts of the episode were when Walter removed the girl's eye in order to identity her killer, and the cliffhanger at the very end, when Walter states \"If you 've read my file, then you know the truth about Peter's medical history\". Travis Fickett of IGN thought it was better than the pilot; though it was \"laden with lots of clunky exposition and clich\u00e9d dialogue,\" Fickett understood that it was needed to acquaint new viewers to the show. Fickett concluded his review by saying Fringe has the potential to be a \"great show\", and he also praised the production level as \"top notch\", and Torv's performance as \"very good\" as she \"brings a unique presence to the show\". The A.V. Club critic Noel Murray gave the episode a C +, while Television Without Pity graded it with a B.\n"}
{"text": " Josh Jackson of Paste Magazine disliked the \"deus ex machina\" aspects that \"neatly solved the puzzles of the first two episodes\", and also criticized perceived \"plot contrivances\" like how the serial murderer immediately began aging once interrupted from killing his last victim. Despite these flaws, Jackson said he would tune in next week because he would \"rather have a show err on the side of unbelievable than unremarkable, and I 'm interested to see if Abrams has any more tricks up his sleeve\". Erin Fox of TV Guide also liked \"The Same Old Story\" better than the pilot because she thought that it \"had really cool special effects, awesome Walter-isms, and actual chemistry forming between Olivia and Peter\", and \"we also got to delve more into the connections between Walter, Nina Sharp, Massive Dynamic and the government and the experiments they conducted before Walter was institutionalized\".\n"}
{"text": " A UGO Networks columnist was concerned that the expensive pilot would be hard to translate into weekly episodes, but \"after sitting down to watch Fringe's second episode,\" The Same Old Story \", my concerns have vanished. Fringe's second episode represents all that is holy about genre programming without sacrificing any of Fringe's eleven-herbs and spices. In fact, the subtle framework of what makes Fringe not X-Files is even better defined in the first weekly-episode. I'd struggled to find the word to describe it, and the winner is'condensed'.\" The Same Old Story \"has all of the sense of mystery, discovery, and humor that the pilot had just in a smaller, more combustible space.\" Another UGO writer, Alex Zalben, later compared \"The Same Old Story\" to the similarly-plotted The X-Files episode \"D\u00f8d Kalm\". Zalben concluded that \"Fringe wins this one, just for having a slightly less stupid explanation.\"\n"}
{"text": " = Randy Blythe manslaughter case =\n"}
{"text": " The Randy Blythe manslaughter case was a court case in the Czech Republic, stemming from a 2010 Lamb of God concert in Prague, wherein 19-year-old fan Daniel Nosek sustained head injuries leading to a coma and subsequent death. During the investigation, Czech police unsuccessfully asked United States authorities for cooperation. When the band returned to the Czech Republic for another concert two years later, its vocalist Randy Blythe was arrested, charged with causing Nosek's death, and remanded in custody for five weeks.\n"}
{"text": " According to a verdict delivered by the Municipal Court in Prague on March 5, 2013, it was proven that Blythe had thrown Nosek offstage and thus had moral responsibility for his death. However, due to the circumstances, Blythe was not held criminally liable, and most of the blame lay with promoters and security members. The acquittal was upheld by the Prague High Court on June 5, 2013.\n"}
{"text": " == 2010 concert incident ==\n"}
{"text": " During a concert on May 24, 2010, in the Prague club, Abaton, Blythe was involved in an incident that resulted in the death of Daniel Nosek, a 19-year-old attending fan. According to eyewitness statements cited by the Czech online daily newspaper aktu\u00e1ln\u011b.cz following Blythe's arrest, Blythe was chanting \"Come on up\" between songs, which, the newspaper stated, may have been intended to invite applause from the audience and not a direct invitation to fans. The newspaper went on to report that the fan tried to climb onstage and was thrown by the singer from the stage, falling backwards directly on his head. According to the same paper, Nosek was not under the influence of drugs or alcohol, suffered serious brain trauma, fell into a coma, and died weeks later from his injuries.\n"}
{"text": " A report about the concert at issue released on May 26, 2010 by topzine.cz stated that \"one of the things that was unexpected was the behavior of the singer Randall Blythe, who on a few occasions struck some fans in a relatively brutal way off the stage.\" The article also contains pictures, one of them showing Blythe holding a fan down on the ground. Meanwhile, another report released two days after the concert by metalopolis.net alleged that \"Randy in a totally uncompromising way took down an impertinent fan, who has climbed the podium several times. The front-man clearly showed that it is his territory, he struck the intruder down, punched him a couple of times and sent him through the air off the podium, without even stopping singing (!)\" On May 28, 2010, the report by marastmusic.com stated that \"some broken head was a testimony to the fact that the band does not like anybody on the stage\", while abysszine.com stated that \"the only negative thing about the concert was, to say it mildly, disputable approach of the band towards the stage-divers ... when somebody tried to climb the stage, he was brutally swept down.\"\n"}
{"text": " Following Blythe's arrest, Tom\u00e1\u0161 Fiala, a promoter of the concert, said that there was no fight between the fan and Blythe, and that \"it was an unfortunate incident which happened during the concert when someone climbed onto the stage where he was not supposed to be.\" According to the Lamb of God publicist Adrenaline PR, \"[the] incident deals with a fan that three times during the concert jumped the barricade and rushed Randy during the performance. It is alleged that the third time, security was not able to reach him and that Randy pushed him back into the audience where supposedly he fell and hit his head.\" However, it was revealed during the trial that it was a different fan who previously got into contact with Blythe than Nosek. Guitarist Willie Adler said, \"I can't recall that particular show, let alone a fan being beaten on the stage. I think I would 've noticed something like that considering the Dime thing.\"\n"}
{"text": " According to Blythe's attorney Martin Radvan, the police launched an investigation following the death of Nosek, about a month after the concert and following a coma. After interviewing several eyewitnesses from the concert, the police asked the United States Department of Justice to take part in the investigation; however, they refused to cooperate and, moreover, did not notify anyone from Lamb of God or its management.\n"}
{"text": " == Arrest and charges ==\n"}
{"text": " On June 27, 2012, Blythe was arrested by the Czech police on suspicion of manslaughter. Lamb of God was prepared to play in Prague on June 28, 2012, but Blythe's arrest upon arrival at Ruzyn\u011b Airport caused the concert to be canceled.\n"}
{"text": " According to TV Nova, Blythe stated that he had not been aware of Nosek's death and expressed his remorse.\n"}
{"text": " A police spokesperson stated on June 29, 2012 that the police had formally charged Blythe under section 146 (4) of the Czech Criminal Code, which contains intentional infliction of bodily harm resulting in death (i.e. manslaughter). He faced 5 \u2013 10 years of imprisonment if found guilty. Randy's brother Mark Blythe said the charge was \"bogus and outrageous and will be dropped immediately.\"\n"}
{"text": " == Court remand and bail ==\n"}
{"text": " On June 30, 2012, the State Attorney brought a motion to remand Blythe in pre-trial detention, as he considered Blythe a flight risk. During a hearing conducted the same day, judge Petr Fassati of the Prague 8 District Court ruled that Blythe will be held on remand, with the possibility of a bail of CZK 4,000,000 (~ US $ 200,000), Blythe's alleged annual income; Blythe was held in Pankr\u00e1c Prison. Bail was deposited in the court's bank account on mid-day of July 3, 2012. After this, the State Attorney had three working days to either accept the bail or to challenge it by filing a complaint. Due to public holidays it was not until July 9, 2012, that the State Attorney filed his complaint, which was to be dealt with by appellate court, the Prague Municipal Court.\n"}
{"text": " On July 17, 2012, Prague Municipal Court's panel of three judges headed by judge Lubo\u0161 Vrba overturned the bail decision by doubling the bail amount to CZK 8 million (~ US $ 400,000). After this, the State Attorney challenged the conditions of release, trying to achieve that the bail is subject to Blythe staying in the country and / or Blythe having to report at a given police station regularly until the criminal proceedings are finished. On August 2, 2012, the appellate court rejected the State Attorney's second complaint and ordered Blythe's immediate release. Blythe left the Czech Republic the next day, claiming in an interview with TV Nova that he would return for the trial.\n"}
{"text": " == Indictment and trial ==\n"}
{"text": " On November 13, 2012, the spokesperson of the Prague State Attorney's Office announced that the police had formally closed their investigation and proposed to the State Attorney to indict Blythe. After reviewing the case file, the State Attorney indicted Blythe on the aforementioned charges on November 30, 2012. Two weeks later, a judge set the trial to commence on February 4, 2013, with a plan to conduct the hearings in four consecutive days. Blythe was summoned to attend the hearing in person.\n"}
{"text": " The case was heard by a panel of the Prague Municipal Court, consisting of presiding professional judge Tom\u00e1\u0161 Kubovec and two lay judges. Trials in the Czech Republic are public. In general, the court is bound to decide on the deed as stated in the indictment; however, it is not bound by its legal assessment by the State Attorney.\n"}
{"text": " Both the defendant and the State Attorney may appeal the decision; the appeal would be heard by a panel of the Prague High Court, consisting of three professional judges. A decision of second instance court is final and enforceable. Nevertheless, an extraordinary appeal may be lodged by the defendant or the Supreme State Attorney, which would be heard by the Supreme Court of the Czech Republic in Brno; an extraordinary appeal may, however, rest only on issues of law and does not provide for full review of the case. After exhausting all of these remedies, the defendant may also lodge a petition to the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic. The petition may be based on allegation of violation of rights under the Czech Constitution and Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms.\n"}
{"text": " === State Attorney Vladim\u00edr Mu\u017e\u00edk ===\n"}
{"text": " Indictment against Blythe was brought by State Attorney Vladim\u00edr Mu\u017e\u00edk. Mu\u017e\u00edk had tried a number of murderers, such as Lubo\u0161 Mika (life in prison), Roman Fidler (life imprisonment at 1st instance, 25 years on appeal), Maria Zolotukinov\u00e1 (13 years imprisonment) and Petr Proch\u00e1zka (11 years imprisonment). He also tried a case against Andranik Soghojan, an alleged head of Russian mafia, requesting 25 years in prison for ordering a murder. The Municipal Court in Prague acquitted Soghojan due to lack of evidence; however, the decision was repealed on appeal by the High Court, and the case will be heard again by a different tribunal of the Municipal Court. Another of Mu\u017e\u00edk's murder cases which ended in acquittal due to insufficient evidence is that of Miroslav Rus, who was indicted in connection with disappearance of Miroslav K\u0159\u00ed\u017e, a vice-chairman of the Czech Football Association.\n"}
{"text": " === Defense lawyers ===\n"}
{"text": " Randy Blythe was represented by Prague lawyers Martin Radvan and Vladim\u00edr Jablonsk\u00fd. Radvan studied law at the Faculty of Law of Charles University and at the New York University. From 1990 to 1992, he served as external advisor of the then Prime Minister Mari\u00e1n \u010calfa. A former partner at Baker & McKenzie, Radvan established Radvan & Co. in 1996. He is also a member of board of directors of Forum 2000.\n"}
{"text": " Jablonsk\u00fd gained fame as attorney of Yekta Uzunoglu, a Kurdish national who was first charged in 1994 with preparing to commit three murders and committing blackmail and torture. It became one of the longest criminal cases in the Czech history, as the witnesses and alleged victims gradually withdrew or changed their testimonies against Uzunoglu until he was exonerated by the Municipal Court in Prague in 2007. The court held that although the crimes did take place, there is no evidence that Uzunoglu took part in it. He was also defending judge Pavel Nagy, who was indicted of accepting a bribe. The proceedings ended with Nagy being found insane and criminally not liable. Jablonsk\u00fd also acted as a defense attorney in the case of a hairdresser of Czech VIPs indicted on charges of rape and torture. During the proceedings, the judge sent Jablonsk\u00fd to face the disciplinary commission of the Czech bar association for what he perceived as \"behaviour bordering on contempt\".\n"}
{"text": " === Day 1 of the trial ===\n"}
{"text": " The trial started on February 4, 2013. Blythe testified that when he wanted to see the club before the concert, Lamb of God's technician told him that the club was terrible and messy. According to Blythe, the technician went on, saying that the stage was small, there were too many people, and that it was rather dangerous.\n"}
{"text": " Blythe, who is nearsighted, took off his glasses before entering the stage, which together with the smoke and light effects allegedly left him half-blind. Blythe said that people could easily reach the band members or climb up to the stage. One of the fans, who was identified as Milan Po\u0159\u00e1dek by Czech newspapers, and who was scheduled to testify later during the proceedings, managed to climb the stage twice without being stopped by security. Blythe testified that during the first attempt, Po\u0159\u00e1dek rushed the stage and started waving his arms before stage diving. The second time, he tried to put his arms around Blythe in an attempt to hug him. Blythe, who according to his own words perceived this as a danger, caught Po\u0159\u00e1dek's collar, pushed him on the ground, knelt on him and repeatedly told him to stop. He then led the fan by his hair to the edge of the stage, where the fan jumped off. It was only after watching a video of the incident that Blythe found out that a security officer was actually pushing the fan from back. Blythe further said that he saw Po\u0159\u00e1dek trying to reach the stage yet again before finally being stopped by security.\n"}
{"text": " Later, when another fan tried to climb the stage, Blythe thought that it was Po\u0159\u00e1dek again. Blythe testified that he approached the fan and pushed him with both hands out of the stage in the belief that the crowd would catch him, which it did not. Ji\u0159\u00ed Choro\u0161, author of video which caught the previous incidents with Po\u0159\u00e1dek, testified that the fan was for a moment lying on the ground with nobody helping him. Blythe further commented that he saw the fan get up and that other fans showed him thumbs up. Blythe insisted that he never saw Nosek nor came into contact with him. It was not until the arrest two years later that he found out about Nosek's death.\n"}
{"text": " Blythe further testified that he was not under the influence of alcohol during the concert and that he had never used any drugs. Chris Adler, Lamb of God's drummer, testified that he had not seen anything from the back of the stage and further proclaimed that Blythe's aggressiveness is only a stage act. According to Adler, Blythe is a calm, moderate, and well-read person. The defense also presented videos from various Lamb of God concerts in order to demonstrate that metal music is very energetic and that Blythe regularly cheers to the crowd, but not to encourage people to climb the stage.\n"}
{"text": " Blythe also alleged that after learning about Nosek's death, he had written a letter to the Nosek family, in which he offered help and a meeting in-person. Daniel Nosek's father, however, testified that the family has not been contacted by anyone from the band nor by the defense team. Nosek's father confirmed that his son had been healthy up until the day of the incident. The Nosek family's representative brought a claim for damages in the amount of CZK 10,000,000 (approx. US $ 530,000).\n"}
{"text": " === Day 2 of the trial ===\n"}
{"text": " Altogether, eight witnesses delivered their testimonies on February 5, 2013. Among them were friends of Daniel Nosek. Nosek and three friends had come to attend the concert from Vrchlab\u00ed, a town in mountains some 130 kilometres (81 mi) northwest of Prague. They described Nosek as a huge fan of Lamb of God who had been able to secure an autograph from a guitar player before the concert had started.\n"}
{"text": " Nosek's friend Jan Jebav\u00fd testified that Nosek climbed the stage, and as he turned around towards the crowd he was pushed by Blythe off the stage. He said he was \"100 % sure Blythe pushed Nosek with both hands.\" He further said that Blythe's behavior deviated from all the concerts he had attended in the past, commenting that Blythe was visibly furious. He further claimed that Nosek was not the first person to be chased off the stage by Blythe, with another fan being kicked, choked and receiving a punch from Blythe. Jebav\u00fd corroborated Blythe's testimony that Blythe asked \"Are you okay?\" after Nosek fell and that the crowd gave him a positive reply. However, as Nosek fell sick after the concert, they called him an ambulance. According to Jebav\u00fd, the band had not warned the fans against getting on stage and the security guards did not pay much attention to it.\n"}
{"text": " Nosek's other friend Ond\u0159ej Vlach testified that Nosek's fall happened in a break between the end of concert and the encore. Nosek climbed the stage together with another fan as the band members were leaving to go backstage. According to him, Blythe ran into the two fans and pushed them both off. While the other fan was caught by a couple of fans remaining under the stage, Nosek fell directly on the ground. According to Vlach, there were fewer fans in front of the stage due to the break. Vlach further testified that after the fall, Nosek went to sit on a bench, where he was fetched a water bottle. Nosek began vomiting about half an hour after the fall and as his friends realized that he had a bulge at the back of his head, they called an ambulance for fear he might have a concussion. Vlach said that he understood Blythe's gesture in the break as an invitation to the stage.\n"}
{"text": " Another person to testify was Robert Havelka, who worked as a security guard the night of the incident. Havelka said that the guardrail was too close to the stage, but not so close as to make a platform for climbing the stage. He testified that he pulled one person off the stage and that another person fell off before he could be secured. He further said that the fan's fall might have been helped by someone else, perhaps the singer, though he did not see it precisely.\n"}
{"text": " Blythe's defense team attacked differences between the testimonies the witnesses gave after the incident in 2010 and at the court. Among other things, one of the witnesses originally alleged that Nosek and Blythe shook hands or that one of them offered hand to another on stage; however, at the court hearing, he testified that there was no prior contact between them. Blythe also argued that video evidence shown in court refuted claims about his aggressive behavior.\n"}
{"text": " === Day 3 of the trial ===\n"}
{"text": " Milan Po\u0159\u00e1dek, the fan whom Blythe admitted to shoving off the stage, testified on the third day of the trial. Po\u0159\u00e1dek said he climbed the stage twice in order to stage dive; he changed his mind during the third attempt to get on stage. Po\u0159\u00e1dek testified that Blythe knocked him down, knelt on him and held him down for a moment, but Blythe definitely did not choke him. He also admitted that taking into account the fact that he (Po\u0159\u00e1dek) was drunk and the way he acted, Blythe's reaction was adequate. He commented that he grasped the fact that he was not wanted on stage.\n"}
{"text": " Another witness who had attended the concert at the rear of the crowd testified that Blythe's behavior was standard to metal concerts, saying that metal bands always put on angry and tough acts and the concert at issue was no exception. She said that it was evident that Blythe did not want any fans on the stage. Neither the two nor any other witness who took the stand that day gave a testimony as to the moment of Nosek's fall at the end of the concert.\n"}
{"text": " The judge also read a sworn statement from Abaton's former producer, who stated that she had not known about the incident. She was aware that an ambulance was called that evening, but learned about the reasons for that only later, during the police investigation. The court further heard that Lamb of God had sent a list of security demands to the concert venue, including that barriers should be placed 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) from the stage. Promoter Tom\u00e1\u0161 Fiala testified that although this was not the case, the band had not expressed any concerns to him either before or after the concert.\n"}
{"text": " Randy Blythe was called again to the stand that day. The judge first alerted him that he had the right to remain silent and can deny answering his questions. The judge went again through the Blythe's testimony and, with a view to the previous witness statements, asked Blythe whether he insists that it was Milan Po\u0159\u00e1dek whom Blythe threw off the stage. Blythe responded by saying: \"To the best of my knowledge, it was Milan Po\u0159\u00e1dek who was coming up [on stage] every time.\"\n"}
{"text": " Also that day, expert medical witness Michal Pogo\u0161i took the stand. According to The Prague Post, Pogo\u0161i testified that Nosek's cause of death was pneumonia resulting from a blow to the brainstem. Pogo\u0161i added that the \"mortality rate from this kind of injury is around 40 percent, and that doctors couldn't have done more to save the patient.\" Nosek was initially taken to a nearby hospital less than a kilometer from the venue, where the initial diagnosis took place. Since this hospital did not have a specialized neurology department, Nosek was transferred to another hospital after the diagnosis. There, Nosek underwent two operations, first to tend to the injury and second to reduce pressure on brain by removing some bone.\n"}
{"text": " Finally, defense asked for adjournment as a key witness fell ill. The court decided to continue with the hearings the next day, after which the hearings would be adjourned until March 4, 2013, in order to hear the defense's witness. Blythe committed to return when the trial resumed.\n"}
{"text": " === Day 4 of the trial ===\n"}
{"text": " On February 7, 2013, only one witness took the stand before the hearing was adjourned. Luk\u00e1\u0161 Havlena contacted the defense after reading about the trial in newspapers because he \"didn 't like the description of the situation\" by the previous witnesses. He said he did not think Blythe was aggressive that night, and that fans should realize any aggressive behavior displayed onstage is just part of the show. He also said that each time somebody got on the stage, Blythe demonstrated that they were not allowed there. Havlena testified that he saw how a fan tried to reach the stage three times and that as he was preparing to stage dive, somebody aided his fall from behind. He had not seen anybody fall directly on the ground. Havlena had trouble recalling details from the show, as he had visited multiple concerts on other dates in Abaton, and thus could not describe, among other things, the position of the guardrail.\n"}
{"text": " === Day 5 of the trial ===\n"}
{"text": " The trial resumed on March 4, 2013 with testimonies from expert witnesses in the fields of criminal psychology (Tereza Soukupov\u00e1, appointed by the court) and psychiatry (Alena Gayov\u00e1, appointed by the defense). Blythe returned to attend the hearings in person, even though the presiding judge had told him that at this point they may be undertaken in his absence. The two expert witnesses agreed that Blythe is not aggressive; nevertheless, he may have issues with controlling his emotions under stress. The court further heard testimonies from two eyewitnesses. One of them was a bodyguard who was present at the concert but did not see the fall. He testified that when by the exit, he saw two men taking a third man out of the building to fresh air. He said that he was told by them that the person fell off the stage. The ambulance arrived 5 \u2013 10 minutes later.\n"}
{"text": " Another eyewitness was a fan, Alena Rozs\u00edvalov\u00e1, who testified that she saw Blythe shove Nosek, saying \"[h] e climbed onto the stage, and when he tried to stand up, Blythe shoved him.\" According to her, the shove was strong enough for Nosek to fall behind the front row of the fans into a place where no fans were staying at the moment. She testified that Nosek fell backwards. Another attendee of the concert who took the stand that day did not recall seeing any fall by the end of the concert.\n"}
{"text": " === Day 6 of the trial ===\n"}
{"text": " A defense-appointed expert witness in the field of biomechanics testified on March 5 that Nosek could not turn 180 degrees during the fall and that should he be falling forward, he could not have sustained an injury to the back of his head. He further said that if Nosek fell over the first row of the fans, he must have been not only pushed, but must have jumped himself. The State Attorney immediately attacked this testimony, claiming that the expert witness omitted the conditions at the place and time, as well as some of the eyewitness testimonies, according to which Nosek fell onto his back from the beginning and did not turn during the fall. The presiding judge agreed with the State Attorney on some of his points.\n"}
{"text": " In his closing speech, the State Attorney asked the court to incarcerate Blythe for 5 years, claiming that \"even children in the kindergarten are aware that a fall from height may lead to an injury.\"\n"}
{"text": " A Nosek family representative said that based on the witness testimonies, the family did not believe that Blythe was solely responsible. He continued that he would not be substantiating the requested amount, as no money could replace the loss the family has suffered. He further added that Daniel had died on his father's birthday, and his mother has consequently become a psychiatry patient unable to work.\n"}
{"text": " In his closing word, Blythe said that he did not wish to avoid any responsibility and that if he felt guilty he would have pleaded so. He further commented that in case of acquittal, measures would be undertaken to avoid anything similar from happening at Lamb of God concerts again.\n"}
{"text": " === First instance verdict ===\n"}
{"text": " On March 5, 2013, the court delivered a verdict, according to which Blythe was not criminally liable for Nosek's death, even though he had the moral responsibility for it. Consequently, the court dismissed the damages claim and ordered the return of Blythe's bail.\n"}
{"text": " The court held that it was proven that Blythe had thrown Nosek off the stage. However, Blythe, due to his nearsightedness, could have mistaken Nosek for the other fan who had repeatedly gotten over the guardrail. According to the court, the largest part of the blame lies with the promoters and security members. Judge Kubovec further reproached Blythe for not having met with the Nosek family.\n"}
{"text": " The State Attorney announced that he would appeal the verdict.\n"}
{"text": " === Appeals verdict ===\n"}
{"text": " The State Attorney's appeal was heard by a panel of three judges of the Prague High Court, chaired by judge Ji\u0159\u00ed Ln\u011bni\u010dka. The hearing took place in Blythe's absence. Blythe's acquittal was upheld by the panel on June 5, 2013.\n"}
{"text": " The verdict may have been appealed by the Supreme State Attorney (SSA) to the Supreme Court. As the appeal hasn 't been lodged by SSA within two months of the delivery of written second instance verdict, it has become final.\n"}
{"text": " In 2015 Blythe demanded ca CZK 15 millions for damages but the Municipal Court for Prague 2 dismissed the suit.\n"}
{"text": " == Reaction ==\n"}
{"text": " In reaction to the arrest and detention, a fan created a petition at the official White House petition site. By the time Blythe was released on bail, it gathered over 27,500 signatures.\n"}
{"text": " On July 7, 2012, there was a vigil organized in Lamb of God's hometown of Richmond, Virginia, by a friend of Blythe's. At the event, Gwar (who are also from Richmond) frontman Dave Brockie said: \u201c I don \u2019 t think it was right for him to be arrested. I don \u2019 t think it was right for him to be locked up .... This stuff could have all been worked out diplomatically or legally before he got there. \u201d In addition to Brockie, other notable figures in heavy metal, such as Tom Araya and David Draiman, have also come out in support of Blythe.\n"}
{"text": " In a post to his blog, Blythe explained that he met the Nosek family in private after the trial, and promised them to be \"a spokesperson for safer shows\". He emphasized that the family never attacked him and \"just wanted to know the truth of what had happened to their son\".\n"}
{"text": " = U.S. Route 2 in Michigan =\n"}
{"text": " US Highway 2 (US 2) is a component of the United States Numbered Highway System that connects Everett, Washington, to the Upper Peninsula (UP) of the US state of Michigan, with a separate segment that runs from Rouses Point, New York, to Houlton, Maine. In Michigan, the highway runs through the UP in two segments as a part of the state trunkline highway system, entering the state at Ironwood and ending at St. Ignace; in between, US 2 briefly traverses the state of Wisconsin. As one of the major transportation arteries in the UP, US 2 is a major conduit for traffic through the state and neighboring northern Midwest states. Two sections of the roadway are included as part of the Great Lakes Circle Tours, and other segments are listed as state-designated Pure Michigan Byways. There are several memorial highway designations and historic bridges along US 2 that date to the 1910s and 1920s. The highway runs through rural sections of the UP, passing through two national and two state forests in the process.\n"}
{"text": " The route of what became US 2 was used as part of two Indian trails before European settlers came to the UP, and as part of the Michigan segments of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway and the King's International Highway auto trails in the early 20th century. The state later included these trails as part of M \u2011 12 when the first state highway trunklines were designated in 1919. Most of M \u2011 12 was redesignated as part of US 2 when the US Highway System was created on November 11, 1926. Since the 1930s, several changes have reshaped the highway's routing through the UP. One such alteration eventually created a business loop that connected across the state line with Hurley, Wisconsin, and others pushed an originally inland routing of US 2 closer to the Lake Michigan shoreline. With the creation of the Interstate Highway System, part of US 2 was rerouted to coincide with the new Interstate 75 (I \u2011 75), though in the 1980s, the U.S. Highway was truncated and removed from the I \u2011 75 freeway, resulting in today's basic form.\n"}
{"text": " == Route description ==\n"}
{"text": " According to a 2006 regional planning committee report, US 2 is a key highway for Michigan, providing its main western gateway. The roadway plays \"an important role in the transportation of goods across the northern tier of states in the Midwest\", and is listed on the National Highway System (NHS) for its entire length. The NHS is a network of roadways important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. Together with M \u2011 28, US 2 is part of a pair of primary trunklines that bridge the eastern and western sides of the UP. The 305.151 miles (491.093 km) of roadway in Michigan is divided into a 109.177-mile (175.703 km) western segment and a 195.974-mile (315.390 km) eastern segment, interrupted by a section that runs for 14.460 miles (23.271 km) in the state of Wisconsin.\n"}
{"text": " === Western segment ===\n"}
{"text": " US 2 enters Michigan from Wisconsin for the first time north of downtown Hurley, Wisconsin, and Ironwood, Michigan, over the state line that runs along the Montreal River. The highway crosses the river into Gogebic County and passes a welcome center on the way into a commercial district north of downtown. Running along Cloverland Drive, US 2 meets its only business route in Michigan at Douglas Boulevard. The business route was previously a full loop that ran west through downtown Ironwood and crossed the border into Hurley and back to the main highway. The Wisconsin Department of Transportation has removed the signage on their side of the border, which reduced the loop to a business spur that ends at the state line. US 2 continues eastward through UP woodlands to the city of Bessemer. While bypassing the community of Ramsay, the highway crosses a branch of the Black River. The roadway enters Wakefield on the south side of Sunday Lake, meeting M \u2011 28 at a stoplight in town. As the US Highway leaves Wakefield, it turns southeasterly through the Ottawa National Forest, crossing Jackson Creek and two branches of the Presque Isle River. US 2 and M \u2011 64 merge and run concurrently over the second branch of the Presque Isle in the community of Marenisco. This concurrency has the lowest traffic volume along the entire length of the highway within the state; in 2010 the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) recorded a daily average usage along the stretch of 770 vehicles, compared to the overall average of 5,188 vehicles for the highway. At the end of the concurrency, M \u2011 64 turns northerly to run along Lake Gogebic.\n"}
{"text": " The highway continues parallel to the state line from the Marensico area through the national forest toward Watersmeet. That unincorporated community is the home of the Watersmeet High School Nimrods, the basketball team featured on a series of ESPN commercials and a documentary series on the Sundance Channel. The area is also where the waters meet; the rolling hills drain to Lake Superior via the Ontonagon River, to Lake Michigan via the Brule and Menominee rivers, or to the Gulf of Mexico via the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers. Also located in the area are the Sylvania Wilderness, and the Lac Vieux Desert Indian Reservation, which includes the Lac Vieux Desert Casino and Resort. The highway travels southeasterly from Watersmeet around the many lakes and streams in the area and crosses into rural Iron County. US 2 intersects Federal Forest Highway 16 (FFH 16) near Golden Lake in Stambaugh Township in the middle of the national forest. The trunkline then runs along the Iron River as it approaches the city of the same name and meets M \u2011 73. In town, US 2 intersects M \u2011 189 before crossing the river and turning northeast out of the city.\n"}
{"text": " US 2 leaves the Ottawa National Forest at Iron River, and the highway continues eastward through forest lands near several small lakes to Crystal Falls, the county seat of Iron County. On the west side of town, US 2 meets US 141; the two highways run concurrently along Crystal Avenue. The combined highway turns south onto 5th Street and meets M \u2011 69's eastern terminus at the intersection between 5th Street and Superior Avenue next to the county courthouse at the top of the hill. US 2 / US 141 runs south out of Crystal Falls to the west of, and parallel to, the Paint River. The roadway passes Railroad, Kennedy and Stager lakes and leaves the state of Michigan at the Brule River, crossing into Florence County, Wisconsin for about 14 miles (23 km).\n"}
{"text": " === Eastern segment ===\n"}
{"text": " US 2 / US 141 re-enters Michigan where it crosses the Menominee River and subsequently meets M \u2011 95 in Breitung Township north of Iron Mountain and Kingsford. The highways merge in a triple concurrency and run south on Stephenson Avenue into Iron Mountain along the west side of Lake Antoine, parallel to a branch line of the Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad (ELS Railroad). The road crosses through a retail corridor and over a flooded pit of the Chapin Mine. In downtown Iron Mountain at Ludington Street, M \u2011 95 turns west off Stephenson Avenue to run across town to Kingsford. US 2 / US 141 exits downtown and turns east along a second retail corridor near the Midtown Mall. The highway re-enters Breitung Township where US 141 separates to the south to re-enter Wisconsin. US 2 continues eastward parallel to a branch of the Canadian National Railway (CN Railway). Both road and rail travel through the community of Quinnesec, where they pass near the largest paper mill in the UP. The trunkline runs along the main street of Norway, where the highway meets the eastern terminus of US 8. Then US 2 continues east through rural Dickinson County to Vulcan, passing north of Hanbury Lake through the Copper Country State Forest, before crossing the Sturgeon River in Loretto and passing into Menominee County.\n"}
{"text": " In Menominee County, the environment takes on a more agricultural character along US 2. The highway passes through the edge of the community of Hermansville before entering Powers. US 2 comes to a three-way intersection and turns northeast merging onto US 41. The concurrent highway runs from Powers through the communities of Wilson and Spaulding on the south side of the CN Railway. At Harris, the trunkline enters the Hannahville Indian Community. Harris is on the Menominee County side of the reservation, but as the highway continues east, it crosses over to Bark River on the Delta County side. The county line in between not only separates the two communities, but also serves as the boundary between the Central and Eastern time zones. East of Bark River, the highway crosses the community's namesake waterway before intersecting the eastern terminus of M \u2011 69. The roadway crosses the Ford River prior to turning due east into the outskirts of Escanaba.\n"}
{"text": " US 2 / US 41 widens to four lanes along Ludington Street, which forms the east \u2013 west axis of the Escanaba street grid. Near downtown, the highway meets M \u2011 35, which runs along the city's north \u2013 south axis, Lincoln Avenue. The trunklines merge and run north, bypassing the traditional central business district for a different business corridor. Lincoln Avenue runs north carrying four lanes of traffic past the Upper Peninsula State Fairgrounds, site of one of the two state fairs for the state of Michigan, the only state to have twin fairs. US 2 / US 41 / M \u2011 35 continues north on Lincoln Avenue past the campus of Bay de Noc Community College. The four-lane highway crosses the Escanaba River just upstream from its mouth near the large Mead Paper Mill and shifts to run immediately next to Little Bay de Noc. The section here carried the highest traffic counts along all of US 2 in the state: an average of 23,977 vehicles used this segment of roadway daily in 2011.\n"}
{"text": " The road turns inland again, and US 2 / US 41 / M \u2011 35 passes to the west of downtown Gladstone. The highway through here is an expressway, four lanes divided by a central median and no driveway access. Unlike a freeway, the expressway has standard intersections and not interchanges. The highway intersects the eastern terminus of County Road 426 (CR 426) and crosses the ELS Railroad south of the stoplight for 4th Avenue North, where M \u2011 35 separates from the US Highways and turns to the northwest. The expressway continues north parallel to the CN Railway, crossing the Days River. Through this area, the trunkline carries a speed limit of 65 mph (105 km / h) for car traffic. This is the only road in the UP with a speed limit higher than 55 mph (89 km / h) besides I-75, which has a speed limit of 70 mph (110 km / h). The expressway segment runs around the upper end of Little Bay de Noc before ending at Rapid River. In this location, US 41 separates to the north, and US 2 returns to an easterly track as a two-lane road, crossing the Rapid and Whitefish rivers and turning southeast around the head of the bay. As US 2 crosses southern Delta County, it passes through the western unit of the Hiawatha National Forest. Near Garden Corners, the highway runs along the shore of Big Bay de Noc. After the intersection with the northern terminus of M \u2011 183, US 2 turns inland cutting across the base of the Garden Peninsula and enters Schoolcraft County.\n"}
{"text": " As the highway approaches Thompson, US 2 leaves the western unit of the Hiawatha National Forest and enters the Lake Superior State Forest. The roadway runs along Lake Michigan to Manistique, crossing the Manistique River. The trunkline turns inland approaching Gulliver and then turns north-northeast to Blaney Park. The community there is a former logging town-turned-resort at the southern terminus of M \u2011 77; the resort was active from the late 1920s but declined by the 1980s. From Blaney Park, US 2 turns due east and crosses into Mackinac County west of Gould City. Where it intersects a former routing, the main highway crosses the CN Railway one last time and runs to the south of Engadine to follow the Lake Michigan shoreline through Naubinway. After passing the community of Epoufette, US 2 crosses the Cut River Bridge, 147 feet (45 m) over the Cut River. The highway crosses into the eastern unit of the Hiawatha National Forest near Brevort, running between Lake Michigan and Brevort Lake in the process. The road continues along the Lake Michigan shoreline, passing Mystery Spot near Gros Cap and turning inland immediately west of St. Ignace. The US 2 designation ends at the highway's partial cloverleaf interchange with I \u2011 75. The roadway continues easterly into downtown St. Ignace as Business Loop I \u2011 75 (BL I \u2011 75).\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " === Indian trail through auto trails ===\n"}
{"text": " In 1701, the first transportation routes through what became the state of Michigan were the lakes, rivers and Indian trails. Two of these trails followed parts of the future US 2. The Sault \u2013 Green Bay Trail roughly followed the Lake Michigan shoreline routing of US 2 between Escanaba and St. Ignace. The Mackinac Trail connected St. Ignace with Sault Ste. Marie.\n"}
{"text": " In the age of the auto trail, the roads that later formed US 2 through the UP were given a few different highway names. When the original roadways between Ironwood and Iron River were completed in late 1915, the Upper Peninsula Development Bureau (UPDB) named the area Cloverland and the highway the Cloverland Trail. Later the name was extended over the highway to Escanaba, and to all highways in the area in the early 1920s; the name was phased out by the UPDB completely in 1927. The roadways were also used for the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway, named for former US president Theodore Roosevelt after his death in 1919. Overall, this highway ran from Portland, Oregon, to Portland, Maine, by way of Michigan and the Canadian province of Ontario. Through the UP, the southern branch followed the immediate predecessors to US 2, including the section through Florence County, Wisconsin.\n"}
{"text": " The Great Lakes Automobile Route was established in 1917 by the UPDB. A predecessor of the Great Lakes Circle Tours by seventy years, the route followed \"a circular journey along the banks of lakes Michigan and Superior and Green Bay ...\" This route followed the modern US 2 from Ironwood to the M \u2011 94 junction in Manistique, using the modern M \u2011 69 and M \u2011 95 to stay in Michigan. Branches of the route followed US 41 and M \u2011 35 between Powers and Escanaba. The route was originally intended to entice motorists to drive around Lake Michigan. The name fell out of use before its first anniversary because of World War I.\n"}
{"text": " One Canadian auto trail was routed through the UP as well. In 1920, the King's International Highway linked Vancouver, British Columbia, to Halifax, Nova Scotia, but there was no highway to carry it around the north side of Lake Superior. Motorists had to ship their cars by boat between Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, and Thunder Bay or enter the United States to continue along the auto trail. The routings varied on the maps of the time, but its basic route used US 2 through the UP from Ironwood to Sault Ste. Marie until a highway north of Lake Superior was opened in 1960; by that time, the auto trail had taken on the Trans-Canada Highway name.\n"}
{"text": " === State trunkline ===\n"}
{"text": " The first state trunkline highway designated along the path of the modern US 2 was M \u2011 12, a designation that was in use by July 1, 1919, between Ironwood and Sault Ste. Marie. The first roadside park in the country was created by Herbert Larson near what is now US 2 near Iron River in 1919 \u2013 20, although other sources state that the first was a picnic table alongside US 16 (Grand River Avenue) in 1929 south of Saranac. When the US Highway System was created on November 11, 1926, US 2 partially replaced M-12. Between Crystal Falls and Iron Mountain, US 2 was routed through Florence, Wisconsin. The former routing of M \u2011 12 from Crystal Falls to Sagola became a new M \u2011 69 when the former M \u2011 69 became US 102 (now US 141). M \u2011 12 from Sagola south to Iron Mountain was made a part of an extended M \u2011 45, which is now M \u2011 95. By the next year, M \u2011 48 was added along US 2 from Rexton to Garnet as part of a larger extension.\n"}
{"text": " The first changes to the routing of US 2 itself were made in 1930 with a bypass of downtown Escanaba. A larger rerouting was completed in 1933 between Rogers Park and Sault Ste. Marie. The new routing followed Mackinac Trail instead of turning east to Cedarville and north to Sault Ste. Marie; the former routing was given the M \u2011 121 designation. Another realignment in the Iron Mountain area shifted US 2 / US 141 to a new bridge over the Menominee River between 1932 and 1934. Downtown Ironwood was bypassed in 1934, and the former route was initially designated M \u2011 54.\n"}
{"text": " The Michigan State Highway Department (MSHD) changed the routings and designations of the highways around Cooks, Thompson and Manistique in the mid-1930s. The agency rerouted US 2 between Cooks and M \u2011 149 in Thompson, turning the old road back to county control. The section between M \u2011 149 and M \u2011 125 was redesignated as an extension of M \u2011 149 to Thompson, and M \u2011 125 was replaced by a further extension of M \u2011 149. The last change was to route US 2 along its current alignment in the area, completing the changes on August 2, 1936.\n"}
{"text": " The MSHD started construction in 1936 on a new road that rerouted US 2 into St. Ignace for the first time. Between Brevort and Moran, US 2 previously followed Worth Road inland to the Tahquamenon Trail to meet the northern extension of US 31 into the Upper Peninsula. The new routing took US 2 along the lakeshore into St. Ignace. US 31 was truncated to the state ferry docks in Mackinaw City and US 2 was routed through St. Ignace along the former US 31 to Rogers Park; the connection in St. Ignace to the state ferry docks became M \u2011 122. Further changes in the early 1940s straightened the roadway out near Watersmeet and Crystal Falls.\n"}
{"text": " Additional realignments were completed by the MSHD to move US 2 to its modern lakeshore routing between Gould City and Epoufette in 1941. The new highway traveled due east from Gould City to Naubinway and then along the lake to Epoufette. The former route through Engadine was turned back to local control as far east as Garnet. From there east, it was numbered just M \u2011 48, removing US 2 from a concurrency. Another former section into Epoufette was added to extend M \u2011 117. The new highway was detoured around the Cut River Bridge until it was completed in 1946 after construction delays over steel shortages during World War II.\n"}
{"text": " The western end of US 2 took on two changes in the 1940s. M \u2011 28 was extended along US 2 to the state line at Ironwood from its western terminus at Wakefield. A similar extension was made from M \u2011 28's eastern terminus to Sault Ste. Marie in 1948. The M \u2011 54 designation was renumbered as Business US 2 by 1945. The eastern M \u2011 28 extension was reversed in 1950, and the western extension to the state line was shifted to a new location by 1952.\n"}
{"text": " === Interstate era ===\n"}
{"text": " With the coming of the Interstate Highway System in Michigan, the MSHD planned to convert the eastern section of US 2 to a freeway between St. Ignace and Sault St. Marie. In planning maps from 1947, this highway corridor was included in the system that later became the Interstates. It was also included in the General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955, or Yellow Book after the cover color, that was released in 1955 as the federal government readied plans for the freeway system. The proposed number in 1958 was Interstate 75 (I \u2011 75).\n"}
{"text": " The first section of freeway was built in late 1957 or early 1958 between Evergreen Shores and M \u2011 123 north of St. Ignace. The Mackinac Bridge was opened to traffic on November 1, 1957; a new section of freeway and an interchange connected US 2 to the bridge. In 1961, another new freeway segment closed the gap between the Mackinac Bridge and Evergreen Shores sections. At the time, the I \u2011 75 designation supplanted US 27 on the bridge, and US 2 was shifted to follow I \u2011 75 along the freeways in the St. Ignace area. The former routing of US 2 in downtown St. Ignace was redesignated BL I \u2011 75. More sections of freeway were opened in 1962 immediately to the south of the newly constructed International Bridge in Sault Ste. Marie as well as between Dafter and Kinross. The last two sections opened in 1963 connected the northern end of the freeway at M \u2011 123 to Kinross, and the section between Dafter and Sault Ste. Marie. At this time, all of US 2's former routing became a county road known as Mackinac Trail (H-63).\n"}
{"text": " The Department of State Highways expanded US 2 / US 41 into an expressway between Gladstone and Rapid River in 1971. The state built a new bridge over the Manistique River in 1983, bypassing downtown. MDOT disposed of the former routing of US 2 into downtown in two ways. The western half was initially an unnumbered state highway until it was later transferred to local control. An extension of M \u2011 94 replaced the remainder, including the Siphon Bridge, through downtown. In that same year, the department truncated US 2 to end in St. Ignace by removing it from the I \u2011 75 freeway. The last changes were made to US 2's routing through Iron River in 1998, bypassing the bridge that formerly carried the highway over the river in town. In 2011, MDOT raised the speed limit along the expressway section in Delta County from 55 to 65 mph (89 to 105 km / h), although the speed limit for trucks remains 55 mph (89 km / h).\n"}
{"text": " == Memorial designations and tourist routes ==\n"}
{"text": " On July 1, 1924, the State Administrative Board named M \u2011 12, the predecessor to US 2 in Michigan, the Bohn Highway to honor Frank P. Bohn, a prominent local citizen who later served in Congress from 1927 to 1933. In 1929, the residents of Escanaba created a memorial to the veterans of World War I called Memory Lane. The project consisted of elm and maple trees planted along US 2 / US 41 west of town. The American Legion sold the trees to local businesses and individuals who could honor specific soldiers. Later in 1949, the Bessemer Women's Club created a tribute in the form of a permanent living memorial to the area veterans. Also called Memory Lane, the group planted 140 elms and 1,840 evergreens, trees and shrubs as a landscaped parkway along 2.3 miles (3.7 km) of US 2 east of Bessemer.\n"}
{"text": " Most of US 2, along with US 23 in the Lower Peninsula, was designated the United Spanish War Veterans Memorial Highway in 1949. To connect the gap in the routing where US 2 cuts through Wisconsin, M \u2011 95 and M \u2011 69 were used in place of US 2 between Iron Mountain and Crystal Falls. Signs marking the highway were not erected until 1968 when Governor George W. Romney had them installed.\n"}
{"text": " The Amvets Memorial Drive designation was created for the section of US 2 / US 41 / M \u2011 35 between the northern Escanaba city limits and County Road 426 (CR 426) in Delta County. The American Veterans (AMVETS) organization in Michigan petitioned the Michigan Legislature to grant this designation, which was assigned under Public Act 144 in 1959.\n"}
{"text": " Two sections of US 2 are part of the overall Great Lakes Circle Tour (GLCT): the segment from the Wisconsin state line near Ironwood to the M \u2011 28 junction in Wakefield is part of the Lake Superior Circle Tour (LSCT), and the segment from the southern M \u2011 35 junction in Escanaba to the eastern terminus in St. Ignace is part of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour (LMCT). These two tours were created in May 1986 through a joint effort between MDOT and its counterparts in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Ontario. The section of US 2 between Iron River and Crystal Falls has been named the Iron County Heritage Trail. This Pure Michigan Byway was designated to honor the \"rich history of two industries that built a state and nation: mining and logging.\" On August 26, 2007, MDOT announced that the section of US 2 that runs concurrently with M \u2011 35 in Delta County was being included in the UP Hidden Coast Recreational Heritage Trail.\n"}
{"text": " == Historic bridges ==\n"}
{"text": " There are six bridges along current or former sections of US 2 that MDOT has added to its listing of Michigan's Historic Bridges; two of these are also listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). A third bridge added to the NRHP in late 2012 has not been added to MDOT's listing however. The first of these historic bridges is the crossing of the Iron River, which has since been bypassed by a new bridge. The original structure, dating to 1918, is a 55-foot-long (17 m) spandrel arch span that was built by the MSHD as Trunk Line Bridge No. 191. The structure was listed on the NRHP on December 9, 1999, for its architectural and engineering significance.\n"}
{"text": " In December 2012, the National Park Service approved the listing of the Upper Twin Falls Bridge that crosses the Menominee River northwest of Iron Mountain. The structure is a single-span, pin-connected, camelback, through-truss bridge, and it is the only known example of its type in Michigan. It was built between 1909 and 1910 because the Twin Falls Power Dam would flood an existing river crossing. The span cost $ 5,106 (equivalent to $ 780,000 in 2015), paid equally by Dickinson and Florence counties. Until the 1930s, the Upper Twin Falls Bridge carried US 2 across the Menominee River. In 1934, a new bridge was built about a mile downstream, and the highway was rerouted over the new span. The bridge closed to automobile traffic in September 1971, and the nomination process for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places began in 2012.\n"}
{"text": " In 2003, MDOT replaced the Sturgeon River Bridge in Waucedah Township, Dickinson County. As of October 2011, even though the old bridge was demolished and replaced, MDOT retained it on their historic bridge list. It was built in 1929.\n"}
{"text": " Before 1983, US 2 used a different routing through Manistique and crossed the Manistique River on what is nicknamed the \"Siphon Bridge\". Built as a part of a raceway flume on the river, the water level is actually higher than the road surface. This produces a siphon effect, giving the bridge its nickname. The Manistique Pulp and Paper Company was organized in 1916 and needed a dam on the Manistique River to supply their mill. This dam would require a large section of the city to be flooded, and shallow river banks meant difficulties in any bridge construction. Instead of expensive dikes, a concrete tank was built lengthwise in the river bed; the sides of this tank provided man-made banks higher than the natural banks. The Michigan Works Progress Administration described the bridge as having \"concrete bulkheads, formed by the side spans of the bridge, [that] allow the mill to maintain the water level several feet above the roadbed.\" The Manistique Tourism Council stated: \"At one time, the bridge itself was partially supported by the water that was atmospherically forced under it,\" and that the bridge has been featured in Ripley's Believe It or Not !. The eight-span structure is 294 feet (90 m) long.\n"}
{"text": " The Cut River Bridge carries US 2 across the Cut River in Hendricks Township, Mackinac County. This structure was built during World War II but completion was delayed due to war-induced steel shortages. The span uses 888 short tons (793 long tons; 806 t) of structural steel to bridge the 641 feet (195 m) over the river and its gorge at a height of 147 feet (45 m) above the river. The Cut River Bridge is one of only two cantilevered deck truss bridges in the state. On either side of the bridge, there are picnic areas and trails down to the river.\n"}
{"text": " Listed on the NRHP on December 17, 1999, the Mackinac Trail \u2013 Carp River Bridge carries H-63, the modern successor to US 2, over the Carp River north of St. Ignace. The bridge is another spandrel arch structure 60 feet (18 m) in length and built in 1920. Increasing traffic along Mackinac Trail prompted the MSHD to \"widen its deck by five feet [1.5 m] and install new guardrails in the 1929 \u2013 1930 biennium\" along with the addition of decorative retaining walls.\n"}
{"text": " The last of the historic bridges along a former segment of US 2 is the structure carrying Ashmun Street (BS I \u2011 75) over the Power Canal in Sault Ste. Marie. Built in 1934, it is one of only three steel arch bridges in the state. The 42-foot-wide (13 m) and 257-foot-long (78 m) structure is described by MDOT as \"massive\" with an \"innovative\" construction method: the previous structure was used as a falsework for the current bridge before removal.\n"}
{"text": " == Major intersections ==\n"}
{"text": " MDOT has erected milemarkers along the two Michigan segments of the highway that use the total mileage starting at the state line in Ironwood; the signs on the eastern segment reflect the mileage in Florence County, Wisconsin.\n"}
{"text": " == Business route ==\n"}
{"text": " Business U.S. Highway 2 (Bus. US 2) is a 1.270-mile (2.044 km) business route that runs from the Wisconsin state line at the Montreal River. The route extends through downtown Ironwood on Silver and Aurora streets before turning northward along Suffolk Street. Bus. US 2 stays on Suffolk Street for a short while until it turns onto Frederick Street. On Frederick Street, Bus. US 2 bears north through a residential area along Douglas Street. The eastern terminus of the route is at its junction with US 2 at the corner of Cloverland Drive and Douglas Street north of downtown.\n"}
{"text": " The business route was created in August 1942 when former M \u2011 54 in Ironwood was renumbered as a business loop of US 2. It was originally a bi-state business connection before the Wisconsin Department of Transportation decommissioned Bus. US 2 in Hurley westward along State Trunk Highway 77 and northward along US 51 in 2002.\n"}
{"text": " = Butterfly World Tour =\n"}
{"text": " The Butterfly World Tour was the third concert tour by American singer-songwriter Mariah Carey. The tour promoted Carey's album at the time, Butterfly (1997), and included songs from several of her previous albums. The tour visited Asia, Australia and the United States, with rehearsals taking place in December 1997. Starting on January 11, 1998 the tour spanned five shows in Asia, six in Australia, and one in Hawaii, US. Throughout the tour, Carey varied hairstyles and outfits, as well as song selections. The Butterfly World Tour was very successful; the four dates at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, sold out in under one hour, equaling over 200,000 tickets, breaking the previous record she held at the stadium for show sell-outs.\n"}
{"text": " The tour was recorded in VHS format, and was titled Around the World. The video featured live performances of Carey at different worldwide venues including New York, Japan, Hawaii and Brisbane. Other scenes are included in the video such as a conversation between Carey and Brenda K. Starr prior to her performance of \"I Still Believe\". Prior to the performances in Australia, a scene of Carey swimming with dolphins is shown. Additionally, Olivia Newton-John makes a cameo appearance during their joint performance of Newton-John's song, \"Hopelessly Devoted to You\". The video was commercially successful, being certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and gold in Brazil by the Associa\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos (ABPD).\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " Since her debut in 1990, Carey had not journeyed on a large or extensive tour. In fact, she had not embarked on a tour until her third studio effort, Music Box (1993), when she performed six arena shows in the United States during the Music Box Tour. The opening night of the tour received scathing reviews, mostly aimed at Carey's deemed \"obvious\" stage-fright and failure to make a connection with the crowd. Succeeding nights were more favorably reviewed, with critics raving about Carey's vocals. Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote regarding Carey's live vocals, \"Beyond any doubt, Ms. Carey's voice is no studio concoction. Her range extends from a rich, husky alto to dog-whistle high notes; she can linger over sensual turns, growl with playful confidence, syncopate like a scat singer.\" However, after the strong media attention, Carey did not visit the US on her succeeding Daydream World Tour in 1996, visiting only Europe and Asia. The tour in contrast, received critical acclaim from critics and fans alike, as well as breaking ticket sale records. Carey's three shows at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, sold out in under three hours, equaling in over 150,000 tickets, setting the record of fastest show sellouts in Japan's history. On the Butterfly World Tour, Carey broke the record, selling 200,000 tickets in under one hour. During 1997, after the commercially and critically successful release of Butterfly, Carey had not planned to tour once again, due to the long travel times and strain on her voice. However, due to overwhelming demand by fans, Carey agreed to perform in Asia once again, only extending the tour to Taiwan and Australia, as well as one last show in the United States. Rehearsals for the show began shortly after Christmas 1997, extending for a period of two weeks.\n"}
{"text": " == Concert synopsis ==\n"}
{"text": " The show began with Carey standing on a small elevated centerpiece on stage, surrounded by several long draped curtains. Carey featured three background vocalists throughout the tour, Trey Lorenz, Melodie Daniels and Kelly Price. As the introduction began with \"Emotions\", each of the curtains were slowly draped, revealing Carey atop the platform, dressed in a beige mini-dress and matching sheer blouse and stiletto heels. As she began performing \"Emotions\", the platform was lowered so Carey could access the other sections of the stage throughout the song's performance. After an intimate performance with dimmed lights for \"The Roof (Back in Time)\", Carey was joined on-stage by a Peruvian guitar player, who played the Latin-inspired guitar melodies during her performance of \"My All\". Afterwards, Carey sang \"Close My Eyes\", the only sitting performance of the show. During the song, several male backup dancers performed slow and ample dance routines behind Carey on a higher level of the stage.\n"}
{"text": " For the second part of the show, Carey had the second costume change of the evening, donning a long sequined black gown and semi-teased hair. For the performance of \"Dreamlover\", Carey was joined by three female back-up dancers, who mimicked her light dance routines during the song. The next song on the set-list was \"Hero\", which featured Carey alone on-stage, without any vocal back-up. After the song's performance, Carey was joined on-stage by Lorenz, who performed \"I'll Be There\" alongside her. Next came \"Make It Happen\", a song which accompanied yet another wardrobe change for Carey. She donned a short mini-skirt, alongside a sleeveless white blouse and loose golden curls. On-stage, Carey was joined by a full church choir, all dressed in long black garments. After the song's recital, Carey performed \"One Sweet Day\", alongside a previously recorded video of Boyz II Men during their live performance of the song with Carey at Madison Square Garden in 1995.\n"}
{"text": " After completing the song, Carey changed to a pair of leg-hugging blue jeans and a tank top. Her next performance was the \"Fantasy\" remix, featuring Ol ' Dirty Bastard on a large projection screen behind the stage, as Carey performed light chair dance-routines alongside several male dancers. The performance featured the most intricate choreography Carey performed on the tour. After a low-key performance of \"Babydoll\", or \"Whenever You Call\" in other countries, Carey was once again joined by several male dancers, as she sang \"Honey\", while re-enacting the music video during a small skit. Carey once again changed to a beige ensemble similar to her first outfit before performing her debut single, \"Vision of Love\". The final song on the tour was \"Butterfly\", which featured large stills of butterflies and flowers projected onto the large screen behind Carey. She donned a long brown sequined gown for the performance, being joined on stage once again by her trio of back-up singers. During the shows in Japan, Carey performed her holiday classic \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\", alongside various male and female dancers on stage who performed light dance routines alongside Carey. During the song, Carey donned a Santa suit and matching hat, while being carried on a large stage prop by the dancers.\n"}
{"text": " == Critical reception ==\n"}
{"text": " Virtually the entire tour was an instant sell-out; the four shows at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, broke Carey's previous ticket-sales record, selling out all 200,000 tickets in under one hour. Additionally, the entire Australian leg sold out within hours, leading Carey to extend the tour one more date in the United States. The show at Hawaii's 50,000 capacity Aloha Stadium sold out as well, making her one of the few acts in the stadiums history to sell out the entire venue. Aside from its commercial success, fans and critics raved about the show's visuals, as well as Carey's vocal delivery.\n"}
{"text": " == Broadcasts and recordings ==\n"}
{"text": " During the tour, several bits and performances were filmed and later edited into a VHS and DVD entitled Around the World. The VHS featured performances from Tokyo Dome, Aloha Stadium as well as few other skits and scenes that were later compiled into the video. The film first begins with performances in Hawaii, where the song's recitals are cut into halves, excluding the second verses and bridge to shorten the bulk length of the video. Afterwards, Carey's performance of \"My All\" is shown in inter-cut scenes from Japan and Taipei. After the conclusion of the song, scenes of Carey conversing with Brenda K. Starr are shown, which eventually lead to a tribute to her at a small and intimate New York club, where Carey performs \"I Still Believe\". Soon after, Carey's performance in Japan with Lorenz for \"I'll Be There\" is shown, leading to scenes of Carey swimming with dolphins in Australia. the next title on the video is Carey's live rendition of \"Hopelessly Devoted To You\", where she is joined by Olivia Newton-John on stage in Melbourne. A scene of a fans gathering outside of a New York City studio is shown, following a performance of \"Honey,\" and \"Hero\" at Aloha Stadium. The VHS was a commercial success, being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over 100,000 units. The video was also certified gold in Brazil by the Associa\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos (ABPD).\n"}
{"text": " == Set list ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Looking In / Butterfly (Intro)\"\n"}
{"text": " \"Emotions\"\n"}
{"text": " \"The Roof\"\n"}
{"text": " \"My All\"\n"}
{"text": " \"Close My Eyes\"\n"}
{"text": " \"Daydream Interlude (Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix)\"\n"}
{"text": " \"Dreamlover\"\n"}
{"text": " \"Hero\"\n"}
{"text": " \"I 'll Be There\" (with Trey Lorenz)\n"}
{"text": " \" Make You Happy (Trey Lorenz)\n"}
{"text": " \"Make It Happen\"\n"}
{"text": " \"One Sweet Day\" (featuring pre-recorded Boyz II Men)\n"}
{"text": " \" Ain 't Nobody (Band Interlude)\n"}
{"text": " \"Fantasy ( Bad Boy Remix\"\n"}
{"text": " \"Whenever You Call\" 1\n"}
{"text": " \" Breakdown1\n"}
{"text": " \"Honey\" (featuring pre-recorded Mase) \"\n"}
{"text": " \"Vision of Love\"\n"}
{"text": " \" Butterfly\n"}
{"text": " \" Without You1\n"}
{"text": " \"Butterfly (Outro)\"\n"}
{"text": " \" All I Want for Christmas is You1\n"}
{"text": " < sus > 1 < / sus > Performed on select dates\n"}
{"text": " == Shows ==\n"}
{"text": " == Personnel ==\n"}
{"text": " Walter Afanasieff - director, keyboard\n"}
{"text": " Dan Shea - keyboard\n"}
{"text": " Vernon Black - guitar\n"}
{"text": " Randy Jackson - bass\n"}
{"text": " Gigi Conway - drums\n"}
{"text": " Peter Michael - percussion\n"}
{"text": " Gary Cirimelli - music sequencing\n"}
{"text": " Trey Lorenz - vocals, background vocals\n"}
{"text": " Kelly Price - background vocals\n"}
{"text": " Cheree Price - background vocals\n"}
{"text": " Melonie Daniels - background vocals\n"}
{"text": " Cindy Mizelle - background vocals\n"}
{"text": " Source:\n"}
{"text": " = Thelnetham Windmill =\n"}
{"text": " Thelnetham Windmill, also known as Button's Mill is a Grade II * listed tower mill constructed of brick. The windmill is located at Thelnetham, Suffolk, England. It was built in the early nineteenth century to grind wheat into flour. Thelnetham windmill worked by wind power until 1924, latterly on two sails, after which it became derelict.\n"}
{"text": " In 1979, a group of enthusiasts purchased Thelnetham windmill for restoration. Numerous volunteers helped to restore the mill to full working order over an eight-year period. The mill is open to the public, and flour ground at the mill can be bought at the site.\n"}
{"text": " The mill is a small four storey tower mill with Patent sails and winded by a fantail. It drives two pairs of millstones, with a third pair driven by an auxiliary engine.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " The windmill at Thelnetham was built by millwright George Bloomfield for William Button in 1819. It replaced a post mill which had been moved to Sandy Lane, Diss, Norfolk the previous year. The mill was set to work on Christmas Day 1819. In 1832, the mill was modernised by the fitting of a cast-iron windshaft, Patent sails and a fantail. The new windshaft was fitted on 16 July 1832. It was made by J Aickman, the Kings Lynn millwright, and weighs 1 \u00be tons (1,780 kg). A new stock was fitted in September 1836. William Button died on 11 February 1837. The mill passed jointly to his widow Rebecca and their son Richard. Richard Button worked the mill until 1860, at which date it was conveyed to his sons Richard and William, who sold it to Richard Peverett from Kenninghall, Norfolk in 1862.\n"}
{"text": " The mill was worked by Stephen Peverett, Richard's son. He inherited the mill on the death of his father in 1875 and leased it to Henry Bryant in 1879. In 1884, the mill was sold by auction, and Henry Bryant purchased the freehold. Bryant rebuilt the floors of the mill. From 1892, a portable steam engine was used as auxiliary power, driving an extra pair of millstones on the ground floor. This was replaced in 1914 by a Hornsby oil engine. Bryant ran the mill until 1920 when he sold it to Alphonso Vincent, a retired millwright from Garboldisham, Norfolk. The Hornsby engine was sold in the early 1920s. The mill was tailwinded c1920, and as a result one pair of sails was removed. Vincent carried out some repairs to the mill and ran it until he retired in 1924. One of the remaining two sails was wrecked in 1926 when the mill was again tailwinded.\n"}
{"text": " On the death of Alphonso Vincent in 1932, his son George inherited the property. He lived at the site in an old lorry until his death in 1973. The mill passed to his daughter, who sold it in 1974 to Mr and Mrs Humphries, who intended to convert it into a house. They later changed their minds and offered it for sale for restoration. In 1976, the cap of the mill was blown to pieces in a gale. Thelnetham windmill was purchased by five members of the Suffolk Mills Group in November 1979, and plans for restoration were made. The consortium consisted of Mark Barnard, Charles Dolman, Peter Dolman, David Pearce and Chris Seago. The derelict mill and an acre of land cost \u00a3 6,000.\n"}
{"text": " == Restoration ==\n"}
{"text": " The mill was restored over a period of six years. Much of the work was carried out by enthusiasts who used working holidays to repair the mill.\n"}
{"text": " === 1979 \u2013 1980 ===\n"}
{"text": " The consortium took possession of the mill in November 1979. The first priority was to make the mill as weathertight as possible. Polythene sheets were spread on the dust floor of the mill to prevent further water penetration of the structure. The mill was surveyed and recorded. In spring 1980, the dust floor partially collapsed and was removed as a safety measure. Scaffolding was erected to allow the fanstage to be dismantled, and the cap centering wheels were removed in preparation for the removal of the cap frame.\n"}
{"text": " A two-week work-in was held at the end of July and beginning of August 1980. Thirty-three volunteers worked on the mill over the work-in. Two new main floor beams for the dust floor were made from baulks of pitch pine which had previously been in a maltings at Bury St Edmunds. On 3 August 1980, the windshaft and remaining sail fragments were removed by a mobile crane, followed by the cap frame and the cast-iron curb sections.\n"}
{"text": " New oak joists were laid on the dust floor and temporary boarding laid to provide a working platform for repairs to the top of the mill tower. The bin floor was removed, apart from one oak main beam which was repairable. A replacement main beam was made from pitch pine, and the oak beam was repaired. New oak joists were fitted, along with some salvaged from the original floor which were fit to be reused. One of these had previously been a whip from a Common sail. Some of the joists were made from pitch pine from the Eastbridge Windpump, which, following its collapse on 19 February 1977, had been re-erected at the Museum of East Anglian Life, Stowmarket. The sack hoist was dismantled to enable its repair, brickwork was repaired, and new lintels were made for some of the windows. A tarpaulin was secured over the mill tower to keep the weather out over winter. The floorboards on the bin floor were replaced and one of the two pairs of millstones was removed.\n"}
{"text": " The work was financed by grants of \u00a3 500 from the Council for the Preservation of Rural Essex, \u00a3 250 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council, \u00a3 200 from the Scarfe Trust, and \u00a3 200 from the Suffolk Mills Group. Other donations and income amounted to \u00a3 65, with the balance of expenditure being met jointly by the five owners.\n"}
{"text": " The \"work-in\" was reported in both local and national media, including BBC Look East, Bury Free Press, Eastern Daily Press, East Anglian Daily Times, Daily Telegraph, and Radio Orwell.\n"}
{"text": " === 1981 ===\n"}
{"text": " In the 1981 season two separate work-ins were held, the first from 25 July to 2 August and the second from 22 August to 30 August. A total of 37 volunteers participated over the two weeks.\n"}
{"text": " The millstones were removed from the stone floor, which was then repaired. One of the main beams was found to have been attacked by Death Watch beetles, and over a third of the elm beam was replaced with oak. The six supports for the hurst frame were repaired one at a time, as they bore the whole of the weight of the machinery above. One post required replacement. It had rotted and the floor had sunk by 4 inches (100 mm) causing the second main floor beam to fracture. When this work had been completed, the stone floor was removed, including the second main floor beam, which was removed in one piece so that the most suitable route to install its replacement could be assessed.\n"}
{"text": " The new main beam for the stone floor was installed and the ground floor was concreted. The stone floor was reconstructed, reusing the old stone bearers and those joists that were fit for reuse. Other joists were made new from oak or pitch pine. New floorboards were laid in the dust floor, the 1 1 \u2044 4 inches (32 mm) thick elm boards being double-grooved with a metal tongue between them. Those on the bin floor are of a similar configuration. The top four courses of brickwork of the mill tower were removed and work began on rebuilding them, aided by a trammel attached to the upright shaft.\n"}
{"text": " During the second work-in, the remainder of the stone floor was boarded, again using double-grooved boards with a metal tongue between them. The window on the dust floor was rebuilt and the reconstruction of the top four courses of brickwork continued. The top two courses were rebuilt with red engineering bricks. The dust floor window had a reinforced concrete lintel cast as the tower was weak at this point and had distorted. The windshaft, the curb segments and fantail gearing were given two coats of red lead paint. A new finial for the cap was made from a piece of oak 3 feet (910 mm) long by 16 inches (410 mm) diameter. A start was made on removing the old pointing on the brickwork and repointing with gauged mortar.\n"}
{"text": " After the work-in had finished, the boarding of the stone floor was completed and the mill thoroughly cleaned in preparation for an open day which was held in late autumn. The work done in 1981 cost \u00a3 3,250. Donations received were \u00a3 2,000 from Rank Xerox, \u00a3 1,704 from the Historic Buildings Council and \u00a3 130 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council. Other donations and income received amounted to \u00a3 70. The project received further coverage in local media, the Eastern Daily Press, and South Norfolk News.\n"}
{"text": " === 1982 ===\n"}
{"text": " The 1982 work-ins took place from 24 July to 1 August and 21 August to 29 August. The work planned included the completion of the brickwork at the top of the tower, installation of the Elm curb, a start on the construction of the new cap, installing machinery and making and fitting various doors and windows. The cap frame was constructed, incorporating two beams from the original cap frame that were fit to be reused. The cap frame was completed in autumn 1982. It had been constructed upside down and a mobile crane was used to turn it over and place the windshaft into position.\n"}
{"text": " === 1983 ===\n"}
{"text": " Work in the early part of 1983 was mainly confined to smaller jobs such as casting various brasses and overhaul of the various parts of the fantail drivetrain and mechanism for controlling the Patent sails. The mill was generally made as safe as possible inside in preparation for scheduled visits, including one from the Wind and Watermill Section of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. Other work included the overhaul of the final drive to the 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m) stones, including dismantling the stone nut and replacement of three cogs in beech.\n"}
{"text": " When the weather improved, work commenced outside. The cap circle was mostly constructed before the first work-in commenced. The work-ins took place over two separate weeks in July and August, with 35 people participating. During the first work-in, the fantail posts and braces were fitted. The oak cap ribs, which had been prefabricated offsite were fitted and the finial was supported by scaffolding ready for final fitting. Intermdiate noggings of oak were fitted and the finial was pulled into position using a windlass. The cap frame was competed with the fitting of intermediate ribs and noggings. The rear of the cap circle was also completed during this time.\n"}
{"text": " Between the two work-ins, the rear dormer was completed and the fitting of noggings to the cap frame completed. This enabled a start to be made on boarding the cap on the Monday of the second work-in. The boards for the cap are \u00bd inch (13 mm) thick and 9 inches (230 mm) wide at the petticoat, tapering towards the top. A new neck bearing was installed under the windshaft, not without difficulty and much machining before it would fit. When the boarding of the cap was completed, the cover strips were fitted over the joints. The petticoat was drawn into position using a rope and windlass, and the galvanised steel reinforcing band screwed into position, producing a sturdy structure. The striking rod was fitted through the windshaft and the axle for the fantail fitted in position on top of the fantail posts. At the top of the mill tower, the curb was prepared to accept the cap, and the cast iron curb track plates bolted into position. Repointing of the brickwork of the tower continued, with nearly half of it completed at the end of the second work-in.\n"}
{"text": " After the work-ins had ended, work continued on finishing the cap which was scheduled for lift-on in October. The weather hampered the work initially, but the application of a modern microporous paint, designed to withstand normal movement of the timber and yet remain waterproof, was completed in time for the lift-on. A mini work-in was held the weekend before the cap was lifted, with 17 people participating over the weekend. Final work was done to the cap and a new window was fitted to the stone floor of the mill. The tarpaulin was removed and the trammel dismantled. The 5-ton cap was lifted into place by a mobile crane on 24 October 1983, watched by a crowd of some 70 people. The fitting of the cap was toasted with beer from Adnams Brewery, Southwold.\n"}
{"text": " Restoration work in 1983 cost \u00a3 1,408. Grants were received from the Association of Independent Museums, Blo 'Norton Women's Institute, Ipswich Historical Transport Society, the National Association for Gifted Children, Mr D. Porter and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. Further income came from the sale of guide books and a drawing of the mill by Wilf Foreman.\n"}
{"text": " === 1984 ===\n"}
{"text": " Four work-ins were held during 1984. The first two were by apprentices from Eastern Electricity Board. Thelnetham Windmill was chosen at the project to benefit from the Young Person's Development Project for that year. Pakenham Watermill had previously benefited from the project, and its owners, the Suffolk Preservation Trust, had suggested that Thelnetham Windmill would be a good candidate for the scheme. Two separate parties spent a week each at the mill. A mains electricity supply was provided. An underground cable was laid with assistance from British Telecom who were trialling a thrust borer which had been developed at their research facility at Martlesham Heath. The thrust borer laid 25 yards (23 m) of ducting through which the mains cable was pulled into position. The mill was then supplied with lights and sockets on each floor.\n"}
{"text": " Other work undertaken by the apprentices involved repairing some frost damage to the foundation brickwork, digging a drainage trench around the mill and moving the auxiliary engine into position. A concrete path around the tower was trapping moisture, leading to rising damp. A French drain was constructed around the mill to remedy these problem. A 21 horsepower (16 kW) Ruston & Hornsby 4YHR diesel engine had been purchased in 1981 and was fitted onto a permanent concrete base with the aid of a mobile crane. After fitting it was then painted. Some missing or broken parts were made or repaired as necessary.\n"}
{"text": " Off-site, the new brake wheel and fantail were made. The original brake wheel was too rotten to repair, and showed evidence that it had been altered from the original one installed in 1819. The original brake wheel was 6 feet (1.83 m) diameter to allow the Common sails to run at their optimum speed. When the mill was modernised in 1832 it was necessary to alter the gear ratios within the mill, as Patent sails run at a slower speed than Common sails. The great spur wheel was increased in diameter and the stone nuts reduced in diameter. The brake wheel was also rebuilt, with a cast iron segment ring fitted in place of the original cogs, resulting in a wheel 7 feet 2 inches (2.18 m) in diameter. The opinion of professional millwrights was sought, and it was decided that a scaled-up version of the original brake wheel would be made, but retaining the cast iron teeth segments. The remains of the original brake wheel were retained as an exhibit in the mill. The original iron segments were all broken, so a pattern was made and new segments were cast in heat-treated malleable cast iron. When the brake wheel was completed it was dismantled and transported to the mill ready for reassembly.\n"}
{"text": " The fantail was made. Some of the small gears were replaced. The stocks were made from pitch pine and the blades from Douglas fir. Work at the mill over the winter included repairs to the brickwork and windows, with only one window still needing attention when the first work-in began. New beech cogs were fitted to the crown wheel, which was restored to its correct position on the upright shaft.\n"}
{"text": " The stocks and sails were made during the two work-ins held in July and August, a total of 41 people attending over the two weeks. A second-hand stock had been bought in the 1920s and preserved at the mill, but upon examination it was found to be unfit for use. Thus two new stocks were required instead of one. Modern steel stocks had already been discounted on cost and durability grounds, leaving two options. Traditional stocks made from a single piece of timber, or laminated stocks. Good quality pitch pine was not obtainable in the lengths required. Douglas fir was obtainable in such lengths but was discounted on strength and durability grounds. A Douglas fir stock on a nearby mill had rotted after only seven years. Thus it was decided that laminated stocks would be made.\n"}
{"text": " The 52 feet (15.85 m) long stocks were made from Douglas fir. All timber had been pressure treated with preservative and well seasoned. It was estimated that a laminated stock would be up to 20 % stronger than a similar stock of solid timber. The timber used was 1 1 \u2044 2 inches (38 mm) thick and nine laminations were required at the centre, where the stock passes through the poll end of the windshaft. Careful attention was paid to where individual joints occurred between different pieces of timber. Both stocks were made during the work-in, with one of them being trimmed and finished ready for use. The stocks were the first laminated stocks made by amateurs.\n"}
{"text": " The four sails were made. The originals being slightly different pairs. Those on the inner stock having bays of 3 feet (910 mm) pitch and those on the outer stock having bays of 3 feet 2 inches (970 mm) pitch. It was decided that the new sails would be identical, at the larger pitch. Four 27 feet (8.23 m) long whips were cut from a baulk of pitch pine obtained from a demolished maltings at Bury St Edmunds. The whips are 6 inches (150 mm) square at their inner end. Sail bars and uplongs were made from modern pitch pine, selected for quality. The mortices for the sail bars were cut. That at the heel of the sail being at 27\u00b0and that at the tip being 15 \u00b0, decreasing by 1 \u00bd\u00b0at each sail bar. Three of the four sails had been completed at the end of the work in.\n"}
{"text": " The fantail and associated gearing was fitted to the mill. At the end of the second work-in, the cap could be turned by means of the hand crank. The fantail itself, with the blades painted red, white and blue was installed shortly afterwards. The clasp arm brake wheel was assembled around the windshaft. It was found that the wallower was eccentric on the upright shaft by \u00bd inch (13 mm). When this was corrected the brake wheel was within 1 / 16 th of an inch (less than 1 mm) of true. The clamps for the stocks were sawn from a baulk of pitch pine ready for completion later in the year. Other work included a new frame for one of the ground floor doors, cleaning and painting ironwork and further repointing on the brickwork. The four sails were fitted to the mill with the aid of a mobile crane at the end of the second work-in. The stock, with one sail attached was carefully inserted through the poll end of the windshaft and when wedged in position and the clamps had been attached the second sail was fitted to the stock. The process was repeated for the second pair of sails. The mill turned by wind again on the last day of the second work-in.\n"}
{"text": " Work later in the year included the finishing of the fourth sail, balancing the fantail and sorting out teething troubles with the fantail gearing. The brake and brake lever were made and installed and shutter cranks for the sails were cast.\n"}
{"text": " Restoration work in 1984 cost \u00a3 2,918. Grants received were \u00a3 1,209 from English Heritage, \u00a3 500 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council, Other donations amounted to \u00a3 52. Income from open days at the mill came to \u00a3 151. A boost to the funds was \u00a3 2,000 from Hervey Benham. This money had been allocated to allow the moving of a derelict post mill buck to Thelnetham. In the end, the removal was not proceeded with, and Mr Benham allowed the donation to remain with the Thelnetham Mill Preservation Trust. The project received further support in local media, including the East Anglian Daily Times, one of the work-ins being featured on Anglia Television's About Anglia programme.\n"}
{"text": " === 1985 - 87 ===\n"}
{"text": " Work planned for 1985 included the replacement of the dust floor window and completion of the stocks and sails. The external walls of the mill were tarred and internal walls plastered. Two work-ins were held, from 20 July to 28 July and 17 August to 26 August. Further work over the next two years saw the restoration completed in 1987.\n"}
{"text": " == Restoration team ==\n"}
{"text": " The restoration of Thelnetham Windmill was made possible by the efforts of 135 individuals and 61 organisations. This was achieved by the donation of labour, plant, materials or grants of money, or by giving discounts for materials purchased or providing publicity for the project.\n"}
{"text": " == Description ==\n"}
{"text": " Terms explained in the Mill machinery article are in italics\n"}
{"text": " As built in 1819\n"}
{"text": " A four-storey tower mill with Common sails carried on a wooden windshaft, driving two pairs of overdrift millstones. Brake wheel 6 feet (1.83 m) diameter. Winding was by hand.\n"}
{"text": " As restored\n"}
{"text": " The four-storey tower is built of brick, and stands 31 feet 5 inches (9.58 m) from ground level to the curb. The walls are 2 feet (610 mm) thick at ground level. The mill is described from the top down.\n"}
{"text": " The pepperpot cap sits on top of the tower, giving the mill an overall height of 45 feet (13.72 m) to the finial. It houses the cast-iron windshaft and 7 feet 2 inches (2.18 m) diameter wooden brake wheel internally. Externally the four double Patent sails span 64 feet (19.51 m). They are 9 feet (2.74 m) wide and can develop 30 horsepower (22 kW). The eight bladed fantail keeps the mill turned into wind.\n"}
{"text": " The top floor of the mill is the dust floor. It could be used for storage of grain and gives internal access to the cap. The cast-iron wallower, which is driven by the brake wheel is carried at the top of the upright shaft, in the centre of the mill.\n"}
{"text": " The bin floor is where the grain is stored before being ground into flour. The sack hoist mechanism is housed on this floor, driven from the wooden crown wheel on the floor below by belt.\n"}
{"text": " The stone floor is where the two pairs of underdrift French Burr millstones are located. The stones are 4 feet 4 inches (1.32 m) and 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m) diameter. The wooden crown wheel is located towards the ceiling. This drives the sack hoist on the bin floor. Other machinery on this floor are an oat crusher and a flour dresser.\n"}
{"text": " The ground floor of the mill is the meal floor. It is where the freshly ground flour is delivered for bagging up. The wooden great spur wheel, located at the bottom of the extended upright shaft and stone nuts are located on this floor. The great spur wheel has been converted from compass arm construction to clasp arm construction. A third pair of 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m) diameter French Burr millstones is located on a hurst frame, driven by the auxiliary engine via a fast and loose pulley.\n"}
{"text": " == Millers ==\n"}
{"text": " William Button 1819-37\n"}
{"text": " Rebecca Button 1837-? ?\n"}
{"text": " Richard Button 18? ? -60\n"}
{"text": " William Button 1860-62\n"}
{"text": " Richard Button (Jr) 1860-62\n"}
{"text": " Stephen Peverett 1862-79\n"}
{"text": " Henry Bryant 1879-1920\n"}
{"text": " Alphonso Vincent 1920-24\n"}
{"text": " George Vincent 1920-24\n"}
{"text": " Reference for above: -\n"}
{"text": " == Culture and media ==\n"}
{"text": " A video of the restoration of the mill was produced by Viv Codd.\n"}
{"text": " == Public access ==\n"}
{"text": " Thelnetham Mill is open to the public on Easter Monday, the Sunday of the late May and August bank holidays and the first Sunday in July, August and September. It is also open at other times by prior arrangement.\n"}
{"text": " = Sailor Mouth =\n"}
{"text": " \"Sailor Mouth\" is the first segment of the 18th episode of the second season, or the 38th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants. The episode was directed by Andrew Overtoom, and was written by Walt Dohrn, Paul Tibbitt, and Merriwether Williams. Dohrn and Tibbitt also served as storyboard directors, and Carson Kugler, William Reiss, and Erik Wiese worked as storyboard artists. It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on September 21, 2001.\n"}
{"text": " The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom. In this episode, SpongeBob reads a \"bad word\" off a dumpster behind the Krusty Krab, but does not know what it means. Patrick explains to him that it is a \"sentence enhancer\" which is used \"when you want to talk fancy.\" The two start using it in every sentence they speak. However, when Mr. Krabs hears them, he warns the two never to use the word again or any of the 13 bad words. Later on, SpongeBob accidentally swears again. Patrick then runs to tell Mr. Krabs with SpongeBob trying to stop him. However, when Mr. Krabs accidentally injures his toe, he utters all the 13 bad words. The two cannot believe it and run to Mama Krabs to tell on him. Mama Krabs, who is appalled by their use of the words, makes the three paint her house as punishment.\n"}
{"text": " The episode received positive reviews, while various members of the SpongeBob SquarePants crew consider the episode to be one of their favorites, mainly due to the satirical nature of the episode. However, the episode was not immune to negative reception, and was criticized by watchdog media group the Parents Television Council and fans, who interpreted the episode as an example of promoting and implicitly satirizing use of profanity towards children.\n"}
{"text": " == Plot summary ==\n"}
{"text": " When SpongeBob goes around to the back of the Krusty Krab to take out the trash, he reads some words written on a dumpster. SpongeBob asks Patrick what is it and Patrick says that the word is a \"sentence enhancer\" which is used \"when you want to talk fancy.\" The next day, SpongeBob walks into the Krusty Krab and says the word to Patrick and then over the intercom. The Krusty Krab customers are appalled by SpongeBob's use of his \"word\" and leave. Squidward then informs Mr. Krabs, who then decides to tell them that they were using profanity, and mentions that there are 13 swear words they should not use. SpongeBob and Patrick vow Mr. Krabs that they will never use swear words again.\n"}
{"text": " Later, they play their favorite game, Eels and Escalators. Patrick always gets escalators but SpongeBob always gets eels. Eventually, he loses the game and accidentally utters the swear word. Patrick then races to the Krusty Krab to tell Mr. Krabs with SpongeBob trying to stop him. SpongeBob bursts through the front door and tells Mr. Krabs that Patrick said the swear word, Patrick then joins along. Eventually, Mr. Krabs stops their gibberish explanations, and takes SpongeBob and Patrick outside and makes them paint the Krusty Krab as punishment.\n"}
{"text": " Mr. Krabs is about to give SpongeBob and Patrick the job, but he hits his foot on a rock, throws the paint away and says all 13 swear words while complaining about his foot being injured. When SpongeBob and Patrick hear all the swear words, they run to Mama Krabs' house to tell her that Mr. Krabs swears. When they all reach her house, they repeat the same swear words that Mr. Krabs used. This makes her faint, but shortly after Mr. Krabs scolds SpongeBob and Patrick for saying all those bad words in front of her she regains consciousness. Mama Krabs states that all three of them should be ashamed for saying all those words. She then gives all three of them the task of painting her house with a fresh coat of paint as punishment for saying those words at her.\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Sailor Mouth\" was directed by Andrew Overtoom, and was written by Walt Dohrn, Paul Tibbitt, and Merriwether Williams. Dohrn and Tibbitt also served as storyboard directors, and Carson Kugler, William Reiss and Erik Wiese worked as storyboard artists. Series creator Stephen Hillenburg has described the episode plot as \"a classic thing all kids go through.\" Much of the storyline for the episode was inspired by the writers'own experiences from childhood. The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on September 21, 2001. The episode marks the introduction of Mr. Krabs' mother, Mama Krabs, who was voiced by former SpongeBob SquarePants creative producer and current executive producer Paul Tibbitt.\n"}
{"text": " The writing staff used their individual childhood experiences as inspirations to come up with much of the story lines for this episode. The idea for \"Sailor Mouth\" was inspired by creative director Derek Drymon's experience \"[when] I got in trouble for saying the f-word in front of my mother.\" Drymon said, \"The scene where Patrick is running to Mr. Krabs to tattle, with SpongeBob chasing him, is pretty much how it happened in real life.\" The end of the episode, where Mr. Krabs uses more profanity than SpongeBob and Patrick, was also inspired \"by the fact that my [Drymon's] mother has a sailor mouth herself.\"\n"}
{"text": " The scene where SpongeBob and Patrick playing a game of Eels and Escalators, which is a parody of Snakes and Ladders, was difficult for the crew to animate, since many shots featured certain board pieces changing location. According to the series'season 2 DVD commentary, it was planned to have a scene that had SpongeBob saying \"Go' dolphin noise 'yourself\" followed by Patrick saying \"' Dolphin noise ' you too!\" during the Eels and Escalators game. It was removed in the final episode check because it would have been inappropriate for the younger audience.\n"}
{"text": " \"Sailor Mouth\" was released on the DVD compilation called SpongeBob SquarePants: Sea Stories on March 12, 2002. It was also included in the SpongeBob SquarePants: The Complete 2nd Season DVD released on October 19, 2004. On September 22, 2009, \"Sailor Mouth\" was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants: The First 100 Episodes, alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five.\n"}
{"text": " == Reception ==\n"}
{"text": " Erik Wiese, a member of the SpongeBob SquarePants crew, considers \"Sailor Mouth\" to be his favorite episode, mainly due to its random and satirical nature, saying \"Sometimes SpongeBob just catches me off-guard.\" Nancy Basile of About.com ranked the episode at number two for her list of the Top 10 SpongeBob SquarePants Episodes. She said \"'Sailor Mouth' just barely missed being in the number one slot.\" Basile praised the episode's plot and called it \"genius [...] because children can relate to the forbidden thrill of using curse words, and adults can laugh at the parody of TV censorship.\" In an interview with Paul Tibbitt, one of the episode's writers, he told that \"Sailor Mouth\" is his second favorite SpongeBob episode.\n"}
{"text": " === Criticism and controversy ===\n"}
{"text": " According to a report titled Wolves in Sheep's Clothing, which documents the increase in potentially violent, profane, and sexual content in children's programming, the Parents Television Council, a watchdog media group, and fans believed the SpongeBob SquarePants episode \"Sailor Mouth\" was an implicit attempt to promote and satirize use of profanity among children. The episode originally aired during the 2001 \u2013 02 television season, ironically the season in which the PTC named SpongeBob SquarePants among the best programs on cable television, but the report cited a repeat broadcast of the episode from 2005 to prove its point that it promoted use of profanity among children. In a later report, several members of the PTC listed \"Sailor Mouth\" as an example of how levels of profane, sexual, and violent activity has increased in children's television programming. Nickelodeon, in response to the incident, said \"It's sad and a little desperate that they stooped to literally putting profane language in the mouths of our characters to make a point. Has the FCC looked at this?\" Richard Huff of the New York Daily News criticized the report for misinterpreting an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants, \"Sailor Mouth\", over its intent to satirize profanity implicitly.\n"}
{"text": " = Military history of Australia =\n"}
{"text": " The military history of Australia spans the nation's 220-year modern history, from the early Australian frontier wars between Aboriginals and Europeans to the ongoing conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan in the early 21st century. Although this history is short when compared to that of many other nations, Australia has been involved in numerous conflicts and wars, and war and military service have been significant influences on Australian society and national identity, including the Anzac spirit. The relationship between war and Australian society has also been shaped by the enduring themes of Australian strategic culture and its unique security dilemma.\n"}
{"text": " As British offshoots, the Australian colonies participated in Britain's small wars of the 19th century, while later as a federated dominion, and then an independent nation, Australia fought in the First World War and Second World War, as well as in the wars in Korea, Malaya, Borneo and Vietnam during the Cold War. In the Post-Vietnam era Australian forces have been involved in numerous international peacekeeping missions, through the United Nations and other agencies, including in the Sinai, Persian Gulf, Rwanda, Somalia, East Timor and the Solomon Islands, while more recently they have also fought as part of multi-lateral forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. In total, nearly 103,000 Australians died during the course of these conflicts.\n"}
{"text": " == War and Australian society ==\n"}
{"text": " For most of the last century military service has been one of the single greatest shared experiences of white Australian males, and although this is now changing due to the professionalisation of the military and the absence of major wars during the second half of the 20th century, it continues to influence Australian society to this day. War and military service have been defining influences in Australian history, while a major part of the national identity has been built on an idealised conception of the Australian experience of war and of soldiering, known as the Anzac spirit. These ideals include notions of endurance, courage, ingenuity, humour, larrikinism, egalitarianism and mateship; traits which, according to popular thought, defined the behaviour of Australian soldiers fighting at Gallipoli during the First World War. The Gallipoli campaign was one of the first international events that saw Australians taking part as Australians and has been seen as a key event in forging a sense of national identity.\n"}
{"text": " The relationship between war and Australian society has been shaped by two of the more enduring themes of Australian strategic culture: bandwagoning with a powerful ally and expeditionary warfare. Indeed, Australian defence policy was closely linked to Britain until the Japanese crisis of 1942, while since then an alliance with the United States has underwritten its security. Arguably, this pattern of bandwagoning \u2014 both for cultural reasons such as shared values and beliefs, as well as for more pragmatic security concerns \u2014 has ensured that Australian strategic policy has often been defined by relations with its allies. Regardless, a tendency towards strategic complacency has also been evident, with Australians often reluctant to think about defence issues or to allocate resources until a crisis arises; a trait which has historically resulted in unpreparedness for major military challenges.\n"}
{"text": " Reflecting both the realist and liberal paradigms of international relations and the conception of national interests, a number of other important themes in Australian strategic culture are also obvious. Such themes include: an acceptance of the state as the key actor in international politics, the centrality of notions of Westphalian sovereignty, a belief in the enduring relevance and legitimacy of armed force as a guarantor of security, and the proposition that the status quo in international affairs should only be changed peacefully. Likewise, multilateralism, collective security and defence self-reliance have also been important themes. Change has been more evolutionary than revolutionary and these strategic behaviours have persisted throughout its history, being the product of Australian society's democratic political tradition and Judaeo-Christian Anglo-European heritage, as well its associated values, beliefs and economic, political and religious ideology. These behaviours are also reflective of its unique security dilemma as a largely European island on the edge of the Asia-Pacific, and the geopolitical circumstances of a middle power physically removed from the centres of world power. To be sure, during threats to the core Australia has often found itself defending the periphery and perhaps as a result, it has frequently become involved in foreign wars. Throughout these conflicts Australian soldiers \u2014 known colloquially as Diggers \u2014 have often been noted, somewhat paradoxically, for both their fighting abilities and their humanitarian qualities.\n"}
{"text": " == Colonial era ==\n"}
{"text": " === British Forces in Australia, 1788 \u2013 1870 ===\n"}
{"text": " From 1788 until 1870 the defence of the Australian colonies was mostly provided by British Army regular forces. Originally Marines protected the early settlements at Sydney Cove and Norfolk Island, however they were relieved of these duties in 1790 by a British Army unit specifically recruited for colonial service, known as the New South Wales Corps. The New South Wales Corps subsequently was involved in putting down a rebellion of Irish convicts at Castle Hill in 1804. Soon however shortcomings in the corps convinced the War Office of the need for a more reliable garrison in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Chief of these shortcomings was the Rum Rebellion, a coup mounted by its officers in 1808. As a result, in January 1810 the 73rd (Perthshire) Regiment of Foot arrived in Australia. By 1870, 25 British infantry regiments had served in Australia, as had a small number of artillery and engineer units.\n"}
{"text": " Although the primary role of the British Army was to protect the colonies against external attack, no actual threat ever materialised. The British Army was instead used in policing, guarding convicts at penal institutions, combating bushranging, putting down convict rebellions \u2014 as occurred at Bathurst in 1830 \u2014 and to suppress Aboriginal resistance to the extension of European settlement. Notably British soldiers were involved in the battle at the Eureka Stockade in 1854 on the Victorian goldfields. Members of British regiments stationed in Australia also saw action in India, Afghanistan, New Zealand and the Sudan.\n"}
{"text": " During the early years of settlement the naval defence of Australia was provided by detached Royal Navy units of the East Indies Station, based in Sydney. However, in 1859 Australia was established as a separate squadron under the command of a commodore, marking the first occasion that Royal Navy ships had been permanently stationed in Australia. The Royal Navy remained the primary naval force in Australian waters until 1913, when the Australia Station ceased and responsibility handed over to the Royal Australian Navy; the Royal Navy's depots, dockyards and structures were given to the Australian people.\n"}
{"text": " === Frontier warfare, 1788 \u2013 1934 ===\n"}
{"text": " The reactions of the native Aboriginal inhabitants to the sudden arrival of British settlers in Australia were varied, but were inevitably hostile when the settler's presence led to competition over resources, and to the occupation of the indigenous inhabitants' lands. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources sometimes led to starvation. By and large neither the British nor the Aborigines approached the conflict in an organised sense and conflict occurred between groups of settlers and individual tribes rather than systematic warfare. At times, however, the frontier wars did see the involvement of British soldiers and later mounted police units. Not all Aboriginal groups resisted white encroachment on their lands, while many Aborigines served in mounted police units and were involved in attacks on other tribes.\n"}
{"text": " Fighting between Aborigines and Europeans was localised as the Aborigines did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance. As a result, there was not a single war, but rather a series of violent engagements and massacres across the continent. Organised or disorganised however, a pattern of frontier warfare emerged with Aboriginal resistance beginning in the 18th century and continuing into the early 20th century. This warfare contradicts the popular and at times academic \"myth\" of peaceful settlement in Australia. Faced with Aboriginal resistance settlers often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres. Among the most famous is the Battle of Pinjarra in Western Australia in 1834. Such incidents were not officially sanctioned however, and after the Myall Creek massacre in New South Wales in 1838 seven Europeans were hanged for their part in the killings. However, in Tasmania the so-called Black War was fought between 1828 and 1832, and aimed at driving most of the island's native inhabitants onto a number of isolated peninsulas. Although it began in failure for the British, it ultimately resulted in considerable casualties amongst the native population.\n"}
{"text": " It may be inaccurate though to depict the conflict as one sided and mainly perpetrated by Europeans on Aborigines. Although many more Aborigines died than British, this may have had more to do with the technological and logistic advantages enjoyed by the Europeans. Aboriginal tactics varied, but were mainly based on pre-existing hunting and fighting practices \u2014 using spears, clubs and other primitive weapons. Unlike the indigenous peoples of New Zealand and North America, on the main Aborigines failed to adapt to meet the challenge of the Europeans. Although there were some instances of individuals and groups acquiring and using firearms, this was not widespread. The Aborigines were never a serious military threat to European settlers, regardless of how much the settlers may have feared them. On occasions large groups of Aborigines attacked the settlers in open terrain and a conventional battle ensued, during which the Aborigines would attempt to use superior numbers to their advantage. This could sometimes be effective, with reports of them advancing in crescent formation in an attempt to outflank and surround their opponents, waiting out the first volley of shots and then hurling their spears while the settlers reloaded. However, such open warfare usually proved more costly for the Aborigines than the Europeans.\n"}
{"text": " Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot muskets with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within 50 metres (160 ft). These deficiencies may have initially given the Aborigines an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle, as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Aborigines, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.\n"}
{"text": " The conflict lasted for over 150 years and followed the pattern of British settlement in Australia. Beginning in New South Wales with the arrival of the first Europeans in May 1788, it continued in Sydney and its surrounds until the 1820s. As the frontier moved west so did the conflict, pushing into outback New South Wales in the 1840s. In Tasmania, fighting can be traced from 1804 to the 1830s, while in Victoria and the southern parts of South Australia, the majority of the violence occurred during the 1830s and 1840s. The south-west of Western Australia experienced warfare from 1829 to 1850. The war in Queensland began in the area around Brisbane in the 1840s and continued until 1860, moving to central Queensland in the 1850s and 1860s, and then to northern Queensland from the 1860s to 1900. In Western Australia, the violence moved north with European settlement, reaching the Kimberley region by 1880, with violent clashes continuing until the 1920s. In the Northern Territory conflict lasted even later still, especially in central Australia, continuing from the 1880s to the 1930s. One estimate of casualties places European deaths at 2,500, while at least 20,000 Aborigines are believed to have perished. Far more devastating though was the effect of disease which significantly reduced the Aboriginal population by the beginning of the 20th century; a fact which may also have limited their ability to resist.\n"}
{"text": " === New Zealand Wars, 1861 \u2013 64 ===\n"}
{"text": " ==== Taranaki War ====\n"}
{"text": " In 1861, the Victorian ship HMCSS Victoria was dispatched to help the New Zealand colonial government in its war against M\u0101ori in Taranaki. Victoria was subsequently used for patrol duties and logistic support, although a number of personnel were involved in actions against M\u0101ori fortifications. One sailor died from an accidental gunshot wound during the deployment.\n"}
{"text": " ==== Invasion of the Waikato ====\n"}
{"text": " In late 1863, the New Zealand government requested troops to assist in the invasion of the Waikato province against the M\u0101ori. Promised settlement on confiscated land, more than 2,500 Australians (over half of whom were from Victoria) were recruited to form four Waikato Regiments. Other Australians became scouts in the Company of Forest Rangers. Despite experiencing arduous conditions the Australians were not heavily involved in battle, and were primarily used for patrolling and garrison duties. Australians were involved in actions at Matarikoriko, Pukekohe East, Titi Hill, \u014cr\u0101kau and Te Ranga. Fewer than 20 were believed to have been killed in action. The conflict was over by 1864, and the Waikato Regiments disbanded in 1867. However, many of the soldiers who had chosen to claim farmland at the cessation of hostilities had drifted to the towns and cities by the end of the decade, while many others had returned to Australia.\n"}
{"text": " === Colonial military forces, 1870 \u2013 1901 ===\n"}
{"text": " From 1870 until 1901, each of the six colonial governments was responsible for their own defence. The colonies had gained responsible government between 1855 and 1890, and while the Colonial Office in London retained control of some affairs, the Governor of the each colony was required to raise their own colonial militia. To do this, they were granted the authority from the British crown to raise military and naval forces. Initially these were militias in support of British regulars, but when military support for the colonies ended in 1870, the colonies assumed their own defence responsibilities. The colonial military forces included unpaid volunteer militia, paid citizen soldiers, and a small permanent component. They were mainly infantry, cavalry and mounted infantry, and were neither housed in barracks nor subject to full military discipline. Even after significant reforms in the 1870s \u2014 including the expansion of the permanent forces to include engineer and artillery units \u2014 they remained too small and unbalanced to be considered armies in the modern sense. By 1885, the forces numbered 21,000 men. Although they could not be compelled to serve overseas many volunteers subsequently did see action in a number conflicts of the British Empire during the 19th century, with the colonies raising contingents to serve in Sudan, South Africa and China.\n"}
{"text": " Despite a reputation of colonial inferiority, many of the locally raised units were highly organised, disciplined, professional, and well trained. During this period, defences in Australia mainly revolved around static defence by combined infantry and artillery, based on garrisoned coastal forts. However, by the 1890s, improved railway communications between the mainland eastern colonies led Major General James Edwards \u2014 who had recently completed a survey of colonial military forces \u2014 to the belief that the colonies could be defended by the rapid mobilisation of brigades of infantry. As a consequence he called for a restructure of defences, and defensive agreements to be made between the colonies. Edwards argued for the colonial forces to be federated and for professional units \u2014 obliged to serve anywhere in the South Pacific \u2014 to replace the volunteer forces. These views found support in the influential New South Wales Commandant, Major General Edward Hutton, however suspicions held by the smaller colonies towards New South Wales and Victoria stifled the proposal. These reforms remaining unresolved however, and defence issues were generally given little attention in the debate on the political federation of the colonies.\n"}
{"text": " With the exception of Western Australia, the colonies also operated their own navies. In 1856, Victoria received its own naval vessel, HMCSS Victoria, and its deployment to New Zealand in 1860 during the First Taranaki War marked the first occasion that an Australian warship had been deployed overseas. The colonial navies were expanded greatly in the mid-1880s and consisted of a number of gunboats and torpedo-boats for the defence of harbours and rivers, as well as naval brigades to man vessels and forts. Victoria became the most powerful of all the colonial navies, with the ironclad HMVS Cerberus in service from 1870, as well as the steam-sail warship HMS Nelson on loan from the Royal Navy, three small gunboats and five torpedo-boats. New South Wales formed a Naval Brigade in 1863 and by the start of the 20th century had two small torpedo-boats and a corvette. The Queensland Maritime Defence Force was established in 1885, while South Australia operated a single ship, HMCS Protector. Tasmania had also a small Torpedo Corps, while Western Australia's only naval defences included the Fremantle Naval Artillery. Naval personnel from New South Wales and Victoria took part in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900, while HMCS Protector was sent by South Australia but saw no action. The separate colonies maintained control over their military and naval forces until Federation in 1901, when they were amalgamated and placed under the control of the new Commonwealth of Australia.\n"}
{"text": " === Sudan, 1885 ===\n"}
{"text": " During the early years of the 1880s, an Egyptian regime in the Sudan, backed by the British, came under threat from rebellion under the leadership of native Muhammad Ahmad (or Ahmed), known as Mahdi to his followers. In 1883, as part of the Mahdist War, the Egyptians sent an army to deal with the revolt, but they were defeated and faced a difficult campaign of extracting their forces. The British instructed the Egyptians to abandon the Sudan, and sent General Charles Gordon to co-ordinate the evacuation, but he was killed in January 1885. When news of his death arrived in New South Wales in February 1885, the government offered to send forces and meet the contingent's expenses. The New South Wales Contingent consisted of an infantry battalion of 522 men and 24 officers, and an artillery battery of 212 men and sailed from Sydney on 3 March 1885.\n"}
{"text": " The contingent arrived in Suakin on 29 March and were attached to a brigade that consisted of Scots, Grenadier and Coldstream Guards. They subsequently marched for Tamai in a large \"square\" formation made up of 10,000 men. Reaching the village, they burned huts and returned to Suakin: three Australians were wounded in minor fighting. Most of the contingent was then sent to work on a railway line that was being laid across the desert towards Berber, on the Nile. The Australians were then assigned to guard duties, but soon a camel corps was raised and 50 men volunteered. They rode on a reconnaissance to Takdul on 6 May and were heavily involved in a skirmish during which more than 100 Arabs were killed or captured. On 15 May, they made one last sortie to bury the dead from the fighting of the previous March. Meanwhile, the artillery were posted at Handoub and drilled for a month, but they soon rejoined the camp at Suakin.\n"}
{"text": " Eventually the British government decided that the campaign in Sudan was not worth the effort required and left a garrison in Suakin. The New South Wales Contingent sailed for home on 17 May, arriving in Sydney on 19 June 1885. Approximately 770 Australians served in Sudan; nine subsequently died of disease during the return journey while three had been wounded during the campaign.\n"}
{"text": " === Second Boer War, 1899 \u2013 1902 ===\n"}
{"text": " British encroachment into areas of South Africa already settled by the Afrikaner Boers and the competition for resources and land that developed between them as a result, led to the Second Boer War in 1899. Pre-empting the deployment of British forces, the Afrikaner Republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic under President Paul Kruger declared war on 11 October 1899, striking deep into the British territories of Natal and the Cape Colony. After the outbreak of war, plans for the dispatch of a combined Australian force were subsequently set aside by the British War Office and each of the six colonial governments sent separate contingents to serve with British formations, with two squadrons each of 125 men from New South Wales and Victoria, and one each from the other colonies. The first troops arrived three weeks later, with the New South Wales Lancers \u2014 who had been training in England before the war, hurriedly diverted to South Africa. On 22 November, the Lancers came under fire for the first time near Belmont, and they subsequently forced their attackers to withdraw after inflicting significant casualties on them.\n"}
{"text": " Following a series of minor victories, the British suffered a major setback during Black Week between 10 \u2013 17 December 1899, although no Australian units were involved. The first contingents of infantry from Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania arrived in Cape Town on 26 November and were designated the Australian Regiment under the command of Colonel John Charles Hoad. With a need for increased mobility, they were soon converted into mounted infantry. Further units from Queensland and New South Wales arrived in December and were soon committed to the front. The first casualties occurred soon after at Sunnyside on 1 January 1900, after 250 Queensland Mounted Infantry and a column of Canadians, British and artillery attacked a Boer laager at Belmont. Troopers David McLeod and Victor Jones were killed when their patrol clashed with the Boer forward sentries. Regardless, the Boers were surprised and during two hours of heavy fighting, more than 50 were killed and another 40 taken prisoner. Five hundred Queenslanders and the New South Wales Lancers subsequently took part in the Siege of Kimberley in February 1900.\n"}
{"text": " Despite serious set-backs at Colenso, Stormberg, Magersfontein, and Spion Kop in January \u2014 and with Ladysmith still under siege \u2014 the British mounted a five division counter-invasion of the Orange Free State in February. The attacking force included a division of cavalry commanded by Lieutenant General John French with the New South Wales Lancers, Queensland Mounted Infantry and New South Wales Army Medical Corps attached. First, Kimberley was relieved following the battles of Modder River and Magersfontein, and the retreating Boers defeated at Paardeberg, with the New South Wales Mounted Rifles locating the Boer general, Piet Cronj\u00e9. The British entered Bloemfontein on 13 March 1900, while Ladysmith was relieved. Disease began to take its toll and scores of men died. Still the advance continued, with the drive to Pretoria in May including more than 3,000 Australians. Johannesburg fell on 30 May, and the Boers withdrew from Pretoria on 3 June. The New South Wales Mounted Rifles and Western Australians saw action again at Diamond Hill on 12 June. Mafeking was relieved on 17 May.\n"}
{"text": " Following the defeat of the Afrikaner republics still the Boers held out, forming small commando units and conducting a campaign of guerrilla warfare to disrupt British troop movements and lines of supply. This new phase of resistance led to further recruiting in the Australian colonies and the raising of the Bushmen's Contingents, with these soldiers usually being volunteers with horse-riding and shooting skills, but little military experience. After Federation in 1901, eight Australian Commonwealth Horse battalions of the newly created Australian Army were also sent to South Africa, although they saw little fighting before the war ended. Some Australians later joined local South African irregular units, instead of returning home after discharge. These soldiers were part of the British Army, and were subject to British military discipline. Such units included the Bushveldt Carbineers which gained notoriety as the unit in which Harry \"Breaker\" Morant and Peter Handcock served in before their court martial and execution for war crimes.\n"}
{"text": " With the guerrillas requiring supplies, Koos de la Rey lead a force of 3,000 Boers against Brakfontein, on the Elands River in Western Transvaal. The post held a large quantity of stores and was defended by 300 Australians and 200 Rhodesians. The attack began on 4 August 1900 with heavy shelling causing 32 casualties. During the night the defenders dug in, enduring shelling and rifle fire. A relief force was stopped by the Boers, while a second column turned back believing that the post had already been relieved. The siege lasted 11 days, during which more than 1,800 shells were fired into the post. After calls to surrender were ignored by the defenders, and not prepared to risk a frontal attack, the Boers eventually retired. The Siege of Elands River was one of the major achievements of the Australians during the war, with the post finally relieved on 16 August.\n"}
{"text": " In response the British adopted counter-insurgency tactics, including a scorched earth policy involving the burning of houses and crops, the establishment of concentration camps for Boer women and children, and a system of blockhouses and field obstacles to limit Boer mobility and to protect railway communications. Such measures required considerable expenditure, and caused much bitterness towards the British, however they soon yielded results. By mid-1901, the bulk of the fighting was over, and British mounted units would ride at night to attack Boer farmhouses or encampments, overwhelming them with superior numbers. Indicative of warfare in last months of 1901, the New South Wales Mounted Rifles travelled 1,814 miles (2,919 km) and were involved in 13 skirmishes, killing 27 Boers, wounding 15, and capturing 196 for the loss of five dead and 19 wounded. Other notable Australian actions included Slingersfontein, Pink Hill, Rhenosterkop and Haartebeestefontein.\n"}
{"text": " Australians were not always successful however, suffering a number of heavy losses late in the war. On 12 June 1901, the 5th Victorian Mounted Rifles lost 19 killed and 42 wounded at Wilmansrust, near Middleburg after poor security allowed a force of 150 Boers to surprise them. On 30 October 1901, Victorians of the Scottish Horse Regiment also suffered heavy casualties at Gun Hill, although 60 Boers were also killed in the engagement. Meanwhile, at Onverwacht on 4 January 1902, the 5th Queensland Imperial Bushmen lost 13 killed and 17 wounded. Ultimately the Boers were defeated, and the war ended on 31 May 1902. In all 16,175 Australians served in South Africa, and perhaps another 10,000 enlisted as individuals in Imperial units; casualties included 251 killed in action, 267 died of disease and 43 missing in action, while a further 735 were wounded. Six Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross.\n"}
{"text": " === Boxer Rebellion, 1900 \u2013 01 ===\n"}
{"text": " The Boxer Rebellion in China began in 1900, and a number of western nations \u2014 including many European powers, the United States, and Japan \u2014 soon sent forces as part of the China Field Force to protect their interests. In June, the British government sought permission from the Australian colonies to dispatch ships from the Australian Squadron to China. The colonies also offered to assist further, but as most of their troops were still engaged in South Africa, they had to rely on naval forces for manpower. The force dispatched was a modest one, with Britain accepting 200 men from Victoria, 260 from New South Wales and the South Australian ship HMCS Protector, under the command of Captain William Creswell. Most of these forces were made up of naval brigade reservists, who had been trained in both ship handling and soldiering to fulfil their coastal defence role. Amongst the naval contingent from New South Wales were 200 naval officers and sailors and 50 permanent soldiers headquartered at Victoria Barracks, Sydney who originally enlisted for the Second Boer War. The soldiers were keen to go to China but refused to be enlisted as sailors, while the New South Wales Naval Brigade objected to having soldiers in their ranks. The Army and Navy compromised and titled the contingent the NSW Marine Light Infantry.\n"}
{"text": " The contingents from New South Wales and Victoria sailed for China on 8 August 1900. Arriving in Tientsin, the Australians provided 300 men to an 8,000-strong multinational force tasked with capturing the Chinese forts at Pei Tang, which dominated a key railway. They arrived too late to take part in the battle, but were involved in the attack on the fortress at Pao-ting Fu, where the Chinese government was believed to have found asylum after Peking was captured by western forces. The Victorians joined a force of 7,500 men on a ten-day march to the fort, once again only to find that it had already surrendered. The Victorians then garrisoned Tientsin and the New South Wales contingent undertook garrison duties in Peking. HMCS Protector was mostly used for survey, transport, and courier duties in the Gulf of Chihli, before departing in November. The naval brigades remained during the winter, unhappily performing policing and guard duties, as well as working as railwaymen and fire-fighters. They left China in March 1901, having played only a minor role in a few offensives and punitive expeditions and in the restoration of civil order. Six Australians died from sickness and injury, but none were killed as a result of enemy action.\n"}
{"text": " == Australian military forces at Federation, 1901 ==\n"}
{"text": " The Commonwealth of Australia came into existence on 1 January 1901 as a result of the federation of the Australian colonies. Under the Constitution of Australia, defence responsibility was now vested in the new federal government. The co-ordination of Australia-wide defensive efforts in the face of Imperial German interest in the Pacific Ocean was one of driving forces behind federalism, and the Department of Defence immediately came into being as a result, while the Commonwealth Military Forces (early forerunner of the Australian Army) and Commonwealth Naval Force were also soon established.\n"}
{"text": " The Australian Commonwealth Military Forces came into being on 1 March 1901 and all the colonial forces \u2014 including those still in South Africa \u2014 became part of the new force. 28,923 colonial soldiers, including 1,457 professional soldiers, 18,603 paid militia and 8,863 unpaid volunteers, were subsequently transferred. The individual units continued to be administered under the various colonial Acts until the Defence Act 1903 brought all the units under one piece of legislation. This Act also prevented the raising of standing infantry units and specified that militia forces could not be used in industrial disputes or serve outside Australia. However, the majority of soldiers remained in militia units, known as the Citizen Military Forces (CMF). Major General Sir Edward Hutton \u2014 a former commander of the New South Wales Military Forces \u2014 subsequently became the first commander of the Commonwealth Military Forces on 26 December and set to work devising an integrated structure for the new army. In 1911, following a report by Lord Kitchener the Royal Military College, Duntroon was established, as was a system of universal National Service.\n"}
{"text": " Prior to federation each self-governing colony had operated its own naval force. These navies were small and lacked blue water capabilities, forcing the separate colonies to subsidise the cost of a British naval squadron in their waters for decades. The colonies maintained control over their respective navies until 1 March 1901, when the Commonwealth Naval Force was created. This new force also lacked blue water capable ships, and ultimately did not lead to a change in Australian naval policy. In 1907 Prime Minister Alfred Deakin and Creswell, while attending the Imperial Conference in London, sought the British Government's agreement to end the subsidy system and develop an Australian navy. The Admiralty rejected and resented the challenge, but suggested diplomatically that a small fleet of destroyers and submarines would be sufficient. Deakin was unimpressed, and in 1908 invited the American Great White Fleet to visit Australia. This visit fired public enthusiasm for a modern navy and in part led to the order of two 700-ton River-class destroyers. The surge in German naval construction prompted the Admiralty to change their position however and the Royal Australian Navy was subsequently formed in 1911, absorbing the Commonwealth Naval Force. On 4 October 1913, the new fleet steamed through Sydney Heads, consisting of the battlecruiser HMAS Australia, three light cruisers, and three destroyers, while several other ships were still under construction. And as a consequence the navy entered the First World War as a formidable force.\n"}
{"text": " The Australian Flying Corps (AFC) was established as part of the Commonwealth Military Forces in 1912, prior to the formation of the Australian Military Forces in 1916 and was later separated in 1921 to form the Royal Australian Air Force, making it the second oldest air force in the world. Regardless, the service branches were not linked by a single chain of command however, and each reported to their own minister and had separate administrative arrangements and government departments.\n"}
{"text": " == First World War, 1914 \u2013 18 ==\n"}
{"text": " === Outbreak of hostilities ===\n"}
{"text": " When Britain declared war on Germany at the start of the First World War, the Australian government rapidly followed suit, with Prime Minister Joseph Cook declaring on 5 August 1914 that \"... when the Empire is at war, so also is Australia\" and reflecting the sentiment of many Australians that any declaration of war by Britain automatically included Australia. This was itself in part due to the large number of British-born citizens and first generation Anglo-Australians that made up the Australian population at the time. Indeed, by the end of the war almost 20 % of those who served in the Australian forces had been born in Britain.\n"}
{"text": " As the existing militia forces were unable to serve overseas under the provisions of the Defence Act 1903, an all-volunteer expeditionary force known as the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) was formed and recruitment began on 10 August 1914. The government pledged 20,000 men, organised as one infantry division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. Enlistment and organisation was primarily regionally based and was undertaken under mobilisation plans drawn up in 1912. The first commander was Major General William Bridges, who also assumed command of the 1st Division. Throughout the course of the conflict Australian efforts were predominantly focused upon the ground war, although small air and naval forces were also committed.\n"}
{"text": " === Occupation of German New Guinea ===\n"}
{"text": " Following the outbreak of war Australian forces moved quickly to reduce the threat to shipping posed by the proximity of Germany's Pacific colonies. The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN & MEF), a 2000-man volunteer force \u2014 separate from the AIF \u2014 and consisting of an infantry battalion plus 500 naval reservists and ex-sailors, was rapidly formed under the command of William Holmes. The objectives of the force were the wireless stations on Nauru, and those at Yap in the Caroline Islands, and at Rabaul in German New Guinea. The force reached Rabaul on 11 September 1914 and occupied it the next day, encountering only brief resistance from the German and native defenders during fighting at Bita Paka and Toma. German New Guinea surrendered on 17 September 1914. Australian losses were light, including six killed during the fighting, but were compounded by the mysterious loss offshore of the submarine AE1 with all 35 men aboard.\n"}
{"text": " === Gallipoli ===\n"}
{"text": " The AIF departed by ship in a single convoy from Albany on 1 November 1914. During the journey one of the convoy's naval escorts \u2014 HMAS Sydney \u2014 engaged and destroyed the German cruiser SMS Emden at the Battle of Cocos on 8 November, in the first ship-to-ship action involving the Royal Australian Navy. Although originally bound for England to undergo further training and then for employment on the Western Front, the Australians were instead sent to British-controlled Egypt to pre-empt any Turkish attack against the strategically important Suez Canal, and with a view to opening another front against the Central Powers.\n"}
{"text": " Aiming to knock Turkey out of the war the British then decided to stage an amphibious lodgement at Gallipoli and following a period of training and reorganisation the Australians were included amongst the British, Indian and French forces committed to the campaign. The combined Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) \u2014 commanded by British general William Birdwood \u2014 subsequently landed at Anzac Cove on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. Although promising to transform the war if successful, the Gallipoli Campaign was ill-conceived and ultimately lasted eight months of bloody stalemate, without achieving its objectives. Australian casualties totalled 26,111, including 8,141 killed.\n"}
{"text": " For Australians and New Zealanders the Gallipoli campaign came to symbolise an important milestone in the emergence of both nations as independent actors on the world stage and the development of a sense of national identity. Today, the date of the initial landings, 25 April, is known as Anzac Day in Australia and New Zealand and every year thousands of people gather at memorials in both nations, as well as Turkey, to honour the bravery and sacrifice of the original Anzacs, and of all those who have subsequently lost their lives in war.\n"}
{"text": " === Egypt and Palestine ===\n"}
{"text": " After the withdrawal from Gallipoli the Australians returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion. In 1916 the infantry began to move to France while the cavalry units remained in the Middle East to fight the Turks. Australian troops of the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, playing a pivotal role in fighting the Turkish troops that were threatening British control of Egypt. The Australian's first saw combat during the Senussi uprising in the Libyan Desert and the Nile Valley, during which the combined British forces successfully put down the primitive pro-Turkish Islamic sect with heavy casualties. The Anzac Mounted Division subsequently saw considerable action in the Battle of Romani against the Turkish between 3 \u2013 5 August 1916, with the Turks eventually pushed back. Following this victory the British forces went on the offensive in the Sinai, although the pace of the advance was governed by the speed by which the railway and water pipeline could be constructed from the Suez Canal. Rafa was captured on 9 January 1917, while the last of the small Turkish garrisons in the Sinai were eliminated in February.\n"}
{"text": " The advance entered Palestine and an initial, unsuccessful attempt was made to capture Gaza on 26 March 1917, while a second and equally unsuccessful attempt was launched on 19 April. A third assault occurred between 31 October and 7 November and this time both the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part. The battle was a complete success for the British, over-running the Gaza-Beersheba line and capturing 12,000 Turkish soldiers. The critical moment was the capture of Beersheba on the first day, after the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade charged more than 4 miles (6.4 km). The Turkish trenches were overrun, with the Australians capturing the wells at Beersheeba and securing the valuable water they contained along with over 700 prisoners for the loss of 31 killed and 36 wounded. Later, Australian troops assisted in pushing the Turkish forces out of Palestine and took part in actions at Mughar Ridge, Jerusalem and the Megiddo. The Turkish government surrendered on 30 October 1918. Units of the Light Horse were subsequently used to help put down a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1919 and did so with efficiency and brutality, although they suffered a number of fatalities in the process.\n"}
{"text": " Meanwhile, the AFC had undergone remarkable development, and its independence as a separate national force was unique among the Dominions. Deploying just a single aircraft to German New Guinea in 1914, the first operational flight did not occur until 27 May 1915 however, when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist in protecting British oil interests in Iraq. The AFC was soon expanded and four squadrons later saw action in Egypt, Palestine and on the Western Front, where they performed well.\n"}
{"text": " === Western Front ===\n"}
{"text": " Five infantry divisions of the AIF saw action in France and Belgium, leaving Egypt in March 1916. I Anzac Corps subsequently took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armenti\u00e8res on 7 April 1916 and for the next two and a half years the AIF participated in most of the major battles on the Western Front, earning a formidable reputation. Although spared from the disastrous first day of the Battle of the Somme, within weeks four Australian divisions had been committed. The 5th Division, positioned on the left flank, was the first in action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916, suffering 5,533 casualties in a single day. The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July, assaulting Pozieres, and by the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July, they had suffered 5,286 casualties. Mouquet Farm was attacked in August, with casualties totalling 6,300 men. By the time the AIF was withdrawn from the Somme to re-organise, they had suffered 23,000 casualties in just 45 days.\n"}
{"text": " In March 1917, the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line, capturing the town of Bapaume. On 11 April, the 4th Division assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the disastrous First Battle of Bullecourt, losing over 3,000 casualties and 1,170 captured. On 15 April, the 1st and 2nd Divisions were counter-attacked near Lagnicourt and were forced to abandon the town, before recapturing it again. The 2nd Division then took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt, beginning on 3 May, and succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and holding them until relieved by the 1st Division. Finally, on 7 May the 5th Division relieved the 1st, remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid-May. Combined these efforts cost 7,482 Australian casualties.\n"}
{"text": " On 7 June 1917, the II Anzac Corps \u2014 along with two British corps \u2014 launched an operation in Flanders to eliminate a salient south of Ypres. The attack commenced with the detonation of a million pounds (454,545 kg) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge, destroying the German trenches. The advance was virtually unopposed, and despite strong German counterattacks the next day, it succeeded. Australian casualties during the Battle of Messines included nearly 6,800 men. I Anzac Corps then took part in the Third Battle of Ypres in Belgium as part of the campaign to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau, between September and November 1917. Individual actions took place at Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle and Passchendaele and over the course of eight weeks fighting the Australians suffered 38,000 casualties.\n"}
{"text": " On 21 March 1918 the German Army launched its Spring Offensive in a last-ditched effort to win the war, unleashing sixty-three divisions over a 70 miles (110 km) front. As the Allies fell back the 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens on the Somme. The offensive lasted for the next five months and all five AIF divisions in France were engaged in the attempt to stem the tide. By late May the Germans had pushed to within 50 miles (80 km) of Paris. During this time the Australians fought at Dernacourt, Morlancourt, Villers-Bretonneux, Hangard Wood, Hazebrouck, and Hamel. At Hamel the commander of the Australian Corps, Lieutenant General John Monash, successfully used combined arms \u2014 including aircraft, artillery and armour \u2014 in an attack for the first time.\n"}
{"text": " The German offensive ground to a halt in mid-July and a brief lull followed, during which the Australians undertook a series of raids, known as Peaceful Penetrations. The Allies soon launched their own offensive \u2014 the Hundred Days Offensive \u2014 ultimately ending the war. Beginning on 8 August 1918 the offensive included four Australian divisions striking at Amiens. Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel, significant gains were made on what became known as the \"Black Day\" of the German Army. The offensive continued for four months, and during Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons, Etinehem, Proyart, Chuignes, and Mont St Quentin, before their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain. The AIF was subsequently out of the line when the armistice was declared on 11 November 1918.\n"}
{"text": " In all 416,806 Australians enlisted in the AIF during the war and 333,000 served overseas. 61,508 were killed and another 155,000 were wounded (a total casualty rate of 65 %). The financial cost to the Australian government was calculated at \u00a3 376,993,052. Two referendums on conscription for overseas service had been defeated during the war, preserving the volunteer status of the Australian force, but stretching the reserves of manpower available, particularly towards the end of the fighting. Consequently, Australia remained one of only two armies on either side not to resort to conscription during the war.\n"}
{"text": " The war had a profound effect on Australian society in other ways also. Indeed, for many Australians the nation's involvement is seen as a symbol of its emergence as an international actor, while many of the notions of Australian character and nationhood that exist today have their origins in the war. 64 Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross during the First World War.\n"}
{"text": " == Inter-war years ==\n"}
{"text": " === Russian Civil War, 1918 \u2013 19 ===\n"}
{"text": " The Russian Civil War began after the Russian provisional government collapsed and the Bolshevik party assumed power in October 1917. Following the end of the First World War, the western powers \u2014 including Britain \u2014 intervened, giving half-hearted support to the pro-tsarist, anti-Bolshevik White Russian forces. Although the Australian government refused to commit forces, many Australians serving with the British Army became involved in the fighting. A small number served as advisors to White Russian units with the North Russian Expeditionary Force (NREF). Awaiting repatriation in England, about 150 Australians subsequently enlisted in the British North Russia Relief Force (NRRF), where they were involved in a number of sharp battles and several were killed.\n"}
{"text": " The Royal Australian Navy destroyer HMAS Swan was also briefly engaged, carrying out an intelligence gathering mission in the Black Sea in late 1918. Other Australians served as advisers with the British Military Mission to the White Russian General, Anton Denikin in South Russia, while several more advised Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak in Siberia. Later, they also served in Mesopotamia as part of Dunsterforce and the Malleson Mission, although these missions were aimed at preventing Turkish access to the Middle East and India, and did little fighting.\n"}
{"text": " Although the motivations of those Australian's that volunteered to fight in Russia can only be guessed at, it seems unlikely to have been political. Regardless, they confirmed a reputation for audacity and courage, winning the only two Victoria Crosses of the land campaign, despite their small numbers. Yet Australian involvement was barely noticed at home at the time and made little difference to the outcome of the war. Total casualties included 10 killed and 40 wounded, with most deaths being from disease during operations in Mesopotamia.\n"}
{"text": " === Malaita, 1927 ===\n"}
{"text": " In October 1927, HMAS Adelaide was called to the British Solomon Islands Protectorate as part of a punitive expedition in response to the killing of a district officer and sixteen others by Kwaio natives at Sinalagu on the island of Malaita on 3 October, known as the Malaita massacre. Arriving at Tulagi on 14 October, the ship proceeded to Malaita to protect the landing of three platoons of troops, then remained in the area to provide personnel support for the soldiers as they searched for the killers. The ship's personnel took no part in operations ashore, providing only logistic and communications support. Adelaide returned to Australia on 23 November.\n"}
{"text": " === Spanish Civil War, 1936 \u2013 39 ===\n"}
{"text": " A small number of Australian volunteers fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War, although they predominantly supported the Spanish Republic through the International Brigades. The Australians were subsequently allocated to the battalions of other nationalities, such as the British Battalion and the Lincoln Battalion, rather than forming their own units. Most were radicals motivated by ideological reasons, while a number were Spanish-born migrants who returned to fight in their country of origin. At least 66 Australians volunteered, with only one \u2014 Nugent Bull, a conservative catholic who was later killed serving in the RAF during the Second World War \u2014 known to have fought for General Francisco Franco's Nationalist forces.\n"}
{"text": " While a celebrated cause for the Australian left \u2014 particularly the Communist Party of Australia and the trade union movement \u2014 the war failed to spark particular public interest and the government maintained its neutrality. Australian opposition to the Republican cause was marshalled by B.A. Santamaria on an anti-communist basis, rather than a pro-Nationalist basis. Equally, although individual right wing Australians may have served with the Nationalist rebels, they received no public support. Service in a foreign armed force was illegal at the time, however as the government received no reports of Australians travelling to Spain to enlist, no action was taken. Consequently, returned veterans were neither recognised by the government or the Returned and Services League of Australia (RSL). Although the number of Australian volunteers was relatively small compared to those from other countries, at least 14 were killed.\n"}
{"text": " == Second World War, 1939 \u2013 45 ==\n"}
{"text": " === Europe and the Middle East ===\n"}
{"text": " Australia entered the Second World War on 3 September 1939. At the time of the declaration of war against Germany the Australian military was small and unready for war. Recruiting for a Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) began in mid-September. While there was no rush of volunteers like the First World War, a high proportion of Australian men of military age had enlisted by mid-1940. Four infantry divisions were formed during 1939 and 1940, three of which were dispatched to the Middle East. The RAAF's resources were initially mainly devoted to training airmen for service with the Commonwealth air forces through the Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS), through which almost 28,000 Australians were trained during the war.\n"}
{"text": " The Australian military's first major engagements of the war were against Italian forces in the Mediterranean and North Africa. During 1940 the light cruiser HMAS Sydney and five elderly destroyers (dubbed the \"Scrap Iron Flotilla\" by Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels \u2014 a title proudly accepted by the ships) took part in a series of operations as part of the British Mediterranean Fleet, and sank several Italian warships. The Army first saw action in January 1941, when the 6th Division formed part of the Commonwealth forces during Operation Compass. The division assaulted and captured Bardia on 5 January and Tobruk on 22 January, with tens of thousands of Italian troops surrendering at both towns. The 6th Division took part in the pursuit of the Italian Army and captured Benghazi on 4 February. In late February it was withdrawn for service in Greece, and was replaced by the 9th Division.\n"}
{"text": " The Australian forces in the Mediterranean endured a number of campaigns during 1941. During April, the 6th Division, other elements of I Corps and several Australian warships formed part of the Allied force which unsuccessfully attempted to defend Greece from German invasion during the Battle of Greece. At the end of this campaign, the 6th Division was evacuated to Egypt and Crete. The force at Crete subsequently fought in the Battle of Crete during May, which also ended in defeat for the Allies. Over 5,000 Australians were captured in these campaigns, and the 6th Division required a long period of rebuilding before it was again ready for combat. The Germans and Italians also went on the offensive in North Africa at the end of March and drove the Commonwealth force there back to near the border with Egypt. The 9th Division and a brigade of the 7th Division were besieged at Tobruk; successfully defending the key port town until they were replaced by British units in October. During June, the main body of the 7th Division, a brigade of the 6th Division and the I Corps headquarters took part in the Syria-Lebanon Campaign against the Vichy French. Resistance was stronger than expected; Australians were involved in most of the fighting and sustained most of the casualties before the French capitulated in early July.\n"}
{"text": " The majority of Australian units in the Mediterranean returned to Australia in early 1942, after the outbreak of the Pacific War. The 9th Division was the largest unit to remain in the Middle East, and played a key role in the First Battle of El Alamein during June and the Second Battle of El Alamein in October. The division returned to Australia in early 1943, but several RAAF squadrons and RAN warships took part in the subsequent Tunisia Campaign and the Italian Campaign from 1943 until the end of the war.\n"}
{"text": " The RAAF's role in the strategic air offensive in Europe formed Australia's main contribution to the defeat of Germany. Approximately 13,000 Australian airmen served in dozens of British and five Australian squadrons in RAF Bomber Command between 1940 and the end of the war. Australians took part in all of Bomber Command's major offensives and suffered heavy losses during raids on German cities and targets in France. Australian aircrew in Bomber Command had one of the highest casualty rates of any part of the Australian military during the Second World War and sustained almost 20 percent of all Australian deaths in combat; 3,486 were killed and hundreds more were taken prisoner. Australian airmen in light bomber and fighter squadrons also participated in the liberation of Western Europe during 1944 and 1945 and two RAAF maritime patrol squadrons served in the Battle of the Atlantic.\n"}
{"text": " === Asia and the Pacific ===\n"}
{"text": " From the 1920s Australia's defence thinking was dominated by British Imperial defence policy, which was embodied by the \"Singapore strategy\". This strategy involved the construction and defence of a major naval base at Singapore from which a large British fleet would respond to Japanese aggression in the region. To this end, a high proportion of Australian forces in Asia were concentrated in Malaya during 1940 and 1941 as the threat from Japan increased. However, as a result of the emphasis on co-operation with Britain, relatively few Australian military units had been retained in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region. Measures were taken to improve Australia's defences as war with Japan loomed in 1941, but these proved inadequate. In December 1941, the Australian Army in the Pacific comprised the 8th Division, most of which was stationed in Malaya, and eight partially trained and equipped divisions in Australia. The RAAF was equipped with 373 aircraft, most of which were obsolete trainers, and the RAN had three cruisers and two destroyers in Australian waters.\n"}
{"text": " The Australian military suffered a series of defeats during the early months of the Pacific War. The 8th Division and RAAF squadrons in Malaya formed a part of the British Commonwealth forces which were unable to stop a smaller Japanese invasion force which landed on 7 December. The British Commonwealth force withdrew to Singapore at the end of January, but was forced to surrender on 15 February after the Japanese captured much of the island. Smaller Australian forces were also overwhelmed and defeated during early 1942 at Rabaul, and in Ambon, Timor, and Java. The Australian town of Darwin was heavily bombed by the Japanese on 19 February, to prevent it from being used as an Allied base. Over 22,000 Australians were taken prisoner in early 1942 and endured harsh conditions in Japanese captivity. The prisoners were subjected to malnutrition, denied medical treatment and frequently beaten and killed by their guards. As a result, 8,296 Australian prisoners died in captivity.\n"}
{"text": " The rapid Allied defeat in the Pacific caused many Australians to fear that the Japanese would invade the Australian mainland. While elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy proposed this in early 1942, it was judged to be impossible by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, which instead adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and New Caledonia. This fact was not known by the Allies at the time, and the Australian military was greatly expanded to meet the threat of invasion. Large numbers of United States Army and Army Air Forces units arrived in Australia in early 1942, and the Australian military was placed under the overall command of General Douglas MacArthur in March.\n"}
{"text": " Australians played a central role in the New Guinea campaign during 1942 and 1943. After an attempt to land troops at Port Moresby was defeated in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Japanese attempted to capture the strategically important town by advancing overland across the Owen Stanley Ranges and Milne Bay. Australian Army units defeated these offensives in the Kokoda Track campaign and Battle of Milne Bay with the support of the RAAF and USAAF. Australian and US Army units subsequently assaulted and captured the Japanese bases on the north coast of Papua in the hard-fought Battle of Buna-Gona. The Australian Army also defeated a Japanese attempt to capture the town of Wau in January 1943 and went onto the offensive in the Salamaua-Lae campaign in April. In late 1943, the 7th and 9th Divisions played an important role in Operation Cartwheel, when they landed to the east and west of Lae and secured the Huon Peninsula during the Huon Peninsula campaign and Finisterre Range campaign.\n"}
{"text": " The Australian mainland came under attack during 1942 and 1943. Japanese submarines operated off Australia from May to August 1942 and January to June 1943. These attacks sought to cut the Allied supply lines between Australia and the US and Australia and New Guinea, but were unsuccessful. Japanese aircraft also conducted air raids against Allied bases in northern Australia which were being used to mount the North Western Area Campaign against Japanese positions in the Netherlands East Indies (NEI).\n"}
{"text": " Australia's role in the Pacific War declined from 1944. The increasing size of the US forces in the Pacific rendered the Australian military superfluous and labour shortages forced the Government to reduce the size of the armed forces to boost war production. Nevertheless, the Government wanted the Australian military to remain active, and agreed to MacArthur's proposals that it be used in relatively unimportant campaigns. In late 1944, Australian troops and RAAF squadrons replaced US garrisons in eastern New Guinea, New Britain, and Bougainville, and launched offensives aimed at destroying or containing the remaining Japanese forces there. In May 1945, I Corps, the Australian First Tactical Air Force and USAAF and USN units began the Borneo Campaign, which continued until the end of the war. These campaigns contributed little to Japan's defeat and remain controversial.\n"}
{"text": " Following Japan's surrender on 15 August 1945 Australia assumed responsibility for occupying much of Borneo and the eastern Netherlands East Indies until British and Dutch colonial rule was restored. Australian authorities also conducted a number of war crimes trials of Japanese personnel. 993,000 Australians enlisted during the war, while 557,000 served overseas. Casualties included 39,767 killed and another 66,553 were wounded. 20 Victoria Crosses were awarded to Australians.\n"}
{"text": " == Post-war period ==\n"}
{"text": " === Demobilisation and peace-time defence arrangements ===\n"}
{"text": " The demobilisation of the Australian military following the end of the Second World War was completed in 1947. Plans for post-war defence arrangements were predicated on maintaining a relatively strong peacetime force. It was envisioned that the Royal Australian Navy maintaining a fleet that would include two light fleet carriers, two cruisers, six destroyers, 16 others ships in commission and another 52 in reserved. The Royal Australian Air Force would have a strength of 16 squadrons, including four manned by the Citizen Air Force. Meanwhile, in a significant departure from previous Australian defence policy which had previously relied on citizen forces, the Australian Army would include a permanent field force of 19,000 regulars organised into a brigade of three infantry battalions with armoured support, serving alongside a part-time force of 50,000 men in the Citizen Military Forces. The Australian Regular Army was subsequently formed on 30 September 1947, while the CMF was re-raised on 1 July 1948.\n"}
{"text": " === Occupation of Japan, 1946 \u2013 52 ===\n"}
{"text": " In the immediate post-war period Australia contributed significant forces to the Allied occupation of Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF), which included forces from Australia, Britain, India and New Zealand. At its height in 1946 the Australian component consisted of an infantry brigade, four warships and three fighter squadrons, totalling 13,500 personnel. The Australian Army component initially consisted of the 34th Brigade which arrived in Japan in February 1946 and was based in Hiroshima Prefecture. The three infantry battalions raised for occupation duties were designated the 1st, 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment in 1949, and the 34th Brigade became the 1st Brigade when it returned to Australia in December 1948, forming the basis of the post-war Regular Army. From that time the Australian Army contribution to the occupation of Japan was reduced to a single under-strength battalion. Australian forces remained until September 1951 when the BCOF ceased operations, although by the time the majority of units had been committed to the fighting on the Korean peninsular following the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. The RAAF component consisted of Nos. 76, 77 and 82 Squadrons as part of No. 81 Wing RAAF flying P-51 Mustangs, initially based at Bofu from March 1946, before transferring to Iwakuni in 1948. However, by 1950 only No. 77 Squadron remained in Japan. A total of ten RAN warships served in Japan during this period, including HMA Ships Australia, Hobart, Shropshire, Arunta, Bataan, Culgoa, Murchison, Shoalhaven, Quadrant and Quiberon, while HMAS Ships Manoora, Westralia and Kanimbla also provided support.\n"}
{"text": " == Cold War ==\n"}
{"text": " === Early planning and commitments ===\n"}
{"text": " During the early years of the Cold War, Australian defence planning assumed that in the event of the outbreak of a global war between the Western world and Eastern bloc countries it would need to contribute forces under collective security arrangements as part of the United Nations, or a coalition led by either the United States or Britain. The Middle East was considered the most likely area of operations for Australian forces, where they would most likely operate with British forces. Early commitments included the involvement of RAAF aircrew during the Berlin Airlift in 1948 \u2013 49 and the deployment of No. 78 Wing RAAF to Malta in the Mediterranean from 1952 to 1954. Meanwhile, defence preparedness initiatives included the introduction of a National Service Scheme in 1951 to provide manpower for the citizen forces of the Army, RAAF and RAN.\n"}
{"text": " === Korean War, 1950 \u2013 53 ===\n"}
{"text": " On 25 June 1950, the North Korean Army (KPA) crossed the border into South Korea and advanced for the capital Seoul, which fell in less than a week. North Korean forces continued toward the port of Pusan and two days later the United States offered its assistance to South Korea. In response the United Nations Security Council requested members to assist in repelling the North Korean attack. Australia initially contributed P-51 Mustang fighter-bomber aircraft from No. 77 Squadron RAAF and infantry from the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), both of which were stationed in Japan as part of the BCOF. In addition, it provided the majority of supply and support personnel to the British Commonwealth Forces Korea. The RAN frigate HMAS Shoalhaven, and the destroyer HMAS Bataan, were also committed. Later, an aircraft carrier strike group aboard HMAS Sydney was added to the force.\n"}
{"text": " By the time 3 RAR arrived in Pusan on 28 September, the North Koreans were in retreat following the Inchon landings. As a part of the invasion force under the UN Supreme Commander, General Douglas MacArthur, the battalion moved north and was involved in its first major action at Battle of Yongju near Pyongyang on 22 October, before advancing towards the Yalu River. Further successful actions followed at Kujin on 25 \u2013 26 October 1950 and at Chongju on 29 October 1950. North Korean casualties were heavy, while Australian losses included their commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green, who was wounded in the stomach by artillery fire after the battle and succumbed to his wounds and died two days later on 1 November. Meanwhile, during the last weeks of October the Chinese had moved 18 divisions of the People's Volunteer Army across the Yalu River to reinforce the remnants of the KPA. Undetected by US and South Korean intelligence, the 13th Army Group crossed the border on 16 October and penetrated up to 100 kilometres (62 mi) into North Korea, and were reinforced in early November by 12 divisions from the 9th Army Group; in total 30 divisions composed of 380,000 men. 3 RAR fought its first action against the Chinese at Pakchon on 5 November. The fighting cost the battalion heavily and despite halting a Chinese division the new battalion commander was dismissed in the wake. Following the Chinese intervention, the UN forces were defeated in successive battles and 3 RAR was forced to withdraw to the 38th parallel.\n"}
{"text": " A series of battles followed at Uijeongbu on 1 \u2013 4 January 1951, as the British and Australians occupied defensive positions in an attempt to secure the northern approaches to the South Korean capital. Further fighting occurred at Chuam-ni on 14 \u2013 17 February 1951 following another Chinese advance, and later at Maehwa-San between 7 \u2013 12 March 1951 as the UN resumed the offensive. Australian troops subsequently participated in two more major battles in 1951, with the first taking place during fighting which later became known as the Battle of Kapyong. On 22 April, Chinese forces attacked the Kapyong valley and forced the South Korean defenders to withdraw. Australian and Canadian troops were ordered to halt this Chinese advance. After a night of fighting the Australians recaptured their positions, at the cost of 32 men killed and 59 wounded. In July 1951, the Australian battalion became part of the combined Canadian, British, Australian, New Zealand, and Indian 1st Commonwealth Division. The second major battle took place during Operation Commando and occurred after the Chinese attacked a salient in a bend of the Imjin River. The 1st Commonwealth Division counter-attacked on 3 October, capturing a number of objectives including Hill 355 and Hill 317 during the Battle of Maryang San; after five days the Chinese retreated. Australian casualties included 20 dead and 104 wounded.\n"}
{"text": " The belligerents then became locked in static trench warfare akin to the First World War, in which men lived in tunnels, redoubts, and sandbagged forts behind barbed wire defences. From 1951 until the end of the war, 3 RAR held trenches on the eastern side of the division's positions in the hills northeast of the Imjin River. Across from them were heavily fortified Chinese positions. In March 1952, Australia increased its ground commitment to two battalions, sending 1 RAR. This battalion remained in Korea for 12 months, before being replaced by 2 RAR in April 1953. The Australians fought their last battle during 24 \u2013 26 July 1953, with 2 RAR holding off a concerted Chinese attack along the Samichon River and inflicting significant casualties for the loss of five killed and 24 wounded. Hostilities were suspended on 27 July 1953. 17,808 Australians served during the war, with 341 killed, 1,216 wounded and 30 captured.\n"}
{"text": " === Malayan Emergency, 1950 \u2013 60 ===\n"}
{"text": " The Malayan Emergency was declared on 18 June 1948, after three estate managers were murdered by members of the Malayan Communist Party (MCP). Australian involvement began in June 1950, when in response to a British request, six Lincolns from No. 1 Squadron and a flight of Dakotas from No. 38 Squadron arrived in Singapore to form part of the British Commonwealth Far East Air Force (FEAF). The Dakotas were subsequently used on cargo runs, troop movement, as well as paratroop and leaflet drops, while the Lincoln bombers carried out bombing raids against the Communist Terrorist (CT) jungle bases. The RAAF were particularly successful, and in one such mission known as Operation Termite, five Lincoln bombers destroyed 181 communist camps, killed 13 communists and forced one into surrender, in a joint operation with the RAF and ground troops. The Lincolns were withdrawn in 1958, and were replaced by Canberra bombers from No. 2 Squadron and CAC Sabres from No. 78 Wing. Based at RAAF Base Butterworth they also carried out a number ground attack missions against the guerrillas.\n"}
{"text": " Australian ground forces were deployed to Malaya in October 1955 as part of the Far East Strategic Reserve. In January 1956, the first Australian ground forces were deployed on Malaysian peninsula, consisting of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR). 2 RAR mainly participated in \"mopping up\" operations over the next 20 months, conducting extensive patrolling in and near the CT jungle bases, as part of 28th British Commonwealth Brigade. Contact with the enemy was infrequent and results small, achieving relatively few kills. 2 RAR left Malaysia October 1957 to be replaced by 3 RAR. 3 RAR underwent six weeks of jungle training and began driving MCP insurgents back into the jungle of Perak and Kedah. The new battalion extensively patrolled and was involved in food denial operations and ambushes. Again contact was limited, although 3 RAR had more success than its predecessor. By late 1959, operations against the MCP were in their final phase, and most communists had been pushed back and across the Thailand border. 3 RAR left Malaysia October 1959 and was replaced by 1 RAR. Though patrolling the border 1 RAR did not make contact with the insurgents, and in October 1960 it was replaced by 2 RAR, which stayed in Malaysia until August 1963. The Malayan Emergency officially ended on 31 July 1960.\n"}
{"text": " Australia also provided artillery and engineer support, along with an air-field construction squadron. The Royal Australian Navy also served in Malayan waters, firing on suspected communist positions between 1956 and 1957. The Emergency was the longest continued commitment in Australian military history; 7,000 Australians served and 51 died in Malaya \u2014 although only 15 were on operations \u2014 and another 27 were wounded.\n"}
{"text": " === Military and Naval growth during the 1960s ===\n"}
{"text": " At the start of the 1960s, Prime Minister Robert Menzies greatly expanded the Australian military so that it could carry out the Government's policy of \"Forward Defence\" in South East Asia. In 1964, Menzies announced a large increase in defence spending. The strength of the Australian Army would be increased by 50 % over three years from 22,000 to 33,000; providing a full three-brigade division with nine battalions. The RAAF and RAN would also both be increased by 25 %. In 1964, conscription or National Service was re-introduced under the National Service Act, for selected 20-year-olds based on date of birth, for a period of two years' continuous full-time service (the previous scheme having been suspended in 1959).\n"}
{"text": " In 1961, three Charles F. Adams-class destroyers were purchased from the United States to replace the ageing Q-class destroyers. Traditionally, the RAN had purchased designs based on those of the Royal Navy and the purchase of American destroyers was significant. HMAS Perth and HMAS Hobart joined the fleet in 1965, followed by HMAS Brisbane in 1967. Other projects included the construction of six River-class frigates, the conversion of the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne to an anti-submarine role, the acquisition of ten Wessex helicopters, and the purchase of six Oberon-class submarines.\n"}
{"text": " The RAAF took delivery of their first Mirage fighters in 1967, equipping No. 3, No. 75 and No. 77 Squadrons with them. The service also received American F-111 strike aircraft, C-130 Hercules transports, P-3 Orion maritime reconnaissance aircraft and Italian Macchi trainers.\n"}
{"text": " === Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, 1962 \u2013 66 ===\n"}
{"text": " The Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation was fought from 1962 to 1966 between the British Commonwealth and Indonesia over the creation of the Federation of Malaysia, with the Commonwealth attempting to safeguard the security of the new state. The war remained limited, and was fought primarily on the island of Borneo, although a number of Indonesian seaborne and airborne incursions onto the Malay Peninsula did occur. As part of Australia's continuing military commitment to the security of Malaysia, army, naval and airforce units were based there as part of the Far East Strategic Reserve. Regardless the Australian government was wary of involvement in a war with Indonesia and initially limited its involvement to the defence of the Malayan peninsula only. On two occasions Australian troops from 3 RAR were used to help mop up infiltrators from seaborne and airborne incursions at Labis and Pontian, in September and October 1964.\n"}
{"text": " Following these raids the government conceded to British and Malaysian requests to deploy an infantry battalion to Borneo. During the early phases, British and Malaysian troops had attempted only to control the Malaysian / Indonesian border, and to protect population centres. However, by the time the Australian battalion deployed the British had decided on more aggressive action, crossing the border into Kalimantan to obtain information and conduct ambushes to force the Indonesians to remain on the defensive, under the codename Operation Claret. The fighting took place in mountainous, jungle-clad terrain, and a debilitating climate, with operations characterised by the extensive use of company bases sited along the border, cross-border operations, the use of helicopters for troop movement and resupply, and the role of human and signals intelligence to determine enemy movements and intentions.\n"}
{"text": " 3 RAR deployed to Borneo in March 1965, and served in Sarawak until the end of July, operating on both sides of the border. The battalion had four major contacts with Indonesian forces and several smaller ones \u2014 including at Sungei Koemba, Kindau and Babang during which they inflicted heavy casualties on the Indonesians \u2014 as well as suffering casualties in two mine incidents. 4 RAR served a less-eventful tour between April and August 1966, and also operated over the border, successfully clashing with the Indonesians on a number of occasions. A squadron of the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR) was also deployed in 1965 and again in 1966, taking part in cross-border operations and inflicting significant casualties on the Indonesians, even though they were often tasked with covert reconnaissance. Other units included artillery and engineers, while a number of RAN ships were involved in shelling Indonesian positions in Borneo and in repelling infiltrators in the Singapore Strait. The RAAF played a relatively minor role, although it would have been used far more extensively had the war escalated.\n"}
{"text": " Operations in Borneo were extremely sensitive and they received little press coverage in Australia, while official acknowledgement of involvement in cross-border missions only occurred in 1996. Following a military coup in Indonesia in early 1966 which brought General Suharto to power, a peace treaty was signed in August 1966 which ended the conflict. 3,500 Australians served during Confrontation; casualties included 16 dead, with seven killed in action and eight wounded.\n"}
{"text": " === Vietnam War, 1962 \u2013 73 ===\n"}
{"text": " Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War was driven largely by the rise of communism in Southeast Asia after the Second World War, and the fear of its spread which developed in Australia during the 1950s and early 1960s. As a consequence, Australia supported South Vietnam throughout the early 1960s. In 1961 and 1962, the leader of the South Vietnamese government, Ngo Dinh Diem, asked for assistance from the US and its allies in response to a growing insurgency supported by communist North Vietnam. Australia offered 30 military advisors from the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam, which became known simply as \"The Team\". They arrived in July and August 1962, beginning Australia's involvement in the war. Later in August 1964, the RAAF sent a flight of Caribou transport aircraft to the port city of Vung Tau.\n"}
{"text": " However, with the security situation in South Vietnam continuing to deteriorate, the US increased its involvement to 200,000 combat troops by early 1965. Australia also committed ground forces, dispatching the 1 RAR to serve with the US 173rd Airborne Brigade in Bien Hoa province in June 1965 and it subsequently fought a number of significant actions, including Gang Toi, Operation Crimp and Suoi Bong Trang. In March 1966, the Australian government announced the deployment of a brigade-sized unit \u2014 the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) \u2014 to replace 1 RAR. Included were a large number of conscripts, under the increasingly controversial National Service Scheme. Consisting of two infantry battalions as well as armour, aviation, artillery and other support arms, the task force was assigned primary responsibility for its own area and was based at Nui Dat, in Phuoc Tuy Province. Included were the Iroquois helicopters of No. 9 Squadron RAAF. At the Battle of Long Tan on 18 August 1966, D Company, 6 RAR with considerable artillery support held off and defeated a Viet Cong force that was at least six times bigger than itself. 18 Australians were killed and 24 wounded, while 245 communist dead were later recovered from the battlefield. The battle allowed the Australians to gain dominance over Phuoc Tuy Province and 1 ATF was not fundamentally challenged again. Regardless, during February 1967 the Australians suffered their heaviest casualties in the war to that point, losing 16 men killed and 55 wounded in a single week, the bulk during Operation Bribie.\n"}
{"text": " Yet with the Phuoc Tuy province coming progressively under control throughout 1967, the Australians increasingly spent a significant period of time conducting operations further afield. 1 ATF was subsequently deployed astride infiltration routes leading to Saigon to interdict communist movement against the capital as part of Operation Coburg during the 1968 Tet Offensive and later during the Battle of Coral \u2013 Balmoral in May and June 1968. At Fire Support Bases Coral and Balmoral the Australians had clashed with regular North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong main force units operating in battalion and regimental strength for the first time in near conventional warfare, ultimately fighting their largest, most hazardous and most sustained battle of the war. During 26 days of fighting Australian casualties included 25 killed and 99 wounded, while communist casualties included 267 killed confirmed by body count, 60 possibly killed, 7 wounded and 11 captured. Other significant Australian actions included Binh Ba in June 1969, Hat Dich in late-December 1968 and early 1969 and Long Khanh in June 1971. At the height of the Australian commitment, 1 ATF numbered 8,500 troops, including three infantry battalions, armour, artillery, engineers, logistics and aviation units in support. A third RAAF unit, No. 2 Squadron RAAF, flying Canberra bombers, was sent in 1967, and four RAN destroyers joined US patrols in the waters off North Vietnam.\n"}
{"text": " The Australian withdrawal effectively commenced in November 1970. As a consequence of the overall allied strategy of Vietnamization and with the Australian government keen to reduce its own commitment to the war, 8 RAR was not replaced at the end of its tour of duty. 1 ATF was again reduced to just two infantry battalions, albeit with significant armour, artillery and aviation support remaining. Australian combat forces were further reduced during 1971 as part of a phased withdrawal, and 1 ATF ceased operations in October. Meanwhile, the advisors remained to train South Vietnamese troops until withdrawn on 18 December 1972 by the newly elected Labor government of Gough Whitlam. The last Australian forces were finally withdrawn in 1973. The Vietnam War was Australia's longest and most controversial war and although initially enjoying broad support, as the nation's military involvement increased a vocal anti-war movement developed. More than 50,000 Australians served in Vietnam; 519 were killed and 2,398 were wounded. Four were awarded the Victoria Cross.\n"}
{"text": " == Post-Vietnam era ==\n"}
{"text": " === Creation of the Australian Defence Force, 1976 ===\n"}
{"text": " Although the importance of 'joint' warfare had been highlighted during Second World War when Australian naval, ground and air units frequently served as part of single commands, the absence of a central authority continued to result in poor co-ordination between the services in the post-war era, with each organising and operating on the basis of a different military doctrine. The need for an integrated command structure received more emphasis during the Australian military's experiences in the Vietnam War. In 1973, the Secretary of the Department of Defence, Arthur Tange, submitted a report to the Government that recommended the unification of the separate departments supporting each service into a single department and the creation of the post of Chief of the Defence Force Staff.\n"}
{"text": " The Whitlam Labor Government subsequently amalgamated the five defence ministries (Defence, Navy, Army, Air Force, and Supply) into a single Department of Defence in 1973, while conscription under the National Service scheme was abolished. On 1 January 1976, the three branches of the Australian military were brought together as a unified, all-volunteer, professional force known as the Australian Defence Force (ADF). Today, the ADF is headquartered at Russell Offices in Canberra and is divided into Air, Land, Maritime and Special Operations Commands. In addition, Northern Command is based in Darwin, and is responsible for operations in Northern Australia.\n"}
{"text": " === Defence of Australia, 1980s and 1990s ===\n"}
{"text": " Until the 1970s, Australia's military strategy centred on the concept of Forward Defence, in which the role of Australian military and naval forces were to co-operate with Allied forces to counter threats in Australia's region. Following the adoption of the Guam Doctrine by the United States in 1969, and the British withdrawal 'east of Suez' in the early 1970s, Australia developed a defence policy emphasising self-reliance and the defence of the Australian continent. Known as the Defence of Australia Policy, it focused Australian defence planning on protecting the nation's northern maritime approaches (the' air-sea gap ') against possible attack.\n"}
{"text": " In line with this goal, the ADF was restructured to increase its ability to strike at enemy forces from Australian bases and to counter raids on continental Australia. This was achieved by increasing the capabilities of the RAN and RAAF, and relocating regular Army units to Northern Australia. During this time the ADF had no military units on operational deployment outside Australia. However, in 1987 the ADF made its first operational deployment as part of Operation Morris Dance, in which several warships and a rifle company deployed to the waters off Fiji in response to the 1987 Fijian coups d '\u00e9tat. While broadly successful, this deployment highlighted the need for the ADF to improve its capability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events.\n"}
{"text": " During this period Australia continued to retain forces in Malaysia as part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) agreed in 1971 to defend it in the event of external attack, with this commitment initially including significant air, ground and naval forces. However, these forces were gradually reduced with the infantry battalion withdrawn from Singapore in 1973, and the two Mirage fighter squadrons in 1988. Since then a detachment of Orion maritime patrol aircraft, support personnel, and an infantry company known as Rifle Company Butterworth have been maintained, as well as occasional deployments of F / A-18 Hornet fighter aircraft. Australian submarines were reportedly also involved in a number of clandestine surveillance missions throughout Asian waters in the last decades of the Cold War. Airforce and Navy units were also involved in tracking Soviet ship and submarine movements in the region. Since then the Orions have continued to participate in maritime security operations as part of Operation Gateway, conducting patrols over the Indian Ocean, Strait of Malacca and South China Sea. They have reportedly also been involved in freedom of navigation flights.\n"}
{"text": " === Gulf War, 1991 ===\n"}
{"text": " Australia was a member of the international coalition which contributed military forces to the 1991 Gulf War, deploying a naval task group of two warships, a support ship and a clearance diving team; in total about 750 personnel. The Australian contribution was the first time Australian personnel were deployed to an active war zone since the establishment of the ADF and the deployment tested its capabilities and command structure. However, the Australian force did not see combat, and instead playing a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following the invasion of Kuwait. Some ADF personnel serving on exchange with British and American units did see combat, and a few were later decorated for their actions. Following the war, the Navy regularly deployed a frigate to the Persian Gulf or Red Sea to enforce the trade sanctions which continued to be applied to Iraq. A number of Australian airmen and ground crew posted to or on exchange with US and British air forces subsequently participated in enforcing no-fly zones imposed over Iraq between 1991 and 2003.\n"}
{"text": " === Global security, late-1990s ===\n"}
{"text": " Since the late 1980s, the Australian government had increasingly called upon the ADF to contribute forces to peacekeeping missions around the world. While most of these deployments involved only small numbers of specialists, several led to the deployment of hundreds of personnel. Large peacekeeping deployments were made to Namibia in early 1989, Cambodia between 1992 and 1993, Somalia in 1993, Rwanda between 1994 and 1995 and Bougainville in 1994 and from 1997 onwards. The 1996 election of the Howard Liberal government resulted in significant reforms to the ADF's force structure and role, with the new government's defence strategy placed less singular emphasis on defending Australia from direct attack and greater emphasis on working in co-operation with regional states and Australia's allies to manage potential security threats in recognition of Australia's global security interests. In line with this new focus, the ADF's force structure changed in an attempt to increase the proportion of combat units to support units and to improve the ADF's combat effectiveness.\n"}
{"text": " == New Millennium ==\n"}
{"text": " === East Timor, 1999 \u2013 2013 ===\n"}
{"text": " The former-Portuguese colony of East Timor was invaded by Indonesia in 1975, however, following years of violent struggle the new Indonesian government of President B.J. Habibie subsequently agreed to allow the East Timorese to vote on autonomy in 1999. The United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) was established to organise and conduct the vote, which was held at the end of August 1999 and resulted with 78.5 % of voters deciding in favour of independence. However, following the announcement of the results pro-Indonesian militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military, launched a campaign of violence, looting and arson and many East Timorese were killed, while perhaps more than 500,000 were displaced. Unable to control the violence, Indonesia subsequently agreed to the deployment of a multinational peacekeeping force. Australia, which had contributed police to UNAMET, organised and led an international military coalition, known as the International Force for East Timor (INTERFET), a non-UN force operating in accordance with UN resolutions. The total size of the Australian force committed numbered 5,500 personnel, and included a significant ground force, supported by air and naval forces, in the largest single deployment of Australian forces since 1945.\n"}
{"text": " Under the overall command of Australian Major General Peter Cosgrove, INTERFET began arriving on 12 September 1999 and was tasked with restoring peace and security, protecting and supporting UNAMET, and facilitating humanitarian assistance operations. With the withdrawal of the Indonesian armed forces, police and government officials from East Timor, UNAMET re-established its headquarters in Dili on 28 September. On 19 October 1999, Indonesia formally recognised the result of the referendum and shortly thereafter a UN peacekeeping force, the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) was established, becoming fully responsible for the administration of East Timor during its transition to independence. The hand-over of command of military operations from INTERFET to UNTAET was completed on 28 February 2000. Australia continued to support the UN peacekeeping operation with between 1,500 and 2,000 personnel, as well as landing craft and Blackhawk helicopters and remained the largest contributor of personnel to the peacekeeping mission. During these operations Australian forces regularly clashed with pro-Indonesian militia and on a number of occasions Indonesian forces as well, especially along the border with West Timor. Significant actions occurred in Suai, Mota 'ain and at Aidabasalala in October 1999. However, with the security situation stabilised the bulk of the Australian and UN forces were withdrawn by 2005. Two Australians died from non-battle related causes, while a number were wounded in action.\n"}
{"text": " The unexpected deployment to East Timor in 1999 led to significant changes in Australian defence policy and to an enhancement of the ADF's ability to conduct operations outside Australia. This successful deployment was the first time a large Australian military force had operated outside of Australia since the Vietnam War and revealed shortcomings in the ADF's ability to mount and sustain such operations. In response, the 2000 Defence White Paper placed a greater emphasis on preparing the ADF for overseas deployments. The Australian government committed to improve the ADF's capabilities by improving the readiness and equipment of ADF units, expanding the ADF to 57,000 full-time personnel and increasing real Defence expenditure by 3 % per year.\n"}
{"text": " In May 2006, 2,000 ADF personnel were again deployed to East Timor as part of Operation Astute, following unrest between elements of the Timor Leste Defence Force. Australian forces were involved in a number skirmishes during this time, including a heavy clash with rebels commanded by Alfredo Reinado at Same on 4 March 2007. However, by early-2010 the security situation had been stabilised and just 400 Australian personnel remained to train the local security forces as part of a small international force. Following a drawdown, the International Stabilisation Force commenced withdrawing from Timor-Leste in November 2012, a process which was completed in April 2013.\n"}
{"text": " === Afghanistan, 2001 \u2013 present ===\n"}
{"text": " Shortly after the Islamist inspired terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on 11 September 2001, Australian forces were committed to the American-led international coalition against terrorism. The ADF's most visible contribution \u2014 codenamed Operation Slipper \u2014 has been a special forces task group operating in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2002 and again from mid-2005 to fight against the Taliban. Over time the Australian commitment has grown, with the addition of further ground forces in the form of a Reconstruction Task Force from 2006 to provide security, reconstruction and to mentor and train the Afghan National Army. Australia has also contributed a frigate and two AP-3C Orion surveillance aircraft and three C-130 Hercules transport aircraft to international operations in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean since 2001, supporting both the operations in Afghanistan and those in Iraq under Operation Catalyst. A detachment of four F / A-18 Hornet fighter-bombers was based at Diego Garcia from late-2001 to mid-2002, while two Boeing 707 air-to-air refuelling aircraft were also based in Manas Air Base in Kyrgyzstan to provide support to coalition aircraft operating in Afghan airspace but were later withdrawn. A Special Operations Task Group was deployed to support the Reconstruction Taskforce in April 2007. In addition to radar crews, logistics and intelligence officers, and security personnel, this brought the number of Australian personnel in Afghanistan to 950 by mid-2007, with further small increases to 1,000 in mid-2008, 1,100 in early 2009 and 1,550 in mid-2009.\n"}
{"text": " A modest force remained in Afghanistan over this time and was involved in counter-insurgency operations in Uruzgan Province in conjunction United States and other coalition forces, including the Dutch prior to their withdrawal. The force consisted of motorised infantry, special forces, engineers, cavalry, artillery and aviation elements. By 2010 it included a combined arms battalion-sized battle group known as the Mentoring Task Force, and the Special Operations Task Group, both based at Forward Operation Base Ripley outside of Tarin Kowt, as well as the Rotary Wing Group flying CH-47D Chinooks, the Force Logistics Asset and an RAAF air surveillance radar unit based in Kandahar. In addition, a further 800 Australian logistic personnel were also based in the Middle East in support, but are located outside of Afghanistan. Meanwhile, detachments of maritime patrol and transport aircraft continued to support operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, based out of Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates. Also included is the deployment of one of the RAN's frigates to the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden on counter piracy and maritime interdiction duties.\n"}
{"text": " Australian forces were at times involved in heavy fighting, and significant actions included Operation Anaconda in 2002 and Operation Perth in 2006, as well as actions in Chora in 2007, Kakarak in 2009, the Shah Wali Kot and Derapet in 2010, and Doan in 2011; although others have yet to be publicly acknowledged due to operational security requirements. Casualties include 41 killed and 256 wounded, while another Australian also died serving with the British Army. Four Australians have been awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia, the first such decorations in forty years. Following a drawdown in forces, the last combat troops were withdrawn on 15 December 2013; however, approximately 400 personnel remain in Afghanistan as trainers and advisers, and are stationed in Kandahar and Kabul. Over 26,000 Australian personnel have served in Afghanistan.\n"}
{"text": " === Iraq, 2003 \u2013 11 ===\n"}
{"text": " Australian forces later joined British and American forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The initial contribution was also a modest one, consisting of just 2,058 personnel \u2014 codenamed Operation Falconer. Major force elements included special forces, rotary and fixed wing aviation and naval units. Army units included elements from the SASR and 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (Commando), a CH-47 Chinook detachment and a number of other specialist units. RAN units included the amphibious ship HMAS Kanimbla and the frigates HMAS Darwin and HMAS Anzac, while the RAAF deployed 14 F / A-18 Hornets from No. 75 Squadron, a number of AP-3C Orions and C-130 Hercules. The Australian Special Forces Task Force was one of the first coalition units forces to cross the border into Iraq, while for a few days, the closest ground troops to Baghdad were from the SASR. During the invasion the RAAF also flew its first combat missions since the Vietnam War, with No. 75 Squadron flying a total of 350 sorties and dropping 122 laser-guided bombs.\n"}
{"text": " The Iraqi military quickly proved no match for coalition military power, and with their defeat the bulk of Australian forces were withdrawn. While Australia did not initially take part in the post-war occupation of Iraq, an Australian Army light armoured battlegroup \u2014 designated the Al Muthanna Task Group and including 40 ASLAV light armoured vehicles and infantry \u2014 was later deployed to Southern Iraq in April 2005 as part of Operation Catalyst. The role of this force was to protect the Japanese engineer contingent in the region and support the training of New Iraqi Army units. The AMTG later became the Overwatch Battle Group (West) (OBG ( W) ), following the hand back of Al Muthanna province to Iraqi control. Force levels peaked at 1,400 personnel in May 2007 including the OBG (W) in Southern Iraq, the Security Detachment in Baghdad and the Australian Army Training Team \u2014 Iraq. A RAN frigate was based in the North Persian Gulf, while RAAF assets included C-130H Hercules and AP-3C elements. Following the election of a new Labor government under Prime Minister Kevin Rudd the bulk of these forces were withdrawn by mid-2009, while RAAF and RAN operations were redirected to other parts of the Middle East Area of Operations as part of Operation Slipper.\n"}
{"text": " Low-level operations continued, however, with a small Australian force of 80 soldiers remaining in Iraq to protect the Australian Embassy in Baghdad as part of SECDET under Operation Kruger. SECDET was finally withdrawn in August 2011, and was replaced by a private military company which took over responsibility for providing security for Australia's diplomatic presence in Iraq. Although more than 17,000 personnel served during operations in Iraq, Australian casualties were relatively light, with two soldiers accidentally killed, while a third Australian died serving with the British Royal Air Force. A further 27 personnel were wounded. Two officers remained in Iraq attached to the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq as part of Operation Riverbank. This operation concluded in November 2013.\n"}
{"text": " === Military intervention against ISIL, 2014 \u2013 present ===\n"}
{"text": " In June 2014 a small number of SASR personnel were deployed to Iraq to protect the Australian embassy when the security of Baghdad was threatened by the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive. Later, in August and September a number of RAAF C-17 and C-130J transport aircraft based in the Middle East were used to conduct airdrops of humanitarian aid to trapped civilians and to airlift arms and munitions to forces in Kurdish-controlled northern Iraq. In late September 2014 an Air Task Group (ATG) and Special Operations Task Group (SOTG) were deployed to Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates as part of the coalition to combat Islamic State forces in Iraq. Equipped with F / A-18F Super Hornet strike aircraft, a KC-30A Multi Role Tanker Transport, and an E-7A Wedgetail Airborne Early Warning & Control aircraft, the ATG began operations on 1 October. The SOTG is tasked with operations to advise and assist Iraqi Security Forces, and was deployed to Iraq after a legal framework covering their presence in the country was agreed between the Australian and Iraqi Governments. It began moving into Iraq in early November. In April 2015 a 300-strong unit known as Task Group Taji was deployed to Iraq to train the regular Iraqi Security Forces. Airstrikes were extended to Syria in September 2015.\n"}
{"text": " == Peacekeeping ==\n"}
{"text": " Australia's involvement in international peacekeeping operations has been diverse, and included participation in both United Nations sponsored missions, as well as those as part of ad-hoc coalitions. Australians have been involved in more conflicts as peacekeepers than as belligerents; however \"in comparative international terms, Australia has only been a moderately energetic peacekeeper.\" Although Australia has had peacekeepers in the field continuously for 60 years \u2014 being among the first group of UN military observers in Indonesia in 1947 \u2014 its commitments have generally been limited, consisting mostly of small numbers of high-level and technical support troops such as signallers, engineers, medics, observers, and police. One significant commitment has been Australia's ongoing involvement with the long running Multinational Force and Observers in the Sinai. The operational tempo started increasing in the mid-1990s, when Australia became involved in a series of high-profile operations, deploying significantly larger combat units in support of a number of missions including Cambodia, Rwanda, Somalia, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands. Australia has been involved in close to 100 separate missions, involving more than 30,000 personnel; 14 Australians have died during these operations.\n"}
{"text": " == Military statistics ==\n"}
{"text": " = Ward Churchill =\n"}
{"text": " Ward LeRoy Churchill (born 1947) is an American author and political activist. He was a professor of ethnic studies at the University of Colorado Boulder from 1990 until 2007. The primary focus of his work is on the historical treatment of political dissenters and Native Americans by the United States government. His work features controversial and provocative views, written in a direct, often confrontational style.\n"}
{"text": " In January 2005, Churchill's work attracted controversy because of the circulation of a 2001 essay, \"On the Justice of Roosting Chickens\", in which he argued the September 11 attacks were a natural and unavoidable consequence of unlawful US foreign policy over the latter half of the 20th century; the essay is well known for Churchill's use of the phrase \"little Eichmanns\" to describe the \"technocratic corps\" working in the World Trade Center.\n"}
{"text": " In March 2005 the University of Colorado began investigating allegations that Churchill had engaged in research misconduct; it reported in June 2006 that he had done so. Churchill was fired on July 24, 2007, leading to a claim by some scholars that he was fired because of the \"Little Eichmanns\" comment. Churchill filed a lawsuit against the University of Colorado for unlawful termination of employment. In April 2009 a Denver jury found that Churchill was wrongly fired, awarding him $ 1 in damages. In July 2009, a District Court judge vacated the monetary award and declined Churchill's request to order his reinstatement, deciding the university has \"quasi-judicial immunity\". In February 2010, Churchill appealed the judge's decision. In November 2010, the Colorado Court of Appeals upheld the lower-court's ruling. In September 10, 2012, the Colorado Supreme Court upheld the lower courts' decisions in favor of the University of Colorado. On April 1, 2013, the United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case.\n"}
{"text": " In a February 2014 interview, Churchill commented that after living more than forty years in the northern plains / Colorado region, he had relocated to Atlanta, Georgia in 2013. Churchill also stated that he had a half-dozen uncompleted books which he intended to finish and publish in the next three years.\n"}
{"text": " == Early life and education ==\n"}
{"text": " Churchill was born in Urbana, Illinois, to Jack LeRoy Churchill and Maralyn Lucretia Allen. His parents divorced before he was two, and he grew up in Elmwood, where he attended local schools.\n"}
{"text": " In 1966, he was drafted into the United States Army. On his 1980 resume, he said he served as a public-information specialist who \"wrote and edited the battalion newsletter and wrote news releases.\"\n"}
{"text": " In a 1987 profile on Churchill, the Denver Post reported that he was drafted, went to paratrooper school, then volunteered for Vietnam, where he served a 10-month tour as Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol (LRRP), one of a six-man team sent out to track down the enemy. The Post article also reported that Churchill was politically radicalized as a result of his experiences in Vietnam. Churchill told the Post that he had spent some time at the Chicago office of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) in the late 1960s, and briefly taught members of the Weather Underground how to build bombs and fire weapons.\n"}
{"text": " In 2005, the Denver Post reported that Churchill's military records show he was trained as a film projectionist and light truck driver, but they do not reflect paratrooper school or LRRP training. The 75th Ranger Regiment Association found no record of Churchill having been a member of the unit, or a LRRP team.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill received his B.A. in technological communications in 1974 and M.A. in communications theory in 1975, both from Sangamon State University, now the University of Illinois at Springfield.\n"}
{"text": " == Career ==\n"}
{"text": " In 1978, Churchill began working at the University of Colorado Boulder as an affirmative action officer in the university administration. He also lectured on American Indian issues in the ethnic studies program. In 1990, the University of Colorado hired him as an associate professor, although he did not possess the academic doctorate usually required for the position. The following year he was granted tenure in the Communications department, without the usual six-year probationary period, after having been declined by the Sociology and Political Science departments.\n"}
{"text": " He has long been interested in issues associated with the Dawes Act, which broke up the communal reservation lands and assigned plots to individual households. Connected with that was the federal government's first use of \"blood quantum\" to define individual membership in tribes, for what became known as the Dawes Rolls. Since re-establishing self-governments, federally recognized tribes have established their own criteria for enrollment as members, often related to descent from recognized historical lists, but less often requiring proofs of blood quantum. Some of his published works address these issues, which he has interpreted as part of the federal government's policy of genocide against Native Americans.\n"}
{"text": " In 1995 Churchill discussed his views with David Barsamian in an interview:\n"}
{"text": " You could say that five hundred years ago was the basis of blood quantum in Ibero-America. But in Anglo-America, while there was some preoccupation with it, it was not formalized until the passage of the General Allotment Act, mid-1880s. At that point they began to define Indian as being someone who was demonstrably and documentably of at least one-quarter by quantum blood indigenous in a given group. You couldn 't be an eighth Cheyenne and an eighth Arapaho and be an Indian. You had to be a quarter Cheyenne or a quarter Arapaho or hopefully a quarter and a quarter. The reason for this was quite clear. They were identifying Indians for purposes of allotting them individual parcels of land in the existing reservation base at that point. If they ran out of Indians identifiable as such, then the rest of the land would be declared surplus. So it was clearly in the interests of the government to create a definition of Indianness that would minimize the number of Indians that were available. It was an economic motivation for the application of this genetic criteria to Indianness in the first place. It's become increasingly so ever since. \"(David Barsamian ( December 1995).\" Interview with Ward Churchill: Historical and Current Perspectives \". Z Magazine. )\n"}
{"text": " In 1996, Churchill moved to the new Ethnic Studies Department of the University of Colorado. In 1997, he was promoted to full professor. He was selected as chairman of the department in June 2002.\n"}
{"text": " In January 2005, during the controversy over his 9 / 11 remarks, Churchill resigned as chairman of the ethnic studies department at the University of Colorado \u2014 his term as chair was scheduled to expire in June of that year. On May 16, 2006, the Investigative Committee of the Standing Committee on Research Misconduct at the University of Colorado concluded that Churchill had committed multiple counts of academic misconduct, specifically plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification. On July 24, 2007, Churchill was fired for academic misconduct in an eight to one vote by the University of Colorado's Board of Regents.\n"}
{"text": " == Genealogy and Tribal affiliation ==\n"}
{"text": " In 2003, Churchill stated, \"I am myself of Muscogee and Creek descent on my father's side, Cherokee on my mother's, and am an enrolled member of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians.\" In 1992, Churchill wrote elsewhere that he is one-eighth Creek and one-sixteenth Cherokee. In 1993, Churchill told the Colorado Daily that \"he was one-sixteenth Creek and Cherokee.\" Churchill told the Denver Post in February 2005 that he is three-sixteenths Cherokee.\n"}
{"text": " In a statement dated May 9, 2005, and posted on its website, the United Keetoowah Band initially said,\n"}
{"text": " \"The United Keetoowah Band would like to make it clear that Mr. Churchill IS NOT a member of the Keetoowah Band and was only given an honorary 'associate membership' in the early 1990s because he could not prove any Cherokee ancestry.\" The tribe said that all of Churchill's \"past, present and future claims or assertions of Keetoowah' enrollment, ' written or spoken, including but not limited to; biographies, curriculum vitae, lectures, applications for employment, or any other reference not listed herein, are deemed fraudulent by the United Keetoowah Band.\"\n"}
{"text": " Two days later, the United Keetoowah Band replaced its statement and acknowledged Churchill's \"alleged ancestry\" of being Cherokee:\n"}
{"text": " \"Because Mr. Churchill had genealogical information regarding his alleged ancestry, and his willingness to assist the UKB in promoting the tribe and its causes, he was awarded an 'Associate Membership' as an honor,\" the tribe's website now said. \"However, Mr. Churchill may possess eligibility status for Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, since he claims 1 / 16 Cherokee.\"\n"}
{"text": " The tribe's spokesperson, Lisa Stopp, stated the tribe enrolls only members with certified one-quarter American Indian blood. The website statement further clarified that Churchill \"was not eligible for tribal membership due to the fact that he does not possess a' Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB)\", and the associate membership did not entitle an individual to voting rights or enrollment in the tribe.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill has never asked for CDIB certification, and finds the idea of being \"vetted\" by the US government offensive.\n"}
{"text": " In June 1994, the United Keetoowah Band had voted to stop awarding associate memberships. Such honorary associate membership recognizes an individual's assistance to the tribe, but it has nothing to do with Indian ancestry, and it does not entitle an individual to vote in the tribe as a member. The Keetoowah Band states that Churchill still holds the associate membership and it has not been rescinded. In a separate interview, Ernestine Berry, formerly on the tribe's enrollment committee and four years on its council, said that Churchill had never fulfilled a promise to help the tribe.\n"}
{"text": " In June 2005, the Rocky Mountain News published an article about Churchill's genealogy and family history. It \"turned up no evidence of a single Indian ancestor\" among 142 direct ancestors [of Churchill's] identified from records. The News reported that both Churchill's birth parents were listed as white on the 1930 census, as were all but two of his great-great-grandparents listed on previous census and other official documents. The News found that some of Churchill's accounts of where his ancestors had lived did not agree with documented records. Numerous members of Churchill's extended family have longstanding family legends of Indian ancestry among ancestors; but, none was confirmed among the 142 direct forebears of Churchill who were identified.\n"}
{"text": " Documents in Churchill's university personnel file show that he was granted tenure in a \"special opportunity position.\" In 1994, then CU-Boulder Chancellor James Corbridge refused to take action on allegations that Churchill was fraudulently claiming to be an Indian, saying \"it has always been university policy that a person's race or ethnicity is self-proving.\"\n"}
{"text": " Some of Churchill's Native American critics, such as Vernon Bellecourt (White Earth Ojibwe) and Suzan Shown Harjo (Southern Cheyenne-Muscogee Creek), argue that his assertion of Native American ancestry without the ability to prove it might constitute misrepresentation and grounds for termination. The University has said that it does not hire on the basis of ethnicity. The University of Colorado's Research Misconduct Committee conducted a preliminary investigation into whether Churchill misrepresented his ethnicity to \"add credibility and public acceptance to his scholarship.\" The committee concluded that the allegation was not \"appropriate for further investigation under the definition of research misconduct.\"\n"}
{"text": " In a 2005 interview in The Rocky Mountain News, Churchill said, \"I have never been confirmed as having one-quarter blood, and never said I was. And even if [the critics] are absolutely right, what does that have to do with this issue? I have never claimed to be goddamned Sitting Bull.\" The longtime indigenous activist Russell Means said in February of that year, \"So I want, from this day forward, every media person nationally, internationally and locally to know that we have ascertained that Ward Churchill is a full-blooded Indian leader.\"\n"}
{"text": " === Blood quantum ===\n"}
{"text": " Churchill has responded to requests for verification of his claimed Indian heritage in various ways, including attacking the blood quantum upon which some Native American tribes establish their membership requirements. Churchill argues that the United States instituted blood quantum laws based upon rules of descendancy in order to further goals of personal enrichment and political expediency.\n"}
{"text": " For decades in his writings, Churchill has argued that blood quantum laws have an inherent genocidal purpose. He says,\n"}
{"text": " \"Set the blood quantum at one-quarter, hold to it as a rigid definition of Indians, let intermarriage proceed as it [has] and eventually Indians will be defined out of existence\".\n"}
{"text": " Churchill's assertions have been raised as one of the several research-misconduct allegations that were brought against him in 2005 (see below). He has been accused of using his interpretation of the Dawes Act to attack tribal governments that would not recognize him as a member.\n"}
{"text": " == Writing ==\n"}
{"text": " Churchill has written on American Indian history and culture, and speaks about genocide inflicted on the indigenous people of the Americas by European settlers and what he describes as the repression of native peoples that continues to this day.\n"}
{"text": " As of 2007, according to a report submitted on his behalf, Churchill has written 10 books on his own and co-authored 4. Some have been reprinted with updates. He has written 51 book chapters, 3 law reviews, and 50 scholarly essays; 27 of these were refereed. He has edited 4 volumes and co-edited 3 more.\n"}
{"text": " According to the University of Colorado investigation, \"His academic publications are nearly all works of synthesis and reinterpretation, drawing upon studies by other scholars, not monographs describing new research based on primary sources.\" The investigation also noted that \"he has decided to publish largely in alternative presses or journals, not in the university presses or mainstream peer-reviewed journals often favored by more conventional academics.\" In addition to his academic writing, Churchill has written for several general readership magazines of political opinion.\n"}
{"text": " In 1986, Churchill wrote an essay titled Pacifism as Pathology: Notes on an American Pseudopraxis criticizing pacifist politics within the U.S. left as being hypocritical, de facto racist and ineffectual. In 1998, Arbeiter Ring Publishing published the essay in a book entitled Pacifism as Pathology: Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America and listing Ward Churchill as the author. The book included a preface by Ed Mead, a new introduction to the essay by Churchill and a commentary by Mike Ryan. The book sparked much debate in leftist circles and inspired more aggressive tactics within the anti-globalization movement in the following few years.\n"}
{"text": " Agents of Repression (1988), co-authored by Jim Vander Wall, describes what the authors claim was a secret war against the Black Panther Party and American Indian Movement carried out during the late 1960s and '70s by the FBI under the COINTELPRO program. The COINTELPRO Papers (1990; reissued 2002), also co-authored with Jim Vander Wall, examines a series of original FBI memos that detail the Bureau's activities against various leftist groups, from the U.S. Communist Party in the 1950s to activists concerned with Central American issues in the 1980s.\n"}
{"text": " In Fantasies of the Master Race (1992), Churchill examines the portrayal of American Indians and the use of American Indian symbols in popular American culture. He focuses on such phenomena as Tony Hillerman's mystery novels, the film Dances with Wolves, and the New Age movement, finding examples of cultural imperialism and exploitation. Churchill calls author Carlos Castaneda's claims of revealing the teachings of a Yaqui Indian shaman, the \"greatest hoax since Piltdown Man.\"\n"}
{"text": " Struggle for the Land (1993; reissued 2002) is a collection of essays in which Churchill chronicles what he describes as the U.S. government's systematic exploitation of Native lands and the killing or displacement of American Indians. He details Native American efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries to prevent defoliation and industrial practices such as surface mining.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill's Indians Are Us? (1994), a sequel to Fantasies of the Master Race, further explores American Indian issues in popular culture and politics. He examines the movie Black Robe, the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation killings, the prosecution of Leonard Peltier, sports mascots, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and blood quantum laws, calling them tools of genocide. Churchill is particularly outspoken about New Age exploitations of shamanism and American Indian sacred traditions, and the \"do-it-yourself Indianism\" of certain contemporary authors. John P. LaVelle of the University of New Mexico School of Law published a review of Indians Are Us? in The American Indian Quarterly. Professor LaVelle, an enrolled member of the Santee Sioux Nation, states that Indians Are Us? twists historical facts and is hostile toward Indian tribes. It was in this book that Churchill first made the claim that the United States distributed \"smallpox-infested blankets\" to Indian tribes, a claim which he repeated several times over the next decade. The claim has been criticized as a falsification. Churchill has, however, received support from some scholars.\n"}
{"text": " From a Native Son: Selected Essays on Indigenism, 1985 \u2013 1995 (1996) is a collection of 23 previously published essays on Native American history, culture, and political activism. In his introduction to this volume, Howard Zinn lauds \"the emergence of a new generation of Native-American scholars\" and describes Churchill's writing as \"powerful, eloquent, unsparing of cant and deception\".\n"}
{"text": " Churchill's A Little Matter of Genocide (1997) is a survey of ethnic cleansing in the Americas from 1492 to the present. He compares the treatment of North American Indians to historical instances of genocide by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, Turks against Armenians, and Europeans against the Gypsies, as well as Nazis against the Poles and Jews.\n"}
{"text": " In Perversions of Justice (2002), Churchill argues that the U.S.'s legal system was adapted to gain control over Native American people. Tracing the evolution of federal Indian law, Churchill argues that the principles set forth were not only applied to non-Indians in the U.S., but later adapted for application abroad. He concludes that this demonstrates the development of the U.S.' s \"imperial logic,\" which depends on a \"corrupt form of legalism\" to establish colonial control and empire.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill's controversial essay on 9 / 11 was expanded into a book-length manuscript, published as On the Justice of Roosting Chickens: Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality (2003) by AK Press. The book features two other chapters, one listing US military interventions, another listing what Churchill believes to be US violations of international law. The original essay takes the \"roosting chickens\" of the title from a 1963 Malcolm X speech, in which Malcolm X linked the assassination of U.S. president John F. Kennedy to the violence which Kennedy perpetuated as \"merely a case of chickens coming home to roost.\" Churchill's essays in this book address the worldwide forms of resistance that he posits were and continue to be provoked by U.S. imperialism of the 20th and 21st centuries.\n"}
{"text": " In Kill the Indian, Save the Man: The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools (2004), Churchill traces the history of removing American Indian children from their homes to residential schools (in Canada) or Indian boarding schools (in the USA) as part of government policies (1880s \u2013 1980s) which he regards as genocidal.\n"}
{"text": " == Activism on Native American issues ==\n"}
{"text": " Churchill has been active since at least 1984 as the co-director of the Denver-based American Indian Movement of Colorado, now an autonomous chapter of the American Indian Movement. In 1993, he and other local AIM leaders, including Russell Means, Glenn T. Morris, Robert Robideau, and David Hill, broke with the national AIM leadership, including Dennis Banks and the brothers Vernon and Clyde Bellecourt, claiming that all AIM chapters are autonomous. The AIM Grand Governing Council is based in Minneapolis and retains the name of the national group. It says that the schism arose when Means, Churchill, Glenn T. Morris and others openly supported the Miskito Indian group Misurasata, who were allied with the anti-revolutionary, CIA-backed Contras.\n"}
{"text": " Journalists such as Harlan McKosato attributed the split to Means and other AIM members dividing over opposition to the Bellecourt brothers because of their alleged involvement in the execution of Anna Mae Aquash in December 1975, who was then the highest-ranking woman in AIM but had been suspected of being an informant. It was a year in which other FBI informants had been discovered in AIM. On November 3, 1999, Means held a press conference in Denver, Colorado in which he accused the Bellecourt brothers of complicity in Aquash's death, and named three lower-level AIM members involved in her death: Arlo Looking Cloud, John Graham, and Theda Nelson Clark. This was the first time that an AIM leader active at the time of the Aquash murder had publicly accused AIM of having been involved.\n"}
{"text": " Looking Cloud and Graham were convicted of murder in 2004 and 2010, by federal and South Dakota state juries, respectively. By then Clark was being cared for in a nursing home and was not indicted. Means attributed the split in AIM to divisions in the aftermath of Aquash's murder. The journalist Harlan McKosato said in 1999, \"... her [Aquash's] death has divided the American Indian Movement ...\"\n"}
{"text": " The schism continued, with the national AIM leadership claiming that the local AIM leaders, such as Churchill, are tools of the U.S. government used against other American Indians. The leaders of the national AIM organization, now called AIM Grand Governing Council, claim that Churchill has worked in the past as an underground counter-intelligence source for the U.S. government, for example the FBI, and local, non-Indian, police forces, to subvert the national AIM organization. Specifically, they refer to a 1993 Boulder, Colorado interview with Jodi Rave, a former columnist for the Denver Post, in which Churchill stated that he \"was teaching the Rapid City Police Department about the American Indian Movement.\" In addition, Vernon Bellecourt accused Churchill of having 'fraudulently represented himself as an Indian' to bolster his credentials. Bellecourt said he complained to the University of Colorado about this as early as 1986.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill has been a leader of Colorado AIM's annual protests in Denver against the Columbus Day holiday and its associated parade. Colorado AIM's leadership has come into conflict with some leaders in the Denver Italian American community, the main supporters of the parade. As early as 2004, Churchill had claimed that such parades are unconstitutional, arguing that the Ninth Amendment to the Constitution provides Native Americans with a right not to be subjected to such displays, overriding the First Amendment rights of non-Native Americans.\n"}
{"text": " == 9 / 11 essay controversy ==\n"}
{"text": " Churchill wrote an essay in September 2001 entitled On the Justice of Roosting Chickens. In it, he argued that the September 11 attacks were provoked by U.S. foreign policy. He compared the role of financial workers at the World Trade Center in \"ongoing genocidal American imperialism\" to the role played by Adolf Eichmann in organizing the Holocaust. In 2005, this essay was widely publicized when Hamilton College invited Churchill to speak. This led to both condemnations of Churchill and counter-accusations of McCarthyism by Churchill and supporters. Following the controversy, the University of Colorado interim Chancellor Phil DiStefano said, \"While Professor Churchill has the constitutional right to express his political views, his essay on 9 / 11 has outraged and appalled us and the general public.\"\n"}
{"text": " A documentary called Shouting Fire: Stories from the Edge of Free Speech, broadcast on HBO, prominently features Churchill's case in addressing the issues of free speech and First Amendment rights.\n"}
{"text": " == Research misconduct investigation ==\n"}
{"text": " The controversy attracted increased academic attention to Churchill's research, which had already been criticized by the legal scholar John LaVelle and historian Guenter Lewy. Additional critics were the sociologist Thomas Brown, who had been preparing an article on Churchill's work, and the historians R.G. Robertson and Russell Thornton, who claimed that Churchill had misrepresented their work. In 2005, University of Colorado Boulder administrators ordered an investigation into seven allegations of research misconduct, including three allegations of plagiarism, and four allegations of fabrication or falsification regarding the history of the Dawes Act, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and statements that smallpox was intentionally spread to Native Americans by John Smith in 1614 and by the United States Army at Fort Clark in 1837 (not to be confused with the well-documented use of smallpox-infected blankets at Fort Pitt in 1764).\n"}
{"text": " On May 16, 2006 the University released their findings; the Investigative Committee agreed unanimously that Churchill had engaged in \"serious research misconduct\", including falsification, fabrication, and two of the three allegations of plagiarism. The committee was divided on the appropriate level of sanctions. The Standing Committee on Research Misconduct accepted the findings of the Investigative Committee but also disagreed on what sanctions should be imposed. Churchill's appeal against his proposed dismissal was considered by a panel of the University's Privilege and Tenure Committee, which found that two of the seven findings of misconduct did not constitute dismissible offences. Three members recommended that the penalty should be demotion and one year's suspension without pay, while two favored dismissal.\n"}
{"text": " On July 24, 2007, the University regents voted seven to two to uphold all seven of the findings of research misconduct, overruling the recommendation of Privilege and Tenure panel that two be dismissed. By a vote of eight to one, the regents determined to fire Churchill.\n"}
{"text": " The next day, Churchill filed a lawsuit in state court claiming that the firing was retribution for his expressing politically unpopular views. The jury in Churchill's suit for reinstatement weighed the university's claims of academic misconduct per jury instructions it received in the case. As Stanley Fish said, \"It was the jury \u2019 s task to determine whether Churchill \u2019 s dismissal would have occurred independently of the adverse political response to his constitutionally protected statements.\" The jury found that the alleged misconduct would not have led to Churchill's firing and rejected the university's academic misconduct claim as the grounds for dismissal. On April 1, 2009, a Colorado jury found that Churchill had been wrongly fired, and awarded $ 1 in damages. As one of the jurors said later in a press interview, \"it wasn 't a slap in his face or anything like that when we didn't give him any money. It's just that [Churchill's attorney] David Lane kept saying this wasn 't about the money, and in the end, we took his word for that.\" Churchill's counsel asked Chief Judge Larry J. Naves of the Denver District Court to order reinstatement in light of the verdict.\n"}
{"text": " On July 7, 2009, Judge Naves found that the defendants (university) were entitled to quasi-judicial immunity as a matter of law, vacated the jury verdict and determined that the University did not owe Churchill any financial compensation. Naves denied Churchill's request for reinstatement at CU.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill appealed both decisions. On November 24, 2010, a three-judge panel of the Colorado Court of Appeals affirmed the trial court's decision. In February 2011, Churchill filed a petition for writ of certiorari with the Colorado Supreme Court. In late May 2011, the Colorado Supreme Court agreed to hear his case. Court records indicate that oral arguments began June 7, 2012. On September 10, 2012, the court ruled that the University had \"quasi-judicial immunity\", upholding the trial court's ruling. On April 1, 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal from Churchill.\n"}
{"text": " == Honors ==\n"}
{"text": " 1992, Alfred University awarded him an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters.\n"}
{"text": " == Works ==\n"}
{"text": " Books, as editor\n"}
{"text": " Marxism and Native Americans. Boulder CO: South End Press. 1984. ISBN 978-0-89608-178-9.\n"}
{"text": " Sharon Venne, ed. (1997). Islands in Captivity: The International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Boulder CO: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-568-8. Re-released as Churchill, Ward (2005). Sharon Venne, ed. Islands in Captivity: The Record of the International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Boulder CO: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-738-5.\n"}
{"text": " Natsu Saito, ed. (2006). Confronting The Crime Of Silence: Evidence Of U.S. War Crimes In Indochina. AK Press. ISBN 978-1-904859-21-5.\n"}
{"text": " Books, as author and co-author:\n"}
{"text": " Culture versus Economism: Essays on Marxism in the Multicultural Arena. with Elisabeth Lloyd. Indigena Press. 1984.\n"}
{"text": " Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement. with Jim Vander Wall. Boulder CO: South End Press. 1988. ISBN 978-0-89608-294-6.\n"}
{"text": " The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret War Against Domestic Dissent. with Jim Vander Wall. Boulder CO: South End Press. 1990. ISBN 978-0-89608-359-2.\n"}
{"text": " Fantasies of the Master Race: Literature, Cinema, and the Colonization of American Indians. Common Courage Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-87286-348-4.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill, Ward (1992). Jennie and Jim Vander Wall, ed. Cages of Steel: The Politics of Imprisonment in America (Activism, Politics, Culture, Theory, Vol. 4 ed.). Maisonneuve Press. ISBN 978-0-944624-17-3. Re-released as Churchill, Ward (2004). Jim Vander Wall, ed. Politics of Imprisonment in the United States. AK Press. ISBN 978-1-904859-12-3.\n"}
{"text": " Struggle for the Land: Indigenous Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Expropriation in Contemporary North America. Common Courage Press. 1993. ISBN 978-1-56751-001-0. Revised and expanded edition: Struggle for the Land: Native North American Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Colonization. San Francisco CA: City Lights Books. 2002. ISBN 978-0-87286-415-3.\n"}
{"text": " Indians Are Us ?: Culture and Genocide in Native North America. Common Courage Press. 1994. ISBN 978-1-56751-021-8.\n"}
{"text": " Since Predator Came: Notes from the Struggle for American Indian Liberation. Aigis Press. 1995. ISBN 978-1-883930-03-5.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill, Ward (1996). From a Native Son: Selected Essays on Indigenism 1985 \u2013 1995. Boulder CO: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-553-4.\n"}
{"text": " Pacifism as Pathology: Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America. with Mike Ryan (introduction by Ed Mead). Arbeiter Ring. 1998. ISBN 978-1-894037-07-5.\n"}
{"text": " A Little Matter of Genocide. San Francisco CA: City Lights Books. 1998. ISBN 978-0-87286-343-9.\n"}
{"text": " Draconian Measures: The History of FBI Political Repression. Common Courage Press. 2000. ISBN 978-1-56751-059-1.\n"}
{"text": " Acts Of Rebellion: The Ward Churchill Reader. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 978-0-415-93156-4.\n"}
{"text": " Perversions of Justice: Indigenous Peoples and Angloamerican Law. San Francisco CA: City Lights Books. 2002. ISBN 978-0-87286-416-0.\n"}
{"text": " On the Justice of Roosting Chickens: Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality. AK Press. 2003. ISBN 978-1-902593-79-1.\n"}
{"text": " Kill the Indian, Save the Man: The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools. San Francisco CA: City Lights Books. 2004. ISBN 978-0-87286-434-4.\n"}
{"text": " Speaking Truth in the Teeth of Power: Lectures on Globalization, Colonialism, and Native North America. AK Press. 2004. ISBN 978-1-904859-04-8.\n"}
{"text": " To Disrupt, Discredit And Destroy: The FBI's Secret War Against The Black Panther Party. Routledge. 2005. ISBN 978-0-415-92957-8.\n"}
{"text": " Articles\n"}
{"text": " Churchill, Ward (July \u2013 September 1992). \"I Am Indigenist: Notes on the Ideology of the Fourth World\". Z Papers 1 (3). Archived from the original on October 14, 2007.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill, Ward (1994). \"Let's Spread the Fun Around\". First published as \"Crimes Against Humanity\" in Margaret Anderson and Patricia Hill (eds.) (1994). Race, Class and Gender: An Anthology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. pp. 366 \u2013 73. Also published under the titles \"The Indian Chant and the Tomahawk Chop\" and \"Using Indian Names as Mascots Harms Native Americans\".\n"}
{"text": " Churchill, Ward (November 1998). \"Smoke Signals: A History of Native Americans in Cinema\". LiP Magazine.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill, Ward (Winter \u2013 Spring 2003). \"An American Holocaust? The Structure of Denial\". Socialism and Democracy 17 (2): 25 \u2013 76. doi: 10.1080 / 08854300308428341.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill, Ward (Spring 2005). \"The Ghosts of 9-1-1: Reflections on History, Justice and Roosting Chickens\". Alternative Press Review 9 (1): 45 \u2013 56. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006.\n"}
{"text": " Churchill, Ward (July \u2013 August 2007). \"The Fourth World: Struggles for Traditional Lands and Ways of Life\". Left Turn 25: 25 \u2013 29.\n"}
{"text": " Audio and video\n"}
{"text": " Doing Time: The Politics of Imprisonment, audio CD of a lecture, recorded at the Doing Time Conference at the University of Winnipeg, September 2000 (AK Press, 2001, ISBN 978-1-902593-47-0)\n"}
{"text": " Life In Occupied America (AK Press, 2003, ISBN 978-1-902593-72-2)\n"}
{"text": " In A Pig's Eye: Reflections on the Police State, Repression, and Native America (AK Press, 2002, ISBN 978-1-902593-50-0)\n"}
{"text": " US Off The Planet !: An Evening In Eugene With Ward Churchill And Chellis Glendinning, VHS video recorded July 17, 2001 (Cascadia Media Collective, 2002)\n"}
{"text": " Pacifism and Pathology in the American Left, 2003 audio CD recorded at an AK Press warehouse in Oakland (AK Press Audio)\n"}
{"text": " Z Mag Ward Churchill Audio August 10, 2003 and earlier\n"}
{"text": " Churchill Speaks About Academic Freedom \u2013 Free Speech Radio News February 9, 2005\n"}
{"text": " Ward Churchill Under Fire \u2013 Free Speech Radio News, February 3, 2005.\n"}
{"text": " The Justice of Roosting Chickens: Ward Churchill Speaks The Pacifica Network Show, Democracy Now! from February 18, 2005 features extended Audio / Video exclusive interview with Churchill.\n"}
{"text": " A Little Matter of Genocide: Linking U.S. Aggression Abroad to the Domestic Repression of Indigenous Peoples \", recorded in North Battleford, Saskatchewan on March 19, 2005\n"}
{"text": " Debate with David Horowitz and Ward Churchill at George Washington University April 6, 2006\n"}
{"text": " \"Full two-hour audio of debate with David Horowitz\". rightalk.listenz.com. Retrieved 2006-07-02.\n"}
{"text": " \"David Horowitz vs. Ward Churchill \u2014 Round 1\". Young Americans Foundation. Retrieved 2006-07-02. Video and audio (excerpt)\n"}
{"text": " \"David Horowitz vs. Ward Churchill\". insidehighered.com. Retrieved 2006-07-02.\n"}
{"text": " == Artwork ==\n"}
{"text": " Churchill's subjects are often American Indian figures and other themes associated with Native American Culture. He uses historical photographs as source material for works. In the early 1990s at Santa Fe Indian Market, Churchill protested the passage of the 1990 Indian Arts and Crafts Act. It requires that, to identify and exhibit works as being by a Native American, artists and craftsmen must be enrolled in a Native American tribe or designated by a tribe as an artisan. Under federal law, Churchill cannot identify his art as by a Native American.\n"}
{"text": " Some of Churchill's pieces may infringe copyrights. For example, his 1981 serigraph Winter Attack was, according to Churchill and others, based on a 1972 drawing by the artist Thomas E. Mails Churchill printed 150 copies of Winter Attack and sold at least one of them. Other copies are available online for purchase. Churchill says that, when he produced Winter Attack, he publicly acknowledged that it was based on Mails' work. The online journal Artnet mentions Churchill's artwork and the controversy surrounding its originality.\n"}
{"text": " = Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart =\n"}
{"text": " \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\" is the fifteenth episode of the twenty-third season of the American animated television sitcom The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 4, 2012. In the episode, Bart is punished by Homer after causing trouble. He gets revenge on his father by spray-painting images of him with the word \"dope\" all over Springfield. Street artist Shepard Fairey encounters Bart one night and offers him a gallery show of Bart's artworks. However, Chief Wiggum suddenly appears during the show and arrests Bart for covering the town in graffiti. It turns out that Fairey is an undercover officer working for Wiggum.\n"}
{"text": " The episode references the 2010 street art documentary Exit Through the Gift Shop by graffiti artist Banksy, and features guest appearances from street artists Ron English, Kenny Scharf, and Robbie Conal as themselves. Fairey, who is a long-time fan of The Simpsons, also guest starred in the episode as himself. Around 5.09 million Americans tuned in to watch \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\" during its original broadcast. Since then, the episode has received praise from television critics for its opening sequence, which parodies the opening sequence of the medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones.\n"}
{"text": " == Plot ==\n"}
{"text": " As a birthday gift for Marge, Homer buys a blender designed by television chef Paula Paul. He goes to a health food store called Swapper Jack's, where Paula is giving away autographs, to have Paula sign it. Homer is impressed by the store and says he will not be shopping at the Kwik-E-Mart any more. Apu, who is there to spy, overhears Homer and the two engage in a fight until the security guards grab hold of Apu and take him away. At the signing, Homer tells Paula that Marge is a big fan of hers. Paula decides that she will call Marge live during her upcoming show to wish her a happy birthday. Meanwhile, Bart gets his mother a rabbit for her birthday. The rabbit chews through the phone lines in the Simpsons' home, causing Marge to miss Paula's call. Paula becomes furious at Marge for not answering the phone as she embarrassed herself on her show. Homer punishes Bart by locking him up in the rabbit's cage.\n"}
{"text": " To get revenge on Homer, Bart goes around Springfield spray-painting graffiti of Homer's face and the word \"dope\". When his work appears on the television news, it encourages Bart to create even more graffiti in the town. Street artists Shepard Fairey, Ron English, Kenny Scharf, and Robbie Conal encounter Bart one night when he is making some graffiti. The four tell Bart that they are impressed by his work and would like to showcase his art in a gallery show, at first Bart is unsure, but Bart remembers how Homer treated him, and then agrees. Meanwhile, the Kwik-E-Mart suffers because of the competition from Swapper Jack's. Apu ends up attempting to rob Swapper Jack's in a desperate measure, but the cashier (Snake Jailbird) convinces him to hand over the gun. Later, Apu is about to shut down the Kwik-E-Mart when his wife Manjula tells him that Swapper Jack's is closing because it was discovered they were selling monkey meat imported from Brazil as chicken.\n"}
{"text": " Homer initially refuses to attend Bart's show because he discovers the artwork is an insult to him, but changes his mind after Bart apologizes and writes \"I'm sorry\" on the hood of Homer's car. At the show, Chief Wiggum and the Springfield Police Department suddenly appear to arrest Bart for making graffiti throughout the town. It is revealed that the gallery show is a sham and that Fairey is an undercover officer who helped the police identify Bart as the graffiti artist that had been spray-painting Springfield. Since Bart is just a boy, he is not sent to jail. Instead, he is punished by once again being locked up in the rabbit cage. When Bart tells Wiggum that he has to go to the bathroom, Wiggum covers the cage with the blanket and finds Bart gone when he removes the blanket from the cage.\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\" was written by Marc Wilmore and directed by Steven Dean Moore as part of the twenty-third season of The Simpsons (2011 \u2013 12). It spoofs the debated status of street art as a true form of art. The title is a reference to Exit Through the Gift Shop, a 2010 street art documentary by graffiti artist Banksy who produced the opening sequence of an earlier Simpsons episode titled \"MoneyBART\" (2010). The Richard Hawley song \"Tonight The Streets Are Ours\", which is the theme song of Exit Through the Gift Shop, is included in the episode during a montage of Bart painting graffiti in Springfield. Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club noted in his review of \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\" that the \"reveal that the art show was a police sting gives the show a moment to joke about the anti-art market theme from Exit Through The Gift Shop. Wiggum asks who would be stupid enough to pay for work that an amateur puts up for free in public, and the answer is, as in Banksy \u2019 s movie, the very wealthy, here represented by Mr. Burns.\"\n"}
{"text": " American street artist Fairey guest starred in \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\" as himself. The graffiti art featuring Homer's face and the word \"dope\" that Bart creates in the episode is a reference to Fairey's Barack Obama \"Hope\" poster and his OBEY Giant image. Fairey has said that The Simpsons has been one of his favorite television shows since the early 1990s because of its \"blend of humor and social commentary\", and he felt \"deeply honored\" to be included in an episode. Fairey wrote on his website that \"Part of being on The Simpsons, is you \u2019 re being honored as a reference point in culture.\" He described the plot of the episode as \"great\", adding that the staff members of the show \"were kind enough to indulge a couple of my dialogue suggestions designed to make the social commentary more pointed (even though I had to make fun of myself to do so).\" This was Fairey's first acting performance. Street artists English, Scharf, and Conal also guest starred in the episode as themselves.\n"}
{"text": " The traditional Simpsons opening sequence was replaced in this episode with a redesigned version that spoofed the opening sequence of the HBO medieval fantasy series Game of Thrones. The Game of Thrones opening shows the various locations featured in the series on a three-dimensional map of the fictional continent Westeros. In the Simpsons opening, these locations were substituted with places in Springfield, and The Wall was replaced with the Simpson family's couch. The theme song featured in the Game of Thrones opening sequence was arranged by The Simpsons composer Alf Clausen and used in the Simpsons opening as well. Nicholas McKaig, known for uploading a cappella covers of famous songs on YouTube, performed the Simpsons theme song over the closing credits of \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\". He was recruited after a staff member of the show saw his cover of the Simpsons theme on YouTube.\n"}
{"text": " == Release ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\" was originally broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on March 4, 2012. It was watched by approximately 5.09 million people during this broadcast, and in the demographic for adults aged 18 \u2013 49, the episode received a 2.5 Nielsen rating and a seven percent share. This was a slight decrease from the previous episode, \"At Long Last Leave\", which acquired a 2.6 rating. The episode became the second highest-rated broadcast in Fox's Animation Domination lineup for the night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18 \u2013 49 demographic, finishing higher than new episodes of American Dad!, Napoleon Dynamite, and The Cleveland Show, but lower than a new Family Guy episode (which received a 2.8 rating and was seen by 5.33 million people). For the week of February 27 \u2013 March 4, 2012, \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\" placed 25th in the ratings among all prime-time broadcasts in the 18 \u2013 49 demographic, and seventh among all Fox prime-time broadcasts.\n"}
{"text": " Writing for The A.V. Club, television reviewer Hayden Childs commented that \"Exit Through the Kwik-E-Mart\" was \"somewhat amusing and far more coherent than many recent episodes, but the satire is relatively mild. The episode curdles a bit while looking for a sweet ending, but it is otherwise solid enough.\" Critics have praised the opening sequence that parodies Game of Thrones. Tim Surette of TV.com called it \"one minute of genius\", and MTV's Brandon Freeberg wrote: \"Congratulations are in order for Matt Groening and his staff for really knocking this one out of the park.\" Jenna Busch of Zap2it and Kelly West of Cinema Blend, both fans of Game of Thrones, named the opening the best in the history of the show. IGN's Eric Goldman commented: \"Ah, The Simpsons. Always there for us with clever / loving parody of something we all love. Such was the case last night, when the animated series opened with an epic opening credit sequence that gave us the Springfield-inspired version of the terrific Game of Thrones credits.\"\n"}
{"text": " = The Boat Race 2008 =\n"}
{"text": " The 154th Boat Race took place on 29 March 2008. Held annually, the event is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Oxford won the race. Oxford's crew featured the oldest competitor in Boat Race history. The race took place in very difficult weather conditions \u2013 strong winds and heavy rain \u2013 resulting in the slowest winning time in over sixty years. Oxford won by six lengths, the largest margin of victory since the 2004 race.\n"}
{"text": " Oxford's Isis beat Cambridge's Goldie in the reserve race, while Oxford won the Women's Boat Race.\n"}
{"text": " == Background ==\n"}
{"text": " The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the \"Dark Blues\") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the \"Light Blues\"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having beaten Oxford by over a length in the previous year's race and the overall lead, with 79 victories to Oxford's 73. The race was sponsored by Xchanging for the fourth time.\n"}
{"text": " The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race.\n"}
{"text": " == Crews ==\n"}
{"text": " Oxford's crew weighed an average of 12 pounds (5.4 kg) more per rower than their opponents, and featured the oldest competitor in Boat Race history in 36-year-old American Mike Wherley. Cambridge crew consisted of six Britons, two Australians and an American, while Oxford's comprised four Americans, three Britons, an Australian and a German. Both coxes, Nick Brodie and Rebecca Dowbiggin, were former Blues, while Cambridge also saw 30-year-old Tom Edwards return, having rowed in 2006. Cambridge's boat club president Dan O'Shaughnessy was the seventh Light Blue president not to row in his own Blue Boat.\n"}
{"text": " == Race ==\n"}
{"text": " Oxford were pre-race favourites, but Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station. Oxford took an early lead, but the boats closed on each other, and Umpire John Garrett was forced to issue a number of warnings to both coxes in an attempt to prevent a collision. By Craven Cottage, Oxford were nearly a length ahead and Cambridge responded; by the time the crews passed under Hammersmith Bridge they were level. Along Chiswick Eyot Oxford moved ahead once again, and were clear of Cambridge after 30 strokes. Oxford extended their lead to pass the finishing post in 20 minutes 53 seconds, six lengths and 22 seconds ahead of their opponents. Driving rain, strong winds and choppy water resulted in the slowest winning time for over sixty years, but the largest margin of victory since the 2004 race.\n"}
{"text": " Oxford's Isis beat Cambridge's Goldie by three-and-a-quarter lengths in the reserve race. Oxford won the 44th running of the Women's Boat Race by half a length.\n"}
{"text": " == Reaction ==\n"}
{"text": " Oxford's Oliver Moore said \"we got the rage going in the crew, and we started to kill it, we hit an awesome rhythm\". Cambridge coach Duncan Holland congratulated his opponents: \"Well done to Oxford, they were much faster on the day\". Following tradition, the victorious Oxford crew tossed their cox Brodie into the Thames.\n"}
{"text": " = Fort Scott National Historic Site =\n"}
{"text": " Fort Scott National Historic Site is a historical area under the control of the United States National Park Service in Bourbon County, Kansas, United States. Named after General Winfield Scott, who achieved renown during the Mexican-American War, during the middle of the 19th century the fort served as a military base for US Army action in what was the edge of settlement in 1850. For the next quarter century, it was used as a supply base and to provide security in turbulent areas during the opening of the West to settlement, a period which included Bleeding Kansas and the American Civil War.\n"}
{"text": " The current national historic site protects 20 historic structures, a parade ground, and five acres (20,000 m \u00b2) of restored tallgrass prairie, inside the city of Fort Scott. It is open to visitors most days of the year.\n"}
{"text": " == History ==\n"}
{"text": " In 1842, Fort Scott was named after Winfield Scott, was established on the American frontier on the military road in eastern Kansas between Fort Leavenworth and Fort Gibson. It was established to provide protection to the rapidly increasing number of settlers, who were migrating from the Eastern United States. Fort Scott became one of a chain of forts intended to protect the new settlers from the Plains Indians, as well as to protect the Indians from the settlers' encroachment.\n"}
{"text": " The United States government intention to reserve permanent Indian lands west of the Missouri River gave way to the competition of settlers continuing to encroach on the Indian settlements. Fort Scott's most active days were between 1842 and 1853, although it was also used during the Civil War.\n"}
{"text": " === Army days ===\n"}
{"text": " The Cherokee of Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) were upset to have Fort Wayne in their proximity. After some delay, the US Army decided to abandon Fort Wayne and move its soldiers to a new fort to be built between Fort Leavenworth and the site. The Army both wanted to placate the Cherokee (who were supervised by the Department of Defense) and provide more defense for white settlers and other Indians against the Osage, who had been conducting frequent raids in the area. On April 1, 1842, some soldiers of Fort Wayne left their fort and on April 22 arrived where Fort Scott would be built, in the Osage Cuestas section of modern-day Kansas. After haggling with the Cherokees to acquire the land, the rest of Fort Wayne's garrison left the fort on May 26 and arrived at the Fort Scott site on May 30.\n"}
{"text": " Unlike most forts for military use, the fort did not have defensive walls or structures when first built; the wide-open area and the available artillery made an enclosed fort unnecessary. The soldiers concentrated on building structures for lodging the men, animals, and equipment. These buildings were on the edges of a 350-foot (110 m) parade ground.\n"}
{"text": " The post quartermaster, Captain Thomas Swords, was in charge of building Fort Scott's structures, and had to deal with the problems of construction on the Kansas prairie, which had few trees. He had only two bricklayers and three carpenters to rely on, as there were few civilians and most of the soldiers had other duties to perform. Wood was available, but the mill was built 1.5 miles (2.4 km) away, making transport time consuming. Swords found his efforts plagued by lack of wood, skilled labor and working equipment. Freak accidents destroyed much of the wood intended for the fort's construction. As a result, only one duplex of the five planned officers quarters (four duplexes and post commandant's house) was built by 1844, and the intended enlisted barracks were not completed. In his 1844 inspection of the fort, Colonel George Croghan reported that, in comparison to other frontier forts, he considered Fort Scott \"above average\".\n"}
{"text": " Due to the rising tensions that escalated in the Mexican-American War, the US Army redeployed troops to the Southwest. With Fort Scott still uncompleted, officials decided on April 25, 1850, that no more construction would be done there, after eight years and $ 35,000. By the time it was finished, it was obsolete; three years later, it was abandoned by the military in favor of the more western Fort Riley.\n"}
{"text": " For the average soldier, life at the fort was \"monotonous\". Until the permanent structures were built, soldiers had to live in tents, which lacked comfort. Aside from a few whiskey peddlers and prostitutes, few civilians lived at the fort. Officers had brought their personal slaves with them, including Captain Swords. Five miles East in Missouri was a grog shop that supplied soldiers, and quite a few courts-martial followed soldiers' going AWOL at the shop. The desertion rate from the fort ranged from 12 % -16 %, due to boredom, irregular pay, and hatred for military life. As no combat took place near the fort, it seemed more of a frontier village than a military base. Hunting was a popular pastime; according to Captain Swords, \"wolf chasing and duck hunting\" was the only way one officer could tolerate the place.\n"}
{"text": " === Bleeding Kansas ===\n"}
{"text": " Two years after the army abandoned the fort, the buildings were sold by auction to civilians, with two being converted to hotels. In 1854 the Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had kept slavery out of Kansas. Missourians in favor of slavery soon moved to Kansas to try to sway the vote of whether or not Kansas would permit slavery. Settlers from New England arrived equally determined to keep it out. Each of the two competing factions of the Bleeding Kansas conflict claimed one of the hotels at Fort Scott: Free-Soil at the Fort Scott Hotel and Pro-Slavery at the Western Hotel. Most of the residents in Fort Scott supported slavery, but those outside the town tended to the free-soil side. During this time, there were local incidents of murder and attempted arson, typical elements of the guerrilla conflicts that were prevalent in the fighting.\n"}
{"text": " === Army returns ===\n"}
{"text": " During the American Civil War, the fort was renewed as a US military post. In August 1861, the Union Army took command of Fort Scott, and readied it for the war times. The United States Army also took over several blocks within the town for commissary and quartermaster functions. The Union Army rented the properties from the current civilian owners. Troops from Indiana, Iowa, Colorado, Ohio, and Wisconsin would come to the fort, and either stayed by the fort, or traveled farther, to subjugate Missouri, Arkansas, or the Indian Territory. Fort Scott was one of the few installations that recruited and trained black soldiers for the United States Colored Troops of the Union Army.\n"}
{"text": " A major supply depot was situated at the fort. Confederate general Sterling Price hoped to capture the town, but the closest the Confederate force came to the garrison was 10 miles (16 km) away at Battle of Dry Wood Creek. The site was strategically important as it was within a Southern-sympathizing area and close to the Confederate state of Arkansas and the \"unstable\" Indian Territory (present-day state of Oklahoma), where many of the members of the Five Civilized Tribes were allied with the Confederates. The fort served as a \"general hospital\" (large military hospital) and prison until after the war. Following the end of the war, in October 1865 the US Army left the facilities and sold off by auction what they controlled.\n"}
{"text": " On January 14, 1870, the Army returned with the formation of the Post of Southeast Kansas. The Post was based at Fort Scott, but the soldiers camped along the rail tracks, and seldom used the original fort. They were sent to protect the railroads and workers from settlers. Some of the latter feared that the railroad, which had been awarded land for development by the US Government in rights-of-way, would evict them from their squatter homes. The settlers considered the troops lackeys to the railroads, and lumped both as enemies.\n"}
{"text": " Settlers also had some continuing conflicts with Indians and insurgents using the recent Confederate cause as excuse for robbery. By the spring of 1873, the US Army withdrew the troops from Fort Scott for good. From 1873 to 1965, the buildings of the fort were left unattended, and slowly deteriorated. Many military buildings were razed and replaced with structures built for civilian use.\n"}
{"text": " == Modern times ==\n"}
{"text": " With the Act of August 31, 1965, the National Park Service gave the city government of Fort Scott, Kansas the necessary funds and technical knowledge to restore the fort.\n"}
{"text": " On October 19, 1978, Fort Scott became a National Historic Site under the supervision of the National Park Service, encompassing 17 acres (69,000 m2). Today the fort is open throughout the year, save for Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Years Day. Visitation has declined in recent years. In 2005 visitation was 25,528; in 2007 it was 22,314.\n"}
{"text": " Surviving structures include four officers'barracks, one dragoon's barracks, two infantry barracks, a hospital, guardhouse, dragoon stables, ordnance and post headquarters, quartermaster stables, bake shop, flagpole, and magazine. Another feature of the park is 5 acres (2.0 ha) of tallgrass prairie restored as part of an ecology-restoration project.\n"}
{"text": " = Slammiversary (2008) =\n"}
{"text": " Slammiversary (2008) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) promotion that took place on June 8, 2008 at the DeSoto Civic Center in Southaven, Mississippi. It was the fourth event under the Slammiversary name and the sixth event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule. Seven professional wrestling matches and one dark match were featured on the event's card, three of which were for championships. The event commemorated TNA's six year anniversary.\n"}
{"text": " The main event was a King of the Mountain match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, in which then-champion Samoa Joe defended against Booker T, Christian Cage, Rhino, and Robert Roode. Joe won the match to retain the title. The card also featured a bout pitting A.J. Styles against Kurt Angle, which Styles won. The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended by The Latin American Xchange (Hernandez and Homicide; LAX) against Team 3D (Brother Devon and Brother Ray) at the event. LAX was the victors in the contest to retain the championship. A Six Woman Tag Team match was won by the team of Gail Kim, ODB, and Roxxi over The Beautiful People (Angelina Love and Velvet Sky) and Moose on the undercard.\n"}
{"text": " Slammiversary is remembered for Joe being the first to retain a championship in a King of the Mountain match. The reported figure of purchasers for the event was 20,000, as reported by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter. Slammiversary had an attendance of 2,000 people. Jon Waldman of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show a 7 out of 10, which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Jason Clevett. After the event, an accident occurred which resulted in the death of one man and the injury of another.\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " === Background ===\n"}
{"text": " The fourth installment in the Slammiversary name was announced in January 2008 to take place on June 8. In March 2008, it was reported that Slammiversary would be held outside the TNA Impact! Zone in Orlando, Florida. In late-March 2008, Slammiversary was expected to be held in Tennessee. TNA issued a press release in April 2008 advertising Slammiversary on June 8 at the DeSoto Civic Center in Southaven, Mississippi, although TNA promoted the event as being held in the Memphis area. It also announced that the annual King of the Mountain match would be held at the event. Tickets for Slammiverary went on sale on April 25. Slammiversary celebrates TNA's six year anniversary, after it formed on June 19, 2002. TNA created a section covering the event on their website. TNA released a poster to promote the event prior featuring the tagline \"In a town where legends are made, one strives to reach immortality\" and Booker T, Christian Cage, Rhino, Samoa Joe, and Tomko. Release the Flood by Dust for Life was used as the official theme for the show. Promotional material advertising the return of Abyss at the event was featured on TNA's television program TNA Impact !. The scripted wedding of Jay Lethal and SoCal Val was promoted for Slammiversary. This was announced on the May 15 episode of Impact!, when Lethal proposed and Val accepted in the storyline. American singer Ace Young was advertised take part in the segment on the May 22 episode of Impact !. On the May 29 episode of Impact!, Lethal asked Sonjay Dutt to be his best man, to which Dutt agreed. Lethal's groomsmen were announced on the June 5 episode as George Steele, Kamala, Koko B. Ware, and Jake Roberts.\n"}
{"text": " === Storylines ===\n"}
{"text": " Slammiversary featured seven professional wrestling matches and one pre-show match that involved different wrestlers from pre-existing scripted feuds and storylines. Wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches.\n"}
{"text": " The main event at Slammiversary was a King of the Mountain match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, in which then-champion Samoa Joe defended the title against four other competitors. On the May 15 episode of Impact!, Joe announced the encounter would take place at Slammiversary as well that an agreement had been made between Management Director Jim Cornette and himself on who would compete in the bout. The arrangement entailed that qualifying matches would take place leading to the event between four wrestlers he chose and four wrestlers Cornette chose. Cornette's four wrestlers were James Storm, Matt Morgan, Robert Roode, and Tomko, while Joe's four were A.J. Styles, Booker T, Christian Cage, and Rhino. The qualifying matches were held on the May 22 and May 29 episodes of Impact !. Roode defeated Morgan in the first qualifier, while Booker T defeated Styles in the second, both on the May 22 episode of Impact !. The last two qualification matches were held on the May 29 episode of Impact!, with Rhino defeating Storm and Cage defeating Tomko. Kevin Nash, who played Joe's mentor in the storyline, requested to be made the Special Guest Ringside Enforcer for the bout, which he was granted by Cornette on the May 29 episode of Impact !.\n"}
{"text": " The predominate storyline heading into the event was the rivalry between A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle, both members of The Angle Alliance group. On the February 14 episode of Impact!, TNA held the scripted wedding of Angle's real-life wife Karen Angle and Styles despite Angle and Karen still being married on-screen. Afterwards, Karen and Angle separated in the storyline on the March 13 episode of Impact !. TNA continued to build the situation with Angle attempting to reconcile with Karen on the May 15 episode of Impact !. Karen refused Angle's request on the May 22 episode of Impact!, leading to Angle turning on and assaulting Styles later in the episode due to his jealousy of the affection Karen showed for Styles. On the May 29 episode of Impact!, Cornette announced Angle versus Styles for the event. Angle sustained a severe neck injury in early May with several TNA officials believing Angle would not recover in time to perform at the show. Angle was still in pain a few days prior to Slammiversary but was expected to perform normally despite some officials feeling it was too soon to compete.\n"}
{"text": " The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended at Slammiversary by then-champions The Latin American Xchange (Hernandez and Homicide; LAX) against Team 3D (Brother Devon and Brother Ray). At TNA's previous PPV event Sacrifice on May 11, LAX defeated Team 3D in the final round of the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship. On the May 15 episode of Impact!, Team 3D attacked and was scripted to injure LAX's manager H\u00e9ctor Guerrero, thus starting a rivalry between the two. Cornette announced a rematch from Sacrifice for the championship to take place at the show on the May 29 episode of Impact !.\n"}
{"text": " TNA held a Six Woman Tag Team match pitting The Beautiful People (Angelina Love and Velvet Sky) and Mickie Knuckles against Gail Kim, ODB, and Roxxi at Slammiversary. This was the main storyline in TNA's women's division which started at Sacrifice where TNA held a Ten Woman TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal to become number-one contender to the TNA Women's Knockout Championship. The rules of the contest involved the winner getting a championship match while the runner-up had her head shaven. Love cost Roxxi \u2014 then known as Roxxi Laveaux \u2014 the match, resulting in her head being shaven. Kim won the bout and went on to have her title opportunity on the May 15 episode of Impact!, which she lost after interference from Love. On the June 5 episode of Impact!, Knuckles made her TNA debut aligning with The Beautiful People in assaulting Kim, ODB, and Roxxi.\n"}
{"text": " == Event ==\n"}
{"text": " TNA held a match to warm \u2013 up the crowd known as a dark match prior to the show pitting The Motor City Machine Guns (Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin) against the team of Lance Hoyt and Johnny Devine. The Motor City Machine Guns won the encounter.\n"}
{"text": " === Miscellaneous ===\n"}
{"text": " Slammiversary featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches. Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast, with Frank Trigg providing for the A.J. Styles versus Kurt Angle bout only. Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event. Andrew Thomas, Earl Hebner, Rudy Charles, and Mark \"Slick\" Johnson participated as referees for the encounters. Lauren Thompson and Borash were used as interviewers during the event. Besides those who competed at the event, Abyss, Ace Young, Eric Young, George Steele, H\u00e9ctor Guerrero, Jake Roberts, Jay Lethal, Johnny Devine, Kamala, Karen Angle, Koko B. Ware, Raisha Saeed, Rhaka Khan, Salinas, Scott Steiner, SoCal Val, Sonjay Dutt, and Tomko all appeared on camera, either in backstage or in ringside segments. The wedding of Lethal and Val took place after the second $ 25,000 Fan Challenge. The segment ended when Dutt proclaimed his love for Val in the storyline and attacked Lethal. Young, Steele, Roberts, Kamala, and Ware came to Lethal's defense before Roberts placed a snake on top of an unconscious Dutt to end the segment.\n"}
{"text": " === Preliminary matches ===\n"}
{"text": " The TNA X Division Championship was defended by then-champion Petey Williams against Kaz in the opening contest of the telecast. Williams was accompanied by Rhaka Khan and Scott Steiner. The duration of the bout was 15 minutes and 19 seconds. Williams wore a protective face mask due to a broken orbital bone. Khan and Steiner interfered in the bout several times. Kaz was legitimately busted open during the match after Williams bashed him in the face with a steel pipe. Williams won the encounter after performing his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver by slamming Kaz head-first into the mat to retain the TNA X Division Championship. Abyss returned after this match by aiding Kaz who was being attacked by Khan, Steiner, and Williams.\n"}
{"text": " The team of The Beautiful People and Mickie Knuckles \u2014 renamed Moose \u2014 fought the team of Gail Kim, ODB, and Roxxi in a Six Woman Tag Team match next. It lasted 10 minutes and 14 seconds. ODB won the bout for her team after running and slamming Moose against the mat back-first and following with the pin.\n"}
{"text": " The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in the third match of the event by LAX against Team 3D. H\u00e9ctor Guerrero and Salinas accompanied LAX to the ring. Salinas, Guerrero, and Team 3D's associate Johnny Devine all interfered in the encounter. Near the end when Team 3D were waiting to perform their signature 3D tag team maneuver on Hernandez, Homicide came up behind Devon and pinned him with a schoolboy pin at 15 minutes to retain the championship.\n"}
{"text": " TNA held two $ 25,000 Fan Challenge segments next with then-TNA Women's Knockout Champion Awesome Kong and her manager Raisha Saeed offering fans in the crowd the chance to face Kong. Kong and Saeed then chose a willing participant and if they defeated Kong they won $ 25,000. The participants chosen for these segments were predetermined, with each planted in the crowd. The first encounter pitted Serena D against Kong, which Kong won after slamming Serena face-first into the mat with her signature Implant Buster maneuver at 2 minutes and 26 seconds. The second was between Josie Robinson and Kong, lasting 1 minute and 42 seconds. Kong won the bout after slamming Josie back-first into the mat with her signature Awesome Bomb maneuver.\n"}
{"text": " === Main event matches ===\n"}
{"text": " A.J. Styles fought Kurt Angle in the sixth encounter of the show next. The match lasted 22 minutes and 44 seconds. Angle was accompanied by Tomko to the ring. The referee forced Tomko to head to the backstage area due to the referee believing he would interfere. Styles attempted to perform his signature Styles Clash maneuver on Angle, which Angle countered into his signature Ankle Lock submission hold. Styles escaped the hold, causing Angle to crash into the referee, knocking him out in the storyline. Karen Angle then ran down to the ringside area and attempted to hand Angle a steel chair. Once Angle grabbed the chair she refused to release, allowing Styles to grab Angle and perform the Styles Clash by slamming Angle face-first into the mat. Styles then followed with the pin attempt to win the contest. After the encounter, Angle and Tomko assaulted Styles.\n"}
{"text": " The main event was a King of the Mountain match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship with Kevin Nash as Special Guest Ringside Enforcer between then-champion Samoa Joe and the challengers Booker T, Christian Cage, Rhino, and Robert Roode. In a King of the Mountain match, the objective is to climb a ladder and hang the championship belt on a hook above the ring. In order to do so, a wrestler must first qualify by either pinning or making another wrestler submit in the match. A wrestler who is pinned or made to submit is this placed in a penalty box for two minutes. The match is fought under no disqualification rules. Booker T was the first to qualify by pinning Rhino after slamming him back-first into the mat with his signature Book End maneuver. Rhino was this placed in the penalty box. Roode was the next to qualify after bashing a ladder Cage held with a chair into him and following with a pin. Immediately afterwards, Rhino pinned Roode with a roll-up pin to qualify. Later, Joe held Booker T in his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold when Cage ascended a padded turnbuckle and jumped off onto Booker T and Joe. He followed by pinning Booker T to qualify and send Booker T to the penalty box. When Booker T was released from the box, he attacked Nash with the title belt and then attempted to hang it. Nash stopped him and then dropped Booker T back-first against the mat with his signature Jackknife Powerbomb maneuver. Joe was the last to qualify by pinning Roode after slamming him back and neck-first into the mat with his signature Muscle Buster maneuver. Joe then hung the title belt at 19 minutes and 49 seconds to win the competition.\n"}
{"text": " == Reception ==\n"}
{"text": " A total of 2,000 people attended Slammiversary, while the The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that 20,000 people bought the event. Canadian Online Explorer writer Jon Waldman rated the entire event a 7 out of 10, which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Jason Clevett. The 7 out of 10 was the same rating given to the 2009 edition by Chris and Bryan Sokol. The previous PPV event Sacrifice and TNA's next PPV event Victory Road both received a 7 out of 10 by Chris Sokol and Bob Kapur, respectively. Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) One Night Stand PPV event on June 1, both performed equally, as One Night Stand received the same rating from Matt Mackinder.\n"}
{"text": " Waldman felt that \"TNA put on a strong PPV\" that was in \"large part to little gimmickery.\" Regarding the main event, Waldman gave it a 6 out of 10, while the World Tag Team Championship match received a 4 out of 10. He gave the Six Woman Tag Team match a 4.5 out of 10 and the A.J. Styles versus Kurt Angle bout a 9 out of 10. The X Division Championship contest was given a 7 out of 10.\n"}
{"text": " Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter reviewed the show. He felt the main event had \"lots of action and drama,\" but that having to hang the belt on a hook does not make for a \"particularly dramatic end to a match as it seems like someone hanging a plant in the corner\" than \"beating someone to win a fight.\" Keller said the World Tag Team Championship contest was a \"solid tag match\" with some \"elaborate sequences\" that were \"well executed.\" Keller stated that the X Division Championship match was a \"very good opener.\" Regarding the Styles and Angle bout, Keller commented that it was a \"good match, but short of a classic must-see match in part because there were too many chinlocks mid-match from Angle that took the crowd out of it.\"\n"}
{"text": " James Caldwell, also of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter, posted a review of the show in which he felt the main event was a \"slow, plodding match\" with an \"anticlimactic finish.\" Caldwell stated that the Styles versus Angle contest was a \"fine spotlight singles match,\" but was a \"bit underwhelming when the expectations were reasonably high for two of TNA's best wrestlers in a featured singles match.\" He went on to say that he felt it was \"missing something\" and that it \"seemed like the match just never moved out of second gear. Caldwell felt the X Division Championship bout was a\" very good opening match, \"which\" could have been a featured match to sell a few additional PPV buys, but TNA didn't give the X Division any focus until the final show before the PPV. \"Caldwell stated the World Tag Team Championship was\" just a slow, plodding tag match. \"Regarding the marriage segment during the show, Caldwell said\" it was just a bad, bad, bad segment that died slowly and painfully in front of the live audience. \"Overall, Caldwell felt that\" TNA showcased the X Division in the opening match, \"but needed more\" athleticism on the show to balance the slow, plodding former WWE heavyweight wrestlers in the main event slots. \"\n"}
{"text": " == Accident ==\n"}
{"text": " After Slammiversary ended, crews began to disassemble the set used for the event. During this time, a man named Kevin \"Angus\" Sinex was removing a light array when the scaffolding he was positioned on collapsed, causing him to slam against the concrete floor below. He was rushed to the Baptist DeSoto Hospital in Southaven, Mississippi where he was pronounced deceased. Another worker named Paul Martin was also taken to the hospital due to his thumb being cut off in the incident. TNA released a statement regarding the incident the next day through their website. The June 12 episode of Impact! was dedicated to Sinex, with a banner at the beginning of the show stating \"In memory Kevin Sinex (1963 \u2013 2008)\". A moment of silence was held prior to the Impact! tapings after Slammiversary in honor of Sinex.\n"}
{"text": " == Aftermath ==\n"}
{"text": " Several wrestlers were concerned with Kurt Angle's health going into his Slammiversary match with A.J. Styles. Despite the concerns, Angle appeared to be out of it after the contest but was expected to be alright.\n"}
{"text": " Samoa Joe and Booker T started a rivalry over the TNA World Heavyweight Championship following Slammiversary. On the June 12 episode of Impact!, Booker T claimed that Joe did not beat him at the event due to interference from Kevin Nash. This led to Nash stating that Joe could not beat Booker T in a one-on-one match later in the broadcast. After this segment, Joe announced that Booker T and he would face at Victory Road on July 13 for the title. On the July 10 episode of Impact!, Sting proclaimed that he did not know which of the two would win at Victory Road, but that he would be there to watch. At the event, Joe beat Booker T till he was bloody, causing several referees and security personnel to try to stop him to no avail. He was stopped when Sting interfered in the contest by bashing Joe with a baseball bat. Booker T then covered Joe for an unofficial pinfall victory that was counted by Booker T's legitimate wife Sharmell. The match result was ruled a no-contest, with Joe retaining the title.\n"}
{"text": " A.J. Styles was joined by Christian Cage and Rhino in his feud with Kurt Angle, who was joined by Team 3D. Styles and Angle faced in a Lumberjack match on the June 12 episode of Impact!, which Angle won. Team 3D then injured both Cage and Rhino in the narrative, with Rhino being knocked out on the June 19 episode of Impact!, while on the June 26 episode of Impact! Cage was slammed through a glass table by Brother Ray. Rhino returned from injury on the July 3 episode of Impact!, challenging Team 3D and Angle to a Six Man Tag Team match at Victory Road, while teasing at adding Full Metal Mayhem rules to the bout. An online poll was held to determine the stipulation for the match, resulting in Full Metal Mayhem being chosen. The team of Angle and Team 3D were the victors at the event.\n"}
{"text": " After Slammiversary, Kaz went on to captain Team TNA in the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament. He competed in a Four Way Ultimate X match at Victory Road as the final round of the tournament. He was unsuccessful in winning the match and gaining the appropriate points to win the tournament, thus causing Team TNA (Kaz, Alex Shelley, Chris Sabin, and Curry Man) to finish in second place, with Team Mexico (Averno, Rey Bucanero, \u00daltimo Guerrero, and Volador Jr.) being the victors in point rankings.\n"}
{"text": " LAX feuded with James Storm and Robert Roode over the TNA World Tag Team Championship after Slammiversary. Roode and Storm formed a team known as Beer Money Incorporated and challenged LAX for the title on the June 12 episode of Impact !. The match was originally won by Roode and Storm before being restarted due to interference. LAX won the restart to retain the championship. After the bout, Roode and Storm assaulted LAX and H\u00e9ctor Guerrero. Management Director Jim Cornette scheduled a title defense at Victory Road between LAX and Roode and Storm under \"Fan's Revenge\" Lumberjack rules on the June 19 episode of Impact !. LAX were successful in defending the title at Victory Road.\n"}
{"text": " == Results ==\n"}
{"text": " King of the Mountain match\n"}
{"text": " = Home Made Mince Pie =\n"}
{"text": " Home Made Mince Pie is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film is a comedy of circumstances, in which the Gale family is going to host a dinner. The focus of the humor is in a mince pie that brandy is added to in an attempt to make it more appreciable, but three people each add brandy to the pie. Everyone becomes tipsy upon eating the pie, including the family cat, and the film concludes. No cast or staff credits for this film are known. The film was released on September 27, 1910, to mixed reviews in trade publications. Reviewers mentioned that the film was too long and it was unbelievable that one pie split eight ways would be able to impact everyone. The film is presumed lost.\n"}
{"text": " == Plot ==\n"}
{"text": " Though the film is presumed lost, a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 24, 1910. It states: \"Life in a country town is often tedious and tiresome, and were it not for the little dinners and teas the townsfolk are constantly given, existence in some localities would be a very dreary thing indeed. So the time honored get-togethers of the small town are an established feature to the social calendar; they are just as much a matter of necessity and as such have come to stay. The Gales thought well of this established feature. They made it a joyous occasion for themselves as well as their guests. They were hardly an overly wealthy family, and their table was never notable for an oversupply of the good things of life, but whenever they gave a dinner they cast all thoughts of economy to the country winds and worked to the one end that their guests have a pleasant time.\"\n"}
{"text": " \"On the night before such an event neither Mamma, Pappa, or Daughter Gale could get those minutes'solid sleep for thought that they might have overlooked some essential in the guests' comfort. At the first crow of the rooster they would come hopping down to the kitchen to get the larder into shape. So little wonder that on occasion of the dinner here pictured - when the prize dish was a splendid homemade mince pie - the Gales were ever looking after the need of the said pie. First Mamma Gale would tiptoe to the table whereupon it sat in solemn state, and give it a stir; then Pappa Gale would tiptoe over and give it a stir; finally Daughter Gale would have to come over and honor it likewise. Then arrived the guests. The Minister and the Mrs. Minister, they were, and some neighbors. While she was receiving them the recollection came to Mamma Gale that the beloved mince pie had not received its flavoring. Off she speeds to a decanter of whiskey in the kitchen. She pours into the pie the right proportion of liquor, and goes back to her guests. Then Pappa Gale remembers that the pie has not been flavored. He, too, excuses himself and a moment later is found pouring whiskey into the sacred mince. No sooner has he ceased and returned to his guest than Daughter Gale, who has just remembered about the forgotten flavoring, rushes in and makes for the whiskey. She pours'the right proportion' in, too.\"\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " The writer of the scenario is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. The film director is unknown, but it may have been Barry O 'Neil. Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production, but at least two possible candidates exist. Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company, but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer. The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions. The cast credits are unknown, but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary. In late 1910, the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films. The list includes G.W. Abbe, Justus D. Barnes, Frank H. Crane, Irene Crane, Marie Eline, Violet Heming, Martin J. Faust, Thomas Fortune, George Middleton, Grace Moore, John W. Noble, Anna Rosemond, Mrs. George Walters. A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying eight actors.\n"}
{"text": " == Release and reception ==\n"}
{"text": " The single reel comedy, approximately 1,000 feet long, was released on September 27, 1910. The film likely had a wide national release, with advertisements in theaters known in Indiana, Kansas, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania. The film would also be shown in Vancouver, Canada and was met with praise by the audience at the Province Theatre. In 1917, years after the film's release, the film was approved without censorship by the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors of Moving Pictures.\n"}
{"text": " The The Moving Picture World reviewer found the subject to be too long, but did not find it to be a fault. The reviewer states, \"A domestic comedy with a different flavor. In fact, with a mince pie for a basis the flavor comes to resemble brandy very strongly by the time that the cook, the maid and the mistress of the house and her daughter have added the proper proportion of flavoring, neither one knowing that the others have done likewise. The humor in this piece centers around this pie. What happened to the guests who partook of it certainly draws upon the imagination. Imagine eight people, not to speak of the cat, getting drunk on the brandy in one mince pie! ... We do not single out this subject as being more evidently padded than others shown on the screen this week. Licensed as well as Independents were guilty and it is time that the manufacturers realize the importance of the scenario end of matters. The mince pie episode was well done, which is the faint praise that we do not like to mete out to anyone.\" Walton of The Moving Picture News was not amused by the plot and stated, \"To me the last scene had no humor. It was only the necessary ending to the beginning. True humor does not emanate from cognac.\" The New York Dramatic Mirror stated, \"This is the old story of too many cooks, and it is quite funny after the first scenes are out of the way. The early part of the film takes too much time with trivial details leading up to the final situation. ... A weak point in the story is the fact that the pie is cut into eight small pieces, making it difficult to believe in its remarkable power. Two pies would have been as easy to make as one and would have been more convincing. The character parts are all well taken, although the cook would have been better if she had not seized so many opportunities to talk directly at the camera.\"\n"}
{"text": " = Back Off Boogaloo =\n"}
{"text": " \"Back Off Boogaloo\" is a song by English musician Ringo Starr, released as a non-album single in March 1972. Starr's former Beatles bandmate George Harrison produced the recording, which took place in London shortly after the two had appeared together at Harrison's Concert for Bangladesh shows in August 1971. The single was a follow-up to Starr's 1971 hit song \"It Don't Come Easy\" and continued his successful run as a solo artist. \"Back Off Boogaloo\" peaked at number 2 in Britain and Canada, and number 9 on America's Billboard Hot 100. It remains Starr's highest-charting single in the United Kingdom.\n"}
{"text": " The title for the song was inspired by English singer-songwriter Marc Bolan. Some commentators have suggested that the lyrics were directed at Paul McCartney, reflecting Starr's disdain for the music McCartney had made as a solo artist over the previous two years. \"Back Off Boogaloo\" demonstrates the influence of glam rock on Starr, who directed a documentary film, Born to Boogie (1972), about Bolan's band T. Rex around this time. Described by one author as a \"high-energy in-your-face rocker\", the song features a prominent slide guitar part by Harrison and contributions from musicians Gary Wright and Klaus Voormann.\n"}
{"text": " Starr re-recorded \"Back Off Boogaloo\" for his 1981 album Stop and Smell the Roses, in a collaboration with American singer Harry Nilsson that incorporates lyrics from Beatles songs such as \"With a Little Help from My Friends\", \"Good Day Sunshine\" and \"Baby, You 're a Rich Man\". The original version has appeared on Starr's compilation albums Blast from Your Past and Photograph: The Very Best of Ringo Starr, and as a bonus track on his remastered 1974 studio album Goodnight Vienna. Since his return to touring in 1989, Starr has performed \"Back Off Boogaloo\" regularly in concert with the various incarnations of his All-Starr Band.\n"}
{"text": " == Background and composition ==\n"}
{"text": " Ringo Starr identified his initial inspiration for \"Back Off Boogaloo\" as having come from Marc Bolan, the singer and guitarist with English glam rock band T. Rex. In a 2001 interview with Mojo editor Paul Du Noyer, Starr described Bolan as \"a dear friend who used to come into the office when I was running Apple Movies, a big office in town, and the hang-out for myself, Harry Nilsson and Keith Moon\". Over dinner one evening at Starr's home outside London, Bolan had used the word \"boogaloo\" so often that it stuck in Starr's mind, after which the beat and melody for the song came to him overnight. When discussing the composition on VH1 Storytellers in May 1998, Starr explained: \"[Bolan] was an energised guy. He used to speak: 'Back off boogaloo ... ooh you, boogaloo.' 'Do you want some potatoes?' 'Ooh you, boogaloo!'\" Starr also recalled having to take the batteries out of his children's toys that night, in order to power a tape recorder and make a recording of the new song.\n"}
{"text": " The lyrics to the middle eight of \"Back Off Boogaloo\" came to Starr while watching London Weekend Television's football show, The Big Match. The program's host, Jimmy Hill, often referred to a footballer's playing as \"tasty\", a catchphrase that Starr incorporated into his song lyrics:\n"}
{"text": " Get yourself together now\n"}
{"text": " And give me something tasty\n"}
{"text": " Everything you try to do\n"}
{"text": " You know it sure sounds wasted.\n"}
{"text": " Commentators have interpreted the song, and particularly this statement, as an attack by Starr on his former Beatles bandmate Paul McCartney. Starr has denied any such interpretation, instead \"claiming that the song was inspired by Bolan and nothing more\", Beatles biographer Robert Rodriguez writes. Starr had publicly criticised McCartney's solo albums McCartney (1970) and Ram (1971) on release, and author Bruce Spizer paraphrases the message of the middle eight as \"a plea for Paul to produce better music\". The mention of \"sound [ing] wasted\" could also be a reference to McCartney's overindulgence with cannabis, Rodriguez suggests. A further example of Starr's allegedly anti-McCartney message exists in the song's first verse:\n"}
{"text": " Wake up, meathead\n"}
{"text": " Don 't pretend that you are dead\n"}
{"text": " Get yourself up off the cart.\n"}
{"text": " The same commentators suggest that here Starr could be referring to the 1969 \"Paul Is Dead\" hoax. The latter rumour circulated during September and October of that year while McCartney hid away on his Scottish farm, disconsolate after John Lennon had told him and Starr that he wanted a \"divorce\" from the Beatles.\n"}
{"text": " In addition to these supposed messages in \"Back Off Boogaloo\", observers have viewed the song title as Starr's rebuke to McCartney to abandon his legal stand against the Beatles and Apple Corps, which was placed in receivership in March 1971 after a High Court judge found in McCartney's favour. Author Keith Badman writes that \"Boogaloo\" had \"long been cited as Paul's nickname\" from his former bandmates Starr, Lennon and George Harrison. While acknowledging that in subsequent years Starr might have chosen to minimise any ill-feeling towards McCartney, Rodriguez notes that the lyrics \"just happened to fit perfectly into the' us vs. Paul 'mindset\" following the Beatles' break-up, to the extent that \"Back Off Boogaloo\" was \"as damning as'Early 1970' had been conciliatory\". When tailoring his 1970 composition \"I 'm the Greatest\" for Starr to record on the album Ringo (1973), Lennon referenced the song title with the lines \"Now I'm only thirty-two / And all I want to do is boogaloo\".\n"}
{"text": " Although \"T Rex devotees\", in the words of Starr biographer Alan Clayson, claimed that Bolan had ghost-written \"Back Off Boogaloo\", Starr later acknowledged that Harrison co-wrote the song by adding some chords and finishing the melody. As on Starr's 1971 hit single \"It Don't Come Easy\", Harrison was not credited for his songwriting contribution. Starr originally offered \"Back Off Boogaloo\" to fellow Liverpudlian Cilla Black to record, but she declined, hoping instead to record another new Starr \u2013 Harrison composition, \"Photograph\".\n"}
{"text": " == Recording ==\n"}
{"text": " Having earmarked the song as his next single, Starr recorded \"Back Off Boogaloo\" in September 1971, following his appearance at the Harrison-organised Concert for Bangladesh in New York. The sessions took place at Apple Studio in central London, with Harrison producing, as he had on \"It Don 't Come Easy\". The recording reflects the influence of glam rock on Starr through what authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter term \"its big drum sound and repetitious nature\", with a line-up comprising Starr (vocals, drums, percussion), Harrison (guitars), Gary Wright (piano) and Klaus Voormann (bass, saxophone).\n"}
{"text": " Rodriguez describes Starr's \"martial-sounding opening\" as a rare \"showcase for his own drumming\", while Harrison biographer Simon Leng writes of \"a roaring series of Harrison slide breaks that brought to mind Duane Allman\". Further overdubs included contributions from three backing vocalists, led by American soul singer Madeline Bell.\n"}
{"text": " === \"Blindman\" ===\n"}
{"text": " For the single's B-side, Starr had already written and recorded \"Blindman\", the theme song for the Ferdinando Baldi-directed Spaghetti Western of the same name, filming for which Starr had interrupted in order to perform at the Concert for Bangladesh. Starr produced the track with Voormann. The sessions for \"Blindman\" took place at Apple on 18 \u2013 19 August, with Badfinger guitarist Pete Ham assisting Starr and Voormann. Like the film Blindman (1971), the song is held in low regard by critics; Spizer describes it as \"a muddy-sounding dirge with little to recommend\".\n"}
{"text": " == Release and reception ==\n"}
{"text": " Apple Records issued the single on 17 March 1972 in Britain, as Apple R 5944, with a US release taking place three days later, as Apple 1849. It was Starr's first release since \"It Don't Come Easy\", a year before. During this period, his priority had been to develop a career as an actor in films such as 200 Motels (1971) and Blindman. Further aligning himself with Britain's glam rock movement, Starr made his directorial debut with Born to Boogie (1972), a film starring Bolan that included Starr's footage of a T. Rex concert held at Wembley on 18 March. With \"Back Off Boogaloo\", NME critic Bob Woffinden noted Starr's success in establishing himself in the two years since the Beatles' break-up, and wrote that the single \"confirmed that he and Harrison, dark horses both, were the ones who had managed their solo careers more purposefully and intelligently\" compared with McCartney and Lennon.\n"}
{"text": " The song was a hit in the US, reaching number 9 on the Billboard Hot 100, and achieved Starr's best position on the UK Singles Chart, where it reached number 2. A promotional video for \"Back Off Boogaloo\" was shot on 20 March at Lennon's Tittenhurst Park residence while Starr was looking after the property. The video, which shows Starr walking around an outdoor structure and followed by a Frankenstein-like monster, was directed by Tom Taylor and financed by Caravel Films. A similar monster appeared on the single's picture sleeve, holding a cigarette.\n"}
{"text": " Alan Clayson writes of reviewers criticising \"Back Off Boogaloo\" for being repetitious, leading Starr to respond in a 1973 interview: \"Play me a pop song that isn 't.\" On release, Chris Welch wrote in Melody Maker: \"A Number One hit could easily be in store for the maestro of rock drums. There's a touch of the Marc Bolans in this highly playable rhythmic excursion ... It's hypnotic and effective, ideal for jukeboxes and liable to send us all mad by the end of the week.\" Woffinden described the single as \"every bit as ebullient\" as \"It Don't Come Easy\", although \"slightly inferior\", while Mike DeGagne of AllMusic views it as a song where \"[t] he jovial spirit of Ringo Starr shines through\". In a 1974 article for the NME, Charles Shaar Murray highlighted \"Back Off Boogaloo\" as a \"great radio and juke-box tune\".\n"}
{"text": " Among Beatle biographers, Simon Leng terms it \"a rocking, soccer crowd chant that suited Starr's talents well\", and Bruce Spizer praises the track as a \"high-energy in-your-face rocker propelled by Ringo's thundering drums and George's stinging slide guitar\". In the 2005 publication NME Originals: Beatles \u2013 The Solo Years 1970 \u2013 1980, Paul Moody listed \"Back Off Boogaloo\" first among Starr's \"ten solo gems\" and described it as \"Good time rock 'n'droll to match the Faces\". Guitar World editor Damian Fanelli includes the song on his list of Harrison's ten best post-Beatles \"Guitar Moments\", saying of the recording: \"the main event is clearly Harrison's slightly wild, wacky \u2013 and very bouncy \u2013 slide guitar solo, which includes an alternate melody line that's even catchier than the melody Ringo is singing.\"\n"}
{"text": " Re-releases for \"Back Off Boogaloo\" include Starr's 1975 greatest hits album, Blast from Your Past, and, along with \"Blindman\", as a bonus track on the 1992 reissue of his Goodnight Vienna album (1974). \"Back Off Boogaloo\" also appeared on his 2007 compilation Photograph: The Very Best of Ringo Starr, the collector's edition of which included his 1972 video for the song.\n"}
{"text": " == Stop and Smell the Roses version ==\n"}
{"text": " Starr recorded a new version of \"Back Off Boogaloo\" for his 1981 album on Boardwalk Records, Stop and Smell the Roses. The song was produced by Starr's friend, singer Harry Nilsson, and features a musical arrangement by Van Dyke Parks. Similar to Nilsson's 1968 cover of the Beatles'\"You Can't Do That\", the remake incorporates lyrics from a number of the band's songs \u2013 in this case, \"With a Little Help from My Friends\", \"Help!\", \"Lady Madonna\", \"Good Day Sunshine\" and \"Baby, You're a Rich Man\", as well as Starr's \"It Don't Come Easy\". In a further reference to his past, the 1981 version of \"Back Off Boogaloo\" opens with the same guitar riff that Harrison had played on \"It Don 't Come Easy\" ten years before.\n"}
{"text": " Starr taped the basic track at Evergreen Recording Studios in Los Angeles on 4 November 1980, with additional recording taking place on 1 \u2013 5 December at Nassau's Compass Point Studios. Among the large cast of musicians supporting Starr were Nilsson (vocals), Jim Keltner (drums), Jane Getz (piano), Dennis Budimir and Richie Zito (guitars), and a four-piece horn section led by saxophonist Jerry Jumonville.\n"}
{"text": " Starr overdubbed his vocals on 4 December, four days before the murder of John Lennon, who had been due to record his contributions to Stop and Smell the Roses in January 1981. Contrasting with his success as a solo artist in 1971 \u2013 73, the album continued Starr's run of commercial and critical failures since 1976; Rodriguez writes that \"[m] ost people either love or hate the revamping\" of \"Back Off Boogaloo\".\n"}
{"text": " == Live performance ==\n"}
{"text": " Starr has performed \"Back Off Boogaloo\" in concert with his All-Starr Band, beginning with the band's debut tour of North America in July \u2013 September 1989. The song was dropped from the concert setlist early in that tour, however, in favour of the 1963 Lennon \u2013 McCartney composition \"I Wanna Be Your Man\". Live versions of \"Back Off Boogaloo\" have appeared on the multi-disc compilation The Anthology ... So Far (2001) and King Biscuit Flower Hour Presents Ringo & His New All-Starr Band (2002). The latter version was recorded during a US tour in August 2001, at which point the All-Starr line-up was Starr (vocals), Mark Rivera (saxophone), Ian Hunter (guitar), Roger Hodgson and Howard Jones (keyboards), Greg Lake (bass) and Sheila E. (drums).\n"}
{"text": " Starr also played the song live with Ringo and the Roundheads, a band he formed to promote his 1998 studio album Vertical Man. A version recorded on 13 May that year at Sony Music Studios, New York, appeared on Starr's VH1 Storytellers live album and video, released in October 1998. The personnel on this performance included Starr (vocals), Joe Walsh and Mark Hudson (guitars), Jack Blades (bass) and Simon Kirke (drums). Another live version with the Roundheads, recorded for PBS Television's Soundstage in August 2005, was issued on Ringo Starr: Live at Soundstage (2007).\n"}
{"text": " == Personnel ==\n"}
{"text": " The following musicians played on the original version of \"Back Off Boogaloo\":\n"}
{"text": " Ringo Starr \u2013 vocals, drums, percussion, backing vocals\n"}
{"text": " George Harrison \u2013 slide guitars, acoustic guitar\n"}
{"text": " Gary Wright \u2013 piano\n"}
{"text": " Klaus Voormann \u2013 bass, saxophone\n"}
{"text": " Madeline Bell, Lesley Duncan, Jean Gilbert \u2013 backing vocals\n"}
{"text": " == Chart performance ==\n"}
{"text": " = Where the Streets Have No Name =\n"}
{"text": " \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" is a song by Irish rock band U2. It is the opening track from their 1987 album The Joshua Tree and was released as the album's third single in August 1987. The song's hook is a repeating guitar arpeggio using a delay effect, played during the song's introduction and again at the end. Lead vocalist Bono wrote the lyrics in response to the notion that it is possible to identify a person's religion and income based on the street on which they lived, particularly in Belfast. During the band's difficulties recording the song, producer Brian Eno considered erasing the song's tapes to have them start from scratch.\n"}
{"text": " \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" was praised by critics and became a commercial success, peaking at number thirteen in the US, number fourteen in Canada, number ten in the Netherlands, and number four in the United Kingdom. The song has remained a staple of their live act since the song debuted in 1987 on The Joshua Tree Tour. The song was performed on a Los Angeles rooftop for the filming of its music video, which won a Grammy Award for Best Performance Music Video.\n"}
{"text": " == Writing and recording ==\n"}
{"text": " The music for \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" originated from a demo that guitarist The Edge composed the night before the group resumed The Joshua Tree sessions. In an upstairs room at Melbeach House \u2014 his newly purchased home \u2014 The Edge used a four-track tape machine to record an arrangement of keyboards, bass, guitar, and a drum machine. Realising that the album sessions were approaching the end and that the band were short on exceptional live songs, The Edge wanted to \"conjure up the ultimate U2 live-song\", so he imagined what he would like to hear at a future U2 show if he were a fan. After finishing the rough mix, he felt he had come up with \"the most amazing guitar part and song of [his] life\". With no one in the house to share the demo with, The Edge recalls dancing around and punching the air in celebration.\n"}
{"text": " Although the band liked the demo, it was difficult for them to record the song. Bassist Adam Clayton said, \"At the time it sounded like a foreign language, whereas now we understand how it works\". The arrangement, with two time signature shifts and frequent chord changes, was rehearsed many times, but the group struggled to get a performance they liked. According to co-producer Daniel Lanois, \"that was the science project song. I remember having this massive schoolhouse blackboard, as we call them. I was holding a pointer, like a college professor, walking the band through the chord changes like a fucking nerd. It was ridiculous.\" Co-producer Brian Eno estimates that half of the album sessions were spent trying to record a suitable version of \"Where the Streets Have No Name\". The band worked on a single take for weeks, but as Eno explained, that particular version had a lot of problems with it and the group continued trying to fix it up. Through all of their work, they had gradually replaced each instrument take until nothing remained from the original performance.\n"}
{"text": " So much time had been spent on \"screwdriver work\" that Eno thought it would be best to start from scratch. His idea was to \"stage an accident\" and have the song's tapes erased. He said that this was not to force abandonment of the song, but rather that it would be more effective to start again with a fresh performance. At one point, Eno had the tapes cued up and ready to be recorded over, but this erasure never took place; according to engineer Flood, fellow engineer Pat McCarthy returned to the control room and upon seeing Eno ready to erase the tapes, dropped the tray of tea he was carrying and physically restrained Eno.\n"}
{"text": " The studio version of the song was compiled from several different takes. It was one of several songs mixed by Steve Lillywhite in the final months of recording The Joshua Tree. Drummer Larry Mullen, Jr. later said of the song, \"It took so long to get that song right, it was difficult for us to make any sense of it. It only became a truly great song through playing live. On the record, musically, it's not half the song it is live.\"\n"}
{"text": " == Composition ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" is played at a tempo of 126 beats per minute. The introduction and outro are played in a 3 / 4 time signature, while the remainder of the song is in a common 4 / 4 signature. The songs opens with an instrumental section, starting with chorale-like sustained synthesiser notes. The guitar fades in after 42 seconds; this part consists of a repeated \"chiming\" six-note arpeggio. A \"dotted eighth\" delay effect is used to \"play\" each note in the arpeggio twice, thus creating a rich sound. The bass and drums enter at 1: 10.\n"}
{"text": " The introduction, following a I \u2013 IV \u2013 I \u2013 IV \u2013 vi \u2013 V \u2013 I chord progression, creates a \"wall of sound\", as described by Mark Butler, against which the vocals emerge after nearly two minutes. The guitar part played for the remainder of the song features The Edge strumming percussive sixteenth notes. The bass and drums continue in regular eighth and sixteenth notes, respectively, while Bono's vocal performance, in contrast, varies greatly in its timbre, (\"he sighs; he moans; he grunts; he exhales audibly; he allows his voice to crack\") as well as timing by his usage of rubato to slightly offset the notes he sings from the beat.\n"}
{"text": " This development reaches a climax during the first chorus at the line \"burning down love\" (A \u2013 G \u2013 F \u266f \u2013 D); the melody progresses through a series of scale degrees that lead to the highest note in the song, the A4 at \"burning\". In later choruses, Bono sings \"blown by the wind\" with the same melody, stretching the same note even longer. After the third chorus, the song's outro is played, the instrumentation reverting to the same state as it was in the introduction, with a six-note guitar arpeggio played against sustained synthesiser notes.\n"}
{"text": " == Lyrics ==\n"}
{"text": " The lyrics were inspired by a story that Bono heard about the streets of Belfast, Northern Ireland, where a person's religion and income are evident by the street they live on. He contrasted this with the anonymity he felt when visiting Ethiopia, saying: \"... the guy in the song recognizes this contrast and thinks about a world where there aren't such divisions, a place where the streets have no name. To me, that's the way a great rock' n 'roll concert should be: a place where everyone comes together ... Maybe that's the dream of all art: to break down the barriers and the divisions between people and touch upon the things that matter the most to us all.\" Bono wrote the lyrics while on a humanitarian visit to Ethiopia with his wife, Ali Hewson; he first wrote them down on an airsickness bag while staying in a village.\n"}
{"text": " According to him, the song is ostensibly about \"Transcendence, elevation, whatever you want to call it.\" Bono, who compared many of his lyrics prior to The Joshua Tree to \"sketches\", said that \"'Where the Streets Have No Name' is more like the U2 of old than any of the other songs on the LP, because it's a sketch \u2014 I was just trying to sketch a location, maybe a spiritual location, maybe a romantic location. I was trying to sketch a feeling.\"\n"}
{"text": " The open-ended nature of the lyrics has led to many interpretations. Journalist Michael Campbell believed the lyrics send \"a message of hope\" and wish for a \"world that is not divided by class, wealth, race, or any other arbitrary criterion\". With regard to the place Bono was referring to in the song, he said, \"I 'm not sure, really, about that. I used to think it was Belfast ...\" Journalist Niall Stokes believes the title was influenced by Bono's and his wife Ali's visit to Ethiopia as volunteer aid-workers. Bono has expressed mixed opinions about the open-ended lyrics: \"I can look at it now and recognize that [the song] has one of the most banal couplets in the history of pop music. But it also contains some of the biggest ideas. In a curious way, that seems to work. If you get any way heavy about these things, you don't communicate. But if you 're flip or throwaway about it, then you do. That's one of the paradoxes I 've come to terms with.\"\n"}
{"text": " == Release ==\n"}
{"text": " Originally, the third single from The Joshua Tree was meant to be the song \"Red Hill Mining Town\", but \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" was released instead, in August 1987. The single was released on 7-inch, 12-inch, cassette and CD single formats. Three B-sides were featured on the single, including \"Race Against Time\", \"Silver and Gold\", and \"Sweetest Thing\", except for the 7-inch release, which only featured the latter two tracks. The 12-inch single featured \"Race Against Time\" on side A of the record (despite being a \"B-side\"), and the cassette single featured all four tracks on both sides of the tape. Although not as successful as the album's first two singles, the song did chart well. In the U.S., the song peaked at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 11 on the Album Rock Tracks charts. The song reached number four on the UK Singles Chart, and it topped the Irish Singles Chart.\n"}
{"text": " === Music video ===\n"}
{"text": " The video begins with an aerial shot of a block in Los Angeles, and clips of radio broadcasts are heard with disc jockeys stating that U2 is planning on performing a concert downtown and expecting crowds of 30,000 people. Police show up to the set and inform the band's crew of the security issue that the film shoot is causing, due to the large number of people who are coming to watch the performance. Two minutes into the video, U2 are seen on the roof of a liquor store at the corner of 7th Ave. and S. Main St., and perform \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" to a large crowd of people standing in the streets surrounding the building. Towards the end of the song, the police tell the crew that the performance is about to be shut down, and eventually police walk onto the roof while the crowd are booing the police.\n"}
{"text": " The video for \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" was directed by Meiert Avis and produced by Michael Hamlyn and Ben Dossett. The band attracted over 1,000 people during the video's filming, which took place on the rooftop of a liquor store in Downtown Los Angeles on 27 March 1987. The band's performance on a rooftop in a public place was a reference to The Beatles' final concert, as depicted in the film Let It Be.\n"}
{"text": " During the shoot U2 played an eight-song set, which included four performances of \"Where the Streets Have No Name\". Prior to filming, a week was spent reinforcing the roof of the liquor store to ensure it would not collapse if it were to be intruded by a group of fans. A backup generator was put on the roof so the shooting could continue in the event that the authorities shut off the power on the primary generator, which happened during filming.\n"}
{"text": " The depiction of the police attempting to shut down the video shoot due to safety concerns actually happened during filming, just as seen in the video. Hamlyn was almost arrested following a confrontation with the police. According to Avis, the events depicted in the video show what actually happened that day \"almost in real time\", and that \"getting busted was an integral part of the plan.\" Band manager Paul McGuinness revealed in 2007 that much of the confrontation with the police was exaggerated; the group were hoping to get shut down by the authorities in order to dramatize the music video, but the police continually gave them extensions for shooting the video. In the background of the video is a sign for The Million Dollar Hotel, which was rebuilt to create some interest, in case no one showed up at the film shoot. Although the video is of a live performance, the audio used is from the studio-recorded version of the song. The video won the Grammy Award for Best Performance Music Video at the 1989 Grammy Awards.\n"}
{"text": " === B-sides ===\n"}
{"text": " \"Race Against Time\" was released on the 12-inch, cassette, and CD versions of the single. The song developed from the band's interest in urban funk, and was described by The Edge as \"a kind of Afro-rhythmic piece\" and \"a study in rhythm.\" The bass riff in the song, inspired by the bodhr\u00e1n, was played by The Edge, but stemmed from some of Clayton's unused bass parts. Mullen's drum part was recorded in a single take. The song is primarily an instrumental piece but does contain some lyrics inspired by Bono's trip to Ethiopia after Live Aid and his witnessing firsthand the famine in occurrence; these lyrical references include Bono singing in an Ethiopian language and following it with the phrase \"Race against time\". Bono said of the song, \"It reminds me of the desert. The desert is so empty, but it aches with a strange kind of fullness.\" John Hutchinson of Musician magazine described the song as having an \"African flavour\" and as being reminiscent of Peter Gabriel. The track was used in the Miami Vice episode \"Child's Play\", and is the only one of the single's B-sides that was never played live.\n"}
{"text": " \"Silver and Gold\" was written in support of the Artists United Against Apartheid project, which protested the South African apartheid. In 1985, Bono participated in Steven Van Zandt's anti-apartheid Sun City project and spent time with Keith Richards and Mick Jagger of The Rolling Stones. When Richards and Jagger played blues, Bono was embarrassed by his lack of familiarity with the genre, as most of U2's musical knowledge began with punk rock in their youth in the mid-1970s. Bono realised that U2 \"had no tradition\", and he felt as if they \"were from outer space\". This inspired him to write the blues-influenced song \"Silver and Gold\", which he recorded with Richards and Ronnie Wood. It was re-recorded by U2 for the \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" single while the band returned to Dublin during in May 1987 during a break between the first and second legs of The Joshua Tree Tour. The song was described by Musician as \"tough and raw, with Bono in husky and confident voice, underpinned by a sinuous bass line, and with The Edge demonstrating his newfound prowess in blues-based guitar.\" \"Silver and Gold\" was played live on The Joshua Tree Tour several times, one performance of which was featured on the band's 1988 album and rockumentary, Rattle and Hum. Both the studio recording and the Sun City versions were later featured on the bonus disc of the 20th anniversary edition of The Joshua Tree. The studio version was also included on the limited edition B-sides bonus disk of the band's first compilation album, The Best of 1980 \u2013 1990.\n"}
{"text": " \"Sweetest Thing\" was written by Bono as an apology to his wife for forgetting her birthday. The song opens with a short piano piece before the rest of the band begins to play. Some of Bono's lyrics have been described as reminiscent of John Lennon. The Edge described it as \"a beautiful song ... which is pop as it should be \u2014 not produced out of existence, but pop produced with a real intimacy and purity\", also noting that \"It's very new for us.\" It was re-recorded with some lyrical alterations and released in 1998 as a single in its own right for The Best of 1980 \u2013 1990. Hot Press editor Niall Stokes stated that this track, along with \"Race Against Time\", is \"an indicator of what U2 might have made instead of The Joshua Tree.\"\n"}
{"text": " == Critical reception ==\n"}
{"text": " Upon the release of The Joshua Tree, critics praised \"Where the Streets Have No Name\". Steve Morse of The Boston Globe noted the \"bell-like tones from the Edge fram [e] a search for heaven\" and along with the subsequent track on the album, \"I Still Haven 't Found What I'm Looking For\", these songs showed how the group were \"pilgrims still on a quest; not preachers who claim to have found answers\". The Bergen Record echoed these sentiments, saying the tracks demonstrated how the band was on a personal and spiritual quest. Rolling Stone called it \"assertive rock\" in their review of The Joshua Tree. The San Diego Union-Tribune said of \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", \"the music charges, like someone fleeing for life\". The Washington Post said the track is \"a bit oblique lyrically, but the implications are clear in Bono's resolute delivery, Dave (the Edge) Evan's quavering guitar, Adam Clayton's cathedral bass and Larry Mullen's rolling thunder drums\".\n"}
{"text": " NME lauded the song as the opening track by saying the album \"starts by spitting furiously\". The publication praised Bono's impassioned singing and The Edge's guitar playing, which transformed the instrument into \"something more than an endlessly abused piece of wood\". The review commented that the \"last ten seconds are breathtakingly beautiful\". The Rocket wrote that the song builds a \"wall of sound\" that Bono's vocals cut through with a \"wail of desperation, as the lyrics agonize the need for personal spirituality\". The reviewer compared the opening riff to Simple Minds' \"Ghostdancing\". Reviewing The Joshua Tree, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called the song an \"epic opener\". The service's Steve Huey, in a review of the song, praised its \"insistent, propulsive rhythmic drive and anthemic chorus\", qualities he singled out for making it a fan favorite. He called the song the \"perfect album-opener\", crediting the \"slow build of its arrangement toward a climactic peak\". Huey also called Bono's delivery \"passionate and grandiose\" and \"his commitment to the material unshakable\". He believed the combination of his vocals and the band's \"sonic power\" is what gave U2 its \"tremendous force\".\n"}
{"text": " == Live performances ==\n"}
{"text": " \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" made its concert debut on 2 April 1987 in Tempe, Arizona on the opening night of The Joshua Tree Tour. It has since been played at nearly every full-length concert that U2 has headlined, totaling over 700 performances as of 2011. The song is widely regarded as one of the group's most popular live songs. Bono said of it, \"We can be in the middle of the worst gig in our lives, but when we go into that song, everything changes. The audience is on its feet, singing along with every word. It's like God suddenly walks through the room.\"\n"}
{"text": " On The Joshua Tree Tour, \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" was most often used to open concerts. Fans and critics responded favourably to the song in a live setting. The San Diego Union-Tribune wrote that, \"From the lofty sonic opening strains of [the song], this audience was up, ecstatic and inflamed.\" NME wrote that the song is one such occasion where \"the power afforded their songs is scary\", noting that during the song's opening, \"the arena ERUPTS\". In other reviews, the song was called: \"uplifting\", \"exhilarating\", and \"powerful\". Out of the 109 shows during The Joshua Tree Tour, \"Streets\" was played at all except 12 of the concerts. During the Lovetown Tour which took place in 1989 and the beginning of 1990, \"Streets\" was only left out of the set list at one of the 47 concerts.\n"}
{"text": " The song was performed at every show on the 1992 \u2013 1993 Zoo TV Tour. Concerts from this tour were elaborate multimedia spectacles that Bono performed as a variety of characters, but for the end of the main set, the group reverted to playing classics, including \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", straight. Some of these performances of the song were accompanied by footage of the group in the desert from The Joshua Tree's photo shoot. The video was speeded up for humorous effect \u2014 NME described the effect as giving it a \"silly, Charlie Chaplin quality\" \u2014 and Bono often acknowledged his younger self on the video screens. This video would make a return during performances on the 2010 and 2011 legs of the U2 360\u00b0Tour. Some of the Zoo TV performances of the song had a more electronic dance music arrangement that bore a resemblance to the Pet Shop Boys' synthpop cover of the song (titled \"Where the Streets Have No Name ( I Can 't Take My Eyes off You)\" ). Bono parodied this by occasionally adopting the deadpan vocal style used in the Pet Shop Boys' cover. Critics welcomed the song in the group's setlist: The Independent said the song \"induces instant euphoria, as U2 do what they're best at, slipping into epic rock mode, playing music made for the arena\". In two other local newspaper reviews, critics praised the song's inclusion in a sequence of greatest hits.\n"}
{"text": " For the PopMart Tour of 1997 \u2013 1998, U2 returned to the electronic dance arrangement they occasionally played on the Zoo TV Tour. The set's massive video screen displayed a video that Hot Press described as an \"astonishing, 2001-style trip into the heart of a swirling, psychedelic tunnel that sucks the audience in towards a horizontal monolith\". Near the end of the song, peace doves were shown on the screen and bright beams of light flanking the set's golden arch were projected upwards. Hot Press said the effect transformed the stadium into a \"UFO landing site\".\n"}
{"text": " Shortly before the third leg of the Elevation Tour, the September 11 attacks occurred in New York City and Washington D.C. During the band's first show in New York City following the attacks, the band performed \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", and when the stage lights illuminated the audience, the band saw tears streaming down the faces of many fans. The experience was one inspiration for the song \"City of Blinding Lights\". The band paid tribute to the 9 / 11 victims during their performance of the song at the Super Bowl XXXVI halftime show on 3 February 2002. The performance featured the names of the September 11 victims projected onto a large white banner behind the band. U2's appearance was later ranked number 1 on Sports Illustrated's list of \"Top 10 Super Bowl Halftime Shows\".\n"}
{"text": " For the Vertigo Tour, the group originally considered dropping the song from their setlists, but Mullen and Clayton successfully argued against this. All 131 of the Vertigo Tour concerts featured a performance of the song, which were accompanied by the stage's LED video curtains displaying African flags. On the tour's opening night, this reminded Bono that he had originally written the lyrics in an Ethiopian village. He thought this visual accompaniment made the song come full circle, saying, \"And here it was, nearly twenty years later, coming back to Africa, all the stuff about parched lands and deserts making sense for the first time.\" The song was also played at the preview screening of the band's concert film U2 3D at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. At the Glastonbury Festival 2010, The Edge accompanied rock band Muse for a live cover version of the track, later playing it with U2 while headlining Glastonbury in 2011.\n"}
{"text": " Live performances of \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" appear in the concert video releases Rattle and Hum, Zoo TV: Live from Sydney, and PopMart: Live from Mexico City, as well as the respective audio releases of the latter two concerts, Zoo TV Live and Hasta la Vista Baby! U2 Live from Mexico City. A second version from the PopMart Tour was featured on Please: PopHeart Live EP, and later on the U.S. \"Please\" single. A live recording from Boston during the Elevation Tour was featured in the concert film Elevation 2001: Live from Boston, and on the \"Walk On\" and \"Electrical Storm\" singles. The concert video and album U2 Go Home: Live from Slane Castle, Ireland featured another performance from the Elevation Tour, and later performances were featured in the concert films Vertigo 2005: Live from Chicago and U2 3D (Vertigo Tour), and U2 360\u00b0at the Rose Bowl (U2 360\u00b0Tour). The 2004 digital album, Live from the Point Depot, contains a performance from the Lovetown Tour, only available as part of The Complete U2 digital box set.\n"}
{"text": " == Legacy ==\n"}
{"text": " In 2002, Q magazine named \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" the 16th- \"most exciting tune ever\". The following year, Q ranked the song at number 459 in a special edition titled \"1001 Best Songs Ever\". Three years later, the magazine's readers voted the track the 43rd-greatest song in history. Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 28 on its list of the \"100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time.\" In a 2010 poll by fan site @ U2, approximately 29 % of 4,800 respondents named \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" as their favourite song from The Joshua Tree, ranking it as the most popular song from the album. In 2010, American sports network ESPN used the track, among other U2 songs, in commercials for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, with the South African Soweto Gospel Choir adding vocals to the song. The advertisement, titled \"Robben Island\", portrays South African political prisoners during the apartheid era forming a soccer team. There are plans to bring a recording of the Soweto-supported performance to retail. Composer John Mackey used the introductory guitar theme in his 2009 piece for wind ensemble, Aurora Awakes. The song's introduction was used by the Vancouver Canucks hockey team at the start each of their home games, when the players take to the ice. The Baltimore Ravens also use the song as they enter M & T Bank Stadium before home games. The Marquette Golden Eagles men's basketball team uses this song in their entrance video before all home games at the BMO Harris Bradley Center. The song is also used by the Wisconsin Badgers football team for their entrance video at Camp Randall Stadium prior to all home games. The Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball team uses the song during their starting lineups at Allen Fieldhouse.\n"}
{"text": " == Track listing ==\n"}
{"text": " == Personnel ==\n"}
{"text": " == Charts ==\n"}
{"text": " = Nazarov cyclization reaction =\n"}
{"text": " The Nazarov cyclization reaction (often referred to as simply the Nazarov cyclization) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of cyclopentenones. The reaction is typically divided into classical and modern variants, depending on the reagents and substrates employed. It was originally discovered by Ivan Nikolaevich Nazarov (1906 \u2013 1957) in 1941 while studying the rearrangements of allyl vinyl ketones.\n"}
{"text": " As originally described, the Nazarov cyclization involves the activation of a divinyl ketone using a stoichiometric Lewis acid or protic acid promoter. The key step of the reaction mechanism involves a cationic 4\u03c0-electrocyclic ring closure which forms the cyclopentenone product (See Mechanism below). As the reaction has been developed, variants involving substrates other than divinyl ketones and promoters other than Lewis acids have been subsumed under the name Nazarov cyclization provided that they follow a similar mechanistic pathway.\n"}
{"text": " The success of the Nazarov cyclization as a tool in organic synthesis stems from the utility and ubiquity of cyclopentenones as both motifs in natural products (including jasmone, the aflatoxins, and a subclass of prostaglandins) and as useful synthetic intermediates for total synthesis. The reaction has been used in several total syntheses and several reviews have been published.\n"}
{"text": " == Mechanism ==\n"}
{"text": " The mechanism of the classical Nazarov cyclization reaction was first demonstrated experimentally by Shoppe to be an intramolecular electrocyclization and is outlined below. Activation of the ketone by the acid catalyst generates a pentadienyl cation which undergoes a thermally allowed 4\u03c0 conrotatory electrocyclization as dictated by the Woodward-Hoffman rules. This generates an oxyallyl cation which undergoes an elimination reaction to lose a \u03b2-hydrogen. Subsequent tautomerization of the enolate produces the cyclopentenone product.\n"}
{"text": " As noted above, variants that deviate from this template are known; what designates a Nazarov cyclization in particular is the generation of the pentadienyl cation followed by electrocyclic ring closure to an oxyallyl cation. In order to achieve this transformation, the molecule must be in the s-trans / s-trans conformation, placing the vinyl groups in an appropriate orientation. The propensity of the system to enter this conformation dramatically influences reaction rate, with \u03b1-substituted substrates having an increased population of the requisite conformer due to allylic strain. Coordination of an electron donating \u03b1-substituent by the catalyst can likewise increase the reaction rate by enforcing this conformation.\n"}
{"text": " Similarly, \u03b2-substitution directed inward restricts the s-trans conformation so severely that E-Z isomerization has been shown to occur in advance of cyclization on a wide range of substrates, yielding the trans cyclopentenone regardless of initial configuration. In this way, the Nazarov cyclization is a rare example of a stereoselective pericyclic reaction, whereas most electrocyclizations are stereospecific. The example below uses triethylsilyl hydride to trap the oxyallyl cation so that no elimination occurs. (See Interrupted cyclizations below)\n"}
{"text": " Along this same vein, allenyl vinyl ketones of the type studied extensively by Marcus Tius of the University of Hawaii show dramatic rate acceleration due to the removal of \u03b2-hydrogens, obviating a large amount of steric strain in the s-cis conformer.\n"}
{"text": " == Classical Nazarov cyclizations ==\n"}
{"text": " Though cyclizations following the general template above had been observed prior to Nazarov's involvement, it was his study of the rearrangements of allyl vinyl ketones that marked the first major examination of this process. Nazarov correctly reasoned that the allylic olefin isomerized in situ to form a divinyl ketone before ring closure to the cyclopentenone product. The reaction shown below involves an alkyne oxymercuration reaction to generate the requisite ketone.\n"}
{"text": " Research involving the reaction was relatively quiet in subsequent years, until in the mid-1980s when several syntheses employing the Nazarov cyclization were published. Shown below are key steps in the syntheses of Trichodiene and Nor-Sterepolide, the latter of which is thought to proceed via an unusual alkyne-allene isomerization that generates the divinyl ketone.\n"}
{"text": " === Shortcomings ===\n"}
{"text": " The classical version of the Nazarov cyclization suffers from several drawbacks which modern variants attempt to circumvent. The first two are not evident from the mechanism alone, but are indicative of the barriers to cyclization; the last three stem from selectivity issues relating to elimination and protonation of the intermediate.\n"}
{"text": " Strong Lewis or protic acids are typically required for the reaction (e.g. TiCl4, BF3, MeSO3H). These promoters are not compatible with sensitive functional groups, limiting the substrate scope.\n"}
{"text": " Despite the mechanistic possibility for catalysis, multiple equivalents of the promoter are often required in order to effect the reaction. This limits the atom economy of the reaction.\n"}
{"text": " The elimination step is not regioselective; if multiple \u03b2-hydrogens are available for elimination, various products are often observed as mixtures. This is highly undesirable from an efficiency standpoint as arduous separation is typically required.\n"}
{"text": " Elimination destroys a potential stereocenter, decreasing the potential usefulness of the reaction.\n"}
{"text": " Protonation of the enolate is sometimes not stereoselective, meaning that products can be formed as mixtures of epimers.\n"}
{"text": " == Modern variants ==\n"}
{"text": " The shortcomings noted above limit the usefulness of the Nazarov cyclization reaction in its canonical form. However, modifications to the reaction focused on remedying its issues continue to be an active area of academic research. In particular, the research has focused on a few key areas: rendering the reaction catalytic in the promoter, effecting the reaction with more mild promoters to improve functional group tolerance, directing the regioselectivity of the elimination step, and improving the overall stereoselectivity. These have been successful to varying degrees.\n"}
{"text": " Additionally, modifications focused on altering the progress of the reaction, either by generating the pentadienyl cation in an unorthodox fashion or by having the oxyallyl cation \"intercepted\" in various ways. Furthermore, enantioselective variants of various kinds have been developed. The sheer volume of literature on the subject prevents a comprehensive examination of this field; key examples are given below.\n"}
{"text": " === Silicon-directed cyclization ===\n"}
{"text": " The earliest efforts to improve the selectivity of the Nazarov cyclization took advantage of the \u03b2-silicon effect in order to direct the regioselectivity of the elimination step. This chemistry was developed most extensively by Professor Scott Denmark of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign in the mid-1980s and utilizes stoichiometric amounts of iron trichloride to promote the reaction. With bicyclic products, the cis isomer was selected for to varying degrees.\n"}
{"text": " The silicon-directed Nazarov cyclization reaction was subsequently employed in the synthesis of the natural product Silphinene, shown below. The cyclization takes place before elimination of the benzyl alcohol moiety, so that the resulting stereochemistry of the newly formed ring arises from approach of the silyl alkene anti to the ether.\n"}
{"text": " === Polarization ===\n"}
{"text": " Drawing on the substituent effects compiled over various trials of the reaction, Professor Alison Frontier of the University of Rochester developed a paradigm for \"polarized\" Nazarov cyclizations in which electron donating and electron withdrawing groups are used to improve the overall selectivity of the reaction. Creation of an effective vinyl nucleophile and vinyl electrophile in the substrate allows catalytic activation with copper triflate and regioselective elimination. In addition, the electron withdrawing group increases the acidity of the \u03b1-proton, allowing selective formation of the trans-\u03b1-epimer via equilibration.\n"}
{"text": " It is often possible to achieve catalytic activation using a donating or withdrawing group alone, although the efficiency of the reaction (yield, reaction time, etc.) is typically lower.\n"}
{"text": " === Alternative cation generation ===\n"}
{"text": " By extension, any pentadienyl cation regardless of its origin is capable of undergoing a Nazarov cyclization. There have been a large number of examples published where the requisite cation is arrived at by a variety of rearrangements. One such example involves the silver catalyzed cationic ring opening of allylic dichloro cylopropanes. The silver salt facilitates loss of chloride via precipitation of insoluble silver chloride.\n"}
{"text": " In the total synthesis of rocaglamide, epoxidation of a vinyl alkoxyallenyl stannane likewise generates a pentadienyl cation via ring opening of the resultant epoxide.\n"}
{"text": " === Interrupted cyclization ===\n"}
{"text": " Once the cyclization has occurred, an oxyallyl cation is formed. As discussed extensively above, the typical course for this intermediate is elimination followed by enolate tautomerization. However, these two steps can be interrupted by various nucleophiles and electrophiles, respectively. Oxyallyl cation trapping has been developed extensively by Fredrick G. West of the University of Alberta and his review covers the field. The oxyallyl cation can be trapped with heteroatom and carbon nucleophiles and can also undergo cationic cycloadditions with various tethered partners. Shown below is a cascade reaction in which successive cation trapping generates a pentacyclic core in one step with complete diastereoselectivity.\n"}
{"text": " Enolate trapping with various electrophiles is decidedly less common. In one study, the Nazarov cyclization is paired with a Michael reaction using an iridium catalyst to initiate nucleophilic conjugate addition of the enolate to \u03b2-nitrostyrene. In this tandem reaction the iridium catalyst is required for both conversions: it acts as the Lewis acid in the Nazarov cyclization and in the next step the nitro group of nitrostyrene first coordinates to iridium in a ligand exchange with the carbonyl ester oxygen atom before the actual Michael addition takes place to the opposite face of the R-group.\n"}
{"text": " === Enantioselective variants ===\n"}
{"text": " The development of an enantioselective Nazarov cyclization is a desirable addition to the repertoire of Nazarov cyclization reactions. To that end, several variations have been developed utilizing chiral auxiliaries and chiral catalysts. Diastereoselective cyclizations are also known, in which extant stereocenters direct the cyclization. Almost all of the attempts are based on the idea of torquoselectivity; selecting one direction for the vinyl groups to \"rotate\" in turn sets the stereochemistry as shown below.\n"}
{"text": " Silicon-directed Nazarov cyclizations can exhibit induced diastereoselectivity in this way. In the example below, the silyl-group acts to direct the cyclization by preventing the distant alkene from rotating \"towards\" it via unfavorable steric interaction. In this way the silicon acts as a traceless auxiliary. (The starting material is not enantiopure but the retention of enantiomeric excess suggests that the auxiliary directs the cyclization.)\n"}
{"text": " Tius's allenyl substrates can exhibit axial to tetrahedral chirality transfer if enantiopure allenes are used. The example below generates a chiral diosphenpol in 64 % yield and 95 % enantiomeric excess.\n"}
{"text": " Tius has additionally developed a camphor-based auxiliary for achiral allenes that was employed in the first asymmetric synthesis of roseophilin. The key step employs an unusual mixture of hexafluoro-2-propanol and trifluoroethanol as solvent.\n"}
{"text": " The first chiral Lewis acid promoted asymmetric Nazarov cyclization was reported by Varinder Aggarwal and utilized copper (II) bisoxazoline ligand complexes with up to 98 % ee. The enantiomeric excess was unaffected by use of 50 mol % of the copper complex but the yield was significantly decreased.\n"}
{"text": " == Related Reactions ==\n"}
{"text": " Extensions of the Nazarov cyclization are generally also subsumed under the same name. For example, an \u03b1-\u03b2, \u03b3-\u03b4 unsaturated ketone can undergo a similar cationic conrotatory cyclization that is typically referred to as an iso-Nazarov cyclization reaction. Other such extensions have been given similar names, including homo-Nazarov cyclizations and vinylogous Nazarov cyclizations.\n"}
{"text": " === Retro-Nazarov reaction ===\n"}
{"text": " Because they overstabilize the pentadienyl cation, \u03b2-electron donating substiuents often severely impede Nazarov cyclization. Building from this, several electrocyclic ring openings of \u03b2-alkoxy cyclopentanes have been reported. These are typically referred to as retro-Nazarov cyclization reactions.\n"}
{"text": " === Imino-Nazarov reaction ===\n"}
{"text": " Nitrogen analogues of the Nazarov cyclization reaction (known as imino-Nazarov cyclization reactions) have few instances; there is one example of a generalized imino-Nazarov cyclization reported (shown below), and several iso-imino-Nazarov reactions in the literature. Even these tend to suffer from poor stereoselectivity, poor yields, or narrow scope. The difficulty stems from the relative over-stabilization of the pentadienyl cation by electron donation, impeding cyclization.\n"}
{"text": " = Horrible Bosses =\n"}
{"text": " Horrible Bosses is a 2011 American black comedy film directed by Seth Gordon, written by Michael Markowitz, John Francis Daley and Jonathan Goldstein, based on a story by Markowitz. It stars Jason Bateman, Charlie Day, Jason Sudeikis, Jennifer Aniston, Colin Farrell, Kevin Spacey, and Jamie Foxx. The plot follows three friends, played by Bateman, Day, and Sudeikis, who decide to murder their respective overbearing, abusive bosses, portrayed by Spacey, Aniston and Farrell.\n"}
{"text": " Markowitz's script was bought by New Line Cinema in 2005 and the film spent six years in various states of pre-production, with a variety of actors attached to different roles. By 2010, Goldstein and Daley had rewritten the script, and the film finally went into production.\n"}
{"text": " The film premiered in Los Angeles on June 30, 2011, and received a wide release on July 8, 2011. The film exceeded financial expectations, accruing over $ 28 million in the first three days, making it the number two film in the United States during its opening weekend, and going on to become the highest-grossing black comedy film of all time in unadjusted dollars, breaking the record previously set by The War of the Roses in 1990. The film grossed over $ 209 million worldwide during its theatrical run.\n"}
{"text": " The film opened to positive critical reception, with several critics praising the ensemble cast, with each lead being singled out for their performances across reviews. The plot received a more mixed response; some reviewers felt that its dark, humorous premise was explored well, while others felt the jokes were racist, homophobic, and misogynistic. A sequel, Horrible Bosses 2, was released on November 26, 2014.\n"}
{"text": " == Plot ==\n"}
{"text": " Nick Hendricks (Bateman) and Dale Arbus (Day) are friends who despise their bosses. Nick works at a financial firm for the sadistic David Harken (Spacey), who implies the possibility of a promotion for Nick for months, only to award it to himself. Dale is a dental assistant being sexually harassed by his boss, Dr. Julia Harris (Aniston); she threatens to tell his fiancee Stacy (Lindsay Sloane) that he had sex with her unless he actually has sex with her. Nick and Dale's accountant friend Kurt Buckman (Sudeikis) enjoys working for Jack Pellitt (Donald Sutherland) at a chemical company, but after Jack unexpectedly dies of a heart attack, the company is taken over by Jack's cocaine-addicted son Bobby (Farrell), whose apathy and incompetence threaten the future of the company.\n"}
{"text": " At night, over drinks, Kurt jokingly suggests that their lives would be happier if their bosses were no longer around. Initially hesitant, they eventually agree to kill their employers. In search of a hitman, the trio meet Dean \"Motherfuckah\" Jones (Foxx), an ex-con who agrees to be their \"murder consultant\". Jones suggests that Dale, Kurt and Nick kill each other's bosses to hide their motive while making the deaths look like accidents.\n"}
{"text": " The three reconnoiter Bobby's house, and Kurt steals Bobby's phone. They next go to Harken's house, where Kurt and Nick go inside while Dale waits in the car. Harken returns home and confronts Dale for littering, but then has an allergy attack from the peanut butter on the litter. Dale saves Harken by stabbing him with an EpiPen. Nick and Kurt think Dale is stabbing Harken to death and flee, with Kurt accidentally dropping Bobby's phone in Harken's bedroom. The next night, Kurt watches Julia's home, but she seduces and has sex with him. Nick and Dale reluctantly wait outside Bobby's and Harken's houses, respectively, to commit the murders, despite neither of them wanting to. Harken discovers Bobby's cellphone in his bedroom and uses it to find his address, suspecting his wife Rhonda (Julie Bowen) is having an affair. He drives over and kills Bobby, with Nick as a secret witness.\n"}
{"text": " Nick flees at high speed, setting off a traffic camera. The trio meet to discuss their reservations about continuing with their plan. They are arrested by the police, who believe the camera footage makes them suspects in Bobby's murder. Lacking evidence, the police are forced to let the trio go free. The trio consult with Jones again, but learn that he never actually killed anyone, having been imprisoned for bootlegging the film Snow Falling on Cedars. Jones suggests that they get Harken to confess and secretly tape it. The three accidentally crash Harken's surprise birthday party, where Nick and Dale get Harken to confess to the murder before realizing that Kurt, who has the audio recorder, is elsewhere having sex with Rhonda. Harken threatens to kill all three for attempting to blackmail him. They flee by car, but Harken gives chase and repeatedly rams their vehicle. Believing they have committed a crime, the car's navigation-system operator remotely disables Kurt's car, allowing Harken to catch and hold them at gunpoint. Harken shoots himself in the leg as he boasts about his plan to frame them for murdering Bobby and attempting to kill him to get rid of the witness.\n"}
{"text": " The police arrest Nick, Dale and Kurt, but the navigation-system operator, Gregory, reveals that it is his companies policy to record all conversations for quality assurance. Gregory plays the tape that has Harken confessing he murdered Pellitt. Harken is sentenced to 25 years to life in prison, while the friends get their charges waived. Nick is promoted to president of the company under a sadistic CEO, Kurt retains his job under a new boss, and Dale blackmails Julia into ending her harassment by convincing her to sexually harass a supposedly unconscious patient, while Jones secretly records the act.\n"}
{"text": " == Cast ==\n"}
{"text": " Jason Bateman as Nick Hendricks\n"}
{"text": " An executive at a financial firm who is manipulated into jumping through hoops in order to get a promotion that his boss never intended to give him. Markowitz wrote the role specifically for Bateman.\n"}
{"text": " Charlie Day as Dale Arbus\n"}
{"text": " A dental assistant who is sexually harassed by his boss. Described as a \"hopeless romantic\" in love with his fianc\u00e9e. Ashton Kutcher was in talks for the role at two different points in the lengthy production. Day was considered for the role following his co-starring performance with Sudeikis in the 2010 film Going the Distance \u2014 Reuters reported that industry insiders believed his performance overshadowed the main stars.\n"}
{"text": " Jason Sudeikis as Kurt Buckman\n"}
{"text": " An account manager at a chemical company dealing with a new, drug-addicted boss after his beloved former boss dies. Sudeikis was cast in May 2010.\n"}
{"text": " Jennifer Aniston as Dr. Julia Harris, D.D.S.\n"}
{"text": " Markowitz based the character on a former boss, claiming she was \"very sexually aggressive with everybody\". When writing the script, Markowitz intended for the role to go to Aniston. He stated, \" but [the aforementioned boss] looked more like Cruella de Vil. It was like flirting with a cobweb. So I decided for the sake of the movie, let \u2019 s go with Jennifer Aniston. \u201d The actress insisted on wearing a brown wig for the role, wanting to look different from other characters she had played.\n"}
{"text": " Colin Farrell as Bobby Pellitt\n"}
{"text": " Described as a \"weaselly scion\" and a \"corrupt and incompetent jerk who's in charge of things but clearly has no idea what he's doing.\" Farrell explained the motivation he gave to the character, stating \"This guy thinks he's God's gift to women, God's gift to intellect, to humor, to the club scene, to everything. It's all part of his grandiose sense of self-esteem, which is probably masking a deeper sense of being a disappointment to his father and being riddled with envy over the relationship his father had with Kurt, and all kinds of other things. With Pellit, Seth gave me complete license to act as pathologically screwed up as possible.\" Farrell contributed significantly to the appearance of his character, suggesting the comb over hairstyle, pot-belly and an affinity for Chinese dragons.\n"}
{"text": " Kevin Spacey as David Harken\n"}
{"text": " President of Comnidyne Industries. Tom Cruise, Philip Seymour Hoffman and Jeff Bridges had been approached by New Line Cinema to take the role, described as a psychopathic master manipulator with an attractive wife. Spacey signed up for the role in June 2010. The part was considered \"integral\" to the film. Gordon commented that the character was an amalgamation of several real bosses (rather than one single person) to avoid being sued.\n"}
{"text": " Jamie Foxx as Dean \"Motherfuckah\" Jones\n"}
{"text": " The character had the more \"colorful\" name \"Cocksucker Jones\", but it was changed at Foxx's request, with producer Jay Stern commenting that Foxx felt it \"was over the line\". The current name was said to be subject to further change, prior to the release of the film. Foxx contributed to his character's appearance, suggesting full-scalp tattoos and a retro clothing style. Foxx described the appearance as \"a guy who maybe went to jail for a minute and now he's living in his own time capsule. When he got out he went right back to the clothes he thought were hot when he went in.\"\n"}
{"text": " During the six-year development of the film, several actors were in negotiations to star, including Owen Wilson, Vince Vaughn, Matthew McConaughey, Ryan Reynolds, Dax Shepard, and Johnny Knoxville.\n"}
{"text": " Donald Sutherland portrays Jack Pellitt, Bobby's father and Kurt's boss. On July 27, 2010, Isaiah Mustafa was confirmed as joining the cast. Mustafa was quoted as saying \"It's a smaller role\". He appears as Officer Wilkens. Julie Bowen appears in the film as Rhonda, Harken's wife. Bowen stated that her character \"may or may not be a hussy\", the character described as intentionally making her husband jealous. Ioan Gruffudd has a cameo as a male prostitute erroneously hired as a hitman. Lindsay Sloane appears as Dale's fiancee Stacy. P. J. Byrne plays Kenny Sommerfeld, a former investment manager, now scrounging for drinks, while Wendell Pierce and Ron White play a pair of cops. Bob Newhart makes a cameo as sadistic Comnidyne CEO Louis Sherman. John Francis Daley, a screenwriter on the film, cameos as Nick's co-worker Carter.\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " === Development ===\n"}
{"text": " Markowitz's script for Horrible Bosses was sold at auction to New Line Cinema by Ratner's production company Rat Entertainment in 2005 for a six-figure amount. Ratner initially was interested in directing, but became occupied with directing the comedy Tower Heist. Frank Oz and David Dobkin were in talks to direct. Jonathan Goldstein and John Francis Daley rewrote the script in 2010, and the project went into production with Seth Gordon directing.\n"}
{"text": " === Design ===\n"}
{"text": " Production designer Shepherd Frankel specifically set out to create distinctly different environments for the three employees and their respective bosses'homes and offices. Nick and Harken's workplace is the \"Comnidyne\" bullpen, which was designed to \"enhance the discomfort and anxiety of lower-level employees clustered in the center of the room where every movement is monitored by the boss from his corner office.\" The design team met with financial strategists and management companies to learn about the architecture of their office layouts to visually represent the experience of starting from a low-ranking position in a cubicle and aspiring to an office. Costume designer Carol Ramsey worked with Frankel and set decorator Jan Pascale to match Harken's suit to that of the surrounding \"cold grey and blue\" color palette of his office. Harken's home was described as \"equally lacking in warmth\" as the office but more lavishly decorated and \"for show\", including an intentionally oversized portrait of him with his \"trophy wife\".\n"}
{"text": " Designing Julia's office was described as a \"challenge\", infusing a \"sensual vibe\" into a dental office. Frankel approached the design through Julia's mentality, stating, \"She's a Type A professional at the top of her game, who likes to play cat-and-mouse, so it's a completely controlled environment, with apertures and views into other rooms so she always knows what's going on\". \"It's highly designed, with rich wallpaper and tones, sumptuous artwork and subtle lighting \u2014 all very disarming till you step into her private office. The blinds close, the door locks and you think, 'It's the Temple of Doom. '\" Similarly approaching the character's home, the design allowed for wide windows which face onto a public street \"which afford her the opportunity to put on the kind of show she couldn 't get away with at work.\"\n"}
{"text": " Bobby's environments were designed with more contrast, the character being new to the work area. Frankel described the contrast as \"the company reflects [Jack Pellitt's] human touch, whereas [Bobby Pellitt's] home is a shameless shrine to himself and his hedonistic appetites.\" Frankel continued, \"It features a mishmash of anything he finds exotic and erotic, mostly Egyptian and Asian motifs with an' 80s Studio 54 vibe, a makeshift dojo, lots of mirrors and a massage table.\" Some parts of the house design were provided by Farrell and Gordon's interpretation of the character and his \"infatuation\" with martial arts and \"his delusions of prowess\".\n"}
{"text": " === Filming ===\n"}
{"text": " Filming of Horrible Bosses took place in and around Los Angeles. The production team attempted to find locations \"that people haven 't already seen a hundred times in movies and on TV\", aiming for the film to appear as if it could be taking place anywhere in America \"where people are trying to pursue the American dream but getting stopped by a horrible boss.\" \"Comnidyine\" was represented by an office building in Torrance, California, with the crew building the set on a vacant floor. For \"Pellitt Chemical\", the production team found a \"perfect landscape of pipes and containers\" in Santa Fe Springs, surrounding an unoccupied water cleaning and storage facility. To take advantage of the surrounding imagery, the warehouse required an extensive series of overhauls, including cutting windows into concrete walls and creating new doorways to allow for visuals of the warehouse exterior and provide a setting for the final scene of Sutherland's character. A T.G.I. Friday's in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, was used as a bar frequented by Nick, Dale, and Kurt, while the bar scene where they meet with Jones was staged in downtown Los Angeles.\n"}
{"text": " The film was shot digitally using the Panavision Genesis camera. Gordon encouraged the actors to improvise, though Aniston claimed to not have taken advantage of the offer as much as her co-stars, stating, \" My dialogue was just so beautifully choreographed that there wasn \u2019 t much that I needed to do \u201d.\n"}
{"text": " === Music ===\n"}
{"text": " The soundtrack was composed by award-winning composer Christopher Lennertz, with music contributed by Mike McCready of Pearl Jam, Stefan Lessard of Dave Matthews Band and Money Mark \u2014 a collaborator with the Beastie Boys. McCready, Lessard, and Mark worked with musicians Matt Chamberlain, David Levita, Aaron Kaplan, Victor Indrizzo, Chris Chaney, Davey Chegwidden and DJ Cheapshot to develop the music. Major contributions were provided by Mark on keyboard, McCready and Levita on guitar, Chaney and Lessard on bass, Indrizzo on drums and DJ Cheapshot on turntables.\n"}
{"text": " Lennertz recorded the soundtrack at The Village recording studio in West Los Angeles and Capitol Records. Lennertz attempted to remain \"authentic\" to the characters'progression from average worker to calculated killer. To achieve this aim, he decided against recording digitally, instead recording the tracks on two-inch analog tape, intending each musical cue to sound as if it was emanating from a vinyl record. He explained, \"The idea was to put together a band that would record the score together the same way that they would make an album. It isn't over-produced or shiny and digital in any way. It's brash, noisy, and full of bravado and swagger. I knew that if we could harness some of this sonic magic in the score, then the toughness and confidence of the music would play against Bateman, Sudeikis, and Charlie Day to really emphasize and elevate the humor in the situations that transpire.\" Lennertz continued, \"We tracked through tape before Pro Tools to get that fat sound, and made every choice based on feel rather than perfection. We even used the same Wurlitzer that Money Mark played on Beck's classic \u2018 Where It's At \u2019. At the end of the day, Seth [Gordon] and I wanted to produce a score that is as irreverent and full of attitude as the movie itself. I think we did it ... and most of all, everyone had a blast in the process.\"\n"}
{"text": " Horrible Bosses: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released in physical and digital formats on July 5, 2011, by WaterTower Music. The soundtrack consists of 33 tracks with a runtime of 63 minutes.\n"}
{"text": " == Release ==\n"}
{"text": " The world premiere of Horrible Bosses took place on June 30, 2011 at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California.\n"}
{"text": " === Box office ===\n"}
{"text": " Horrible Bosses grossed $ 117.5 million (56.1 %) in the North America and $ 92.2 million (43.9 %) in other territories for a worldwide gross of $ 209.6 million, against its budget of $ 35 million.\n"}
{"text": " North America\n"}
{"text": " Horrible Bosses was released on July 8, 2011 in the United States and Canada across 3,040 theaters. It grossed $ 9.9M on the first day, giving it the second largest opening gross for an original R-rated comedy of the summer, behind Bad Teacher ($ 12.2M). For the opening weekend, the film took in a total of $ 28,302,165, an average of $ 9,310 per theater, making it the number two film for the weekend, behind Transformers: Dark of the Moon ($ 47.1M), the second highest-grossing opening weekend for an original R-rated comedy, again behind Bad Teacher ($ 31.6M), and the highest-grossing opening weekend ever for a dark / black comedy film, overtaking the 2004 The Stepford Wives ($ 21.4M). The opening weekend audience was 51 % male, and 64 % of the audience were over 25 years of age. The second weekend (15 \u2013 17 July) saw a further 94 theaters added, for a total of 3,134. Box office revenue dropped by a \"respectable\" 38 %, taking $ 17.6M for a total gross of $ 60M in ten days. The film ranked third for the weekend. It remained in the top five films during its third week, dropping 33 % and leaving thirty theaters from the previous weekend, to take in $ 11.9M for a gross of $ 82.6M in 17 days. On July 28, 2011, with $ 87.6M after 20 days, Horrible Bosses surpassed The War of the Roses ($ 86.8M) to become the highest grossing dark / black comedy film in unadjusted dollars.\n"}
{"text": " Other territories\n"}
{"text": " Horrible Bosses was released on July 7, 2011, in the United Arab Emirates ($ 258,108), and on July 8 in Estonia ($ 24,471), Latvia ($ 15,750), Lebanon ($ 36,316) and Lithuania ($ 13,676), grossing $ 348,321 for the opening weekend and accruing a total of $ 855,009 in the first 17 days. On the weekend of July 21 \u2013 24, the film opened in the United Kingdom ($ 3,386,876), Greece ($ 367,845), Israel ($ 200,372), South Africa ($ 193,632), Norway ($ 109,252) and East Africa ($ 7,324).\n"}
{"text": " === Critical reception ===\n"}
{"text": " Horrible Bosses received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 68 %, based on 208 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"It's nasty, uneven, and far from original, but thanks to a smartly assembled cast that makes the most of a solid premise, Horrible Bosses works.\" Review aggregate Metacritic gave the film a score of 57 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".\n"}
{"text": " Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four, calling it \"well-cast\" and commending it for playing to each actor's strengths. Ebert gave particular praise to Spacey, labeling him \"superb\", and Aniston, judging her performance to be a \"surprise\" and a return to form, stating \"she has acute comic timing and hilariously enacts alarming sexual hungers\". Ebert called Horrible Bosses \"cheerful and wicked\". Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly reacted positively, calling the film \"a bouncy, well-built, delightfully nasty tale of resentment, desperation, and amoral revenge\" and complimented the casting of the protagonists and antagonists. The A.V. Club's Nathan Rabin also praised the cast, stating that the picture \"succeeds almost entirely on the chemistry of its three leads, who remain likeable even while resorting to homicide\", adding the \"acting more than compensates for the film's other failings.\" Rabin singled out Day's performance as \"a potent illustration of how a brilliant character actor with a spark of madness can elevate a ramshackle lowbrow farce into a solid mainstream comedy through sheer force of charisma.\" Edward Douglas of ComingSoon.net credited director Seth Gordon with having assembled \"the perfect cast\", claiming \"the six leads kill in every scene\", but echoed Nathan Rabin's sentiments that Day is the \"real standout\". Douglas summarized the picture as \"dark fun that works better than expected due to a well-developed script, an impeccable cast and a director who knows how to put the two together\". A. O. Scott of The New York Times stated \"the timing of the cast ... is impeccable\" and appreciated that the script did not attempt \"to cut its coarseness with a hypocritical dose of sweetness or respectability\". The review concluded that \"in the ways that count and even when it shouldn \u2019 t, Horrible Bosses works.\"\n"}
{"text": " USA Today's Scott Bowles awarded the film three out of four stars, labeling it a \"surprising comedy that rivals Bridesmaids as the funniest film of the summer, if not the year.\" Bowles added that \"the characters are so likable\", giving particular credit to Sudeikis though also adding praise for the performances of Bateman and Day. The dialogue was also lauded by Bowles, which commented that \"Seth Gordon has a deft touch with water-cooler talk \u2014 even when the water cooler might be spiked with poison.\" Leonard Maltin of indieWire considered Day to have had the \"breakout role\" and offered praise to the performances of the cast, but lamented the lack of screen time for Farrell's character. Maltin concluded \"the movie has just enough raunchiness to identify it as a 2011 comedy, just enough cleverness to admire, and just the right camaraderie among its three male stars, which turns out to be the movie \u2019 s greatest strength.\" Rolling Stone's Peter Travers gave kudos to the \"killer cast\", with specific credit given to Bateman and Day, but was critical of the movie, stating \"it wussies out on a sharp premise\" and that it is a \"hit-and-miss farce that leaves you wishing it was funnier than it is\" The Guardian's Philip French called Horrible Bosses \"a lumbering, misogynistic affair\", but admitted \"I laughed frequently, probably to the detriment of my self-respect.\" Nicholas Barber of The Independent gave a positive review, complimenting Gordon for not allowing the actors' improvisation to be detrimental to the pacing, but felt the movie was not as \"dark\" as its premise required, saying \"what edginess the film does have comes instead from the inordinate quantity of swearing, plus a smattering of homophobia and misogyny.\"\n"}
{"text": " Salon's Andrew O'Hehir offered a mixed response, characterizing the film as a \"lot funnier in theory than in practice, but it won 't ruin your Saturday night\". Salon appreciated the \"effortless comic chemistry\" between Sudeikis, Bateman and Day and singled out Bateman, Aniston and Spacey for their performances. O'Hehir was however critical of the perceived homophobia, sexism and racism. The Hollywood Reporter's Kirk Honeycutt responded negatively, stating the jokes failed to be funny, stating \"Seth Gordon shows no flair for turning the absurdities and cartoonish characters in the script ... into anything more than a collection of moments in search of laughs.\" Karina Longworth of The Village Voice was critical of the premise, which she felt lacked any legitimate \"rage\" against the characters' bosses, stating \"... there's every sign that, even without these particular emasculators, Dale, Kurt and Nick would still be \u2014 for lack of a better word \u2014 total pussies.\" Longworth felt that the humor was \"rarely actually laugh-out-loud funny, and never truly dark or daring\". She particularly criticized the all-white, male protagonists and a plot she deemed racist and filled with \"stereotypes\". Justin Chang of Variety praised the performance of the ensemble cast, but considered the plot to be \"predictably moronic, vulgar and juvenile\". Chang echoed the sentiments of The Village Voice in lamenting that the film failed to pursue the premise to \"darker, more daring territory\" and faulted it for falling back on \"over-the-top comic exaggeration\".\n"}
{"text": " === Accolades ===\n"}
{"text": " The film received several award nominations, including a Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor for Colin Farrell, and three nominations from the 2012 Comedy Awards, including Comedy Actor for Bateman, Comedy Actress for Aniston, and best Comedy Film. Farrell and Aniston were both nominated for Best On-Screen Dirt Bag at the 2012 MTV Movie Awards, with Aniston claiming the award. Farrell also received a nomination for Best On-Screen Transformation.\n"}
{"text": " === Home media ===\n"}
{"text": " On July 26, 2011, FX obtained the rights to the network premiere of the film.\n"}
{"text": " Horrible Bosses was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc in the United States on October 11, 2011. The DVD version sold an estimated 400,682 units in the United States during its first week, earning approximately $ 6.1 million. It was the number 2 best selling DVD of the week, finishing behind Green Lantern, and the number 3 Blu-ray disc film behind Green Lantern and The Lion King. As of November 2012, it has sold an estimated 1.3 million units and earned $ 18.3 million.\n"}
{"text": " The DVD contains the theatrical cut of the film and deleted scenes. The Blu-ray Disc edition contains the Blu-ray Disc, the DVD and a digital version of the film in a single pack. The Blu-ray Disc version is an unrated, extended cut (the \"Totally Inappropriate Edition\") with a runtime of 106 minutes compared to the theatrical 98 minutes. The Blu-ray Disc contains deleted scenes and four featurettes: My Least Favorite Career, Surviving a Horrible Boss, Being Mean Is So Much Fun, and The Making of the Horrible Bosses Soundtrack. Both the theatrical and extended cuts are presented in the film's original aspect ratio of 2.39: 1 with DTS-HD Master Audio sound. Beginning with the Blu-ray Disc release of Horrible Bosses and Green Lantern, Warner Bros. included a code that allows the owner to access a version of the film via UltraViolet, a cloud storage service which allows streaming or downloading to a variety of devices.\n"}
{"text": " == Sequel ==\n"}
{"text": " Seth Gordon confirmed in July 2011 that talks were underway for a sequel, after the financial success of the film in the United States, saying: \"Yeah, we 've definitely discussed it. It's done well in the States, the film has, so that's becoming a more concerted effort now, we're trying to figure out what the sequel could be.\" On January 4, 2012, it was confirmed that a sequel was moving forward, and that Goldstein and Daley would be returning to write the script. New Line was reported to be negotiating with Gordon to return as director, with Bateman, Day, and Sudeikis also expected to return to their roles. On February 27, 2012, it was confirmed that Goldstein and Daley were in the process of writing the new script. In March 2013, Goldstein and Daley confirmed that they had submitted multiple draft scripts for the sequel, and that production had moved towards finalizing the budget. Later in the same month Bateman, Day, and Sudeikis were confirmed to be reprising their roles, with Foxx negotiating to return. The film will again be produced by Brett Ratner and Jay Stern. In August 2013, it was announced that Gordon would not be returning to direct because of scheduling conflicts and that the studio was actively searching for a replacement. In September 2013, Sean Anders was announced as Gordon's replacement, with John Morris joining the production as a producer. The pair had previously performed a rewrite on Goldstein's and Daley's sequel script. Filming had been scheduled to begin in summer 2013, but began in November 2013. Foxx, Jennifer Aniston, and Kevin Spacey reprised their roles, with Christoph Waltz and Chris Pine joining the cast.\n"}
{"text": " = 1985 Rajneeshee assassination plot =\n"}
{"text": " The 1985 Rajneeshee assassination plot was a conspiracy by a group of high-ranking followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (later known as Osho) to assassinate Charles Turner, the then-United States Attorney for the District of Oregon. Rajneesh's personal secretary and second-in-command, Ma Anand Sheela (Sheela Silverman), assembled the group after Turner was appointed to investigate illegal activity at Rajneeshpuram. Turner investigated charges of immigration fraud and sham marriages, and later headed the federal prosecution of the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack in The Dalles, Oregon.\n"}
{"text": " The conspirators included: Ma Anand Sheela, Sally-Anne Croft, Chief Financial Officer of Rajneeshpuram; Susan Hagan, head of security at Rajneeshpuram, Catherine Jane Stork, who bought weapons and silencers and volunteered to be the actual murderer; Ann Phyllis McCarthy, fourth-in-command of Rajneeshpuram; and co-conspirators Alma Potter, Carol Matthews, Phyllis Caldwell and Richard Kevin Langford. The conspirators obtained false identification to purchase handguns out-of-state, stalked Turner, and planned to murder him near his workplace in Portland, Oregon. The assassination plot was never carried out and was only discovered later, as a result of the investigation by federal law enforcement into the bioterror attack in The Dalles and other illegal acts by the Rajneeshpuram leadership.\n"}
{"text": " Prosecution of the conspirators began in 1990, when a federal grand jury brought indictments against several of the key players. Some had fled the country, and extradition proceedings against the perpetrators and subsequent prosecution and conviction was not completed for sixteen years. The final conspirator was convicted in 2006, when Catherine Jane Stork agreed to return to the United States from Germany in order to be allowed to visit her ill son in Australia. Eight perpetrators received sentences ranging from five years probation to five years in federal prison and an additional member of the Rajneesh commune pleaded guilty to murder conspiracy. Rajneesh was never prosecuted in relation to the conspiracy, and left the United States after pleading guilty to immigration fraud and agreeing not to reenter the country without permission from the U.S. Attorney General.\n"}
{"text": " == Planning ==\n"}
{"text": " === Hit list ===\n"}
{"text": " Seven followers (called Rajneeshees) of charismatic leader Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (now known as Osho), were convicted of a 1985 conspiracy to assassinate Charles Turner, and an additional unindicted eighth member of the Rajneesh commune pleaded guilty to murder conspiracy. The perpetrators were high-ranking followers within the Rajneeshee organization. Prosecutors in the case stated that the perpetrators had planned to murder Turner after he was appointed to head an investigation into the group's activities in Rajneeshpuram, Oregon. Turner's investigation focused on sham marriages organized by the group, as well as other illegal activities including immigration fraud, and he later headed the federal prosecution relating to the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack in The Dalles, Oregon. Oregon Attorney General Dave Frohnmayer was also involved in investigations of the group, working alongside Turner.\n"}
{"text": " In May 1985, Rajneesh's personal secretary and second-in-command, Sheela Silverman (Ma Anand Sheela), gathered the leader's key followers and formed a group of conspirators in order to plan the assassination of Turner, as well as several dissidents among their organization. Sheela stated that Turner's grand jury investigation \"threatened the existence of the commune\", and exposed Rajneesh and several of his disciples to criminal prosecution. Sheela hoped that by murdering Turner they would be able to thwart the federal immigration investigation which could have resulted in deportation of Rajneeshee leaders. Three former leaders of the commune including Ma Anand Sheela, Dianne Yvonne Onang (Ma Anand Puja), a registered nurse from the Philippines who managed the Rajneeshee medical corporation, and former treasurer of Rajneesh Foundation International and Catherine Jane Stork (Ma Shanti Bhadra) of Australia, put together a hit list which included U.S. Attorney Charles Turner and Oregon Attorney General David Frohnmayer.\n"}
{"text": " Susan Hagan (Ma Anand Su), a top official in the Rajneeshpuram hierarchy, was also a participant in the assassination conspiracy. Hagan was in charge of the security force at Rajneeshpuram, ran the Rajneesh Investment Corporation, and supervised construction on the commune. Other conspirators in the assassination plot included Ann Phyllis McCarthy (Ma Yoga Vidya), president of the Rajneesh commune, and Alma Potter (Ma Dhyan Yogini), Ma Anand Sheela's bodyguard and traveling companion. Potter was manager of the Hotel Rajneesh in Portland, Oregon, and a member of the commune's security force. The Oregonian reported that nine people were on the hit list, including: Turner, Frohnmayer, former assistant attorney general Karen H. Green, Wasco County planning director Daniel C. Durow, Wasco County commissioner James L. Comini, investigative journalist for The Oregonian Leslie L. Zaitz, former member Helen C. Byron (Ma Idam Shunyo), who had been awarded US $ 1.7 million in a lawsuit against Rajneesh Foundation International, her daughter Barbara J. Byron (Makima), and Rajneesh's former secretary Laxmi Thakarsi Kuruwa (Ma Yoga Laxmi).\n"}
{"text": " === Weapons ===\n"}
{"text": " Catherine Jane Stork volunteered to be the follower who would actually murder Turner, and bought guns and silencers. Stork was known to fellow followers as Ma Shanti Bhadra, and was also one of the three \"Big Mammas\" in Rajneeshpuram. Sally-Anne Croft (known by followers as Ma Prem Savita), an accountant and the group's Chief Financial Officer, provided money for the purchase of weapons related to the plot. Phyllis Caldwell (Ma Deva Ritka) described in a federal affidavit how members of the murder conspiracy obtained handguns, referring to Catherine Jane Stork and Sally-Anne Croft: \"Shanti B went down to Jesus Grove, and Savita gave us several thousand dollars to use to buy guns.\" Jesus Grove referred to a group of trailers where all the leaders of the Rajneesh commune resided, except for Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh.\n"}
{"text": " Ma Anand Sheela and three other Rajneesh followers traveled to New York in the spring of 1985 to acquire false identification. According to a federal indictment, the perpetrators of the assassination plot used a false birth certificate to purchase guns. Two members of the group then traveled to Texas to purchase handguns. Caldwell stated she and Catherine Jane Stork flew to Texas to purchase guns there. They purchased five guns in Texas, but encountered difficulty purchasing handguns in Texas with out-of-state identification and traveled to New Mexico instead. Caldwell said they called back to the commune but the women were instructed \"not to come back without the guns\".\n"}
{"text": " In New Mexico, they obtained false identification, and purchased several pistols. Their intention was to purchase guns which were difficult to trace. Caldwell said it was easy to obtain guns in New Mexico: \"we found it was pretty easy to buy guns. All you had to do was show some identification and it was easy to get.\" Caldwell said she and Stork went to a university library to find the identity \"of someone dying very young\", next went \"to public records and asked for a copy of a birth certificate\" and described how \"we got a rent receipt book and just made up a rent receipt\". \"And then we were able to go to several different gun shops in Albuquerque with those two bits of identification and buy five different guns and bullets,\" said Caldwell. They were able to obtain one Colt .38-caliber revolver, and four Ruger .357-caliber Security-Six Magnum revolvers. The conspirators smuggled the guns into Oregon by packing them in luggage and putting the luggage on a Greyhound Lines bus. Caldwell said that she and Stork traveled by bus back to the Rajneesh commune so as to avoid airport metal detectors.\n"}
{"text": " === Surveillance ===\n"}
{"text": " After obtaining guns the conspirators returned to Portland, Oregon. They rented out an apartment in Portland to serve as their base of operations for the assassination of Turner. Rajneesh follower Carol Matthews (Ma Prem Samadhi) used a fake name during the planning of the assassination plot, in an attempt to obtain the home address of Charles Turner. According to federal prosecutors Matthews obtained a college yearbook of Turner's, and learned his car's license plate number and his parking location. Court records state that Matthews and an unindicted co-conspirator gave voter registration officials fake identities and told officials they were conducting \"a voter survey on President Reagan's economic plan\", in order to obtain Turner's route number and post office box number. The two tried repeating the story with members of the U.S. Postal Service, but the postal officials did not give them Turner's address. They then drove around Turner's neighborhood and were able to find his home by locating a sign in front of his residence that said \"Turner\". Matthews had pictures of Turner's residence developed; these were later obtained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) during an investigation of the Rajneesh commune, and verified after being shown to Turner.\n"}
{"text": " Members of the group of conspirators watched Turner's office, home and car, and discussed methods to assassinate him, hoping that his death would hinder the efforts of the federal investigation into Rajneeshpuram. Their plan was to shoot Turner in the garage of the federal office building where he worked, in Portland, Oregon, but the conspirators also debated whether to murder Turner in downtown Portland or closer to his home. After spending multiple nights watching Turner's house, the conspirators decided on the parking garage because they felt it would be too risky to murder him on the drive to or from work, or in front of his home. Turner had a reserved parking spot in a federal garage underneath Terry Schrunk Plaza in Portland, Oregon. In an affidavit given to the FBI, conspirator Alma Peralta described how the perpetrators decided on the federal parking garage as the location: \"Shanti Bhadra [Catherine Jane Stork] said this seems like a good place to bump this fellow off.\"\n"}
{"text": " The conspirators practiced different ways of murdering Turner. According to informant statements to law enforcement, one of the conspirators was to pretend there was car trouble, and the others would then approach Turner with their guns. Informants later told law enforcement officials that the conspirators intended to hide out at an international network of Rajneesh communes if the plan was successful. According to The Oregonian the assassinations were not carried out because Ma Anand Sheela became distracted by political power plays within the Rajneesh commune and other members of the organization who were trying to remove her from her position within the group.\n"}
{"text": " == Prosecutions ==\n"}
{"text": " === Investigation ===\n"}
{"text": " On February 28, 1985, Congressman James H. Weaver gave a speech in the United States House of Representatives in which he asserted that the Rajneeshees were involved in the bioterror attack in Oregon. At a series of press conferences in September 1985, Rajneesh accused several of his recently departed lieutenants of involvement in this and other crimes, including the poisoning of Mike Sullivan, a Jefferson County district attorney, and asked state and federal authorities to investigate his allegations. The assassination plot was uncovered by federal law enforcement as a result of the ensuing investigation into activities at Rajneeshpuram. Turner was never physically harmed, and had retired by 1995.\n"}
{"text": " The Oregonian was informed in October 1985 by federal law enforcement officials that Leslie L. Zaitz, an investigative journalist who had written a 20-part series on the Rajneesh movement in Oregon, was on a \"hit list\" which also included Turner and Oregon Attorney General David Frohnmayer. Assistant U.S. Attorney Robert Weaver prosecuted the case; the charges were first detailed at an October 1985 bond hearing in North Carolina after Rajneesh and his followers were arrested at an airport in Charlotte. Weaver said in court that followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh had plotted to assassinate Turner and Frohnmayer. He said these allegations were reasons why releasing Rajneesh and his followers from jail would be \"a clear and present danger to public officials\". The guns purchased by the Rajneesh followers for the assassination plot had reportedly been dumped in a lake at Rancho Rajneesh; the lake was searched by U.S. Navy divers. Scuba divers searched the lake for two days but did not find the guns.\n"}
{"text": " Joseph Greene, a U.S. immigration agent, testified in court that FBI agents had learned of the assassination plot from a member of the organization who was in a witness protection program. Greene said that members involved in the assassination plot included Ma Anand Sheela, Dianne Yvonne Onang, and Alma Peralta. The assassination plot was investigated by the FBI and the Oregon State Police. Informants told law enforcement that Ma Anand Sheela hoped Turner's death would prevent an Immigration and Naturalization Service investigation which she thought could lead to Rajneesh's arrest and deportation from the United States. Weaver stated \"These attempts to assassinate public officials were because they were presenting an immigration case that might result in imprisonment\" of Rajneesh. \"There were not simply plans, but at least one (assassination) attempt,\" said Weaver at the hearing.\n"}
{"text": " A grand jury investigation led by Turner brought charges of \"widespread immigration fraud\" against members of Rajneeshpuram. Wiretapping crimes were discovered after Ma Anand Sheela had fled the commune in September 1985. In December 1985, 21 followers of Rajneesh were indicted on wiretapping charges.\n"}
{"text": " === Arrests and convictions ===\n"}
{"text": " Chief criminal assistant U.S. attorney Baron C. Sheldahl was assigned to prosecute the charges of federal wiretapping, and a special team from the United States Department of Justice Criminal Division was tasked with prosecuting the murder conspiracy charges. Four of the perpetrators were arrested in September 1990. Catherine Jane Stork and Richard Kevin Langford were arrested in West Germany, Ann Phyllis McCarthy was arrested in South Africa, and Susan Hagan was arrested in England. In September 1990, Alma Peralta pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit murder. Peralta, who had served as Ma Anand Sheela's bodyguard and confidante, agreed to testify against the other defendants in the murder conspiracy. Under the terms of Peralta's plea agreement she received a sentence of two years in federal prison. Carol Matthews was arrested in Baden-Baden, Germany in October 1990 on charges of wiretapping and conspiracy to murder Turner, where she was held along with three other Rajneeshees. At the time of her arrest, Matthews was found in possession of a false British passport, and had been traveling under the fake name of \"Daphene Fosberry\". Indictments were brought against Ma Anand Sheela and six other co-conspirators by a federal grand jury in November 1990.\n"}
{"text": " In April 1991, Carol Matthews and Richard Kevin Langford (Swami Anugiten) were extradited from Germany to the United States in order to appear in federal court in Portland, Oregon. Law enforcement officials from the United States Marshals Service traveled to Frankfurt, Germany and took custody of the Matthews and Langford at Rhine Main Airport. On April 15, 1991, Matthews and Langford appeared in federal court in Oregon, and both pleaded innocent to charges of conspiracy to commit murder and carrying out wiretapping. On April 25, 1991, Richard Kevin Langford pleaded guilty in federal court to participating in the murder conspiracy plot against Turner, and in exchange he received a sentence of five years in federal prison and the dismissal of other charges against him relating to firearms and wiretapping. Langford agreed to testify against the other members of the murder conspiracy. Langford wrote on his plea agreement form: \"In 1985, meetings were held at the Rancho Rajneesh ... at which time the possible killing of the United States Attorney for Oregon was discussed. I participated in a number of these meetings and agreed with others to work toward that object.\" Prosecutor Timothy J. Reardon III stated that Langford had been a member of the Rajneesh commune in Oregon since it began in 1981, and that the government was able to prove he joined the murder conspiracy at a point in time after May 25, 1985. Reardon said that Langford was a member of a group called the \"Circle of 38\", which was the personal security force that guarded Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, and that he had served as a weapons instructor and policeman at the commune. Langford told U.S. District Judge Malcom F. Marsh that he had suggested that guns for the murder conspiracy could be bought in Texas, instructed the conspiractors about silencers, took responsibility for the weapons while they were in the commune, and disposed of them when members of the murder conspiracy decided to flee the U.S. for Europe. In July 1991, Carol Matthews entered a guilty plea and was convicted in federal court, she was sentenced to five years in prison.\n"}
{"text": " Catherine Jane Stork was convicted of the attempted murder of Rajneesh's physician Dr. George Meredith (Swami Devaraj) in 1986, and served almost three years in jail. After her release, agents from the FBI uncovered the plot to assassinate Turner, but Stork had already fled to Germany. She was indicted by a federal grand jury in 1990. In 1991, the German government refused to extradite Stork back to the United States. In June 1991, U.S. prosecutors filed affidavits in the murder conspiracy case with the Higher Regional Court in Karlsruhe, Germany, as part of an attempt to extradite Catherin Jane Stork from Germany to the U.S. The affidavits stated that all of the members in the murder conspiracy plot also belonged to a group of Rajneesh followers at the Oregon commune known as \"the 38\", and were trained in \"commando tactics using Uzi semiautomatic rifles and handguns\". David Berry Knapp (known to Rajneesh followers as Swami Krishna Deva) stated in an FBI affidavit that the murder conspiracy was motivated by Ma Anand Sheela's \"tremendous anger\" towards Turner.\n"}
{"text": " Ma Anand Sheela served 29 months in a minimum security federal prison for charges related to assault, attempted murder, arson, wiretapping and the 1984 bioterror attack in The Dalles, and moved to Switzerland after her release from prison in 1988. The assassination conspiracy was discovered after Sheela had left the United States, and as of 1999 she was still wanted by federal law enforcement for her role in the plot, and risked extradition if she crossed the Swiss border. Switzerland declined an extradition request from the United States, and instead tried her in a Swiss court. Sheela was found guilty of \"criminal acts preparatory to the commission of murder\" in 1999, and sentenced to time already served.\n"}
{"text": " Sally-Anne Croft and Susan Hagan were extradited from Britain in 1994, and were convicted by a jury decision on July 28, 1995 for their roles in the assassination plot. They had unsuccessfully attempted to appeal their extradition from Britain to Home Secretary Michael Howard. During their trial the prosecution presented twenty-nine witnesses, including former followers of Rajneesh who placed both women in planning meetings where they discussed murdering Turner. David Berry Knapp, the former mayor of Rajneeshpuram, testified for the government in the case and implicated Croft and Hagan in the assassination conspiracy. Ava Kay Avalos (Ma Ava), a Rajneesh disciple, testified in the Croft case and stated that she had been part of the conspirators that plotted to assassinate Turner. In addition to Knapp and Avalos, co-conspirators Richard Kevin Langford, Phyllis Caldwell, and Alma Peralta testified in the case pursuant to conditional plea or immunity agreements. Both women were sentenced to five years in prison. Croft and Hagan did not testify during their trial. \"We hashed over everything \u2013 evidence, notes, evidence, notes. I think we did an absolutely fabulous job,\" said one of the jurors. At the sentencing for Croft and Hagan, the federal Judge Malcolm Marsh described them as \"people of obvious goodwill who had committed an extremely serious offense against the criminal justice system.\" Prosecutor Tim Reardon called the conspiracy to commit assassination \"a deadly serious crime aimed at the heart of the criminal justice system.\" Croft and Hagan were released from imprisonment at FCI Dublin, California in April 1998, and returned to Britain.\n"}
{"text": " In December 2002, Ann Phyllis McCarthy pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit murder, and was sentenced to one year in jail and a fine of USD $ 10,000. McCarthy had served as fourth-in-command of Rajneeshpuram, and was known by Rajneesh's followers as Ma Yoga Vidya. Turner called the one-year prison sentence \"laughable.\" In court statements, McCarthy stated \"I cannot forgive myself for not being tougher at the time,\" and called her time with the group \"psychological torture.\"\n"}
{"text": " In February 2006, Stork became the last perpetrator sentenced in the political assassination plot, after ten months of negotiations with Oregon prosecutors. Stork offered to turn herself in and return to the United States after learning of her son's terminal brain tumor. Prior to sentencing, the court allowed her to travel to Australia to visit her son. In addition to charges of conspiracy to commit murder, Stork also pleaded guilty to the purchase of weapons in violation of federal firearms law. An Oregon judge sentenced her to five years probation, and three months time already served in a German jail. Turner thought she should have received a harsher sentence, and commented \"This was a lying-in-wait conspiracy to murder me, a presidential appointee, and for a long time I slept with a loaded gun beside my bed.\" Though Stork could have faced life in prison, U.S. District Judge Judge Malcolm F. Marsh thought she had \"seen the error of her ways.\" A federal prosecutor in the case described Stork as the \"MVP\" of the conspiracy, and said she was the designated assassin that was set to murder Turner. After her sentencing, Stork stated: \"I actually conspired to kill Mr. Turner, it is up to me alone to face this terrible truth ... No person has the right to do what I did. I'm truly sorry.\" Stork returned to Germany after her sentencing.\n"}
{"text": " In an affidavit, Timothy J. Reardon III, lead prosecutor for the United States Department of Justice in the case, stated Ma Anand Sheela had told members of the murder conspiracy that Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh had personally authorized the \"necessary\" murder of specific enemies of the Rajneesh commune. Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh paid a fine of US $ 400,000, agreed to plead guilty to immigration fraud, and was deported from the United States. He agreed to leave the United States and not return unless given permission first from the United States Attorney General. Joseph T. McCann writes in Terrorism on American Soil \"Nevertheless, he was never prosecuted for any of the more serious crimes perpetrated by cult members, including the salmonella poisoning.\"\n"}
{"text": " === Sentences ===\n"}
{"text": " Conspiracy to assassinate a United States Attorney\n"}
{"text": " Wiretapping, and other charges, testified in assassination case\n"}
{"text": " = Die Another Day =\n"}
{"text": " Die Another Day (2002) is the twentieth spy film in the James Bond series, and the fourth and final film to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. The film follows Bond as he leads a mission to North Korea, during which he is betrayed and, after seemingly killing a rogue North Korean colonel, is captured and imprisoned. Fourteen months later, Bond is released as part of a prisoner exchange. Surmising that someone within the British government betrayed him, he attempts to earn redemption by tracking down his betrayer and killing a North Korean agent he believes was involved in his torture.\n"}
{"text": " Die Another Day, produced by Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli, and directed by Lee Tamahori, marked the James Bond franchise's 40th anniversary. The series began in 1962 with Sean Connery starring as Bond in Dr. No. Die Another Day includes references to each of the preceding films.\n"}
{"text": " The film received mixed reviews. Some critics praised the work of Lee Tamahori, while others criticised the film's heavy use of computer-generated imagery, which they found unconvincing and a distraction from the film's plot. Nevertheless, Die Another Day was the highest-grossing James Bond film up to that time if inflation is not taken into account.\n"}
{"text": " == Plot ==\n"}
{"text": " MI6 officer James Bond \u2014 agent 007 \u2014 infiltrates a North Korean military base, where Colonel Tan-Sun Moon is illegally trading weapons for African blood diamonds. After Moon's assistant Zao discovers that Bond is a British agent, the colonel attempts to kill Bond and a hovercraft chase ensues, which ends with Moon's apparent death. Bond survives, but is captured by North Korean soldiers and imprisoned by the Colonel's father, General Moon.\n"}
{"text": " After 14 months of captivity and torture, Bond is traded for Zao in a prisoner exchange. He is sedated and taken to meet M, who informs him that his status as a 00 Agent is suspended under suspicion of having leaked information under duress. Bond is convinced that he has been set up by a double agent in the British government and decides to avenge his betrayal. After escaping from the custody of MI6, he discovers that he is in Hong Kong, where he learns from a Chinese agent that Zao is in Cuba.\n"}
{"text": " In Havana Bond meets NSA agent Giacinta 'Jinx' Johnson and follows her to a gene therapy clinic, where patients can have their appearances altered through DNA restructuring. Bond locates Zao inside the clinic and attempts to kill him, but Zao escapes. He leaves behind a pendant which leads Bond to a cache of diamonds, identified as conflict diamonds, but bearing the crest of the company owned by British billionaire Gustav Graves.\n"}
{"text": " At Blades Club in London Bond meets Graves, along with his assistant Miranda Frost, who is also an undercover MI6 agent. After a fencing exercise (and a literal sword-fight), Bond is invited by Graves to Iceland for a scientific demonstration. Shortly afterwards, M restores Bond's Double-0 status and offers assistance in the investigation.\n"}
{"text": " At his ice palace in Iceland Graves unveils a new orbital mirror satellite, \"Icarus\", which is able to focus solar energy on a small area and provide year-round sunshine for crop development. During the night, Jinx infiltrates Graves' command centre, but is captured by Graves and Zao. Bond rescues her and later discovers that Colonel Moon is still alive. Moon has used the gene therapy technology to change his appearance, assuming the identity of Gustav Graves.\n"}
{"text": " Bond confronts Graves, but Frost arrives to reveal herself as the traitor who betrayed Bond in North Korea, forcing 007 to escape from Graves' facility. Bond then returns in his Aston Martin Vanquish to rescue Jinx, who has been captured once again. Zao pursues him in his own vehicle, both cars driving inside the rapidly melting ice palace. Bond kills Zao by shooting an ice chandelier onto him, and then revives Jinx after she has drowned.\n"}
{"text": " Bond and Jinx pursue Graves and Frost to the Korean peninsula and stow away on Graves' cargo plane. Graves reveals his true identity to his father, and the purpose of the Icarus satellite: to cut a path through the Korean Demilitarized Zone with concentrated sunlight, allowing North Korean troops to invade South Korea and reunite the peninsula by force. Horrified, General Moon tries to stop the plan, but he is murdered by his own son.\n"}
{"text": " Bond attempts to shoot Graves but he is prevented by one of the soldiers on board. In their struggle, a gunshot pierces the fuselage, causing the plane to descend rapidly. Bond engages Graves in a fist fight, and Jinx attempts to regain control of the plane. Frost attacks Jinx, forcing her to defend herself in a sword duel. After the plane passes through the Icarus beam and is further damaged, Jinx kills Frost. Graves attempts to escape by parachute, but Bond opens the parachute, causing Graves to be pulled out of the plane and into one of its engines, killing him and disabling the Icarus beam. Bond and Jinx then escape from the disintegrating plane in a helicopter from the cargo hold, carrying away Graves' stash of diamonds in the process.\n"}
{"text": " == Cast ==\n"}
{"text": " Pierce Brosnan as James Bond 007, an MI6 agent.\n"}
{"text": " Halle Berry as Giacinta 'Jinx' Johnson, an NSA agent.\n"}
{"text": " Toby Stephens as Gustav Graves, a British entrepreneur, alter ego of Colonel Moon.\n"}
{"text": " Rosamund Pike as Miranda Frost, undercover MI6 agent and double agent.\n"}
{"text": " Rick Yune as Zao, a North Korean terrorist working for Moon.\n"}
{"text": " Judi Dench as M, the head of MI6.\n"}
{"text": " Will Yun Lee as Colonel Moon, a rogue North Korean army colonel, later uses his alter ego.\n"}
{"text": " Kenneth Tsang as General Moon, Colonel Moon's father.\n"}
{"text": " John Cleese as Q, MI6's quartermaster and armourer.\n"}
{"text": " Colin Salmon as Charles Robinson, M's Deputy Chief of Staff.\n"}
{"text": " Ho Yi as the Hotel manager and Chinese special agent Mr. Chang. In early drafts of the script, it was Wai Lin (Michelle Yeoh) who aided Bond in Hong Kong, but the idea fell through and Chang was created to replace her.\n"}
{"text": " Rachel Grant as Peaceful Fountains of Desire, a Chinese agent working for Mr. Chang, undercover as a masseuse.\n"}
{"text": " Emilio Echevarr\u00eda as Raoul, the manager of a Havana cigar factory, and a British sleeper.\n"}
{"text": " Samantha Bond as Miss Moneypenny, M's secretary.\n"}
{"text": " Michael Gorevoy as Vladimir Popov, Gustav Graves' personal scientist\n"}
{"text": " Lawrence Makoare as Mr. Kil, one of Gustav Graves' henchmen.\n"}
{"text": " Michael Madsen as Damian Falco, Jinx's superior in the NSA.\n"}
{"text": " Vincent Wong as General Li\n"}
{"text": " Joaquin Martinez as an elderly cigar factory worker\n"}
{"text": " Deborah Moore as an airline hostess (Moore is the daughter of former Bond Roger Moore)\n"}
{"text": " Madonna as Verity, a fencing instructor (cameo)\n"}
{"text": " == Production ==\n"}
{"text": " === Filming ===\n"}
{"text": " Principal photography of Die Another Day began on 11 January 2002 at Pinewood studios. The film was shot primarily in the United Kingdom, Iceland, and C\u00e1diz, Spain. Other locations included Pinewood Studios'007 Stage and Maui, Hawaii, in December 2001. Laird Hamilton, Dave Kalama, and Darrick Doerner performed the pre-title surfing scene at the surf break known as Jaws in Pe\u02bbahi, Maui, while the shore shots were taken near C\u00e1diz and Newquay, Cornwall. Scenes inside Graves' diamond mine were also filmed in Cornwall, at the Eden Project. The scenes involving the Cuban locations of Havana and the fictional Isla de Los Organos were filmed at La Caleta, Spain.\n"}
{"text": " The scenes featuring Berry in a bikini were shot in C\u00e1diz. The location was reportedly cold and windy, and footage has been released of Berry wrapped in thick towels between takes to avoid catching a chill. Berry was injured during filming when debris from a smoke grenade flew into her eye. The debris was removed in a 30-minute operation.\n"}
{"text": " Gadgets and other props from every previous Bond film and stored in Eon Productions'archives appear in Q's warehouse in the London Underground. Examples include the jetpack in Thunderball and Rosa Klebb's poison-tipped shoe in From Russia with Love. Q mentions that the watch he issues Bond is \"your 20th, I believe\", a reference to Die Another Day being the 20th Eon-produced Bond film. In London, the Reform Club was used to shoot several places in the film, including the lobby and gallery at the Blades Club, MI6 Headquarters, Buckingham Palace, Green Park, and Westminster. Svalbard, Norway and J\u00f6kuls\u00e1rl\u00f3n, Iceland were used for the car chase on the ice with additional scenes filmed at Jostedalsbreen National Park, Norway and RAF Little Rissington, Gloucestershire; Manston Airport in Kent was used for the scenes involving the Antonov cargo plane scenes. The scene in which Bond surfs the wave created by Icarus when Graves was attempting to kill Bond was shot on the blue screen. The waves, along with all the glaciers in the scene are computer-generated.\n"}
{"text": " The hangar interior of the \"US Air Base in South Korea\", shown crowded with Chinook helicopters, was filmed at RAF Odiham in Hampshire, UK, as were the helicopter interior shots during the Switchblade sequence. These latter scenes, though portrayed in the air, were actually filmed entirely on the ground with the sky background being added in post-production using blue screen techniques. Although the base is portrayed in the film as a US base, all the aircraft and personnel in the scene are British in real life. In the film, Switchblades (one-person gliders resembling fighter jets in shape) are flown by Bond and Jinx to stealthily enter North Korea. The Switchblade was based on a workable model called \"PHASST\" (Programmable High Altitude Single Soldier Transport). Kinetic Aerospace Inc.'s lead designer, Jack McCornack was impressed by director Lee Tamahori's way of conducting the Switchblade scene and commented, \"It's brief, but realistic. The good guys get in unobserved, thanks to a fast cruise, good glide performance, and minimal radar signature. It's a wonderful promotion for the PHASST.\"\n"}
{"text": " === Music ===\n"}
{"text": " The soundtrack was composed by David Arnold and released on Warner Bros. Records. He again made use of electronic rhythm elements in his score, and included two of the new themes created for The World Is Not Enough. The first, originally used as Renard's theme, is heard during the mammoth \"Antonov\" cue on the recording, and is written for piano. The second new theme, used in the \"Christmas in Turkey\" track of The World Is Not Enough, is reused in the \"Going Down Together\" track.\n"}
{"text": " The title song for Die Another Day was co-written and co-produced by Mirwais Ahmadzai and performed by Madonna, who also had a cameo in the film as Verity, a fencing instructor. This is the first Bond title sequence to directly reflect the film's plot since Dr. No; all the other previous Bond titles are stand-alone set pieces. The concept of the title sequence is to represent Bond trying to survive 14 months of torture at the hands of the North Koreans. Critics' opinions of the song were sharply divided \u2014 it was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Song and the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording, but also for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song of 2002 (while Madonna herself won the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress for her cameo). In a MORI poll for the Channel 4 programme \"James Bond's Greatest Hits\", the song was voted 9th out of 22, and also came in as an \"overwhelming number one\" favourite among those under the age of 24.\n"}
{"text": " == Marketing tie-ins ==\n"}
{"text": " MGM and Eon Productions granted Mattel the license to sell a line of Barbie dolls based around the franchise. Mattel announced that the Bond Barbies will be at her \"stylish best\", clad in evening dress and red shawl. Lindy Hemming created the dress, which is slashed to the thigh to reveal a telephone strapped to Barbie's leg. The doll was sold in a gift set, with Barbie's boyfriend Ken posing as Bond in a tuxedo designed by the Italian fashion house Brioni.\n"}
{"text": " Revlon also collaborated with the makers of Die Another Day to create a cosmetics line based around the character Jinx. The limited edition 007 Colour Collection was launched on 7 November 2002 to coincide with the film's release. The product names were loaded with puns and innuendo, with shades and textures ranging from the \"warm\" to \"cool and frosted\".\n"}
{"text": " == Release and reception ==\n"}
{"text": " Die Another Day had its world premiere on 18 November 2002 at the Royal Albert Hall in London. Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip were guests of honour, making it the second Bond film premiere to be attended by the Queen, the first one being You Only Live Twice in 1967. The Royal Albert Hall had a make-over for the screening and had been transformed into an ice palace. Proceeds from the premi\u00e8re, about \u00a3 500,000, were donated to the Cinema and Television Benevolent Fund of which the Queen is patron. On the first day, ticket sales reached \u00a3 1.2 million. Die Another Day was the highest grossing James Bond film until the release of Casino Royale. It earned $ 432 million worldwide, becoming the sixth highest grossing film of 2002.\n"}
{"text": " Die Another Day became a controversial subject in eastern Asia. The North Korean government disliked the portrayal of their state as brutal and war-hungry. The South Koreans boycotted 145 theatres where it was released on 31 December 2002, as they were offended by the scene in which an American officer issues orders to the South Korean army in the defence of their homeland, and by a lovemaking scene near a statue of the Buddha. The Jogye Buddhist Order issued a statement that the film was \"disrespectful to our religion and does not reflect our values and ethics\". The Washington Post reported growing resentment in the nation towards the United States. An official of the South Korean Ministry of Culture and Tourism said that Die Another Day was \"the wrong film at the wrong time.\"\n"}
{"text": " The amount of product placement in the film was a point of criticism, specifically from various news outlets such as the BBC, Time and Reuters who all used the pun \"Buy Another Day\". Reportedly 20 companies, paying $ 70 million, had their products featured in the film, a record at the time, although USA Today reported that number to be as high as $ 100 million. By choice, the number of companies involved in product placement was dropped to eight for the next Bond film Casino Royale in 2006.\n"}
{"text": " Rotten Tomatoes listed Die Another Day with a 58 % rating. Metacritic gave the film a 56 out of 100 rating, representing \"mixed or average reviews.\" Michael Dequina of Film Threat praised the film as the best of the series to star Pierce Brosnan and \"the most satisfying installment of the franchise in recent memory.\" Larry Carroll of CountingDown.com praised Lee Tamahori for having \"magnificently balanced the film so that it keeps true to the Bond legend, makes reference to the classic films that preceded it, but also injects a new zest to it all.\" Entertainment Weekly magazine also gave a positive reaction, saying that Tamahori, \"a true filmmaker\", has re-established the series' pop sensuality. Dana Stevens of The New York Times called the film the best of the James Bond series since The Spy Who Loved Me. Kyle Bell of Movie Freaks 365 stated in his review that the \"first half of Die Another Day is classic Bond\", but that \"Things start to go downhill when the ice palace gets introduced.\"\n"}
{"text": " However, Die Another Day was strongly criticised by some reviewers who felt that the film relied too heavily on gadgets and special effects, with the plot being neglected. James Berardinelli of Reelviews.net said, \"This is a train wreck of an action film \u2013 a stupefying attempt by the filmmakers to force-feed James Bond into the mindless xXx mold and throw 40 years of cinematic history down the toilet in favor of bright flashes and loud bangs.\" Of the action sequences, he said, \"Die Another Day is an exercise in loud explosions and excruciatingly bad special effects. The CGI work in this movie is an order of magnitude worse than anything I have seen in a major motion picture. Coupled with lousy production design, Die Another Day looks like it was done on the cheap. Gary Brown of the Houston Community Newspapers also described the weak point of the film as\" the seemingly non-stop action sequences and loud explosions that appear to take centre stage while the Bond character is almost relegated to second string. \"Roger Moore remarked,\" I thought it just went too far \u2013 and that \u2019 s from me, the first Bond in space! Invisible cars and dodgy CGI footage? Please! \"\n"}
{"text": " == Novelisation ==\n"}
{"text": " Die Another Day was written into a novel by the then-current official James Bond writer, Raymond Benson, based on the screenplay by Neal Purvis and Robert Wade. Fan reaction to it was above average. After its publication Benson retired as the official James Bond novelist and a new series featuring the secret agent's adventures as a teenager, by Charlie Higson, was launched in 2005. As the novelisation was published after Benson's final original 007 novel, The Man with the Red Tattoo, it was the final literary work featuring Bond as originally conceived by Ian Fleming until the publication of Devil May Care by Sebastian Faulks in 2008 to mark the 100th anniversary of Fleming's birth.\n"}
{"text": " == Cancelled spin-off ==\n"}
{"text": " Speculation arose in 2003 of a spin-off film concentrating on Jinx, which was scheduled for a November / December 2004 release. It was originally reported that MGM was keen to set up a film series that would be a \"winter olympics\" alternative to 'James Bond'. In the late 1990s, MGM had originally considered developing a spin-off film based on Michelle Yeoh's character, Wai Lin, in 1997's Tomorrow Never Dies. However, despite much speculation of an imminent movie, on 26 October 2003, Variety reported that MGM had completely pulled the plug on this project, to the dismay of Barbara Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson of Eon Entertainment, who were reported to be \"clearly furious\" about the decision. MGM were keen to instead move on with the next film, Casino Royale.\n"}
{"text": " = Rakie Ayola =\n"}
{"text": " Rakie Olufunmilayo Ayola (born May 1968) is a Welsh actress, best known for her role as Kyla Tyson in the BBC medical drama Holby City. She first rose to prominence in the lead role of the 1993 Jeanette Winterson screenplay Great Moments in Aviation. Ayola has worked in theatre, film and television, appearing in a number of Shakespearean theatrical performances, Hollywood films The i Inside and Sahara, and British television shows including Soldier Soldier, EastEnders, Sea of Souls and Doctor Who. She appeared in Holby City from its eighth to eleventh series, from 2006 to 2008, and in 2009 starred in the CBBC musical comedy My Almost Famous Family.\n"}
{"text": " Ayola is an advocate of increased ethnic representation in the entertainment industry, and in 2001 founded her own production company, producing the short film Persephone's Playground for the Cannes film festival in order to further her campaign. In 2006, Ayola was shortlisted for the' Female Performance in TV ' award in the Screen Nation Awards, receiving Honourable Mention in the same category in 2007, and a further shortlisted nomination in 2008. She is married to fellow actor Adam Smethurst, with whom she has two daughters.\n"}
{"text": " == Early life ==\n"}
{"text": " Ayola was born in Cardiff, Wales in May 1968, to a Sierra Leonean mother and a Nigerian father. She was raised by her mother's cousin and his wife in Ely, Cardiff. Ayola's heritage means she is Yoruba by descent, although she does not speak the language. Ayola studied at Windsor Clive Primary and Glan Ely High School, and was a member of the Orbit Youth Theatre, South Glamorgan Youth Theatre, South Glamorgan Youth Choir and the National Youth Theatre of Wales. She left high school before sitting her A Levels in order to pursue her ambition of becoming an actress. She explains: \"I 've always wanted to act. I decided at 16 I wanted to make my living acting, but even if I couldn't, I \u2019 d be in an amateur theatre company.\" She then went on to attend the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama, studying for a three-year acting diploma. Her first acting role was for the Welsh Eisteddfod when still at primary school, playing a lady-in-waiting at the court of King Arthur. Ayola has stated that it was Barbra Streisand's performance in Hello, Dolly! that inspired her to act as a child, though credits her adoptive mother with encouraging her to act professionally. Ayola's first job was selling jeans on Bessemer Road Market in Cardiff. She worked as a chambermaid whilst attending drama school, and, six weeks prior to graduation, was offered a job with the 'Made in Wales' theatre company which enabled her to obtain her union card.\n"}
{"text": " == Career ==\n"}
{"text": " Ayola began her career in the theatre, performing in a number of Shakespearean plays including Twelfth Night, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Tempest, The Merchant of Venice and Macbeth. She states of this: \"Shakespeare keeps coming my way. I love the fact that I get to play people who are much more articulate than I'll ever be\". Ayola has performed in Twelfth Night in the lead roles of both Olivia and Viola. She explains: \"The role of Viola didn 't sit that well with me for some reason but Olivia makes more sense.\" She has also appeared in modern performances, assuming the title role of Dido, Queen of Carthage at the Globe Theatre in London in 2003, which she described as \"a dream of a part\". She has deemed her dream role to be that of Isabella in Measure for Measure, as she once lost out on the part and would like to prove herself capable of playing it.\n"}
{"text": " Ayola's first film appearance was in the 1993 film Great Moments in Aviation, written by Jeanette Winterson, in which she starred alongside Jonathan Pryce and John Hurt. Variety magazine's David Rooney said of her performance: \"In the film's most naturalistic turn, Ayola is a constant pleasure to watch. Unforced and appealing, she often succeeds in pulling the fanciful fireworks momentarily back down to Earth.\" Ayola recalls having been daunted at the prospect of working alongside so many established names, but has deemed it to have been a \"wonderful experience\". Her subsequent film credits are romantic comedy The Secret Laughter of Women, set in Nigeria and starring Colin Firth, thriller The i Inside, filmed in Sully Hospital, Cardiff, and starring Ryan Phillippe, and Sahara, filmed in Morocco whilst Ayola was pregnant with her first child, starring Pen\u00e9lope Cruz. Ayola says of her film career: \"I really like doing film [but] I've not done enough big films though to really know the difference between film and television.\"\n"}
{"text": " Ayola's first prolific television role was in the ITV drama Soldier Soldier, in which she starred throughout its third series in 1993 as soldier's wife Bernie Roberts. Ayola credits her chemistry with co-star Akim Mogaji, who played her on-screen husband Luke Roberts, for winning her her audition. She went on to appear in Gone With the Wind sequel Scarlett, and star in Welsh soap opera Tiger Bay. She has spoken critically of the way the BBC treated the soap, moving it around the schedules and declining to commission a second series. She acted alongside Pauline Quirke in both Maisie Raine and Being April, deeming Quirke to be a \"fantastic\" actress, and one she would work alongside again \"like a shot\". In 1996, Ayola appeared at the National Theatre in Helen Edmundson's adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace. In 2001, she became a presenter of the BBC Wales arts programme Double Yellow, alongside poet Owen Sheers and performance artist Mark Rees. She posed nude but for a pair of yellow rubber gloves to promote the show's launch, and was highly critical of the BBC when the show was cancelled midway through its second series. She has since concluded that \"the kind of audience they would like to bring in with shows like Double Yellow aren't really into watching TV\", but at the time was outspoken against the show's cancellation, stating:\n"}
{"text": " Ayola's other notable television appearances include the BBC psychological thriller Green-Eyed Monster (2001), soap opera EastEnders (2001), Waking the Dead (2001), London's Burning (2001), Offenders (2002), Murder in Mind (2003), The Canterbury Tales (2003) and Sea of Souls (2004). In 2008, she starred in the Doctor Who episode \"Midnight\", playing an intergalactic Hostess alongside David Tennant's Tenth Doctor. In 2009, Ayola starred in the CBBC musical comedy My Almost Famous Family. She stated: \"The script made me laugh out loud when I read it. [...] I also like the fact that there were a lot of politically-correct boxes being ticked, but the writers and producer haven't been restrained by that.\" So, instead of bowing to this altar, they 've said,' Okay, we have this family that's half-black, half-white, half-American, half-British. We have a mix of boys and girls, one character who's mixed-raced and deaf \u2013 but we 're not going to be restrained by any of that. We're not going to tiptoe around Martha's disability or anything.' I liked that. It wasn 't some sort of reverential hands-off approach to what we're presenting. \" She has also been cast in the film Dredd.\n"}
{"text": " === Holby City ===\n"}
{"text": " From 7 February 2006 to 9 December 2008, Ayola starred in BBC medical drama Holby City as nurse Kyla Tyson. She had previously appeared in Holby City's sister show Casualty, and had made an appearance in Holby City's fifth series as patient Marianne Lawson. She was approached about returning to the show in a more permanent role by BBC casting director Julie Harkin. After a series of three meetings, a year after the birth of her first child, she agreed to assume the role of Kyla, despite being \"nervous about signing such a long contract\", stating: \"I 've been someone who's loved the uncertainty of acting. I 've loved that one month it's Sahara in Morocco and the next I 'm doing a stage play, then it's a six-part telly thing. But last summer I started thinking it would be really nice not to have to look for a job every couple of weeks. It would be nice just to stay put for a while. If I 'm going to be a working mum I'd rather just be one rather than be one intermittently. And then Holby came along, so I 'm very grateful\".\n"}
{"text": " Ayola signed a three-year contract to play Kyla, and described herself as \"very similar\" to her character, speaking positively about her working relationship with co-stars Jaye Jacobs and Sharon D. Clarke, as well as the \"dream\" storylines her character was given. She said of the show:\n"}
{"text": " \"I really love Holby and I 'm surprised how much. What thrills me about Holby is that you get back what you put in. The powers that be are only as interested in you as they think you are in the job. For me it's about more than turning up and saying the lines. It's about understanding it and trying to make it better. That's actually a lot of fun. What's great is nobody says,' Just shut up. 'They want you to work at it. [...] I surprise myself sometimes because after two and a half years sometimes I see friends on the side of a poster and I think,' do I want to do something else? ' but I really like this job, I never get that awful \u2018 dread \u2019 feeling when you really don \u2019 t want to go into work.\"\n"}
{"text": " In October 2008, Ayola announced that she would be departing from Holby City in order to have a second child, stating: \"I 've had a great time and I'll miss it. I made the decision purely because I was pregnant, but I wasn 't really ready to put down the character of Kyla. I'm very sorry to have to let her go.\"\n"}
{"text": " === Race and charity work ===\n"}
{"text": " Throughout her career, Ayola has been outspoken on the subject of racial discrimination in the entertainment industry. Describing her motivation, she states: \"I am not an overtly political person. I just want fairness\". Ayola believes that black actors receive less recognition than their white counterparts, explaining; \"If you get a show with six stars and one is black you are more likely to see interviews with the five white actors. [...] They are not being sold as a reason to watch.\" She believes that her career would have taken her in a different direction were she not of ethnic origin, stating: \"I could not have played any of the roles I have played on TV if I was white [...] I am very aware of where the glass ceiling is and it's still very low and expectations are still very low\". She has noted having casting directors accept the notion of characters being both black and Welsh to be a particular problem, explaining that: \"I get offered a lot of very different roles, but they're never Welsh. [...] The one time I was asked to play a Welsh character on screen was in Tiger Bay for BBC Wales, but I know if that series had been called Radyr Park or Cyncoed Close I wouldn 't have been in it\". In 2001, Ayola founded a production company and directed a short film entitled Persephone's Playground. She presented the film at the Cannes film festival, using it as part of her campaign for increased black representation in theatre, films and television. The project, however, was largely unsuccessful, with Ayola stating: \"it just made me decide that if there's anything I don't want to do, it's produce films, because I'm rubbish at it. I was so bad with the budget that I just said yes to everything and then had to worry about how to pay for things at the end.\" In 2008, Ayola offered her support to the Action for Southern Africa campaign Dignity! Period, aiming to provide affordable sanitary protection to Zimbabwean women.\n"}
{"text": " === Awards ===\n"}
{"text": " Ayola was nominated and shortlisted for the 'Female Performance in TV' award in the 2006 Screen Nation Awards, for her role as Kyla Tyson in Holby City. She received Honourable Mention for the same role the following year, and was shortlisted again in 2008. In 2005, WalesOnline voted Ayola the 29th sexiest woman in Wales, saying of her: \"One of our favourite thesps, she's black, beautiful and the term\" yummy mummy \"should have been made for her.\" She placed 40th in 2008, with the Western Mail noting: \"the last 15 years have only seen Rakie become more beautiful and more successful\". Ayola placed 17th in the awards in 2009.\n"}
{"text": " == Personal life ==\n"}
{"text": " Ayola describes herself as \"optimistic, cynical, lazy, naive [and] honest\". She spends her free time \"watching television, the theatre, cinema, concerts, indoor wall climbing [and] keeping fit [with] yoga [and] aerobics\". She has a collection of Troll dolls which she keeps under her bath. Ayola has an interest in travel, and has visited Peru and Kenya among other destinations. She has expressed a desire to visit Brazil and Argentina, and has \"a romantic notion of travelling around Europe in a camper van\". Ayola often speaks of her pride in her Welsh upbringing, describing herself as \"an Ely girl through and through\". She was made a Fellow of the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama in 2003.\n"}
{"text": " During a 1998 production of Hamlet, Ayola met her future husband, fellow actor Adam Smethurst \u2013 son of Love Thy Neighbour star Jack Smethurst. They met again two years later, during a production of Twelfth Night, and went on to become a couple. The pair married in May 2004, and Ayola gave birth to their first daughter in July that year. Their second daughter was born in January 2009.\n"}
{"text": " == Filmography ==\n"}
{"text": " Ayola has undertaken the following roles from her screen and televisual debut in 1993, to the present day.\n"}
{"text": " === Film roles ===\n"}
{"text": " === Television roles ===\n"}