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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pf_(firewall)

PF (firewall)

["1 History","2 Features","3 Ports","4 See also","5 References","6 Books","7 External links"]

Packet filter software PFOriginal author(s)Daniel HartmeierDeveloper(s)The OpenBSD ProjectInitial release1 December 2001; 22 years ago (2001-12-01)Repositorycvsweb.openbsd.org/src/ Written inCOperating systemOpenBSDTypePacket filteringLicenseBSD licenseWebsitewww.openbsd.org/faq/pf/index.html PF (Packet Filter, also written pf) is a BSD licensed stateful packet filter, a central piece of software for firewalling. It is comparable to netfilter (iptables), ipfw, and ipfilter. PF was developed for OpenBSD, but has been ported to many other operating systems. History PF was originally designed as replacement for Darren Reed's IPFilter, from which it derives much of its rule syntax. IPFilter was removed from OpenBSD's CVS tree on 30 May 2001 due to OpenBSD developers' concerns with its license. The initial version of PF was written by Daniel Hartmeier. It appeared in OpenBSD 3.0, which was released on 1 December 2001. It was later extensively redesigned by Henning Brauer and Ryan McBride with most of the code written by Henning Brauer. Henning Brauer is currently the main developer of PF. Features The filtering syntax is similar to IPFilter, with some modifications to make it clearer. Network address translation (NAT) and quality of service (QoS) have been integrated into PF. Features such as pfsync and CARP for failover and redundancy, authpf for session authentication, and ftp-proxy to ease firewalling the difficult FTP protocol, have also extended PF. Also PF supports SMP (Symmetric multiprocessing) & STO (Stateful Tracking Options). One of the many innovative features is PF's logging. PF's logging is configurable per rule within the pf.conf and logs are provided from PF by a pseudo-network interface called pflog, which is the only way to lift data from kernel-level mode for user-level programs. Logs may be monitored using standard utilities such as tcpdump, which in OpenBSD has been extended especially for the purpose, or saved to disk in the tcpdump/pcap binary format using the pflogd daemon. Ports Apart from running on its home platform OpenBSD, PF has been ported to many other operating systems, however there are major differences in capabilities. Some ports date back many years. OpenBSD always has the latest version with the most features. PF is currently used in: FreeBSD starting with version 5.3 Apple macOS starting with Snow Leopard (Mac OS X 10.6) Apple iOS and iPadOS, used by all iPhones and iPads NetBSD from version 3.0 DragonFly BSD from version 1.1 Debian GNU/kFreeBSD Oracle Solaris QNX and thereby in many BlackBerry smartphones models See also Free and open-source software portal Internet protocol suite Reverse-path forwarding References ^ de Raadt, Theo (2001-05-30). "CVS: cvs.openbsd.org: src; Remove ipf". Retrieved 2018-08-20. ^ Hartmeier, Daniel (2017-09-26). "A new stateful packet filter for OpenBSD". Retrieved 2018-08-20. ^ "OpenBSD 3.0". 2001-12-01. Retrieved 2018-08-20. ^ Brauer, Henning. "Henning Brauer Consulting: pf". Retrieved 2018-08-20. ^ "FreeBSD/amd64 5.3-RELEASE Release Notes". 2004-11-03. Retrieved 2018-08-20. ^ "xnu/xnu-1456.1.26/bsd/net/pf.c.auto.html". Apple, Inc. 2008-12-05. Retrieved 2018-08-20. ^ "Changes and NetBSD News in 2005: 23 Dec 2005 - NetBSD 3.0 released". Retrieved 2018-08-20. ^ "pf(4) manual page". DragonFly Kernel Interfaces Manual. 2011-01-02. Retrieved 2018-08-20. ^ "Introduction to Packet Filter". Securing the Network in Oracle® Solaris 11.3. Oracle Corporation. March 2018. Retrieved 2018-08-20. Books Hansteen, Peter N.M. (October 2014). Book of PF: A No-Nonsense Guide to the OpenBSD Firewall (3 ed.). No Starch Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-59327-589-1. Jeremy C. Reed, ed. (August 2006). The OpenBSD PF Packet Filter Book: PF for NetBSD, FreeBSD, DragonFly, and OpenBSD. Reed Media Services. ISBN 978-0-9790342-0-6. Artymiak, Jacek (2003). Building Firewalls with OpenBSD and pf. Selbstverlag. ISBN 978-8391665114. External links The Wikibook Guide to Unix has a page on the topic of: OpenBSD PF pf(4) – OpenBSD Kernel Interfaces Manual pfctl(8) – OpenBSD System Manager's Manual The OpenBSD PF guide Firewalling with PF: PF tutorial by Peter N. M. Hansteen OpenBSD/pf Firewalling For the Less Gifted vteThe OpenBSD ProjectOperating system OpenBSD version history security features Related projects bio CARP doas httpd fdm LibreSSL mandoc mg OpenBGPD OpenIKED OpenNTPD OpenOSPFD OpenSMTPD OpenSSH PF pfsync sensors sndio spamd sudo tmux Xenocara cwm People Theo de Raadt Niels Provos Organizations OpenBSD Foundation Publications OpenBSD Journal vteThe FreeBSD ProjectFreeBSD FreeBSD Core Team FreeBSD Documentation License FreeBSD Foundation FreeBSD Ports Version History Kernel Normal Form SubsystemsScheduling ALTQ ULE scheduler Virtualisation chroot jail bhyve Storage GEOM raid5 GBDE geli LVM2 vinum disklabel fdisk UFS Soft updates VFS ZFS Highly Available STorage Networking 802.11 drivers ALTQ Bluetooth BPF IPFilter ipfw Netgraph NDIS pf CARP pfsync SCTP Other busdma DTrace OpenPAM OpenBSM portsnap kqueue KLD moused systat People Matthew Dillon Jordan Hubbard Poul-Henning Kamp Mike Karels Ben Laurie Sam Leffler Marshall Kirk McKusick Diomidis Spinellis Robert Watson Dru Lavigne Derivativesopen-source XNU Darwin DesktopBSD DragonFly BSD FreeNAS FreeSBIE GhostBSD MidnightBSD m0n0wall OPNsense pfSense TrueOS GNU/kFreeBSD Gentoo/FreeBSD XigmaNAS proprietary Junos macOS, iOS, tvOS, and watchOS Nintendo Switch OS OpenServer 10 PlayStation 3 OS PlayStation 4 OS PlayStation Vita OS vteFirewall software Application firewall Context-based access control Personal firewall Stateful firewall Virtual firewall LinuxApps FireHOL Firestarter firewalld Netfilter iptables nftables MoBlock Privoxy Shorewall Squid Uncomplicated Firewall Distros Endian Firewall IPFire LEDE OpenWrt SmoothWall VyOS Zeroshell BSDApps IPFilter ipfirewall NPF PF pfsync Distros OPNsense pfSense macOS Little Snitch NetBarrier X4 PeerGuardian VirusBarrier X6 WindowsCommercial Check Point Integrity Kaspersky Internet Security McAfee Personal Firewall Plus Microsoft Forefront Threat Management Gateway Norton 360 Norton Internet Security Norton Personal Firewall Outpost Firewall Pro Symantec Endpoint Protection Trend Micro Internet Security Windows Firewall Windows Live OneCare WinGate WinRoute Freemium Comodo Internet Security ZoneAlarm Open-source PeerBlock PeerGuardian Appliances Palo Alto PA-Series F5 BIG-IP iSeries FortiGate Series Novell BorderManager ZoneAlarm Z100G Zorp firewall Comparison of firewalls List of router or firewall distributions

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BSD licensed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD_license"},{"link_name":"stateful","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateful_firewall"},{"link_name":"packet filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_filter"},{"link_name":"firewalling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)"},{"link_name":"netfilter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netfilter"},{"link_name":"iptables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iptables"},{"link_name":"ipfw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipfirewall"},{"link_name":"ipfilter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipfilter"},{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"ported","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Ports"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_systems"}],"text":"PF (Packet Filter, also written pf) is a BSD licensed stateful packet filter, a central piece of software for firewalling. It is comparable to netfilter (iptables), ipfw, and ipfilter.PF was developed for OpenBSD, but has been ported to many other operating systems.","title":"PF (firewall)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IPFilter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPFilter"},{"link_name":"CVS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_Versions_System"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"PF was originally designed as replacement for Darren Reed's IPFilter, from which it derives much of its rule syntax. IPFilter was removed from OpenBSD's CVS tree on 30 May 2001 due to OpenBSD developers' concerns with its license.[1]The initial version of PF was written by Daniel Hartmeier.[2] It appeared in OpenBSD 3.0, which was released on 1 December 2001.[3]It was later extensively redesigned by Henning Brauer and Ryan McBride[4] with most of the code written by Henning Brauer. Henning Brauer is currently the main developer of PF.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Network address translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_address_translation"},{"link_name":"quality of service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_service"},{"link_name":"pfsync","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfsync"},{"link_name":"CARP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Address_Redundancy_Protocol"},{"link_name":"failover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failover"},{"link_name":"FTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Symmetric multiprocessing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing"},{"link_name":"Stateful Tracking Options","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stateful_Tracking_Options&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"tcpdump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tcpdump"},{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"tcpdump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tcpdump"},{"link_name":"pcap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pcap"}],"text":"The filtering syntax is similar to IPFilter, with some modifications to make it clearer. Network address translation (NAT) and quality of service (QoS) have been integrated into PF. Features such as pfsync and CARP for failover and redundancy, authpf for session authentication, and ftp-proxy to ease firewalling the difficult FTP protocol, have also extended PF.\nAlso PF supports SMP (Symmetric multiprocessing) & STO (Stateful Tracking Options).One of the many innovative features is PF's logging. PF's logging is configurable per rule within the pf.conf and logs are provided from PF by a pseudo-network interface called pflog, which is the only way to lift data from kernel-level mode for user-level programs. Logs may be monitored using standard utilities such as tcpdump, which in OpenBSD has been extended especially for the purpose, or saved to disk in the tcpdump/pcap binary format using the pflogd daemon.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"iPadOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPadOS"},{"link_name":"NetBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSD"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"DragonFly BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DragonFly_BSD"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Debian GNU/kFreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian_GNU/kFreeBSD"},{"link_name":"Oracle Solaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"QNX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QNX"}],"text":"Apart from running on its home platform OpenBSD, PF has been ported to many other operating systems, however there are major differences in capabilities. Some ports date back many years. OpenBSD always has the latest version with the most features.PF is currently used in:FreeBSD starting with version 5.3[5]Apple macOS starting with Snow Leopard (Mac OS X 10.6)[6]\nApple iOS and iPadOS, used by all iPhones and iPads\nNetBSD from version 3.0[7]\nDragonFly BSD from version 1.1[8]\nDebian GNU/kFreeBSD\nOracle Solaris[9]\nQNX and thereby in many BlackBerry smartphones models","title":"Ports"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Book of PF: A No-Nonsense Guide to the OpenBSD Firewall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//nostarch.com/pf3"},{"link_name":"No Starch Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Starch_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-59327-589-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59327-589-1"},{"link_name":"The OpenBSD PF Packet Filter Book: PF for NetBSD, FreeBSD, DragonFly, and OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.reedmedia.net/books/pf-book/"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9790342-0-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9790342-0-6"},{"link_name":"Building Firewalls with OpenBSD and pf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=MWg3kjhKPsUC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-8391665114","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8391665114"}],"text":"Hansteen, Peter N.M. (October 2014). Book of PF: A No-Nonsense Guide to the OpenBSD Firewall (3 ed.). No Starch Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-59327-589-1.Jeremy C. Reed, ed. (August 2006). The OpenBSD PF Packet Filter Book: PF for NetBSD, FreeBSD, DragonFly, and OpenBSD. Reed Media Services. ISBN 978-0-9790342-0-6.Artymiak, Jacek (2003). Building Firewalls with OpenBSD and pf. Selbstverlag. ISBN 978-8391665114.","title":"Books"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_structures

Algebraic structure

["1 Introduction","2 Common axioms","2.1 Equational axioms","2.2 Existential axioms","2.3 Non-equational axioms","3 Common algebraic structures","3.1 One set with operations","3.2 Two sets with operations","4 Hybrid structures","5 Universal algebra","6 Category theory","7 Different meanings of \"structure\"","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 External links"]

Set with operations obeying given axioms Algebraic structures Group-like Group Semigroup / Monoid Rack and quandle Quasigroup and loop Abelian group Magma Lie group Group theory Ring-like Ring Rng Semiring Near-ring Commutative ring Domain Integral domain Field Division ring Lie ring Ring theory Lattice-like Lattice Semilattice Complemented lattice Total order Heyting algebra Boolean algebra Map of lattices Lattice theory Module-like Module Group with operators Vector space Linear algebra Algebra-like Algebra Associative Non-associative Composition algebra Lie algebra Graded Bialgebra Hopf algebra vte In mathematics, an algebraic structure consists of a nonempty set A (called the underlying set, carrier set or domain), a collection of operations on A (typically binary operations such as addition and multiplication), and a finite set of identities, known as axioms, that these operations must satisfy. An algebraic structure may be based on other algebraic structures with operations and axioms involving several structures. For instance, a vector space involves a second structure called a field, and an operation called scalar multiplication between elements of the field (called scalars), and elements of the vector space (called vectors). Abstract algebra is the name that is commonly given to the study of algebraic structures. The general theory of algebraic structures has been formalized in universal algebra. Category theory is another formalization that includes also other mathematical structures and functions between structures of the same type (homomorphisms). In universal algebra, an algebraic structure is called an algebra; this term may be ambiguous, since, in other contexts, an algebra is an algebraic structure that is a vector space over a field or a module over a commutative ring. The collection of all structures of a given type (same operations and same laws) is called a variety in universal algebra; this term is also used with a completely different meaning in algebraic geometry, as an abbreviation of algebraic variety. In category theory, the collection of all structures of a given type and homomorphisms between them form a concrete category. Introduction Addition and multiplication are prototypical examples of operations that combine two elements of a set to produce a third element of the same set. These operations obey several algebraic laws. For example, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a(bc) = (ab)c are associative laws, and a + b = b + a and ab = ba are commutative laws. Many systems studied by mathematicians have operations that obey some, but not necessarily all, of the laws of ordinary arithmetic. For example, the possible moves of an object in three-dimensional space can be combined by performing a first move of the object, and then a second move from its new position. Such moves, formally called rigid motions, obey the associative law, but fail to satisfy the commutative law. Sets with one or more operations that obey specific laws are called algebraic structures. When a new problem involves the same laws as such an algebraic structure, all the results that have been proved using only the laws of the structure can be directly applied to the new problem. In full generality, algebraic structures may involve an arbitrary collection of operations, including operations that combine more than two elements (higher arity operations) and operations that take only one argument (unary operations) or even zero arguments (nullary operations). The examples listed below are by no means a complete list, but include the most common structures taught in undergraduate courses. Common axioms Equational axioms An axiom of an algebraic structure often has the form of an identity, that is, an equation such that the two sides of the equals sign are expressions that involve operations of the algebraic structure and variables. If the variables in the identity are replaced by arbitrary elements of the algebraic structure, the equality must remain true. Here are some common examples. Commutativity An operation ∗ {\displaystyle *} is commutative if x ∗ y = y ∗ x {\displaystyle x*y=y*x} for every x and y in the algebraic structure. Associativity An operation ∗ {\displaystyle *} is associative if ( x ∗ y ) ∗ z = x ∗ ( y ∗ z ) {\displaystyle (x*y)*z=x*(y*z)} for every x, y and z in the algebraic structure. Left distributivity An operation ∗ {\displaystyle *} is left distributive with respect to another operation + {\displaystyle +} if x ∗ ( y + z ) = ( x ∗ y ) + ( x ∗ z ) {\displaystyle x*(y+z)=(x*y)+(x*z)} for every x, y and z in the algebraic structure (the second operation is denoted here as +, because the second operation is addition in many common examples). Right distributivity An operation ∗ {\displaystyle *} is right distributive with respect to another operation + {\displaystyle +} if ( y + z ) ∗ x = ( y ∗ x ) + ( z ∗ x ) {\displaystyle (y+z)*x=(y*x)+(z*x)} for every x, y and z in the algebraic structure. Distributivity An operation ∗ {\displaystyle *} is distributive with respect to another operation + {\displaystyle +} if it is both left distributive and right distributive. If the operation ∗ {\displaystyle *} is commutative, left and right distributivity are both equivalent to distributivity. Existential axioms Some common axioms contain an existential clause. In general, such a clause can be avoided by introducing further operations, and replacing the existential clause by an identity involving the new operation. More precisely, let us consider an axiom of the form "for all X there is y such that f ( X , y ) = g ( X , y ) {\displaystyle f(X,y)=g(X,y)} ", where X is a k-tuple of variables. Choosing a specific value of y for each value of X defines a function φ : X ↦ y , {\displaystyle \varphi :X\mapsto y,} which can be viewed as an operation of arity k, and the axiom becomes the identity f ( X , φ ( X ) ) = g ( X , φ ( X ) ) . {\displaystyle f(X,\varphi (X))=g(X,\varphi (X)).} The introduction of such auxiliary operation complicates slightly the statement of an axiom, but has some advantages. Given a specific algebraic structure, the proof that an existential axiom is satisfied consists generally of the definition of the auxiliary function, completed with straightforward verifications. Also, when computing in an algebraic structure, one generally uses explicitly the auxiliary operations. For example, in the case of numbers, the additive inverse is provided by the unary minus operation x ↦ − x . {\displaystyle x\mapsto -x.} Also, in universal algebra, a variety is a class of algebraic structures that share the same operations, and the same axioms, with the condition that all axioms are identities. What precedes shows that existential axioms of the above form are accepted in the definition of a variety. Here are some of the most common existential axioms. Identity element A binary operation ∗ {\displaystyle *} has an identity element if there is an element e such that x ∗ e = x and e ∗ x = x {\displaystyle x*e=x\quad {\text{and}}\quad e*x=x} for all x in the structure. Here, the auxiliary operation is the operation of arity zero that has e as its result. Inverse element Given a binary operation ∗ {\displaystyle *} that has an identity element e, an element x is invertible if it has an inverse element, that is, if there exists an element inv ⁡ ( x ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {inv} (x)} such that inv ⁡ ( x ) ∗ x = e and x ∗ inv ⁡ ( x ) = e . {\displaystyle \operatorname {inv} (x)*x=e\quad {\text{and}}\quad x*\operatorname {inv} (x)=e.} For example, a group is an algebraic structure with a binary operation that is associative, has an identity element, and for which all elements are invertible. Non-equational axioms The axioms of an algebraic structure can be any first-order formula, that is a formula involving logical connectives (such as "and", "or" and "not"), and logical quantifiers ( ∀ , ∃ {\displaystyle \forall ,\exists } ) that apply to elements (not to subsets) of the structure. Such a typical axiom is inversion in fields. This axiom cannot be reduced to axioms of preceding types. (it follows that fields do not form a variety in the sense of universal algebra.) It can be stated: "Every nonzero element of a field is invertible;" or, equivalently: the structure has a unary operation inv such that ∀ x , x = 0 or x ⋅ inv ⁡ ( x ) = 1. {\displaystyle \forall x,\quad x=0\quad {\text{or}}\quad x\cdot \operatorname {inv} (x)=1.} The operation inv can be viewed either as a partial operation that is not defined for x = 0; or as an ordinary function whose value at 0 is arbitrary and must not be used. Common algebraic structures Main article: Outline of algebraic structures § Types of algebraic structures One set with operations Simple structures: no binary operation: Set: a degenerate algebraic structure S having no operations. Group-like structures: one binary operation. The binary operation can be indicated by any symbol, or with no symbol (juxtaposition) as is done for ordinary multiplication of real numbers. Group: a monoid with a unary operation (inverse), giving rise to inverse elements. Abelian group: a group whose binary operation is commutative. Ring-like structures or Ringoids: two binary operations, often called addition and multiplication, with multiplication distributing over addition. Ring: a semiring whose additive monoid is an abelian group. Division ring: a nontrivial ring in which division by nonzero elements is defined. Commutative ring: a ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative. Field: a commutative division ring (i.e. a commutative ring which contains a multiplicative inverse for every nonzero element). Lattice structures: two or more binary operations, including operations called meet and join, connected by the absorption law. Complete lattice: a lattice in which arbitrary meet and joins exist. Bounded lattice: a lattice with a greatest element and least element. Distributive lattice: a lattice in which each of meet and join distributes over the other. A power set under union and intersection forms a distributive lattice. Boolean algebra: a complemented distributive lattice. Either of meet or join can be defined in terms of the other and complementation. Two sets with operations Module: an abelian group M and a ring R acting as operators on M. The members of R are sometimes called scalars, and the binary operation of scalar multiplication is a function R × M → M, which satisfies several axioms. Counting the ring operations these systems have at least three operations. Vector space: a module where the ring R is a division ring or field. Algebra over a field: a module over a field, which also carries a multiplication operation that is compatible with the module structure. This includes distributivity over addition and linearity with respect to multiplication. Inner product space: an F vector space V with a definite bilinear form V × V → F. Hybrid structures Algebraic structures can also coexist with added structure of non-algebraic nature, such as partial order or a topology. The added structure must be compatible, in some sense, with the algebraic structure. Topological group: a group with a topology compatible with the group operation. Lie group: a topological group with a compatible smooth manifold structure. Ordered groups, ordered rings and ordered fields: each type of structure with a compatible partial order. Archimedean group: a linearly ordered group for which the Archimedean property holds. Topological vector space: a vector space whose M has a compatible topology. Normed vector space: a vector space with a compatible norm. If such a space is complete (as a metric space) then it is called a Banach space. Hilbert space: an inner product space over the real or complex numbers whose inner product gives rise to a Banach space structure. Vertex operator algebra Von Neumann algebra: a *-algebra of operators on a Hilbert space equipped with the weak operator topology. Universal algebra Main article: Universal algebra Algebraic structures are defined through different configurations of axioms. Universal algebra abstractly studies such objects. One major dichotomy is between structures that are axiomatized entirely by identities and structures that are not. If all axioms defining a class of algebras are identities, then this class is a variety (not to be confused with algebraic varieties of algebraic geometry). Identities are equations formulated using only the operations the structure allows, and variables that are tacitly universally quantified over the relevant universe. Identities contain no connectives, existentially quantified variables, or relations of any kind other than the allowed operations. The study of varieties is an important part of universal algebra. An algebraic structure in a variety may be understood as the quotient algebra of term algebra (also called "absolutely free algebra") divided by the equivalence relations generated by a set of identities. So, a collection of functions with given signatures generate a free algebra, the term algebra T. Given a set of equational identities (the axioms), one may consider their symmetric, transitive closure E. The quotient algebra T/E is then the algebraic structure or variety. Thus, for example, groups have a signature containing two operators: the multiplication operator m, taking two arguments, and the inverse operator i, taking one argument, and the identity element e, a constant, which may be considered an operator that takes zero arguments. Given a (countable) set of variables x, y, z, etc. the term algebra is the collection of all possible terms involving m, i, e and the variables; so for example, m(i(x), m(x, m(y,e))) would be an element of the term algebra. One of the axioms defining a group is the identity m(x, i(x)) = e; another is m(x,e) = x. The axioms can be represented as trees. These equations induce equivalence classes on the free algebra; the quotient algebra then has the algebraic structure of a group. Some structures do not form varieties, because either: It is necessary that 0 ≠ 1, 0 being the additive identity element and 1 being a multiplicative identity element, but this is a nonidentity; Structures such as fields have some axioms that hold only for nonzero members of S. For an algebraic structure to be a variety, its operations must be defined for all members of S; there can be no partial operations. Structures whose axioms unavoidably include nonidentities are among the most important ones in mathematics, e.g., fields and division rings. Structures with nonidentities present challenges varieties do not. For example, the direct product of two fields is not a field, because ( 1 , 0 ) ⋅ ( 0 , 1 ) = ( 0 , 0 ) {\displaystyle (1,0)\cdot (0,1)=(0,0)} , but fields do not have zero divisors. Category theory Category theory is another tool for studying algebraic structures (see, for example, Mac Lane 1998). A category is a collection of objects with associated morphisms. Every algebraic structure has its own notion of homomorphism, namely any function compatible with the operation(s) defining the structure. In this way, every algebraic structure gives rise to a category. For example, the category of groups has all groups as objects and all group homomorphisms as morphisms. This concrete category may be seen as a category of sets with added category-theoretic structure. Likewise, the category of topological groups (whose morphisms are the continuous group homomorphisms) is a category of topological spaces with extra structure. A forgetful functor between categories of algebraic structures "forgets" a part of a structure. There are various concepts in category theory that try to capture the algebraic character of a context, for instance algebraic category essentially algebraic category presentable category locally presentable category monadic functors and categories universal property. Different meanings of "structure" In a slight abuse of notation, the word "structure" can also refer to just the operations on a structure, instead of the underlying set itself. For example, the sentence, "We have defined a ring structure on the set A {\displaystyle A} ", means that we have defined ring operations on the set A {\displaystyle A} . For another example, the group ( Z , + ) {\displaystyle (\mathbb {Z} ,+)} can be seen as a set Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } that is equipped with an algebraic structure, namely the operation + {\displaystyle +} . See also Mathematics portal Free object Mathematical structure Signature (logic) Structure (mathematical logic) Notes ^ P.M. Cohn. (1981) Universal Algebra, Springer, p. 41. ^ Ringoids and lattices can be clearly distinguished despite both having two defining binary operations. In the case of ringoids, the two operations are linked by the distributive law; in the case of lattices, they are linked by the absorption law. Ringoids also tend to have numerical models, while lattices tend to have set-theoretic models. References Mac Lane, Saunders; Birkhoff, Garrett (1999), Algebra (2nd ed.), AMS Chelsea, ISBN 978-0-8218-1646-2 Michel, Anthony N.; Herget, Charles J. (1993), Applied Algebra and Functional Analysis, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-67598-5 Burris, Stanley N.; Sankappanavar, H. P. (1981), A Course in Universal Algebra, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-90578-3 Category theory Mac Lane, Saunders (1998), Categories for the Working Mathematician (2nd ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-98403-2 Taylor, Paul (1999), Practical foundations of mathematics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-63107-5 External links Jipsen's algebra structures. Includes many structures not mentioned here. Mathworld page on abstract algebra. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Algebra by Vaughan Pratt. vteAlgebra Outline History Areas Abstract algebra Algebraic geometry Algebraic number theory Category theory Commutative algebra Elementary algebra Homological algebra K-theory Linear algebra Multilinear algebra Noncommutative algebra Order theory Representation theory Universal algebra Basic concepts Algebraic expression Equation (Linear equation, Quadratic equation) Function (Polynomial function) Inequality (Linear inequality) Operation (Addition, Multiplication) Relation (Equivalence relation) Variable Algebraic structures Field (theory) Group (theory) Module (theory) Ring (theory) Vector space (Vector) Linear and multilinear algebra Basis Determinant Eigenvalues and eigenvectors Inner product space (Dot product) Hilbert space Linear map (Matrix) Linear subspace (Affine space) Norm (Euclidean norm) Orthogonality (Orthogonal complement) Rank Trace Algebraic constructions Composition algebra Exterior algebra Free object (Free group, ...) Geometric algebra (Multivector) Polynomial ring (Polynomial) Quotient object (Quotient group, ...) Symmetric algebra Tensor algebra Topic lists Algebraic structures Glossaries Field theory Linear algebra Order theory Ring theory Category Authority control databases: National Germany Czech Republic

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"binary operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_operation"},{"link_name":"identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"axioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom#Non-logical_axioms"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"scalars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(mathematics_and_physics)"},{"link_name":"Abstract algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_algebra"},{"link_name":"universal algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_algebra"},{"link_name":"Category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"mathematical structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_structure"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"homomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homomorphism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"an algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_algebra"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module_(ring_theory)"},{"link_name":"commutative ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_ring"},{"link_name":"variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(universal_algebra)"},{"link_name":"algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"algebraic variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_variety"},{"link_name":"concrete category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_category"}],"text":"In mathematics, an algebraic structure consists of a nonempty set A (called the underlying set, carrier set or domain), a collection of operations on A (typically binary operations such as addition and multiplication), and a finite set of identities, known as axioms, that these operations must satisfy.An algebraic structure may be based on other algebraic structures with operations and axioms involving several structures. For instance, a vector space involves a second structure called a field, and an operation called scalar multiplication between elements of the field (called scalars), and elements of the vector space (called vectors).Abstract algebra is the name that is commonly given to the study of algebraic structures. The general theory of algebraic structures has been formalized in universal algebra. Category theory is another formalization that includes also other mathematical structures and functions between structures of the same type (homomorphisms).In universal algebra, an algebraic structure is called an algebra;[1] this term may be ambiguous, since, in other contexts, an algebra is an algebraic structure that is a vector space over a field or a module over a commutative ring.The collection of all structures of a given type (same operations and same laws) is called a variety in universal algebra; this term is also used with a completely different meaning in algebraic geometry, as an abbreviation of algebraic variety. In category theory, the collection of all structures of a given type and homomorphisms between them form a concrete category.","title":"Algebraic structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"associative laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_law"},{"link_name":"commutative laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_law"},{"link_name":"rigid motions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_motion"},{"link_name":"arity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity"},{"link_name":"argument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"unary operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unary_operation"},{"link_name":"nullary operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nullary_operation"}],"text":"Addition and multiplication are prototypical examples of operations that combine two elements of a set to produce a third element of the same set. These operations obey several algebraic laws. For example, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a(bc) = (ab)c are associative laws, and a + b = b + a and ab = ba are commutative laws. Many systems studied by mathematicians have operations that obey some, but not necessarily all, of the laws of ordinary arithmetic. For example, the possible moves of an object in three-dimensional space can be combined by performing a first move of the object, and then a second move from its new position. Such moves, formally called rigid motions, obey the associative law, but fail to satisfy the commutative law.Sets with one or more operations that obey specific laws are called algebraic structures. When a new problem involves the same laws as such an algebraic structure, all the results that have been proved using only the laws of the structure can be directly applied to the new problem.In full generality, algebraic structures may involve an arbitrary collection of operations, including operations that combine more than two elements (higher arity operations) and operations that take only one argument (unary operations) or even zero arguments (nullary operations). The examples listed below are by no means a complete list, but include the most common structures taught in undergraduate courses.","title":"Introduction"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Common axioms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"equals sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equals_sign"},{"link_name":"expressions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Commutativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutativity"},{"link_name":"Associativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associativity"},{"link_name":"Left distributivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_distributivity"},{"link_name":"Right distributivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_distributivity"},{"link_name":"Distributivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributivity"}],"sub_title":"Equational axioms","text":"An axiom of an algebraic structure often has the form of an identity, that is, an equation such that the two sides of the equals sign are expressions that involve operations of the algebraic structure and variables. If the variables in the identity are replaced by arbitrary elements of the algebraic structure, the equality must remain true. Here are some common examples.Commutativity\nAn operation \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *}\n \n is commutative if \n \n \n \n x\n ∗\n y\n =\n y\n ∗\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x*y=y*x}\n \n for every x and y in the algebraic structure.\nAssociativity\nAn operation \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *}\n \n is associative if \n \n \n \n (\n x\n ∗\n y\n )\n ∗\n z\n =\n x\n ∗\n (\n y\n ∗\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x*y)*z=x*(y*z)}\n \n for every x, y and z in the algebraic structure.\nLeft distributivity\nAn operation \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *}\n \n is left distributive with respect to another operation \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n {\\displaystyle +}\n \n if \n \n \n \n x\n ∗\n (\n y\n +\n z\n )\n =\n (\n x\n ∗\n y\n )\n +\n (\n x\n ∗\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x*(y+z)=(x*y)+(x*z)}\n \n for every x, y and z in the algebraic structure (the second operation is denoted here as +, because the second operation is addition in many common examples).\nRight distributivity\nAn operation \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *}\n \n is right distributive with respect to another operation \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n {\\displaystyle +}\n \n if \n \n \n \n (\n y\n +\n z\n )\n ∗\n x\n =\n (\n y\n ∗\n x\n )\n +\n (\n z\n ∗\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (y+z)*x=(y*x)+(z*x)}\n \n for every x, y and z in the algebraic structure.\nDistributivity\nAn operation \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *}\n \n is distributive with respect to another operation \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n {\\displaystyle +}\n \n if it is both left distributive and right distributive. If the operation \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *}\n \n is commutative, left and right distributivity are both equivalent to distributivity.","title":"Common axioms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"existential clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_clause"},{"link_name":"tuple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuple"},{"link_name":"arity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity"},{"link_name":"numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number"},{"link_name":"additive inverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_inverse"},{"link_name":"universal algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_algebra"},{"link_name":"variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(universal_algebra)"},{"link_name":"Identity element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_element"},{"link_name":"binary operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_operation"},{"link_name":"Inverse element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_element"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"}],"sub_title":"Existential axioms","text":"Some common axioms contain an existential clause. In general, such a clause can be avoided by introducing further operations, and replacing the existential clause by an identity involving the new operation. More precisely, let us consider an axiom of the form \"for all X there is y such that \n \n \n \n f\n (\n X\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n g\n (\n X\n ,\n y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(X,y)=g(X,y)}\n \n\", where X is a k-tuple of variables. Choosing a specific value of y for each value of X defines a function \n \n \n \n φ\n :\n X\n ↦\n y\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi :X\\mapsto y,}\n \n which can be viewed as an operation of arity k, and the axiom becomes the identity \n \n \n \n f\n (\n X\n ,\n φ\n (\n X\n )\n )\n =\n g\n (\n X\n ,\n φ\n (\n X\n )\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(X,\\varphi (X))=g(X,\\varphi (X)).}The introduction of such auxiliary operation complicates slightly the statement of an axiom, but has some advantages. Given a specific algebraic structure, the proof that an existential axiom is satisfied consists generally of the definition of the auxiliary function, completed with straightforward verifications. Also, when computing in an algebraic structure, one generally uses explicitly the auxiliary operations. For example, in the case of numbers, the additive inverse is provided by the unary minus operation \n \n \n \n x\n ↦\n −\n x\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\mapsto -x.}Also, in universal algebra, a variety is a class of algebraic structures that share the same operations, and the same axioms, with the condition that all axioms are identities. What precedes shows that existential axioms of the above form are accepted in the definition of a variety.Here are some of the most common existential axioms.Identity element\nA binary operation \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *}\n \n has an identity element if there is an element e such that \n \n \n \n x\n ∗\n e\n =\n x\n \n \n and\n \n \n e\n ∗\n x\n =\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x*e=x\\quad {\\text{and}}\\quad e*x=x}\n \n for all x in the structure. Here, the auxiliary operation is the operation of arity zero that has e as its result.\nInverse element\nGiven a binary operation \n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *}\n \n that has an identity element e, an element x is invertible if it has an inverse element, that is, if there exists an element \n \n \n \n inv\n ⁡\n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {inv} (x)}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n inv\n ⁡\n (\n x\n )\n ∗\n x\n =\n e\n \n \n and\n \n \n x\n ∗\n inv\n ⁡\n (\n x\n )\n =\n e\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {inv} (x)*x=e\\quad {\\text{and}}\\quad x*\\operatorname {inv} (x)=e.}\n \nFor example, a group is an algebraic structure with a binary operation that is associative, has an identity element, and for which all elements are invertible.","title":"Common axioms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"first-order formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_logic"},{"link_name":"logical connectives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_connective"},{"link_name":"logical quantifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_quantifier"},{"link_name":"fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(universal_algebra)"},{"link_name":"universal algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_algebra"},{"link_name":"invertible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertible_element"},{"link_name":"unary operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unary_operation"},{"link_name":"partial operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_operation"}],"sub_title":"Non-equational axioms","text":"The axioms of an algebraic structure can be any first-order formula, that is a formula involving logical connectives (such as \"and\", \"or\" and \"not\"), and logical quantifiers (\n \n \n \n ∀\n ,\n ∃\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall ,\\exists }\n \n) that apply to elements (not to subsets) of the structure.Such a typical axiom is inversion in fields. This axiom cannot be reduced to axioms of preceding types. (it follows that fields do not form a variety in the sense of universal algebra.) It can be stated: \"Every nonzero element of a field is invertible;\" or, equivalently: the structure has a unary operation inv such that∀\n x\n ,\n \n x\n =\n 0\n \n \n or\n \n \n x\n ⋅\n inv\n ⁡\n (\n x\n )\n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall x,\\quad x=0\\quad {\\text{or}}\\quad x\\cdot \\operatorname {inv} (x)=1.}The operation inv can be viewed either as a partial operation that is not defined for x = 0; or as an ordinary function whose value at 0 is arbitrary and must not be used.","title":"Common axioms"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Common algebraic structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"binary operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_operation"},{"link_name":"Set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"monoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoid"},{"link_name":"inverse elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_element"},{"link_name":"Abelian group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group"},{"link_name":"commutative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative"},{"link_name":"addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"distributing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributivity"},{"link_name":"Ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Division ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_ring"},{"link_name":"nontrivial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_ring"},{"link_name":"division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Commutative ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_ring"},{"link_name":"Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"meet and join","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meet_and_join"},{"link_name":"absorption law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_law"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Complete lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_lattice"},{"link_name":"meet and joins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meet_and_join"},{"link_name":"Bounded lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_lattice"},{"link_name":"greatest element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_element"},{"link_name":"Distributive lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_lattice"},{"link_name":"distributes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_lattice"},{"link_name":"power set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_set"},{"link_name":"Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(structure)"}],"sub_title":"One set with operations","text":"Simple structures: no binary operation:Set: a degenerate algebraic structure S having no operations.Group-like structures: one binary operation. The binary operation can be indicated by any symbol, or with no symbol (juxtaposition) as is done for ordinary multiplication of real numbers.Group: a monoid with a unary operation (inverse), giving rise to inverse elements.\nAbelian group: a group whose binary operation is commutative.Ring-like structures or Ringoids: two binary operations, often called addition and multiplication, with multiplication distributing over addition.Ring: a semiring whose additive monoid is an abelian group.\nDivision ring: a nontrivial ring in which division by nonzero elements is defined.\nCommutative ring: a ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative.\nField: a commutative division ring (i.e. a commutative ring which contains a multiplicative inverse for every nonzero element).Lattice structures: two or more binary operations, including operations called meet and join, connected by the absorption law.[2]Complete lattice: a lattice in which arbitrary meet and joins exist.\nBounded lattice: a lattice with a greatest element and least element.\nDistributive lattice: a lattice in which each of meet and join distributes over the other. A power set under union and intersection forms a distributive lattice.\nBoolean algebra: a complemented distributive lattice. Either of meet or join can be defined in terms of the other and complementation.","title":"Common algebraic structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"scalars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"division ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_ring"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Algebra over a field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra_over_a_field"},{"link_name":"linearity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_map"},{"link_name":"Inner product space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_product_space"},{"link_name":"definite bilinear form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definite_bilinear_form"}],"sub_title":"Two sets with operations","text":"Module: an abelian group M and a ring R acting as operators on M. The members of R are sometimes called scalars, and the binary operation of scalar multiplication is a function R × M → M, which satisfies several axioms. Counting the ring operations these systems have at least three operations.\nVector space: a module where the ring R is a division ring or field.Algebra over a field: a module over a field, which also carries a multiplication operation that is compatible with the module structure. This includes distributivity over addition and linearity with respect to multiplication.\nInner product space: an F vector space V with a definite bilinear form V × V → F.","title":"Common algebraic structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set#Formal_definition"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"},{"link_name":"Topological group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_group"},{"link_name":"Lie group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_group"},{"link_name":"manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold"},{"link_name":"Ordered groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_group"},{"link_name":"ordered rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_ring"},{"link_name":"ordered fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_field"},{"link_name":"partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_order"},{"link_name":"Archimedean group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedean_group"},{"link_name":"Archimedean property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedean_property"},{"link_name":"Topological vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_vector_space"},{"link_name":"Normed vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normed_vector_space"},{"link_name":"norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_metric_space"},{"link_name":"Banach space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banach_space"},{"link_name":"Hilbert space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"Vertex operator algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_operator_algebra"},{"link_name":"Von Neumann algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_algebra"},{"link_name":"weak operator topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_operator_topology"}],"text":"Algebraic structures can also coexist with added structure of non-algebraic nature, such as partial order or a topology. The added structure must be compatible, in some sense, with the algebraic structure.Topological group: a group with a topology compatible with the group operation.\nLie group: a topological group with a compatible smooth manifold structure.\nOrdered groups, ordered rings and ordered fields: each type of structure with a compatible partial order.\nArchimedean group: a linearly ordered group for which the Archimedean property holds.\nTopological vector space: a vector space whose M has a compatible topology.\nNormed vector space: a vector space with a compatible norm. If such a space is complete (as a metric space) then it is called a Banach space.\nHilbert space: an inner product space over the real or complex numbers whose inner product gives rise to a Banach space structure.\nVertex operator algebra\nVon Neumann algebra: a *-algebra of operators on a Hilbert space equipped with the weak operator topology.","title":"Hybrid structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"axioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom"},{"link_name":"Universal algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_algebra"},{"link_name":"variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(universal_algebra)"},{"link_name":"algebraic varieties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_varieties"},{"link_name":"algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"universally quantified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_quantifier"},{"link_name":"universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"connectives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_connective"},{"link_name":"existentially quantified variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantification_(science)"},{"link_name":"relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finitary_relation"},{"link_name":"universal algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_algebra"},{"link_name":"quotient algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_(universal_algebra)"},{"link_name":"free algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_object"},{"link_name":"signatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature_(logic)"},{"link_name":"term algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_algebra"},{"link_name":"terms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_(logic)"},{"link_name":"trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ncatlab.org/nlab/show/variety+of+algebras#examples_4"},{"link_name":"equivalence classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_class"},{"link_name":"identity element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_element"},{"link_name":"fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"division rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_ring"},{"link_name":"direct product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_product"},{"link_name":"fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"zero divisors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_divisor"}],"text":"Algebraic structures are defined through different configurations of axioms. Universal algebra abstractly studies such objects. One major dichotomy is between structures that are axiomatized entirely by identities and structures that are not. If all axioms defining a class of algebras are identities, then this class is a variety (not to be confused with algebraic varieties of algebraic geometry).Identities are equations formulated using only the operations the structure allows, and variables that are tacitly universally quantified over the relevant universe. Identities contain no connectives, existentially quantified variables, or relations of any kind other than the allowed operations. The study of varieties is an important part of universal algebra. An algebraic structure in a variety may be understood as the quotient algebra of term algebra (also called \"absolutely free algebra\") divided by the equivalence relations generated by a set of identities. So, a collection of functions with given signatures generate a free algebra, the term algebra T. Given a set of equational identities (the axioms), one may consider their symmetric, transitive closure E. The quotient algebra T/E is then the algebraic structure or variety. Thus, for example, groups have a signature containing two operators: the multiplication operator m, taking two arguments, and the inverse operator i, taking one argument, and the identity element e, a constant, which may be considered an operator that takes zero arguments. Given a (countable) set of variables x, y, z, etc. the term algebra is the collection of all possible terms involving m, i, e and the variables; so for example, m(i(x), m(x, m(y,e))) would be an element of the term algebra. One of the axioms defining a group is the identity m(x, i(x)) = e; another is m(x,e) = x. The axioms can be represented as trees. These equations induce equivalence classes on the free algebra; the quotient algebra then has the algebraic structure of a group.Some structures do not form varieties, because either:It is necessary that 0 ≠ 1, 0 being the additive identity element and 1 being a multiplicative identity element, but this is a nonidentity;\nStructures such as fields have some axioms that hold only for nonzero members of S. For an algebraic structure to be a variety, its operations must be defined for all members of S; there can be no partial operations.Structures whose axioms unavoidably include nonidentities are among the most important ones in mathematics, e.g., fields and division rings. Structures with nonidentities present challenges varieties do not. For example, the direct product of two fields is not a field, because \n \n \n \n (\n 1\n ,\n 0\n )\n ⋅\n (\n 0\n ,\n 1\n )\n =\n (\n 0\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (1,0)\\cdot (0,1)=(0,0)}\n \n, but fields do not have zero divisors.","title":"Universal algebra"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"homomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homomorphism"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"category of groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_groups"},{"link_name":"groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"group homomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_homomorphism"},{"link_name":"concrete category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_category"},{"link_name":"category of sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_sets"},{"link_name":"topological groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_group"},{"link_name":"category of topological spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_topological_spaces"},{"link_name":"forgetful functor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetful_functor"},{"link_name":"algebraic category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_category"},{"link_name":"essentially algebraic category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Essentially_algebraic_category&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"presentable category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presentable_category&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"locally presentable category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locally_presentable_category"},{"link_name":"monadic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monad_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"universal property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_property"}],"text":"Category theory is another tool for studying algebraic structures (see, for example, Mac Lane 1998). A category is a collection of objects with associated morphisms. Every algebraic structure has its own notion of homomorphism, namely any function compatible with the operation(s) defining the structure. In this way, every algebraic structure gives rise to a category. For example, the category of groups has all groups as objects and all group homomorphisms as morphisms. This concrete category may be seen as a category of sets with added category-theoretic structure. Likewise, the category of topological groups (whose morphisms are the continuous group homomorphisms) is a category of topological spaces with extra structure. A forgetful functor between categories of algebraic structures \"forgets\" a part of a structure.There are various concepts in category theory that try to capture the algebraic character of a context, for instancealgebraic category\nessentially algebraic category\npresentable category\nlocally presentable category\nmonadic functors and categories\nuniversal property.","title":"Category theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"abuse of notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation"},{"link_name":"ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)"}],"text":"In a slight abuse of notation, the word \"structure\" can also refer to just the operations on a structure, instead of the underlying set itself. For example, the sentence, \"We have defined a ring structure on the set \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n\", means that we have defined ring operations on the set \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n. For another example, the group \n \n \n \n (\n \n Z\n \n ,\n +\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\mathbb {Z} ,+)}\n \n can be seen as a set \n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} }\n \n that is equipped with an algebraic structure, namely the operation \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n {\\displaystyle +}\n \n.","title":"Different meanings of \"structure\""},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"lattices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(order)"},{"link_name":"distributive law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_law"},{"link_name":"absorption law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_law"},{"link_name":"models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_theory"},{"link_name":"set-theoretic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory"}],"text":"^ P.M. Cohn. (1981) Universal Algebra, Springer, p. 41.\n\n^ Ringoids and lattices can be clearly distinguished despite both having two defining binary operations. In the case of ringoids, the two operations are linked by the distributive law; in the case of lattices, they are linked by the absorption law. Ringoids also tend to have numerical models, while lattices tend to have set-theoretic models.","title":"Notes"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_chiasm

Optic chiasm

["1 Structure","2 Development in mammals","3 Other animals","3.1 Mammals","3.2 Cephalopods and insects","4 History","5 Additional images","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Part of the brain where the optic nerves cross Optic chiasmBrain viewed from below; the front of the brain is above. Visual pathway with optic chiasm (X shape) is shown in red (image from Andreas Vesalius' Fabrica, 1543).Optic nerves, chiasm, and optic tractsDetailsSystemVisual systemFunctionTransmit visual information from the optic nerves to the occipital lobes of the brainIdentifiersLatinchiasma opticumMeSHD009897NeuroNames459NeuroLex IDbirnlex_1416TA98A14.1.08.403TA25668FMA62045Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy In neuroanatomy, the optic chiasm, or optic chiasma ( /ɒptɪk kaɪæzəm/; from Greek χίασμα 'crossing', from Ancient Greek χιάζω 'to mark with an X'), is the part of the brain where the optic nerves cross. It is located at the bottom of the brain immediately inferior to the hypothalamus. The optic chiasm is found in all vertebrates, although in cyclostomes (lampreys and hagfishes), it is located within the brain. This article is about the optic chiasm of vertebrates, which is the best known nerve chiasm, but not every chiasm denotes a crossing of the body midline (e.g., in some invertebrates, see Chiasm (anatomy)). A midline crossing of nerves inside the brain is called a decussation (see Definition of types of crossings). Structure Figure 2 Transformations of the visual field toward the visual map on the primary visual cortex in vertebrates. U=up; D=down; L=left; R=right; F=fovea Main article: Chiasm (anatomy) § Structure In all vertebrates, the optic nerves of the left and the right eye meet in the body midline, ventral to the brain. In many vertebrates the left optic nerve crosses over the right one without fusing with it. In vertebrates with a large overlap of the visual fields of the two eyes, i.e., most mammals and birds, but also amphibians, reptiles such as chameleons, the two optic nerves merge in the optic chiasm. In such a merged optic chiasm, part of the nerve fibres do not cross the midline, but continue towards the optic tract of the ipsilateral side. By this partial decussation, the part of the visual field that is covered by both eyes is fused so that the processing of binocular depth perception by stereopsis is enabled (see Figure 2). In the case of such partial decussation, the optic nerve fibres on the medial sides of each retina (which correspond to the lateral side of each visual hemifield, because the image is inverted) cross over to the opposite side of the body midline. The inferonasal retina are related to the anterior portion of the optic chiasm whereas superonasal retinal fibers are related to the posterior portion of the optic chiasm. The partial crossing over of optic nerve fibres at the optic chiasm allows the visual cortex to receive the same hemispheric visual field from both eyes. Superimposing and processing these monocular visual signals allow the visual cortex to generate binocular and stereoscopic vision. The net result is that the right cerebral hemisphere processes left visual hemifield, and the left cerebral hemisphere processes the right visual hemifield. Beyond the optic chiasm, with crossed and uncrossed fibers, the optic nerves are called optic tracts. The optic tract inserts on the optic tectum (in mammals known as superior colliculus) of the midbrain. In mammals they also branch off to the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus, in turn giving them to the occipital cortex of the cerebrum. Development in mammals During development, the crossing of the optic nerves is guided primarily by cues such as netrin, slit, semaphorin and ephrin; and by morphogens such as sonic hedgehog (Shh) and Wnt. This navigation is mediated by the neuronal growth cone, a structure that responds to the cues by ligand-receptor signalling systems that activate downstream pathways inducing changes in the cytoskeleton. Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons leaving the eye through the optic nerve are blocked from exiting the developing pathway by Slit2 and Sema5A inhibition, expressed bordering the optic nerve pathway. Ssh expressed at the central nervous system midline inhibits crossing prior to the chiasm, where it is downregulated. The organization of RGC axons changes from retinotopic to a flat sheet-like orientation as they approach the chiasm site. Most RGC axons cross the midline at the ventral diencephalon and continue to the contralateral superior colliculus. The number of axons that do not cross the midline and project ipsilaterally depends on the degree of binocular vision of the animal (3% in mice and 45% in humans do not cross). Ephrin-B2 is expressed at the chiasm midline by radial glia and acts as a repulsive signal to axons originating from the ventrotemporal retina expressing EphB1 receptor protein, giving rise to the ipsilateral, or uncrossed, projection. RGC axons that do cross at the optic chiasm are guided by the vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF-A, expressed at the midline, which signals through the receptor Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) expressed on RGC axons. Chiasm crossing is also promoted by Nr-CAM (Ng-CAM-related cell adhesion molecule) and Semaphorin6D (Sema6D) expressed at the midline, which form a complex that signals to Nr-CAM/Plexin-A1 receptors on crossing RGC axons. Other animals Mammals Main article: Contralateral brain See also: Axial twist theory Since all vertebrates, even the earliest fossils and modern jawless ones, possess an optic chiasm, it is not known how it evolved. A number of theories have been proposed for the function of the optic chiasm in vertebrates (see theories). According to the Axial Twist theory the optic chiasm develops as a consequence of a twist in the early embryo. In Siamese cats with certain genotypes of the albino gene, the wiring is disrupted, with more of the nerve-crossing than normal. Since siamese cats, like albino tigers, also tend to cross their eyes (strabismus), it has been proposed that this behavior might compensate the abnormal amount of decussation. Cephalopods and insects Main article: chiasm (anatomy) In cephalopods and insects the optic tracts do not cross the body midline, so each side of the brain processes the ipsilateral eye. History The crossing of nerve fibres, and the impact on vision that this had, was probably first identified by Persian physician "Esmail Jorjani", who appears to be Zayn al-Din Gorgani (1042–1137). Additional images Scheme showing central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts. Brain seen from below, with the optic chiasm seen in yellow in the centre. Transformations of the visual field toward the visual map on the primary visual cortex. Brain and brainstem seen from below Left hemisphere of the brain seen in a cadaveric specimen from the side, with the optic chiasm labelled. Cerebrum, inferior view, deep dissection. Guidance of axon crossing and non-crossing during development. See also Chiasmal syndrome Chiasm (anatomy) Definition of types of crossings Contralateral brain References ^ Colman, Andrew M. (2006). Oxford Dictionary of Psychology (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 530. ISBN 978-0-19-861035-9. ^ Bainbridge, David (30 June 2009). Beyond the Zonules of Zinn: A Fantastic Journey Through Your Brain. Harvard University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-674-02042-9. Retrieved 22 November 2015. ^ de Lussanet, Marc H.E.; Osse, Jan W.M. (2012). "An ancestral axial twist explains the contralateral forebrain and the optic chiasm in vertebrates". Animal Biology. 62 (2): 193–216. arXiv:1003.1872. doi:10.1163/157075611X617102. ISSN 1570-7555. S2CID 7399128. ^ Stephen, Polyak (1957). The vertebrate visual system. Chicago: Chicago Univ. Press. ^ a b Nieuwenhuys, R.; Donkelaar, H.J.; Nicholson, C.; Smeets, W.J.A.J.; Wicht, H. (1998). The central nervous system of vertebrates. New York: Springer. ISBN 9783642621277. ^ Erskine, L.; Herrera, E. (2007). "The retinal ganglion cell axon's journey: Insights into molecular mechanisms of axon guidance". Developmental Biology. 308 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.05.013. hdl:10261/338550. PMID 17560562. ^ Gordon-Weeks, PR (2005). Neuronal Growth Cones. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511529719. ^ a b c Herrera, E; Erskine, L; Morenilla-Palao, C (2019). "Guidance of retinal axons in mammals". Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology. 85: 48–59. doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.11.027. PMID 29174916. S2CID 24381059. ^ Rasband, Kendall; Hardy, Melissa; Chien, Chi-Bin (2003). "Generating X, Formation of the Optic Chiasm". Neuron. 39 (6): 885–888. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00563-4. PMID 12971890. ^ Guillery, RW; Mason, CA; Taylor, JS (1995). "Developmental determinants at the mammalian optic chiasm". The Journal of Neuroscience. 15 (7): 4727–4737. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.15-07-04727.1995. PMC 6577905. PMID 7623106. ^ Erskine, L; Reijntjes, S; Pratt, T (2011). "VEGF signaling through neuropilin 1 guides commissural axon crossing at the optic chiasm". Neuron. 70 (5): 951–965. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.052. PMC 3114076. PMID 21658587. ^ Kuwajima, T; Yoshida, Y; Pratt, T (2012). "Optic chiasm presentation of Semaphorin6D in the context of Plexin-A1 and Nr-CAM promotes retinal axon midline crossing". Neuron. 74 (4): 676–690. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.03.025. PMC 3361695. PMID 22632726. ^ Janvier, P. (1996). Early vertebrates. New York: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198540472. ^ de Lussanet, M.H.E.; Osse, J.W.M. (2012). "An ancestral axial twist explains the contralateral forebain and the optic chiasm in vertebrates". Animal Biology. 62 (2): 193–216. arXiv:1003.1872. doi:10.1163/157075611X617102. S2CID 7399128. ^ de Lussanet, M.H.E. (2019). "Opposite asymmetries of face and trunk and of kissing and hugging, as predicted by the axial twist hypothesis". PeerJ. 7: e7096. doi:10.7717/peerj.7096. PMC 6557252. PMID 31211022. ^ Schmolesky MT, Wang Y, Creel DJ, Leventhal AG (2000). "Abnormal retinotopic organization of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the tyrosinase-negative albino cat". J Comp Neurol. 427 (2): 209–19. doi:10.1002/1096-9861(20001113)427:2<209::aid-cne4>3.0.co;2-3. PMID 11054689. S2CID 32536933. ^ Guillery, RW; Kaas, JH (June 1973). "Genetic abnormality of the visual pathways in a "white" tiger". Science. 180 (4092): 1287–9. Bibcode:1973Sci...180.1287G. doi:10.1126/science.180.4092.1287. PMID 4707916. S2CID 28568341. ^ Guillery RW (May 1974). "Visual pathways in albinos". Sci. Am. 230 (5): 44–54. Bibcode:1974SciAm.230e..44G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0574-44. PMID 4822986. ^ Davis, Matthew C.; Griessenauer, Christoph J.; Bosmia, Anand N.; Tubbs, R. Shane; Shoja, Mohammadali M. (2014-01-01). "The naming of the cranial nerves: A historical review". Clinical Anatomy. 27 (1): 14–19. doi:10.1002/ca.22345. ISSN 1098-2353. PMID 24323823. S2CID 15242391. Jeffery G (October 2001). "Architecture of the optic chiasm and the mechanisms that sculpt its development". Physiol. Rev. 81 (4): 1393–414. doi:10.1152/physrev.2001.81.4.1393. PMID 11581492. S2CID 203231. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Optic chiasm. "Anatomy diagram: 13048.000-1". Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator. Elsevier. Archived from the original on 2014-11-07. vteThe cranial nervesTerminal (CN 0) Nuclei septal nuclei Course no significant branches Olfactory (CN I) Nuclei anterior olfactory nucleus Course olfactory bulb olfactory tract Optic (CN II) Nuclei lateral geniculate nucleus Course optic chiasm optic tract Oculomotor (CN III) Nuclei oculomotor nucleus Edinger–Westphal nucleus Branches superior parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion inferior Trochlear (CN IV) Nucleus Branches no significant branches Trigeminal (CN V) Nuclei PSN spinal trigeminal nucleus MN TMN Course trigeminal ganglion Branches ophthalmic maxillary mandibular Abducens (CN VI) Nucleus Branches no significant branches Facial (CN VII)Near origin Intermediate nerve Geniculate Insidefacial canal Greater petrosal pterygopalatine ganglion Nerve to the stapedius Chorda tympani lingual nerve submandibular ganglion At stylomastoidforamen Posterior auricular Suprahyoid digastric stylohyoid Parotid plexus temporal zygomatic buccal mandibular cervical Nuclei Facial motor nucleus Solitary nucleus Superior salivary nucleus Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) Nuclei vestibular nuclei cochlear nuclei Cochlear nerve striae medullares lateral lemniscus Vestibular Scarpa's ganglion Glossopharyngeal (CN IX)Before jugular fossa Ganglia superior inferior After jugular fossa Tympanic tympanic plexus lesser petrosal otic ganglion Stylopharyngeal branch Pharyngeal branches Tonsillar branches Lingual branches Carotid sinus Nuclei Nucleus ambiguus Inferior salivatory nucleus Solitary nucleus Vagus (CN X)Before jugular fossa Ganglia superior inferior After jugular fossa Meningeal branch Auricular branch Neck Pharyngeal branch pharyngeal plexus Superior laryngeal external internal Recurrent laryngeal Superior cervical cardiac Thorax Inferior cardiac Pulmonary Vagal trunks anterior posterior Abdomen Celiac Renal Hepatic Anterior gastric Posterior gastric Nuclei Nucleus ambiguus Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve Solitary nucleus Accessory (CN XI) Nuclei nucleus ambiguus spinal accessory nucleus Cranial Spinal Hypoglossal (CN XII) Nucleus Branches lingual Authority control databases National Israel United States Other Terminologia Anatomica

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neuroanatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy"},{"link_name":"/ɒptɪk kaɪæzəm/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_(letter)"},{"link_name":"brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"},{"link_name":"optic nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_nerves"},{"link_name":"inferior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Superior_and_inferior"},{"link_name":"hypothalamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"vertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrates"},{"link_name":"cyclostomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclostomata"},{"link_name":"lampreys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamprey"},{"link_name":"hagfishes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagfish"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bainbridge2009-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-de_LussanetOsse2012-3"},{"link_name":"invertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrates"},{"link_name":"Chiasm (anatomy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiasm_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"decussation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decussation"},{"link_name":"Definition of types of crossings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy#Nerve_fibre_crossings"}],"text":"In neuroanatomy, the optic chiasm, or optic chiasma ( /ɒptɪk kaɪæzəm/; from Greek χίασμα 'crossing', from Ancient Greek χιάζω 'to mark with an X'), is the part of the brain where the optic nerves cross. It is located at the bottom of the brain immediately inferior to the hypothalamus.[1] The optic chiasm is found in all vertebrates, although in cyclostomes (lampreys and hagfishes), it is located within the brain.[2][3]This article is about the optic chiasm of vertebrates, which is the best known nerve chiasm, but not every chiasm denotes a crossing of the body midline (e.g., in some invertebrates, see Chiasm (anatomy)). A midline crossing of nerves inside the brain is called a decussation (see Definition of types of crossings).","title":"Optic chiasm"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Optical-transformations.png"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Polyak1957-4"},{"link_name":"amphibians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibians"},{"link_name":"reptiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptile"},{"link_name":"chameleons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chameleons"},{"link_name":"optic tract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_tract"},{"link_name":"visual field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_field"},{"link_name":"depth perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception"},{"link_name":"stereopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereopsis"},{"link_name":"retina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina"},{"link_name":"visual field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_field"},{"link_name":"binocular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_vision"},{"link_name":"stereoscopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereopsis"},{"link_name":"optic tracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_tracts"},{"link_name":"optic tectum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_tectum"},{"link_name":"mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammals"},{"link_name":"superior colliculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_colliculus"},{"link_name":"midbrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midbrain"},{"link_name":"lateral geniculate body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_body"},{"link_name":"thalamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus"},{"link_name":"cerebrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrum"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys1998-5"}],"text":"Figure 2 Transformations of the visual field toward the visual map on the primary visual cortex in vertebrates. U=up; D=down; L=left; R=right; F=foveaIn all vertebrates, the optic nerves of the left and the right eye meet in the body midline, ventral to the brain. In many vertebrates the left optic nerve crosses over the right one without fusing with it.[4]In vertebrates with a large overlap of the visual fields of the two eyes, i.e., most mammals and birds, but also amphibians, reptiles such as chameleons, the two optic nerves merge in the optic chiasm. In such a merged optic chiasm, part of the nerve fibres do not cross the midline, but continue towards the optic tract of the ipsilateral side. By this partial decussation, the part of the visual field that is covered by both eyes is fused so that the processing of binocular depth perception by stereopsis is enabled (see Figure 2).In the case of such partial decussation, the optic nerve fibres on the medial sides of each retina (which correspond to the lateral side of each visual hemifield, because the image is inverted) cross over to the opposite side of the body midline. The inferonasal retina are related to the anterior portion of the optic chiasm whereas superonasal retinal fibers are related to the posterior portion of the optic chiasm.The partial crossing over of optic nerve fibres at the optic chiasm allows the visual cortex to receive the same hemispheric visual field from both eyes. Superimposing and processing these monocular visual signals allow the visual cortex to generate binocular and stereoscopic vision. The net result is that the right cerebral hemisphere processes left visual hemifield, and the left cerebral hemisphere processes the right visual hemifield.Beyond the optic chiasm, with crossed and uncrossed fibers, the optic nerves are called optic tracts. The optic tract inserts on the optic tectum (in mammals known as superior colliculus) of the midbrain. In mammals they also branch off to the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus, in turn giving them to the occipital cortex of the cerebrum.[5]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"netrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netrin"},{"link_name":"slit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slit_(protein)"},{"link_name":"semaphorin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphorin"},{"link_name":"ephrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephrin"},{"link_name":"morphogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphogens"},{"link_name":"sonic hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_hedgehog"},{"link_name":"Wnt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wnt_signaling_pathway"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"growth cone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_cone"},{"link_name":"ligand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligand"},{"link_name":"receptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"cytoskeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Retinal ganglion cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell"},{"link_name":"Slit2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLIT2"},{"link_name":"Sema5A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEMA5A"},{"link_name":"central nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herrera-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Genx-9"},{"link_name":"retinotopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinotopy"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guillery-10"},{"link_name":"axons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon"},{"link_name":"ventral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral"},{"link_name":"diencephalon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diencephalon"},{"link_name":"contralateral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contralateral"},{"link_name":"superior colliculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_colliculus"},{"link_name":"ipsilaterally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipsilaterally"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herrera-8"},{"link_name":"Ephrin-B2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephrin-B2"},{"link_name":"radial glia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_glia"},{"link_name":"ventrotemporal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location"},{"link_name":"EphB1 receptor protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPHB1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herrera-8"},{"link_name":"endothelial growth factor, VEGF-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VEGF-A"},{"link_name":"Neuropilin-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropilin-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Nr-CAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRCAM"},{"link_name":"cell adhesion molecule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_adhesion_molecule"},{"link_name":"Semaphorin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphorin"},{"link_name":"Plexin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plexin"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"During development, the crossing of the optic nerves is guided primarily by cues such as netrin, slit, semaphorin and ephrin; and by morphogens such as sonic hedgehog (Shh) and Wnt.[6] This navigation is mediated by the neuronal growth cone, a structure that responds to the cues by ligand-receptor signalling systems that activate downstream pathways inducing changes in the cytoskeleton.[7] Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons leaving the eye through the optic nerve are blocked from exiting the developing pathway by Slit2 and Sema5A inhibition, expressed bordering the optic nerve pathway. Ssh expressed at the central nervous system midline inhibits crossing prior to the chiasm, where it is downregulated.[8][9] The organization of RGC axons changes from retinotopic to a flat sheet-like orientation as they approach the chiasm site.[10]Most RGC axons cross the midline at the ventral diencephalon and continue to the contralateral superior colliculus. The number of axons that do not cross the midline and project ipsilaterally depends on the degree of binocular vision of the animal (3% in mice and 45% in humans do not cross).[8] Ephrin-B2 is expressed at the chiasm midline by radial glia and acts as a repulsive signal to axons originating from the ventrotemporal retina expressing EphB1 receptor protein, giving rise to the ipsilateral, or uncrossed, projection.[8] RGC axons that do cross at the optic chiasm are guided by the vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF-A, expressed at the midline, which signals through the receptor Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) expressed on RGC axons.[11] Chiasm crossing is also promoted by Nr-CAM (Ng-CAM-related cell adhesion molecule) and Semaphorin6D (Sema6D) expressed at the midline, which form a complex that signals to Nr-CAM/Plexin-A1 receptors on crossing RGC axons.[12]","title":"Development in mammals"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Axial twist theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_twist_theory"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Janvier1996-13"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys1998-5"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lussanet2012-14"},{"link_name":"theories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contralateral_brain#Theories"},{"link_name":"Axial Twist theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_Twist_theory"},{"link_name":"embryo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lussanet2019-15"},{"link_name":"Siamese cats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siamese_(cat)"},{"link_name":"genotypes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotypes"},{"link_name":"albino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albino"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"albino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albino"},{"link_name":"tigers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigers"},{"link_name":"strabismus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabismus"},{"link_name":"decussation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decussation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Mammals","text":"See also: Axial twist theorySince all vertebrates, even the earliest fossils[13] and modern jawless ones,[5] possess an optic chiasm, it is not known how it evolved.[14] A number of theories have been proposed for the function of the optic chiasm in vertebrates (see theories). According to the Axial Twist theory the optic chiasm develops as a consequence of a twist in the early embryo.[15]In Siamese cats with certain genotypes of the albino gene, the wiring is disrupted, with more of the nerve-crossing than normal.[16] Since siamese cats, like albino tigers, also tend to cross their eyes (strabismus), it has been proposed that this behavior might compensate the abnormal amount of decussation.[17][18]","title":"Other animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cephalopods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalopods"},{"link_name":"insects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insects"},{"link_name":"ipsilateral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipsilateral"}],"sub_title":"Cephalopods and insects","text":"In cephalopods and insects the optic tracts do not cross the body midline, so each side of the brain processes the ipsilateral eye.","title":"Other animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zayn al-Din Gorgani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zayn_al-Din_Gorgani"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"The crossing of nerve fibres, and the impact on vision that this had, was probably first identified by Persian physician \"Esmail Jorjani\", who appears to be Zayn al-Din Gorgani (1042–1137).[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray722.svg"},{"link_name":"optic nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_nerve"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray724.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Optical-transformations.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_brainstem_anterior_view_2_description.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slide13qq.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slide2Dsa.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Optic_chiasm_development.jpg"}],"text":"Scheme showing central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBrain seen from below, with the optic chiasm seen in yellow in the centre.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTransformations of the visual field toward the visual map on the primary visual cortex.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBrain and brainstem seen from below\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLeft hemisphere of the brain seen in a cadaveric specimen from the side, with the optic chiasm labelled.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCerebrum, inferior view, deep dissection.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGuidance of axon crossing and non-crossing during development.","title":"Additional images"}]

[{"image_text":"Figure 2 Transformations of the visual field toward the visual map on the primary visual cortex in vertebrates. U=up; D=down; L=left; R=right; F=fovea","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Optical-transformations.png/300px-Optical-transformations.png"}]

[{"title":"Chiasmal syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiasmal_syndrome"},{"title":"Chiasm (anatomy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiasm_(anatomy)"},{"title":"Definition of types of crossings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy#Nerve_fibre_crossings"},{"title":"Contralateral brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contralateral_brain"}]

[{"reference":"Colman, Andrew M. (2006). Oxford Dictionary of Psychology (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 530. ISBN 978-0-19-861035-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861035-9","url_text":"978-0-19-861035-9"}]},{"reference":"Bainbridge, David (30 June 2009). Beyond the Zonules of Zinn: A Fantastic Journey Through Your Brain. Harvard University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-674-02042-9. Retrieved 22 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bainbridge_(scientist)","url_text":"Bainbridge, David"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cuCIyLmJkHoC&pg=PA162","url_text":"Beyond the Zonules of Zinn: A Fantastic Journey Through Your Brain"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02042-9","url_text":"978-0-674-02042-9"}]},{"reference":"de Lussanet, Marc H.E.; Osse, Jan W.M. (2012). \"An ancestral axial twist explains the contralateral forebrain and the optic chiasm in vertebrates\". Animal Biology. 62 (2): 193–216. arXiv:1003.1872. doi:10.1163/157075611X617102. ISSN 1570-7555. 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Bibcode:1973Sci...180.1287G. doi:10.1126/science.180.4092.1287. PMID 4707916. S2CID 28568341.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Sci...180.1287G","url_text":"1973Sci...180.1287G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.180.4092.1287","url_text":"10.1126/science.180.4092.1287"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4707916","url_text":"4707916"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28568341","url_text":"28568341"}]},{"reference":"Guillery RW (May 1974). \"Visual pathways in albinos\". Sci. Am. 230 (5): 44–54. Bibcode:1974SciAm.230e..44G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0574-44. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonry

Masonry

["1 History","2 Applications","2.1 Advantages","2.2 Disadvantages","2.3 Structural limitations","3 Dry set masonry","4 Stonework","5 Brick","5.1 Uniformity and rusticity","5.2 Serpentine masonry","6 Concrete block","7 Veneer masonry","8 Gabions","9 Passive fire protection (PFP)","10 Mechanical modeling of masonry structures","11 See also","12 References","12.1 General references","13 External links"]

Building of structures from individual units of stone, bricks, or blocks This article refers to the building structure component. For the fraternal organization, see Freemasonry. A mason laying a brick on top of the mortar Bridge over the Isábena river in the Monastery of Santa María de Obarra, masonry construction with stones Masonry is the craft of building a structure with brick, stone, or similar material, including mortar plastering which are often laid in, bound and pasted together by mortar. The term masonry can also refer to the building units (stone, brick, etc.) themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are bricks and building stone such as marble, granite, and limestone, cast stone, concrete blocks, glass blocks, and adobe. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can substantially affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer. These are both classified as construction trades. History Masonry is one of the oldest building crafts in the world. The construction of Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and medieval cathedrals are all examples of masonry. Early structures used the weight of the masonry itself to stabilize the structure against lateral movements. The types and techniques of masonry used evolved with architectural needs and cultural norms. Since mid-20th century, masonry has often featured steel-reinforced elements to help carry the tension force present in modern thin, light, tall building systems. Applications Masonry has both structural and non-structural applications. Structural applications include walls, columns, beams, foundations, load-bearing arches, and others. On the other hand, masonry is also used in non-structural applications such as fireplaces chimneys and veneer systems. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations and may be either load-bearing or non-load-bearing. Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great compressive strength and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement (typically rebar) offers much greater tensile and lateral strength to structures. Advantages The use of materials such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building. Masonry is a non-combustible product and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Disadvantages Extreme weather, under certain circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion and contraction forces associated with freeze-thaw cycles. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built on a stable ground made of either undisturbed or mechanically-compacted soil, otherwise cracking may occur. Unlike concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to mechanization, and requires more skilled labor. Structural limitations One problem with masonry walls is that they rely mainly on their weight to keep them in place; each block or brick is only loosely connected to the next via a thin layer of mortar. This is why they do not perform well in earthquakes, when entire buildings are shaken horizontally. Many collapses during earthquakes occur in buildings that have load-bearing masonry walls. Besides, heavier buildings having masonry suffer more damage. Dry set masonry Dry set masonry supports a rustic log bridge, where it provides a well-drained support for the log (which will lengthen its service life). See also: dry stone The strength of a masonry wall is not entirely dependent on the bond between the building material and the mortar; the friction between the interlocking blocks of masonry is often strong enough to provide a great deal of strength on its own. The blocks sometimes have grooves or other surface features added to enhance this interlocking, and some dry set masonry structures forgo mortar altogether. Stonework Stone masonryMain article: Stonemasonry Stone blocks used in masonry can be dressed or rough, though in both examples corners, door and window jambs, and similar areas are usually dressed. Stonemasonry utilizing dressed stones is known as ashlar masonry, whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry. Both rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in coursed rows of even height through the careful selection or cutting of stones, but a great deal of stone masonry is uncoursed. Slipform stonemasonry produces a hybrid wall of reinforced concrete with a rubble stone face. Natural stone veneers over CMU, cast-in-place, or tilt-up concrete walls are widely used to give the appearance of stone masonry. Sometimes river rock of smooth oval-shaped stones is used as a veneer. This type of material is not favored for solid masonry as it requires a great amount of mortar and can lack intrinsic structural strength. Manufactured-stone, or cultured stone, veneers are popular alternatives to natural stones. Manufactured-stone veneers are typically made from concrete. Natural stones from quarries around the world are sampled and recreated using molds, aggregate, and colorfast pigments. To the casual observer there may be no visual difference between veneers of natural and manufactured stone. Brick Main article: Brickwork Brick work Solid brickwork is made of two or more wythes of bricks with the units running horizontally (called stretcher bricks) bound together with bricks running transverse to the wall (called "header" bricks). Each row of bricks is known as a course. The pattern of headers and stretchers employed gives rise to different 'bonds' such as the common bond (with every sixth course composed of headers), the English bond, and the Flemish bond (with alternating stretcher and header bricks present on every course). Bonds can differ in strength and in insulating ability. Vertically staggered bonds tend to be somewhat stronger and less prone to major cracking than a non-staggered bond. Uniformity and rusticity Masonry repair work done to a brick wall The wide selection of brick styles and types generally available in industrialized nations allow much variety in the appearance of the final product. In buildings built during the 1950s-1970s, a high degree of uniformity of brick and accuracy in masonry was typical. In the period since then this style was thought to be too sterile, so attempts were made to emulate older, rougher work. Some brick surfaces are made to look particularly rustic by including burnt bricks, which have a darker color or an irregular shape. Others may use antique salvage bricks, or new bricks may be artificially aged by applying various surface treatments, such as tumbling. The attempts at rusticity of the late 20th century have been carried forward by masons specializing in a free, artistic style, where the courses are intentionally not straight, instead weaving to form more organic impressions. Serpentine masonry Main article: Crinkle crankle walls A crinkle-crankle wall is a brick wall that follows a serpentine path, rather than a straight line. This type of wall is more resistant to toppling than a straight wall; so much so that it may be made of a single wythe of unreinforced brick and so despite its longer length may be more economical than a straight wall. Concrete block Concrete masonry units (CMUs) or blocks in a basement wall before burial Blocks of cinder concrete (cinder blocks or breezeblocks), ordinary concrete (concrete blocks), or hollow tile are generically known as Concrete Masonry Units (CMUs). They usually are much larger than ordinary bricks and so are much faster to lay for a wall of a given size. Furthermore, cinder and concrete blocks typically have much lower water absorption rates than brick. They often are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry or are used alone for the walls of factories, garages, and other industrial-style buildings where such appearance is acceptable or desirable. Such blocks often receive a stucco surface for decoration. Surface-bonding cement, which contains synthetic fibers for reinforcement, is sometimes used in this application and can impart extra strength to a block wall. Surface-bonding cement is often pre-colored and can be stained or painted thus resulting in a finished stucco-like surface. The primary structural advantage of concrete blocks in comparison to smaller clay-based bricks is that a CMU wall can be reinforced by filling the block voids with concrete with or without steel rebar. Generally, certain voids are designated for filling and reinforcement, particularly at corners, wall-ends, and openings while other voids are left empty. This increases wall strength and stability more economically than filling and reinforcing all voids. Typically, structures made of CMUs will have the top course of blocks in the walls filled with concrete and tied together with steel reinforcement to form a bond beam. Bond beams are often a requirement of modern building codes and controls. Another type of steel reinforcement referred to as ladder-reinforcement, can also be embedded in horizontal mortar joints of concrete block walls. The introduction of steel reinforcement generally results in a CMU wall having much greater lateral and tensile strength than unreinforced walls. "Architectural masonry is the evolvement of standard concrete masonry blocks into aesthetically pleasing concrete masonry units (CMUs)". CMUs can be manufactured to provide a variety of surface appearances. They can be colored during manufacturing or stained or painted after installation. They can be split as part of the manufacturing process, giving the blocks a rough face replicating the appearance of natural stone, such as brownstone. CMUs may also be scored, ribbed, sandblasted, polished, striated (raked or brushed), include decorative aggregates, be allowed to slump in a controlled fashion during curing, or include several of these techniques in their manufacture to provide a decorative appearance. "Glazed concrete masonry units are manufactured by bonding a permanent colored facing (typically composed of polyester resins, silica sand and various other chemicals) to a concrete masonry unit, providing a smooth impervious surface." Glass block or glass brick are blocks made from glass and provide a translucent to clear vision through the block. Veneer masonry A masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context, the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural. The brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties (metal strips that are attached to the structural wall, as well as the mortar joints of the brick veneer). There is typically an air gap between the brick veneer and the structural wall. As clay-based brick is usually not completely waterproof, the structural wall will often have a water-resistant surface (usually tar paper) and weep holes can be left at the base of the brick veneer to drain moisture that accumulates inside the air gap. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion. Most insulated buildings that use concrete block, brick, adobe, stone, veneers or some combination thereof feature interior insulation in the form of fiberglass batts between wooden wall studs or in the form of rigid insulation boards covered with plaster or drywall. In most climates this insulation is much more effective on the exterior of the wall, allowing the building interior to take advantage of the aforementioned thermal mass of the masonry. This technique does, however, require some sort of weather-resistant exterior surface over the insulation and, consequently, is generally more expensive. Gabions Gabion Wall Gabions are baskets, usually now of zinc-protected steel (galvanized steel) that are filled with fractured stone of medium size. These will act as a single unit and are stacked with setbacks to form a revetment or retaining wall. They have the advantage of being well drained, flexible, and resistant to flood, water flow from above, frost damage, and soil flow. Their expected useful life is only as long as the wire they are composed of and if used in severe climates (such as shore-side in a salt water environment) must be made of appropriate corrosion-resistant wire. Most modern gabions are rectangular. Earlier gabions were often cylindrical wicker baskets, open at both ends, used usually for temporary, often military, construction. Similar work can be done with finer aggregates using cellular confinement. Passive fire protection (PFP) Further information: Passive fire protection Masonry walls have an endothermic effect of its hydrates, as in chemically bound water, unbound moisture from the concrete block, and the poured concrete if the hollow cores inside the blocks are filled. Masonry can withstand temperatures up to 1,000 °F (538 °C) and it can withstand direct exposure to fire for up to 4 hours. In addition to that, concrete masonry keeps fires contained to their room of origin 93% of the time. For those reasons, concrete and masonry units hold the highest flame spread index classification, Class A. Fire cuts can be used to increase safety and reduce fire damage to masonry buildings. Mechanical modeling of masonry structures A comparison (using transmission photoelasticity) between the stress diffusion in an elastic body (on the left) and a model of masonry (on the right). A highly localized stress percolation is visible on the right. From the point of view of material modeling, masonry is a special material of extreme mechanical properties (with a very high ratio between strength in compression and in tension), so that the applied loads do not diffuse as they do in elastic bodies, but tend to percolate along lines of high stiffness. See also Castle – Fortified residential structure of medieval Europe Clay panel – Building material made of clay with some additives Concrete finisher CEN/TC 125 – European Union technical committee Defensive wall – Fortification used to protect an area from potential aggressors Dry-stone wall – Construction methodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Fire protection – Measures that prevent or mitigate unwanted fire Galleting – architectural technique in which small pieces of stone are pushed into wet mortarPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback List of decorative stones NIST stone test wall References ^ a b c Kingsley, Gregory R. (2003-01-01), "Masonry", in Meyers, Robert A. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (Third Edition), New York: Academic Press, pp. 133–143, doi:10.1016/b0-12-227410-5/00405-1, ISBN 978-0-12-227410-7, archived from the original on 2023-01-13, retrieved 2023-01-13 ^ Holmes, Mike (2008-04-25). "A brick house isn't as solid as you think". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 2023-01-13. Retrieved 2023-01-13. ^ "Common Problems with Brick Masonry (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on 2023-01-23. Retrieved 2023-01-13. ^ House, This Old (2020-01-18). "The Basics of Masonry". This Old House. Archived from the original on 2023-01-13. Retrieved 2023-01-13. ^ "Architectural Concrete Masonry Units". NCMA. Archived from the original on 2020-06-21. Retrieved 2020-06-18. ^ "Ground Face Units (Burnished, Honed)". Archived from the original on 2009-05-21. Retrieved 2009-11-21. ^ "Glazed (Prefaced) Units". Archived from the original on 2009-05-21. Retrieved 2009-11-21. ^ Allen, Edward; Rand, Patrick (2016). Architectural Detailing: Function, Constructibility, Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 137. ISBN 978-1118881996. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 18 October 2022. ^ "Davide Bigoni". www.ing.unitn.it. Solid and Structural Mechanics Group – University of Trento. Archived from the original on 2020-08-18. Retrieved 2011-11-27. ^ "video". Archived from the original on 2012-05-01. Retrieved 2011-11-27. General references Atamturktur, Sezer; Laman, Jeffrey A. (2012). "Finite element model correlation and calibration of historic masonry monuments: review". The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings. 21 (2): 96–113. doi:10.1002/tal.577. S2CID 111060455. Sarhosis, V.; Sheng, Y. (2014). "Identification of material parameters for low bond strength masonry". Engineering Structures. 60: 100–110. Bibcode:2014EngSt..60..100S. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.12.013. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Masonry (craft). Mason Contractors Association of America International Masonry Institute National Concrete Masonry Association Masonry Institute of America Illustrated Glossary of Stone Industry Terms vteStonemasonryTypes Ashlar Rustication Carving Dry stone Letter cutting Masonry Post-tensioned stone Massive precut stone Monumental Rubble Sculpture Slipform Snecked Materials Artificial stone Brick Cast stone Decorative stones Dimension stone Fieldstone Flagstone Gabion Granite Grout Lime mortar Limestone Marble Types Mortar Sandstone List Slate Stone veneer Tools Angle grinder Bush hammer Ceramic tile cutter Chisel Diamond blade Lewis (lifting appliance) Trowel Non-explosive demolition agents Plug and feather Stonemason's hammer Straightedge Techniques Flaming Flushwork Knapping Polygonal masonry Repointing Scabbling Tuckpointing Veneer Brickwork Wythe Products Castle Hardstone carving Headstone (Footstone) Mosaic Sculpture Stone wall Machicolation Organizations International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland Mason Contractors Association of America Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association Worshipful Company of Masons Authority control databases: National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan

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For the fraternal organization, see Freemasonry.A mason laying a brick on top of the mortarBridge over the Isábena river in the Monastery of Santa María de Obarra, masonry construction with stonesMasonry is the craft of building a structure with brick, stone, or similar material, including mortar plastering which are often laid in, bound and pasted together by mortar. The term masonry can also refer to the building units (stone, brick, etc.) themselves.The common materials of masonry construction are bricks and building stone such as marble, granite, and limestone, cast stone, concrete blocks, glass blocks, and adobe. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can substantially affect the durability of the overall masonry construction.A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer. These are both classified as construction trades.","title":"Masonry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"Masonry is one of the oldest building crafts in the world. The construction of Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and medieval cathedrals are all examples of masonry. Early structures used the weight of the masonry itself to stabilize the structure against lateral movements. The types and techniques of masonry used evolved with architectural needs and cultural norms. Since mid-20th century, masonry has often featured steel-reinforced elements to help carry the tension force present in modern thin, light, tall building systems.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"rebar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebar"}],"text":"Masonry has both structural and non-structural applications. Structural applications include walls, columns, beams, foundations, load-bearing arches, and others. On the other hand, masonry is also used in non-structural applications such as fireplaces chimneys and veneer systems.[1]Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations and may be either load-bearing or non-load-bearing. Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great compressive strength and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement (typically rebar) offers much greater tensile and lateral strength to structures.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Advantages","text":"The use of materials such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building.\nMasonry is a non-combustible product and can protect the building from fire.\nMasonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes.[2]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"sub_title":"Disadvantages","text":"Extreme weather, under certain circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion and contraction forces associated with freeze-thaw cycles.[3]\nMasonry tends to be heavy and must be built on a stable ground made of either undisturbed or mechanically-compacted soil, otherwise cracking may occur.[4]\nUnlike concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to mechanization, and requires more skilled labor.[1]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Structural limitations","text":"One problem with masonry walls is that they rely mainly on their weight to keep them in place; each block or brick is only loosely connected to the next via a thin layer of mortar. This is why they do not perform well in earthquakes, when entire buildings are shaken horizontally. Many collapses during earthquakes occur in buildings that have load-bearing masonry walls. Besides, heavier buildings having masonry suffer more damage.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vallorcine_bridge_abutment_2003-12-13.jpg"},{"link_name":"log bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_bridge"},{"link_name":"dry stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_stone"},{"link_name":"friction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction"}],"text":"Dry set masonry supports a rustic log bridge, where it provides a well-drained support for the log (which will lengthen its service life).See also: dry stoneThe strength of a masonry wall is not entirely dependent on the bond between the building material and the mortar; the friction between the interlocking blocks of masonry is often strong enough to provide a great deal of strength on its own. The blocks sometimes have grooves or other surface features added to enhance this interlocking, and some dry set masonry structures forgo mortar altogether.","title":"Dry set masonry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:K%C3%A9libia_stone_masonry.JPG"},{"link_name":"ashlar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashlar"},{"link_name":"rubble masonry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubble_masonry"},{"link_name":"Slipform stonemasonry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipform_stonemasonry"},{"link_name":"stone veneers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_veneer"}],"text":"Stone masonryStone blocks used in masonry can be dressed or rough, though in both examples corners, door and window jambs, and similar areas are usually dressed.\nStonemasonry utilizing dressed stones is known as ashlar masonry, whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry. Both rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in coursed rows of even height through the careful selection or cutting of stones, but a great deal of stone masonry is uncoursed.Slipform stonemasonry produces a hybrid wall of reinforced concrete with a rubble stone face.\nNatural stone veneers over CMU, cast-in-place, or tilt-up concrete walls are widely used to give the appearance of stone masonry.\nSometimes river rock of smooth oval-shaped stones is used as a veneer. This type of material is not favored for solid masonry as it requires a great amount of mortar and can lack intrinsic structural strength.\nManufactured-stone, or cultured stone, veneers are popular alternatives to natural stones.\nManufactured-stone veneers are typically made from concrete.\nNatural stones from quarries around the world are sampled and recreated using molds, aggregate, and colorfast pigments.\nTo the casual observer there may be no visual difference between veneers of natural and manufactured stone.","title":"Stonework"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brick_Work_2015-02-8_278.jpg"},{"link_name":"wythes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wythe"},{"link_name":"transverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/transverse"},{"link_name":"Flemish bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flemish_bond"}],"text":"Brick workSolid brickwork is made of two or more wythes of bricks with the units running horizontally (called stretcher bricks) bound together with bricks running transverse to the wall (called \"header\" bricks). Each row of bricks is known as a course. The pattern of headers and stretchers employed gives rise to different 'bonds' such as the common bond (with every sixth course composed of headers), the English bond, and the Flemish bond (with alternating stretcher and header bricks present on every course). Bonds can differ in strength and in insulating ability. Vertically staggered bonds tend to be somewhat stronger and less prone to major cracking than a non-staggered bond.","title":"Brick"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Athruzmasonry.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Uniformity and rusticity","text":"Masonry repair work done to a brick wallThe wide selection of brick styles and types generally available in industrialized nations allow much variety in the appearance of the final product. In buildings built during the 1950s-1970s, a high degree of uniformity of brick and accuracy in masonry was typical. In the period since then this style was thought to be too sterile, so attempts were made to emulate older, rougher work. Some brick surfaces are made to look particularly rustic by including burnt bricks, which have a darker color or an irregular shape. Others may use antique salvage bricks, or new bricks may be artificially aged by applying various surface treatments, such as tumbling. The attempts at rusticity of the late 20th century have been carried forward by masons specializing in a free, artistic style, where the courses are intentionally not straight, instead weaving to form more organic impressions.","title":"Brick"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Serpentine masonry","text":"A crinkle-crankle wall is a brick wall that follows a serpentine path, rather than a straight line. This type of wall is more resistant to toppling than a straight wall; so much so that it may be made of a single wythe of unreinforced brick and so despite its longer length may be more economical than a straight wall.","title":"Brick"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMUs.jpg"},{"link_name":"cinder blocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_masonry_unit"},{"link_name":"concrete blocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_masonry_unit"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"industrial-style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Style"},{"link_name":"stucco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stucco"},{"link_name":"cement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement"},{"link_name":"concrete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete"},{"link_name":"rebar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebar"},{"link_name":"Bond beams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_beam"},{"link_name":"building codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_code"},{"link_name":"ladder-reinforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ladder-reinforcement&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"brownstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownstone"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Glass block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_block"}],"text":"Concrete masonry units (CMUs) or blocks in a basement wall before burialBlocks of cinder concrete (cinder blocks or breezeblocks), ordinary concrete (concrete blocks), or hollow tile are generically known as Concrete Masonry Units (CMUs). They usually are much larger than ordinary bricks and so are much faster to lay for a wall of a given size. Furthermore, cinder and concrete blocks typically have much lower water absorption rates than brick. They often are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry or are used alone for the walls of factories, garages, and other industrial-style buildings where such appearance is acceptable or desirable. Such blocks often receive a stucco surface for decoration. Surface-bonding cement, which contains synthetic fibers for reinforcement, is sometimes used in this application and can impart extra strength to a block wall. Surface-bonding cement is often pre-colored and can be stained or painted thus resulting in a finished stucco-like surface.The primary structural advantage of concrete blocks in comparison to smaller clay-based bricks is that a CMU wall can be reinforced by filling the block voids with concrete with or without steel rebar. Generally, certain voids are designated for filling and reinforcement, particularly at corners, wall-ends, and openings while other voids are left empty. This increases wall strength and stability more economically than filling and reinforcing all voids. Typically, structures made of CMUs will have the top course of blocks in the walls filled with concrete and tied together with steel reinforcement to form a bond beam. Bond beams are often a requirement of modern building codes and controls. Another type of steel reinforcement referred to as ladder-reinforcement, can also be embedded in horizontal mortar joints of concrete block walls. The introduction of steel reinforcement generally results in a CMU wall having much greater lateral and tensile strength than unreinforced walls.\"Architectural masonry is the evolvement of standard concrete masonry blocks into aesthetically pleasing concrete masonry units (CMUs)\".[5][failed verification] CMUs can be manufactured to provide a variety of surface appearances. They can be colored during manufacturing or stained or painted after installation. They can be split as part of the manufacturing process, giving the blocks a rough face replicating the appearance of natural stone, such as brownstone. CMUs may also be scored, ribbed, sandblasted, polished, striated (raked or brushed), include decorative aggregates, be allowed to slump in a controlled fashion during curing, or include several of these techniques in their manufacture to provide a decorative appearance.[6]\"Glazed concrete masonry units are manufactured by bonding a permanent colored facing (typically composed of polyester resins, silica sand and various other chemicals) to a concrete masonry unit, providing a smooth impervious surface.\"[7]Glass block or glass brick are blocks made from glass and provide a translucent to clear vision through the block.","title":"Concrete block"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tar paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_paper"},{"link_name":"weep holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weep_hole"},{"link_name":"cultured stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultured_stone"},{"link_name":"adobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe"},{"link_name":"insulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_insulation"},{"link_name":"fiberglass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_wool"},{"link_name":"plaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaster"},{"link_name":"drywall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drywall"}],"text":"A masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context, the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural. The brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties (metal strips that are attached to the structural wall, as well as the mortar joints of the brick veneer). There is typically an air gap between the brick veneer and the structural wall. As clay-based brick is usually not completely waterproof, the structural wall will often have a water-resistant surface (usually tar paper) and weep holes can be left at the base of the brick veneer to drain moisture that accumulates inside the air gap. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion.Most insulated buildings that use concrete block, brick, adobe, stone, veneers or some combination thereof feature interior insulation in the form of fiberglass batts between wooden wall studs or in the form of rigid insulation boards covered with plaster or drywall. In most climates this insulation is much more effective on the exterior of the wall, allowing the building interior to take advantage of the aforementioned thermal mass of the masonry. This technique does, however, require some sort of weather-resistant exterior surface over the insulation and, consequently, is generally more expensive.","title":"Veneer masonry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6s_%C3%A9s_a_K%C3%A9k_k%C3%A1poln%C3%A1k_k%C3%B6z%C3%B6tti_s%C3%A9t%C3%A1ny_kerti_lugassal,_gabion_t%C3%A1mfalrendszerrel,_2018_Balatonbogl%C3%A1r.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gabions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabion"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel"},{"link_name":"galvanized steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot-dip_galvanizing"},{"link_name":"retaining wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retaining_wall"},{"link_name":"cellular confinement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_confinement"}],"text":"Gabion WallGabions are baskets, usually now of zinc-protected steel (galvanized steel) that are filled with fractured stone of medium size. These will act as a single unit and are stacked with setbacks to form a revetment or retaining wall. They have the advantage of being well drained, flexible, and resistant to flood, water flow from above, frost damage, and soil flow. Their expected useful life is only as long as the wire they are composed of and if used in severe climates (such as shore-side in a salt water environment) must be made of appropriate corrosion-resistant wire. Most modern gabions are rectangular. Earlier gabions were often cylindrical wicker baskets, open at both ends, used usually for temporary, often military, construction.Similar work can be done with finer aggregates using cellular confinement.","title":"Gabions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Passive fire protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_fire_protection"},{"link_name":"endothermic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothermic"},{"link_name":"hydrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrate"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AD-8"},{"link_name":"Fire cuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_cut"}],"text":"Further information: Passive fire protectionMasonry walls have an endothermic effect of its hydrates, as in chemically bound water, unbound moisture from the concrete block, and the poured concrete if the hollow cores inside the blocks are filled. Masonry can withstand temperatures up to 1,000 °F (538 °C) and it can withstand direct exposure to fire for up to 4 hours.[citation needed] In addition to that, concrete masonry keeps fires contained to their room of origin 93% of the time.[citation needed] For those reasons, concrete and masonry units hold the highest flame spread index classification, Class A.[8]Fire cuts can be used to increase safety and reduce fire damage to masonry buildings.","title":"Passive fire protection (PFP)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comparison_masonry.jpg"},{"link_name":"photoelasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelasticity"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"A comparison (using transmission photoelasticity) between the stress diffusion in an elastic body (on the left) and a model of masonry (on the right). A highly localized stress percolation is visible on the right.From the point of view of material modeling, masonry is a special material of extreme mechanical properties (with a very high ratio between strength in compression and in tension), so that the applied loads do not diffuse as they do in elastic bodies, but tend to percolate along lines of high stiffness.[9][10]","title":"Mechanical modeling of masonry structures"}]

[{"image_text":"A mason laying a brick on top of the mortar","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Bricklayer_J4.jpg/220px-Bricklayer_J4.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bridge over the Isábena river in the Monastery of Santa María de Obarra, masonry construction with stones","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Pont_de_Santa_Maria_d%27Ovarra_%28Vall_de_l%27Is%C3%A0vena%2C_Ribagor%C3%A7a%29.jpg/220px-Pont_de_Santa_Maria_d%27Ovarra_%28Vall_de_l%27Is%C3%A0vena%2C_Ribagor%C3%A7a%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dry set masonry supports a rustic log bridge, where it provides a well-drained support for the log (which will lengthen its service life).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Vallorcine_bridge_abutment_2003-12-13.jpg/219px-Vallorcine_bridge_abutment_2003-12-13.jpg"},{"image_text":"Stone masonry","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/K%C3%A9libia_stone_masonry.JPG/220px-K%C3%A9libia_stone_masonry.JPG"},{"image_text":"Brick work","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Brick_Work_2015-02-8_278.jpg/220px-Brick_Work_2015-02-8_278.jpg"},{"image_text":"Masonry repair work done to a brick wall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Athruzmasonry.jpg/220px-Athruzmasonry.jpg"},{"image_text":"Concrete masonry units (CMUs) or blocks in a basement wall before burial","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/CMUs.jpg/220px-CMUs.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gabion Wall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/A_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6s_%C3%A9s_a_K%C3%A9k_k%C3%A1poln%C3%A1k_k%C3%B6z%C3%B6tti_s%C3%A9t%C3%A1ny_kerti_lugassal%2C_gabion_t%C3%A1mfalrendszerrel%2C_2018_Balatonbogl%C3%A1r.jpg/220px-A_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6s_%C3%A9s_a_K%C3%A9k_k%C3%A1poln%C3%A1k_k%C3%B6z%C3%B6tti_s%C3%A9t%C3%A1ny_kerti_lugassal%2C_gabion_t%C3%A1mfalrendszerrel%2C_2018_Balatonbogl%C3%A1r.jpg"},{"image_text":"A comparison (using transmission photoelasticity) between the stress diffusion in an elastic body (on the left) and a model of masonry (on the right). A highly localized stress percolation is visible on the right.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Comparison_masonry.jpg/300px-Comparison_masonry.jpg"}]

[]

[{"reference":"Kingsley, Gregory R. (2003-01-01), \"Masonry\", in Meyers, Robert A. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (Third Edition), New York: Academic Press, pp. 133–143, doi:10.1016/b0-12-227410-5/00405-1, ISBN 978-0-12-227410-7, archived from the original on 2023-01-13, retrieved 2023-01-13","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0122274105004051","url_text":"\"Masonry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb0-12-227410-5%2F00405-1","url_text":"10.1016/b0-12-227410-5/00405-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-227410-7","url_text":"978-0-12-227410-7"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230113031606/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0122274105004051","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"Holmes, Mike (2008-04-25). \"A brick house isn't as solid as you think\". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 2023-01-13. Retrieved 2023-01-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/home-and-garden/a-brick-house-isnt-as-solid-as-you-think/article571941/","url_text":"\"A brick house isn't as solid as you think\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230113033223/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/home-and-garden/a-brick-house-isnt-as-solid-as-you-think/article571941/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Common Problems with Brick Masonry (U.S. National Park Service)\". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on 2023-01-23. Retrieved 2023-01-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nps.gov/articles/common-problems-with-brick-masonry.htm","url_text":"\"Common Problems with Brick Masonry (U.S. National Park Service)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230123145828/https://www.nps.gov/articles/common-problems-with-brick-masonry.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"House, This Old (2020-01-18). \"The Basics of Masonry\". This Old House. Archived from the original on 2023-01-13. Retrieved 2023-01-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thisoldhouse.com/masonry/21072473/the-basics-of-masonry","url_text":"\"The Basics of Masonry\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230113033222/https://www.thisoldhouse.com/masonry/21072473/the-basics-of-masonry","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Architectural Concrete Masonry Units\". NCMA. Archived from the original on 2020-06-21. Retrieved 2020-06-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://ncma.org/resource/architectural-concrete-masonry-units/","url_text":"\"Architectural Concrete Masonry Units\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200621082615/https://ncma.org/resource/architectural-concrete-masonry-units/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Ground Face Units (Burnished, Honed)\". Archived from the original on 2009-05-21. Retrieved 2009-11-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090521200939/http://www.ncma.org/resources/productuse/products/concrete/Pages/GroundFaceUnits(Burnished,Honed).aspx","url_text":"\"Ground Face Units (Burnished, Honed)\""},{"url":"http://www.ncma.org/resources/productuse/products/concrete/Pages/GroundFaceUnits%28Burnished,Honed%29.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Glazed (Prefaced) Units\". Archived from the original on 2009-05-21. Retrieved 2009-11-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090521200923/http://www.ncma.org/resources/productuse/products/concrete/Pages/Glazed%28Prefaced%29Units.aspx","url_text":"\"Glazed (Prefaced) Units\""},{"url":"http://www.ncma.org/resources/productuse/products/concrete/Pages/Glazed%28Prefaced%29Units.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Allen, Edward; Rand, Patrick (2016). Architectural Detailing: Function, Constructibility, Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 137. ISBN 978-1118881996. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 18 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HBYWCgAAQBAJ","url_text":"Architectural Detailing: Function, Constructibility, Aesthetics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118881996","url_text":"978-1118881996"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240101152932/https://books.google.com/books?id=HBYWCgAAQBAJ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Davide Bigoni\". www.ing.unitn.it. Solid and Structural Mechanics Group – University of Trento. Archived from the original on 2020-08-18. Retrieved 2011-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ing.unitn.it/~bigoni","url_text":"\"Davide Bigoni\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200818112658/http://www.ing.unitn.it/~bigoni/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"video\". Archived from the original on 2012-05-01. Retrieved 2011-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ing.unitn.it/dims/ssmg/masonry.html","url_text":"\"video\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120501102925/http://www.ing.unitn.it/dims/ssmg/masonry.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Atamturktur, Sezer; Laman, Jeffrey A. (2012). \"Finite element model correlation and calibration of historic masonry monuments: review\". The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings. 21 (2): 96–113. doi:10.1002/tal.577. S2CID 111060455.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ftal.577","url_text":"10.1002/tal.577"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:111060455","url_text":"111060455"}]},{"reference":"Sarhosis, V.; Sheng, Y. (2014). \"Identification of material parameters for low bond strength masonry\". Engineering Structures. 60: 100–110. Bibcode:2014EngSt..60..100S. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.12.013.","urls":[{"url":"https://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/fulltext.aspx?url=219088/C04BAA53-190F-4809-8D94-98FF7B83C1F3.pdf&pub_id=219088","url_text":"\"Identification of material parameters for low bond strength masonry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EngSt..60..100S","url_text":"2014EngSt..60..100S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.engstruct.2013.12.013","url_text":"10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.12.013"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC_control_system

HVAC control system

["1 Direct digital control","2 Building automation system","3 Cost and efficiency","4 Goals HVAC system installation","5 Design, modeling, and marketing","6 History","7 See also","8 References"]

Control system for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning equipment HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) equipment needs a control system to regulate the operation of a heating and/or air conditioning system. Usually a sensing device is used to compare the actual state (e.g. temperature) with a target state. Then the control system draws a conclusion what action has to be taken (e.g. start the blower). Direct digital control Central controllers and most terminal unit controllers are programmable, meaning the direct digital control program code may be customized for the intended use. The program features include time schedules, set points, controllers, logic, timers, trend logs, and alarms. The unit controllers typically have analog and digital inputs that allow measurement of the variable (temperature, humidity, or pressure) and analog and digital outputs for control of the transport medium (hot/cold water and/or steam). Digital inputs are typically (dry) contacts from a control device, and analog inputs are typically a voltage or current measurement from a variable (temperature, humidity, velocity, or pressure) sensing device. Digital outputs are typically relay contacts used to start and stop equipment, and analog outputs are typically voltage or current signals to control the movement of the medium (air/water/steam) control devices such as valves, dampers, and motors. Groups of DDC controllers, networked or not, form a layer of systems themselves. This "subsystem" is vital to the performance and basic operation of the overall HVAC system. The DDC system is the "brain" of the HVAC system. It dictates the position of every damper and valve in a system. It determines which fans, pumps, and chiller run and at what speed or capacity. With this configurable intelligence in this "brain", we are moving to the concept of building automation. Building automation system More complex HVAC systems can interface to Building Automation System (BAS) to allow the building owners to have more control over the heating or cooling units. The building owner can monitor the system and respond to alarms generated by the system from local or remote locations. The system can be scheduled for occupancy or the configuration can be changed from the BAS. Sometimes the BAS is directly controlling the HVAC components. Depending on the BAS different interfaces can be used. Today, there are also dedicated gateways that connect advanced VRV / VRF and Split HVAC Systems with Home Automation and BMS (Building Management Systems) controllers for centralized control and monitoring, obviating the need to purchase more complex and expensive HVAC systems. In addition, such gateway solutions are capable of providing remote control operation of all HVAC indoor units over the internet incorporating a simple and friendly user interface. Cost and efficiency Many people do not have a Heating, Ventilation, and Air Condition (HVAC) system in their homes because it is too expensive. However according to this article Save Money Through Energy Efficiency, HVAC is not as expensive as one may think it is. This article Save Money Through Energy Efficiency tells us that the main thing to look for when shopping for a HVAC system is to make sure it runs efficiently. One thing to always look for when in the market of a new HVAC system is the energy guide sticker on the machine. Although many might choose to not believe that sticker and that it is just there to help with the sales, history shows that many of the newer HVAC systems with the yellow energy guide stickers help save customers hundreds to thousands of dollars depending on how much they use their HVAC system. On the yellow energy guide sticker on many of the newer systems, it displays the average cost to run that machine. Once a customer has found the perfect HVAC system, the customer should run it monthly if it is only put into use during specific times of year. It is recommended that if an HVAC system is not being used each month, that it should be turned on and left running for ten to fifteen minutes. On the other hand if the customer is somebody who runs their HVAC system frequently, it is really important to maintain it. Maintenance on an HVAC system includes changing out the air filter, inspecting the areas where air intake takes place, and check for leaks. Doing these three steps are super essential and is the key to keeping an HVAC system running for a long time. A customer should do these three steps every couple of months or when it is suspected problem with the HVAC system. Some signs that could lead to a potential problem is if the HVAC system does not provide air cool enough. That could be due to a leakage in the cooling fluids. Another sign that could mean that the HVAC system is not running perfectly fine is if there is a bad smell to the air that it is providing. That often means that the air filters need to be replaced. Changing the air filters on an HVAC system is really important because they are exposed to a lot of dust depending on where your HVAC system is and it could build up dust from simply just sitting in one's home. Goals HVAC system installation Source Goal 1: Keep HVAC equipment and materials dry during construction and provide temperature and humidity control as required during the close-in phase of construction. HVAC System Installation Goal 2: Install HVAC systems to effectively implement moisture control as specified in the design drawings and specifications. HVAC System Installation Goal 3: Prepare operation and maintenance materials for continued performance of HVAC system moisture control. Design, modeling, and marketing Most HVAC systems are used for the same purpose but designed differently. All HVAC systems have an intake, air filter, and air conditioning liquid. However, when designing HVAC systems, many engineers design it for a specific setting and/or purpose. When engineers are designing an HVAC system, they try their best to make it compact while still being able to perform at the highest level and experiment with different ways to make HVAC systems as efficient as possible. History The first HVAC controllers utilized pneumatic controls since engineers understood fluid control. Thus, the properties of steam and air were used to control the flow of heated or cooled air via mechanically controlled logic. After the control of air flow and temperature was standardized, the use of electromechanical relays in ladder logic to switch dampers became standardized. Eventually, the relays became electronic switches, as transistors eventually could handle greater current loads. By 1985, pneumatic controls could no longer compete with this new technology although pneumatic control systems (sometimes decades old) are still common in many older buildings. By the year 2000, computerized controllers were common. Today, some of these controllers can even be accessed by web browsers, which need no longer be in the same building as the HVAC equipment. This allows some economies of scale, as a single operations center can easily monitor multiple buildings. See also American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers BACnet Building Automation OpenTherm References ^ "Role on DDC Systems in Building Commissioning". Archived from the original on 2020-05-06. Retrieved 2009-05-19. ^ KMC Controls. "Understanding Building Automation and Control Systems". Archived from the original on 19 May 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2017. ^ "CEDIA Find: Cool Automation Integrates Smart Air Conditioners with Third-Party Control Systems". CEPro. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 16 Jun 2015. ^ Moisture Control Guidance for Building Design, Construction and Maintenance. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. December 2013. ^ KMC Controls. "Pneumatic to Digital: Open System Conversions" (PDF). Retrieved 5 October 2015. vteHeating, ventilation, and air conditioningFundamental concepts Air changes per hour Bake-out Building envelope Convection Dilution Domestic energy consumption Enthalpy Fluid dynamics Gas compressor Heat pump and refrigeration cycle Heat transfer Humidity Infiltration Latent heat Noise control Outgassing Particulates Psychrometrics Sensible heat Stack effect Thermal comfort Thermal destratification Thermal mass Thermodynamics Vapour pressure of water Technology Absorption refrigerator Air barrier Air conditioning Antifreeze Automobile air conditioning Autonomous building Building insulation materials Central heating Central solar heating Chilled beam Chilled water Constant air volume (CAV) Coolant Cross ventilation Dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS) Deep water source cooling Demand controlled ventilation (DCV) Displacement ventilation District cooling District heating Electric heating Energy recovery ventilation (ERV) Firestop Forced-air Forced-air gas Free cooling Heat recovery ventilation (HRV) Hybrid heat Hydronics Ice storage air conditioning Kitchen ventilation Mixed-mode ventilation Microgeneration Passive cooling Passive daytime radiative cooling Passive house Passive ventilation Radiant heating and cooling Radiant cooling Radiant heating Radon mitigation Refrigeration Renewable heat Room air distribution Solar air heat Solar combisystem Solar cooling Solar heating Thermal insulation Thermosiphon Underfloor air distribution Underfloor heating Vapor barrier Vapor-compression refrigeration (VCRS) Variable air volume (VAV) Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) Ventilation Water heat recycling Components Air conditioner inverter Air door Air filter Air handler Air ionizer Air-mixing plenum Air purifier Air source heat pump Attic fan Automatic balancing valve Back boiler Barrier pipe Blast damper Boiler Centrifugal fan Ceramic heater Chiller Condensate pump Condenser Condensing boiler Convection heater Compressor Cooling tower Damper Dehumidifier Duct Economizer Electrostatic precipitator Evaporative cooler Evaporator Exhaust hood Expansion tank Fan Fan coil unit Fan filter unit Fan heater Fire damper Fireplace Fireplace insert Freeze stat Flue Freon Fume hood Furnace Gas compressor Gas heater Gasoline heater Grease duct Grille Ground-coupled heat exchanger Ground source heat pump Heat exchanger Heat pipe Heat pump Heating film Heating system HEPA High efficiency glandless circulating pump High-pressure cut-off switch Humidifier Infrared heater Inverter compressor Kerosene heater Louver Mechanical room Oil heater Packaged terminal air conditioner Plenum space Pressurisation ductwork Process duct work Radiator Radiator reflector Recuperator Refrigerant Register Reversing valve Run-around coil Sail switch Scroll compressor Solar chimney Solar-assisted heat pump Space heater Smoke canopy Smoke damper Smoke exhaust ductwork Thermal expansion valve Thermal wheel Thermostatic radiator valve Trickle vent Trombe wall TurboSwing Turning vanes Ultra-low particulate air (ULPA) Whole-house fan Windcatcher Wood-burning stove Zone valve Measurementand control Air flow meter Aquastat BACnet Blower door Building automation Carbon dioxide sensor Clean air delivery rate (CADR) Control valve Gas detector Home energy monitor Humidistat HVAC control system Infrared thermometer Intelligent buildings LonWorks Minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) Normal temperature and pressure (NTP) OpenTherm Programmable communicating thermostat Programmable thermostat Psychrometrics Room temperature Smart thermostat Standard temperature and pressure (STP) Thermographic camera Thermostat Thermostatic radiator valve Professions,trades,and services Architectural acoustics Architectural engineering Architectural technologist Building services engineering Building information modeling (BIM) Deep energy retrofit Duct cleaning Duct leakage testing Environmental engineering Hydronic balancing Kitchen exhaust cleaning Mechanical engineering Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing Mold growth, assessment, and remediation Refrigerant reclamation Testing, adjusting, balancing Industry organizations AHRI AMCA ASHRAE ASTM International BRE BSRIA CIBSE Institute of Refrigeration IIR LEED SMACNA UMC Health and safety Indoor air quality (IAQ) Passive smoking Sick building syndrome (SBS) Volatile organic compound (VOC) See also ASHRAE Handbook Building science Fireproofing Glossary of HVAC terms Warm Spaces World Refrigeration Day Template:Home automation Template:Solar energy

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Sometimes the BAS is directly controlling the HVAC components.\nDepending on the BAS different interfaces can be used.[2]Today, there are also dedicated gateways that connect advanced VRV / VRF and Split HVAC Systems with Home Automation and BMS (Building Management Systems) controllers for centralized control and monitoring, obviating the need to purchase more complex and expensive HVAC systems. 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However according to this article Save Money Through Energy Efficiency, HVAC is not as expensive as one may think it is.[citation needed]This article Save Money Through Energy Efficiency tells us that the main thing to look for when shopping for a HVAC system is to make sure it runs efficiently. One thing to always look for when in the market of a new HVAC system is the energy guide sticker on the machine.[citation needed]Although many might choose to not believe that sticker and that it is just there to help with the sales, history shows that many of the newer HVAC systems with the yellow energy guide stickers help save customers hundreds to thousands of dollars depending on how much they use their HVAC system.[citation needed]On the yellow energy guide sticker on many of the newer systems, it displays the average cost to run that machine. Once a customer has found the perfect HVAC system, the customer should run it monthly if it is only put into use during specific times of year. It is recommended that if an HVAC system is not being used each month, that it should be turned on and left running for ten to fifteen minutes.[citation needed]On the other hand if the customer is somebody who runs their HVAC system frequently, it is really important to maintain it. Maintenance on an HVAC system includes changing out the air filter, inspecting the areas where air intake takes place, and check for leaks.[citation needed]Doing these three steps are super essential and is the key to keeping an HVAC system running for a long time. A customer should do these three steps every couple of months or when it is suspected problem with the HVAC system.[citation needed]Some signs that could lead to a potential problem is if the HVAC system does not provide air cool enough.[citation needed]That could be due to a leakage in the cooling fluids. Another sign that could mean that the HVAC system is not running perfectly fine is if there is a bad smell to the air that it is providing. 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HVAC System InstallationGoal 3: Prepare operation and maintenance materials for continued performance of HVAC system moisture control.","title":"Goals HVAC system installation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Most HVAC systems are used for the same purpose but designed differently.[citation needed]All HVAC systems have an intake, air filter, and air conditioning liquid. However, when designing HVAC systems, many engineers design it for a specific setting and/or purpose. When engineers are designing an HVAC system, they try their best to make it compact while still being able to perform at the highest level and experiment with different ways to make HVAC systems as efficient as possible.","title":"Design, modeling, and marketing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pneumatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatic"},{"link_name":"ladder logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladder_logic"},{"link_name":"dampers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_damper"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"economies of scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies_of_scale"}],"text":"The first HVAC controllers utilized pneumatic controls since engineers understood fluid control. Thus, the properties of steam and air were used to control the flow of heated or cooled air via mechanically controlled logic.After the control of air flow and temperature was standardized, the use of electromechanical relays in ladder logic to switch dampers became standardized. Eventually, the relays became electronic switches, as transistors eventually could handle greater current loads. By 1985, pneumatic controls could no longer compete with this new technology although pneumatic control systems (sometimes decades old) are still common in many older buildings.[5]By the year 2000, computerized controllers were common. Today, some of these controllers can even be accessed by web browsers, which need no longer be in the same building as the HVAC equipment. This allows some economies of scale, as a single operations center can easily monitor multiple buildings.","title":"History"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Tikas

Louis Tikas

["1 Biography","2 Ludlow Massacre","3 See also","4 Sources","5 References"]

Greek American miner and union leader This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Louis TikasBornElias Anastasios Spantidakis13 March, 1886Loutra, Rethymno, Ottoman CreteDied20 April 1914(1914-04-20) (aged 28)Ludlow, ColoradoCause of deathGunshot woundsNationalityAmerican, GreekOccupation(s)Miner, union leaderKnown forInvolvement in Ludlow mine strike vteColorado Coalfield War1913–1914Strikers United Mine Workers of America Louis Tikas John R. Lawson Mother Jones Frank Hayes Mary Thomas O'Neal Company Colorado Fuel and Iron John D. Rockefeller Jr. Baldwin–Felts Detective Agency (Charles Lively) William Lyon Mackenzie King Ivy Lee John C. Osgood Victor-American Fuel Company Government Elias M. Ammons Stephen R. Fitzgarrald Alma V. Lafferty Helen Ring Robinson Woodrow Wilson National Guard John Chase Karl Linderfelt Patrick J. Hamrock Hildreth Frost Events Ludlow Massacre 10-Day War Locations Sangre de Cristo Mountains Las Animas County Ludlow Walsenburg Trinidad Aguilar Delagua La Veta Cañon City Segundo Pueblo Primero Berwind Commemorations Ludlow Monument "We're Coming, Colorado" "Ludlow Massacre" (song) Louis Tikas (Greek: Λούης Τίκας), born Elias Anastasios Spantidakis (Greek: Ηλίας Αναστάσιος Σπαντιδάκης; 13 March, 1886 – 20 April, 1914), was the main labor union organizer at the Ludlow camp during the 14-month strike known as the Colorado Coalfield War in southern Colorado, between September 1913 and December 1914; described as "the bloodiest civil insurrection in American history since the Civil War". He was shot and killed during the Ludlow Massacre, the bloodiest event of the strike, on 20 April, 1914. Biography Louis Tikas just before his departure for America in 1906. Tikas was born Elias Anastasios Spantidakis in Loutra, Crete, on 13 March, 1886. In 1910, the year Tikas filed his citizenship papers in the United States, he was part owner of a Greek coffeehouse on Market Street in Denver. By the end of 1912 he was an organizer for the United Mine Workers of America. In between he worked as a miner-strikebreaker in Colorado's Northern (Coal) Field but ended up leading a walkout by sixty-three fellow Greeks at the Frederick, Colorado mine. Tikas was chased from the northern field, shot and wounded by Baldwin-Felts detectives as he escaped through the back door of a boarding house in Lafayette, Colorado in January 1910. He was shot and killed during the Ludlow Massacre, the bloodiest event of the strike, on April 20, 1914, the day after (Greek Orthodox) Easter. Nineteen people were killed during the massacre, including two women and eleven children and one National Guardsman. Tikas met with Major Pat Hamrock on the day of the massacre in response to allegations of a man being held against his will in the camp. The militia placed machine guns on the hills and Tikas, anticipating trouble, ran back to camp. But fighting broke out lasting all day. By 7:00 pm, the camp was aflame. Tikas remained in the camp the entire day and was there when the fire started. Lieutenant Karl Linderfelt, a rival of Tikas' during much of the strike, broke the butt of his gun over Tikas' head. Tikas was later found shot to death, one bullet through his back, another in his hip, a third glancing off his hip and traveling vertically through his body; it was determined that he bled to death. The film "Palikari" honours his death. A statue of Louis Tikas was dedicated at the Miner's Memorial on Mani Street in Trinidad, Colorado on June 23, 2018. Ludlow Massacre The Ludlow Monument, which was erected by the United Mine Workers of America; a statue of Louis Tikas can be seen on the left. Ceremony dedicating the Tikas Bronze in Trinidad, Colorado on 23 June, 2018. This article is written like a story. Please help rewrite this article to introduce an encyclopedic style and a neutral point of view. (January 2018) Main article: Ludlow Massacre On 20 April, 1914, while Tikas was meeting with Major Patrick J. Hamrock, the militia commander in charge of Company B, troopers––as instructed by superiors––located themselves atop Water Tank Hill, just south of Ludlow in response to spotting armed Greek miners milling about. Many armed colonists spotted the militiamen and moved to key points where they could closely watch activities atop the small hill. Other colonists feared something was awry and scurried about for cover. Suddenly the sound of rifle fire echoed through the nearby hills. Neither the militia nor the colonists knew who fired these shots, but an exchange of gunfire began, as both confused colonists and militiamen believed they were coming under attack. The militia were badly outnumbered by the colonists, but had certain advantages, including a choice location and a machine gun. The spray from the gun drove armed strikers back toward the tents, and provided excellent coverage for guardsmen advancing toward the tents. Meanwhile, Company A reinforcements, along with Lt. Karl Linderfelt, arrived with another machine gun to offer support to Company B. The colonists now faced two automatic weapons and about 150 guardsmen. Machine gun and rifle fire forced women and children colonists to take refuge in storage cellars beneath the tents. This offered some protection but advancing guardsmen eventually forced the cellars' occupants to abandon the underground shelters and to evacuate to the east of the colony site to some hills locally called the "Black Hills" for protection. By late afternoon, it was clear that the militia would overrun the colony site, and everyone would have to abandon the site and join those who had already fled to the Black Hills. Meanwhile, a deserted tent burst into flames and, within a short time, more tents began to burn. At the same time, the militiamen overran and took command of the colony site. By early morning, 21 April, 1914, the colony site––previously covered by hundreds of tents––revealed nothing more than charred rubble remains of the tents. The bodies of two women and eleven children––victims of asphyxiation––were found huddled within a cellar. Five strikers, two other youngsters, and at least four men associated with the militia also died. Though the Ludlow battle ended on the night of 20 April, 1914, sporadic violence continued for days after. Battles that took place at various coal camps claimed many more lives. In late April, federal troops moved into southern Colorado, almost immediately restoring peace. The strike, however, continued through early December, finally coming to an end without resolution. Despite the heavy loss of lives and property, the strikers' efforts and losses weren't entirely in vain. The effects of the strike and the violence encouraged state and federal lawmakers to pass legislation that, in the long run, would help hasten improvements in conditions for working miners. The Ludlow Monument, erected by the United Mine Workers of America a couple years after the massacre, stands near the site to commemorate the dead strikers and their families. See also Murder of workers in labor disputes in the United States Sources Papanikolas, Zeese (1982). Buried Unsung: Louis Tikas and the Ludlow Massacre. University of Nebraska Press (published 1991). ISBN 978-0-8032-8727-3. Eugene V. Debs, "Louis Tikas: Ludlow’s Hero and Martyr," Labor & Freedom (St. Louis, 1916), pp. 33–37. Originally published in Appeal to Reason (4 September, 1915). Retrieved 5 May 2014. References ^ Smith, Martin J. (12 September 2019). "He made this town the world's 'sex-change capital,' but he's not honored here". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 13 January 2022. ^ Papanikolas 1982, pp. 257–258 ^ a b Papanikolas 1982, pp. 12–13 Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data United States Greece Portals: Biography History Colorado Organized Labor

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Lawson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_R._Lawson"},{"link_name":"Mother Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Jones"},{"link_name":"Frank Hayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Hayes_(unionist)"},{"link_name":"Mary Thomas O'Neal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Thomas_O%27Neal"},{"link_name":"Colorado Fuel and Iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Iron"},{"link_name":"John D. Rockefeller Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller_Jr."},{"link_name":"Baldwin–Felts Detective Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin%E2%80%93Felts_Detective_Agency"},{"link_name":"Charles Lively","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lively_(labor_spy)"},{"link_name":"William Lyon Mackenzie King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King"},{"link_name":"Ivy Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy_Lee"},{"link_name":"John C. 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Hamrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_J._Hamrock"},{"link_name":"Hildreth Frost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildreth_Frost"},{"link_name":"Ludlow Massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow_Massacre"},{"link_name":"10-Day War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Coalfield_War#10-Day_War"},{"link_name":"Sangre de Cristo Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangre_de_Cristo_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Las Animas County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Animas_County,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Ludlow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Walsenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsenburg,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Trinidad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Aguilar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aguilar,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Delagua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delagua,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"La Veta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Veta,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Cañon City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ca%C3%B1on_City,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Segundo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segundo,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Pueblo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Primero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primero,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Berwind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berwind,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Ludlow Monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow_Monument"},{"link_name":"We're Coming, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Hayes_(unionist)#Labor_Songs_and_Poetry"},{"link_name":"\"Ludlow Massacre\" (song)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow_Massacre_(song)"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Ludlow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action"},{"link_name":"Colorado Coalfield War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Coalfield_War"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Ludlow Massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow_Massacre"}],"text":"vteColorado Coalfield War1913–1914Strikers\nUnited Mine Workers of America\nLouis Tikas\nJohn R. Lawson\nMother Jones\nFrank Hayes\nMary Thomas O'Neal\nCompany\n\nColorado Fuel and Iron\nJohn D. Rockefeller Jr.\nBaldwin–Felts Detective Agency (Charles Lively)\nWilliam Lyon Mackenzie King\nIvy Lee\nJohn C. Osgood\nVictor-American Fuel Company\nGovernment\n\nElias M. Ammons\nStephen R. Fitzgarrald\nAlma V. Lafferty\nHelen Ring Robinson\nWoodrow Wilson\nNational Guard\n\nJohn Chase\nKarl Linderfelt\nPatrick J. Hamrock\nHildreth Frost\nEvents\n\nLudlow Massacre\n10-Day War\nLocations\n\nSangre de Cristo Mountains\nLas Animas County\nLudlow\nWalsenburg\nTrinidad\nAguilar\nDelagua\nLa Veta\nCañon City\nSegundo\nPueblo\nPrimero\nBerwind\nCommemorations\n\nLudlow Monument\n\"We're Coming, Colorado\"\n\"Ludlow Massacre\" (song)Louis Tikas (Greek: Λούης Τίκας), born Elias Anastasios Spantidakis (Greek: Ηλίας Αναστάσιος Σπαντιδάκης; 13 March, 1886 – 20 April, 1914), was the main labor union organizer at the Ludlow camp during the 14-month strike known as the Colorado Coalfield War in southern Colorado, between September 1913 and December 1914; described as \"the bloodiest civil insurrection in American history since the Civil War\".[1] He was shot and killed during the Ludlow Massacre, the bloodiest event of the strike, on 20 April, 1914.","title":"Louis Tikas"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elias_Anastasios_Spantidakis_(the_true_name_of_Louis_Tikas)_just_before_his_departure_for_America_in_1906_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Loutra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loutra,_Rethymno"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Papanikolas1-3"},{"link_name":"citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship"},{"link_name":"Greek coffeehouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafenio"},{"link_name":"Denver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Papanikolas1-3"},{"link_name":"United Mine Workers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_of_America"},{"link_name":"strikebreaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikebreaker"},{"link_name":"walkout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkout"},{"link_name":"Baldwin-Felts detectives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin%E2%80%93Felts_Detective_Agency"},{"link_name":"Lafayette, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafayette,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Ludlow Massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow_Massacre"},{"link_name":"Karl Linderfelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Linderfelt"}],"text":"Louis Tikas just before his departure for America in 1906.Tikas was born Elias Anastasios Spantidakis in Loutra, Crete,[2] on 13 March, 1886.[3] In 1910, the year Tikas filed his citizenship papers in the United States, he was part owner of a Greek coffeehouse on Market Street in Denver.[3] By the end of 1912 he was an organizer for the United Mine Workers of America. In between he worked as a miner-strikebreaker in Colorado's Northern (Coal) Field but ended up leading a walkout by sixty-three fellow Greeks at the Frederick, Colorado mine. Tikas was chased from the northern field, shot and wounded by Baldwin-Felts detectives as he escaped through the back door of a boarding house in Lafayette, Colorado in January 1910.He was shot and killed during the Ludlow Massacre, the bloodiest event of the strike, on April 20, 1914, the day after (Greek Orthodox) Easter. Nineteen people were killed during the massacre, including two women and eleven children and one National Guardsman.Tikas met with Major Pat Hamrock on the day of the massacre in response to allegations of a man being held against his will in the camp. The militia placed machine guns on the hills and Tikas, anticipating trouble, ran back to camp. But fighting broke out lasting all day. By 7:00 pm, the camp was aflame. Tikas remained in the camp the entire day and was there when the fire started. Lieutenant Karl Linderfelt, a rival of Tikas' during much of the strike, broke the butt of his gun over Tikas' head. Tikas was later found shot to death, one bullet through his back, another in his hip, a third glancing off his hip and traveling vertically through his body; it was determined that he bled to death. The film \"Palikari\" honours his death.A statue of Louis Tikas was dedicated at the Miner's Memorial on Mani Street in Trinidad, Colorado on June 23, 2018.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ludlow_Monument_Cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ludlow Monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow_Monument"},{"link_name":"United Mine Workers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_of_America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tikas_Statue_Dedication_Ceremony_06_23_2018.jpg"},{"link_name":"Patrick J. Hamrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_J._Hamrock"},{"link_name":"Karl Linderfelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Linderfelt"},{"link_name":"Ludlow Monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow_Monument"},{"link_name":"United Mine Workers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_of_America"}],"text":"The Ludlow Monument, which was erected by the United Mine Workers of America; a statue of Louis Tikas can be seen on the left.Ceremony dedicating the Tikas Bronze in Trinidad, Colorado on 23 June, 2018.On 20 April, 1914, while Tikas was meeting with Major Patrick J. Hamrock, the militia commander in charge of Company B, troopers––as instructed by superiors––located themselves atop Water Tank Hill, just south of Ludlow in response to spotting armed Greek miners milling about. Many armed colonists spotted the militiamen and moved to key points where they could closely watch activities atop the small hill. Other colonists feared something was awry and scurried about for cover. Suddenly the sound of rifle fire echoed through the nearby hills. Neither the militia nor the colonists knew who fired these shots, but an exchange of gunfire began, as both confused colonists and militiamen believed they were coming under attack.The militia were badly outnumbered by the colonists, but had certain advantages, including a choice location and a machine gun. The spray from the gun drove armed strikers back toward the tents, and provided excellent coverage for guardsmen advancing toward the tents. Meanwhile, Company A reinforcements, along with Lt. Karl Linderfelt, arrived with another machine gun to offer support to Company B. The colonists now faced two automatic weapons and about 150 guardsmen. Machine gun and rifle fire forced women and children colonists to take refuge in storage cellars beneath the tents. This offered some protection but advancing guardsmen eventually forced the cellars' occupants to abandon the underground shelters and to evacuate to the east of the colony site to some hills locally called the \"Black Hills\" for protection. By late afternoon, it was clear that the militia would overrun the colony site, and everyone would have to abandon the site and join those who had already fled to the Black Hills. Meanwhile, a deserted tent burst into flames and, within a short time, more tents began to burn. At the same time, the militiamen overran and took command of the colony site.By early morning, 21 April, 1914, the colony site––previously covered by hundreds of tents––revealed nothing more than charred rubble remains of the tents. The bodies of two women and eleven children––victims of asphyxiation––were found huddled within a cellar. Five strikers, two other youngsters, and at least four men associated with the militia also died. Though the Ludlow battle ended on the night of 20 April, 1914, sporadic violence continued for days after. Battles that took place at various coal camps claimed many more lives. In late April, federal troops moved into southern Colorado, almost immediately restoring peace. The strike, however, continued through early December, finally coming to an end without resolution. Despite the heavy loss of lives and property, the strikers' efforts and losses weren't entirely in vain. The effects of the strike and the violence encouraged state and federal lawmakers to pass legislation that, in the long run, would help hasten improvements in conditions for working miners.The Ludlow Monument, erected by the United Mine Workers of America a couple years after the massacre, stands near the site to commemorate the dead strikers and their families.","title":"Ludlow Massacre"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Buried Unsung: Louis Tikas and the Ludlow Massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5wtMggM3di8C"},{"link_name":"University of Nebraska Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8032-8727-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8727-3"},{"link_name":"\"Louis Tikas: Ludlow’s Hero and Martyr,\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/debs/works/1915/1915-tikas.htm"}],"text":"Papanikolas, Zeese (1982). Buried Unsung: Louis Tikas and the Ludlow Massacre. University of Nebraska Press (published 1991). ISBN 978-0-8032-8727-3.\nEugene V. Debs, \"Louis Tikas: Ludlow’s Hero and Martyr,\" Labor & Freedom (St. Louis, 1916), pp. 33–37. Originally published in Appeal to Reason (4 September, 1915). Retrieved 5 May 2014.","title":"Sources"}]

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[{"title":"Murder of workers in labor disputes in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_workers_in_labor_disputes_in_the_United_States"}]

[{"reference":"Papanikolas, Zeese (1982). Buried Unsung: Louis Tikas and the Ludlow Massacre. University of Nebraska Press (published 1991). ISBN 978-0-8032-8727-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5wtMggM3di8C","url_text":"Buried Unsung: Louis Tikas and the Ludlow Massacre"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press","url_text":"University of Nebraska Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8727-3","url_text":"978-0-8032-8727-3"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Martin J. (12 September 2019). \"He made this town the world's 'sex-change capital,' but he's not honored here\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 13 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2019-09-11/la-na-col1-trinidad-gender-confirmation-surgery-legacy","url_text":"\"He made this town the world's 'sex-change capital,' but he's not honored here\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5D

2.5D

["1 Computer graphics","1.1 Axonometric and oblique projection","1.2 Billboarding","1.3 Skyboxes and skydomes","1.4 Scaling along the Z axis","1.5 Parallax scrolling","1.6 Mode 7","1.7 Ray casting","1.8 Bump, normal and parallax mapping","2 Film and animation techniques","3 Graphic design","4 History","5 Technical aspects and generalizations","6 See also","7 References"]

Simulation of the appearance of being three-dimensional For other uses, see 2.5D (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "2.5D" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Part of a series onVideo game graphics Types 2.5D & 3/4 perspective First-person view Fixed 3D Full motion video based game Graphic adventure game Isometric video game graphics Side-scrolling video game Stereoscopic video game Text-based game Third-person view Tile-based video game Top-down perspective Vector game Topics 2D computer graphics Parallax scrolling Pixel art Sprite 3D computer graphics 3D rendering Polygon Pre-rendering Skybox Animation Cel shading Digitization Rotoscoping Computer graphics Real-time graphics Game art design Graphics engine First-person shooter engine Tile engine Virtual camera system Voxel Lists List of four-dimensional games List of FMV-based games List of FPS engines List of stereoscopic video games List of text-based computer games Category:Video game graphics vte 2.5D (basic pronunciation two-and-a-half dimensional) perspective refers to gameplay or movement in a video game or virtual reality environment that is restricted to a two-dimensional (2D) plane with little or no access to a third dimension in a space that otherwise appears to be three-dimensional and is often simulated and rendered in a 3D digital environment. This is similar but different from pseudo-3D perspective (sometimes called three-quarter view when the environment is portrayed from an angled top-down perspective), which refers to 2D graphical projections and similar techniques used to cause images or scenes to simulate the appearance of being three-dimensional (3D) when in fact they are not. By contrast, games, spaces or perspectives that are simulated and rendered in 3D and used in 3D level design are said to be true 3D, and 2D rendered games made to appear as 2D without approximating a 3D image are said to be true 2D. Common in video games, 2.5D projections have also been useful in geographic visualization (GVIS) to help understand visual-cognitive spatial representations or 3D visualization. The terms three-quarter perspective and three-quarter view trace their origins to the three-quarter profile in portraiture and facial recognition, which depicts a person's face that is partway between a frontal view and a side view. Computer graphics Axonometric and oblique projection See also: Isometric computer graphics Lincity tiles 2D axonometric graphical elements to form a pseudo-3D game environment. In axonometric projection and oblique projection, two forms of parallel projection, the viewpoint is rotated slightly to reveal other facets of the environment than what are visible in a top-down perspective or side view, thereby producing a three-dimensional effect. An object is "considered to be in an inclined position resulting in foreshortening of all three axes", and the image is a "representation on a single plane (as a drawing surface) of a three-dimensional object placed at an angle to the plane of projection." Lines perpendicular to the plane become points, lines parallel to the plane have true length, and lines inclined to the plane are foreshortened. They are popular camera perspectives among 2D video games, most commonly those released for 16-bit or earlier and handheld consoles, as well as in later strategy and role-playing video games. The advantage of these perspectives is that they combine the visibility and mobility of a top-down game with the character recognizability of a side-scrolling game. Thus the player can be presented an overview of the game world in the ability to see it from above, more or less, and with additional details in artwork made possible by using an angle: Instead of showing a humanoid in top-down perspective, as a head and shoulders seen from above, the entire body can be drawn when using a slanted angle; turning a character around would reveal how it looks from the sides, the front and the back, while the top-down perspective will display the same head and shoulders regardless. Anatomy of an axonometric sprite. 2D sprite coordinates are on the left. 3D model coordinates are on the right. There are three main divisions of axonometric projection: isometric (equal measure), dimetric (symmetrical and unsymmetrical), and trimetric (single-view or only two sides). The most common of these drawing types in engineering drawing is isometric projection. This projection is tilted so that all three axes create equal angles at intervals of 120 degrees. The result is that all three axes are equally foreshortened. In video games, a form of dimetric projection with a 2:1 pixel ratio is more common due to the problems of anti-aliasing and square pixels found on most computer monitors. In oblique projection typically all three axes are shown without foreshortening. All lines parallel to the axes are drawn to scale, and diagonals and curved lines are distorted. One tell-tale sign of oblique projection is that the face pointed toward the camera retains its right angles with respect to the image plane. Two examples of oblique projection are Ultima VII: The Black Gate and Paperboy. Examples of axonometric projection include SimCity 2000, and the role-playing games Diablo and Baldur's Gate. Billboarding In three-dimensional scenes, the term billboarding is applied to a technique in which objects are sometimes represented by two-dimensional images applied to a single polygon which is typically kept perpendicular to the line of sight. The name refers to the fact that objects are seen as if drawn on a billboard. This technique was commonly used in early 1990s video games when consoles did not have the hardware power to render fully 3D objects. This is also known as a backdrop. This can be used to good effect for a significant performance boost when the geometry is sufficiently distant that it can be seamlessly replaced with a 2D sprite. In games, this technique is most frequently applied to objects such as particles (smoke, sparks, rain) and low-detail vegetation. It has since become mainstream, and is found in many games such as Rome: Total War, where it is exploited to simultaneously display thousands of individual soldiers on a battlefield. Early examples include early first-person shooters like Marathon Trilogy, Wolfenstein 3D, Doom, Hexen and Duke Nukem 3D as well as racing games like Carmageddon and Super Mario Kart and platformers like Super Mario 64. Skyboxes and skydomes See also: Skybox (video games) Skyboxes and skydomes are methods used to easily create a background to make a game level look bigger than it really is. If the level is enclosed in a cube, the sky, distant mountains, distant buildings, and other unreachable objects are rendered onto the cube's faces using a technique called cube mapping, thus creating the illusion of distant three-dimensional surroundings. A skydome employs the same concept but uses a sphere or hemisphere instead of a cube. As a viewer moves through a 3D scene, it is common for the skybox or skydome to remain stationary with respect to the viewer. This technique gives the skybox the illusion of being very far away since other objects in the scene appear to move, while the skybox does not. This imitates real life, where distant objects such as clouds, stars and even mountains appear to be stationary when the viewpoint is displaced by relatively small distances. Effectively, everything in a skybox will always appear to be infinitely distant from the viewer. This consequence of skyboxes dictates that designers should be careful not to carelessly include images of discrete objects in the textures of a skybox since the viewer may be able to perceive the inconsistencies of those objects' sizes as the scene is traversed. Scaling along the Z axis In some games, sprites are scaled larger or smaller depending on its distance to the player, producing the illusion of motion along the Z (forward) axis. Sega's 1986 video game Out Run, which runs on the Sega OutRun arcade system board, is a good example of this technique. In Out Run, the player drives a Ferrari into depth of the game window. The palms on the left and right side of the street are the same bitmap, but have been scaled to different sizes, creating the illusion that some are closer than others. The angles of movement are "left and right" and "into the depth" (while still capable of doing so technically, this game did not allow making a U-turn or going into reverse, therefore moving "out of the depth", as this did not make sense to the high-speed game play and tense time limit). Notice the view is comparable to that which a driver would have in reality when driving a car. The position and size of any billboard is generated by a (complete 3D) perspective transformation as are the vertices of the poly-line representing the center of the street. Often the center of the street is stored as a spline and sampled in a way that on straight streets every sampling point corresponds to one scan-line on the screen. Hills and curves lead to multiple points on one line and one has to be chosen. Or one line is without any point and has to be interpolated lineary from the adjacent lines. Very memory intensive billboards are used in Out Run to draw corn-fields and water waves which are wider than the screen even at the largest viewing distance and also in Test Drive to draw trees and cliffs. Drakkhen was notable for being among the first role-playing video games to feature a three-dimensional playing field. However, it did not employ a conventional 3D game engine, instead emulating one using character-scaling algorithms. The player's party travels overland on a flat terrain made up of vectors, on which 2D objects are zoomed. Drakkhen features an animated day-night cycle, and the ability to wander freely about the game world, both rarities for a game of its era. This type of engine was later used in the game Eternam. Some mobile games that were released on the Java ME platform, such as the mobile version of Asphalt: Urban GT and Driver: L.A. Undercover, used this method for rendering the scenery. While the technique is similar to some of Sega's arcade games, such as Thunder Blade and Cool Riders and the 32-bit version of Road Rash, it uses polygons instead of sprite scaling for buildings and certain objects though it looks flat shaded. Later mobile games (mainly from Gameloft), such as Asphalt 4: Elite Racing and the mobile version of Iron Man 2, uses a mix of sprite scaling and texture mapping for some buildings and objects. Parallax scrolling An example of parallax scrolling Main article: Parallax scrolling Parallaxing refers to when a collection of 2D sprites or layers of sprites are made to move independently of each other and/or the background to create a sense of added depth.: 103  This depth cue is created by relative motion of layers. The technique grew out of the multiplane camera technique used in traditional animation since the 1940s. This type of graphical effect was first used in the 1982 arcade game Moon Patrol. Examples include the skies in Rise of the Triad, the arcade version of Rygar, Sonic the Hedgehog, Street Fighter II, Shadow of the Beast and Dracula X Chronicles, as well as Super Mario World. Mode 7 Main article: Mode 7 Mode 7, a display system effect that included rotation and scaling, allowed for a 3D effect while moving in any direction without any actual 3D models, and was used to simulate 3D graphics on the SNES. Ray casting Main article: Raycasting in early computer games Ray casting renderers cannot rotate the camera vertically like true 3D renderers (as seen on the right), therefore tricks such as shearing (left) are sometimes used to create an illusion of rotation. Ray casting is a first person pseudo-3D technique in which a ray for every vertical slice of the screen is sent from the position of the camera. These rays shoot out until they hit an object or wall, and that part of the wall is rendered in that vertical screen slice. Due to the limited camera movement and internally 2D playing field, this is often considered 2.5D. Bump, normal and parallax mapping Main articles: Bump mapping, Normal mapping, and Parallax mapping Bump mapping, normal mapping and parallax mapping are techniques applied to textures in 3D rendering applications such as video games to simulate bumps and wrinkles on the surface of an object without using more polygons. To the end user, this means that textures such as stone walls will have more apparent depth and thus greater realism with less of an influence on the performance of the simulation. Bump mapping is achieved by perturbing the surface normals of an object and using a grayscale image and the perturbed normal during illumination calculations. The result is an apparently bumpy surface rather than a perfectly smooth surface although the surface of the underlying object is not actually changed. Bump mapping was introduced by Blinn in 1978. A sphere without bump mapping (left). The bump map to be applied to the sphere (middle). The sphere with the bump map applied (right). In normal mapping, the unit vector from the shading point to the light source is dotted with the unit vector normal to that surface, and the dot product is the intensity of the light on that surface. Imagine a polygonal model of a sphere—you can only approximate the shape of the surface. By using a 3-channel bitmapped image textured across the model, more detailed normal vector information can be encoded. Each channel in the bitmap corresponds to a spatial dimension (x, y and z). These spatial dimensions are relative to a constant coordinate system for object-space normal maps, or to a smoothly varying coordinate system (based on the derivatives of position with respect to texture coordinates) in the case of tangent-space normal maps. This adds much more detail to the surface of a model, especially in conjunction with advanced lighting techniques. Parallax mapping (also called offset mapping or virtual displacement mapping) is an enhancement of the bump mapping and normal mapping techniques implemented by displacing the texture coordinates at a point on the rendered polygon by a function of the view angle in tangent space (the angle relative to the surface normal) and the value of the height map at that point. At steeper view-angles, the texture coordinates are displaced more, giving the illusion of depth due to parallax effects as the view changes. Film and animation techniques The term is also used to describe an animation effect commonly used in music videos and, more frequently, title sequences. Brought to wide attention by the motion picture The Kid Stays in the Picture, an adaptation of film producer Robert Evans's memoir, it involves the layering and animating of two-dimensional pictures in three-dimensional space. Earlier examples of this technique include Liz Phair's music video "Down" (directed by Rodney Ascher) and "A Special Tree" (directed by musician Giorgio Moroder). On a larger scale, the 2018 movie In Saturn's Rings used over 7.5 million separate two-dimensional images, captured in space or by telescopes, which were composited and moved using multi-plane animation techniques. Graphic design The term also refers to an often-used effect in the design of icons and graphical user interfaces (GUIs), where a slight 3D illusion is created by the presence of a virtual light source to the left (or in some cases right) side, and above a person's computer monitor. The light source itself is always invisible, but its effects are seen in the lighter colors for the top and left side, simulating reflection, and the darker colours to the right and below of such objects, simulating shadow. An advanced version of this technique can be found in some specialised graphic design software, such as Pixologic's ZBrush. The idea is that the program's canvas represents a normal 2D painting surface, but that the data structure that holds the pixel information is also able to store information with respect to a z-index, as well material settings, specularity, etc. Again, with this data it is thus possible to simulate lighting, shadows, and so forth. History The first video games that used pseudo-3D were primarily arcade games, the earliest known examples dating back to the mid-1970s, when they began using microprocessors. In 1975, Taito released Interceptor, an early first-person shooter and combat flight simulator that involved piloting a jet fighter, using an eight-way joystick to aim with a crosshair and shoot at enemy aircraft that move in formations of two and increase/decrease in size depending on their distance to the player. In 1976, Sega released Moto-Cross, an early black-and-white motorbike racing video game, based on the motocross competition, that was most notable for introducing an early three-dimensional third-person perspective. Later that year, Sega-Gremlin re-branded the game as Fonz, as a tie-in for the popular sitcom Happy Days. Both versions of the game displayed a constantly changing forward-scrolling road and the player's bike in a third-person perspective where objects nearer to the player are larger than those nearer to the horizon, and the aim was to steer the vehicle across the road, racing against the clock, while avoiding any on-coming motorcycles or driving off the road. That same year also saw the release of two arcade games that extended the car driving subgenre into three dimensions with a first-person perspective: Sega's Road Race, which displayed a constantly changing forward-scrolling S-shaped road with two obstacle race cars moving along the road that the player must avoid crashing while racing against the clock, and Atari's Night Driver, which presented a series of posts by the edge of the road though there was no view of the road or the player's car. Games using vector graphics had an advantage in creating pseudo-3D effects. 1979's Speed Freak recreated the perspective of Night Driver in greater detail. In 1979, Nintendo debuted Radar Scope, a shoot 'em up that introduced a three-dimensional third-person perspective to the genre, imitated years later by shooters such as Konami's Juno First and Activision's Beamrider. In 1980, Atari's Battlezone was a breakthrough for pseudo-3D gaming, recreating a 3D perspective with unprecedented realism, though the gameplay was still planar. It was followed up that same year by Red Baron, which used scaling vector images to create a forward scrolling rail shooter. Sega's arcade shooter Space Tactics, released in 1980, allowed players to take aim using crosshairs and shoot lasers into the screen at enemies coming towards them, creating an early 3D effect. It was followed by other arcade shooters with a first-person perspective during the early 1980s, including Taito's 1981 release Space Seeker, and Sega's Star Trek in 1982. Sega's SubRoc-3D in 1982 also featured a first-person perspective and introduced the use of stereoscopic 3-D through a special eyepiece. Sega's Astron Belt in 1983 was the first laserdisc video game, using full-motion video to display the graphics from a first-person perspective. Third-person rail shooters were also released in arcades at the time, including Sega's Tac/Scan in 1982, Nippon's Ambush in 1983, Nichibutsu's Tube Panic in 1983, and Sega's 1982 release Buck Rogers: Planet of Zoom, notable for its fast pseudo-3D scaling and detailed sprites. In 1981, Sega's Turbo was the first racing game to use sprite scaling with full-colour graphics. Pole Position by Namco is one of the first racing games to use the trailing camera effect that is now so familiar . In this particular example, the effect was produced by linescroll—the practice of scrolling each line independently in order to warp an image. In this case, the warping would simulate curves and steering. To make the road appear to move towards the player, per-line color changes were used, though many console versions opted for palette animation instead. Zaxxon, a shooter introduced by Sega in 1982, was the first game to use isometric axonometric projection, from which its name is derived. Though Zaxxon's playing field is semantically 3D, the game has many constraints which classify it as 2.5D: a fixed point of view, scene composition from sprites, and movements such as bullet shots restricted to straight lines along the axes. It was also one of the first video games to display shadows. The following year, Sega released the first pseudo-3D isometric platformer, Congo Bongo. Another early pseudo-3D platform game released that year was Konami's Antarctic Adventure, where the player controls a penguin in a forward-scrolling third-person perspective while having to jump over pits and obstacles. It was one of the earliest pseudo-3D games available on a computer, released for the MSX in 1983. That same year, Irem's Moon Patrol was a side-scrolling run & gun platform-shooter that introduced the use of layered parallax scrolling to give a pseudo-3D effect. In 1985, Space Harrier introduced Sega's "Super Scaler" technology that allowed pseudo-3D sprite-scaling at high frame rates, with the ability to scale 32,000 sprites and fill a moving landscape with them. The first original home console game to use pseudo-3D, and also the first to use multiple camera angles mirrored on television sports broadcasts, was Intellivision World Series Baseball (1983) by Don Daglow and Eddie Dombrower, published by Mattel. Its television sports style of display was later adopted by 3D sports games and is now used by virtually all major team sports titles. In 1984, Sega ported several pseudo-3D arcade games to the Sega SG-1000 console, including a smooth conversion of the third-person pseudo-3D rail shooter Buck Rogers: Planet of Zoom. By 1989, 2.5D representations were surfaces drawn with depth cues and a part of graphic libraries like GINO. 2.5D was also used in terrain modeling with software packages such as ISM from Dynamic Graphics, GEOPAK from Uniras and the Intergraph DTM system. 2.5D surface techniques gained popularity within the geography community because of its ability to visualize the normal thickness to area ratio used in many geographic models; this ratio was very small and reflected the thinness of the object in relation to its width, which made it the object realistic in a specific plane. These representations were axiomatic in that the entire subsurface domain was not used or the entire domain could not be reconstructed; therefore, it used only a surface and a surface is one aspect not the full 3D identity. The specific term "two-and-a-half-D" was used as early as 1994 by Warren Spector in an interview in the North American premiere issue of PC Gamer magazine. At the time, the term was understood to refer specifically to first-person shooters like Wolfenstein 3D and Doom, to distinguish them from System Shock's "true" 3D engine. With the advent of consoles and computer systems that were able to handle several thousand polygons (the most basic element of 3D computer graphics) per second and the usage of 3D specialized graphics processing units, pseudo-3D became obsolete. But even today, there are computer systems in production, such as cellphones, which are often not powerful enough to display true 3D graphics, and therefore use pseudo-3D for that purpose. Many games from the 1980s' pseudo-3D arcade era and 16-bit console era are ported to these systems, giving the manufacturers the possibility to earn revenues from games that are several decades old. Fly through the Trenta Valley The resurgence of 2.5D or visual analysis, in natural and earth science, has increased the role of computer systems in the creation of spatial information in mapping. GVIS has made real the search for unknowns, real-time interaction with spatial data, and control over map display and has paid particular attention to three-dimensional representations. Efforts in GVIS have attempted to expand higher dimensions and make them more visible; most efforts have focused on "tricking" vision into seeing three dimensions in a 2D plane. Much like 2.5D displays where the surface of a three-dimensional object is represented but locations within the solid are distorted or not accessible. Technical aspects and generalizations This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The reason for using pseudo-3D instead of "real" 3D computer graphics is that the system that has to simulate a 3D-looking graphic is not powerful enough to handle the calculation-intensive routines of 3D computer graphics, yet is capable of using tricks of modifying 2D graphics like bitmaps. One of these tricks is to stretch a bitmap more and more, therefore making it larger with each step, as to give the effect of an object coming closer and closer towards the player. Even simple shading and size of an image could be considered pseudo-3D, as shading makes it look more realistic. If the light in a 2D game were 2D, it would only be visible on the outline, and because outlines are often dark, they would not be very clearly visible. However, any visible shading would indicate the usage of pseudo-3D lighting and that the image uses pseudo-3D graphics. Changing the size of an image can cause the image to appear to be moving closer or further away, which could be considered simulating a third dimension. Dimensions are the variables of the data and can be mapped to specific locations in space; 2D data can be given 3D volume by adding a value to the x, y, or z plane. "Assigning height to 2D regions of a topographic map" associating every 2D location with a height/elevation value creates a 2.5D projection; this is not considered a "true 3D representation", however is used like 3D visual representation to "simplify visual processing of imagery and the resulting spatial cognition". See also 3D computer graphics Bas-relief Cel-shaded animation Flash animation Head-coupled perspective Isometric graphics in video games Limited animation List of stereoscopic video games Live2D Ray casting Trompe-l'œil Vector graphics References ^ a b c d e MacEachren, Alan. "GVIS Facilitating Visual Thinking." In How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and Design, 355–458. New York: The Guilford Press, 1995. ^ Liu, C (February 2002). "Reassessing the 3/4 view effect in face recognition". Cognition. 83 (1): 31–48(18). doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(01)00164-0. PMID 11814485. S2CID 23998061. ^ a b "Axonometric Projection". merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on September 19, 2011. Retrieved March 19, 2018. ^ Pile Jr, John (May 2013). 2D Graphics Programming for Games. New York, NY: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1466501898. ^ Paul, Wyatt (August 2007). "The Art of Parallax Scrolling" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 7, 2009. Retrieved July 6, 2009. ^ Stahl, Ted (July 26, 2006). "Chronology of the History of Video Games: Golden Age". Archived from the original on November 27, 2009. Retrieved November 21, 2009. ^ "Ray Casting (Concept) - Giant Bomb". Retrieved August 31, 2021. ^ "Raycasting". lodev.org. Retrieved March 19, 2018. ^ "Castenstein - bytecode77". Retrieved August 31, 2021. ^ Blinn, James F. "Simulation of Wrinkled Surfaces", Computer Graphics, Vol. 12 (3), pp. 286–292 SIGGRAPH-ACM (August 1978) ^ "Tomohiro Nishikado's biography at his company's web site". Dreams, Inc. Archived from the original on April 1, 2009. Retrieved March 27, 2011. ^ Interceptor at the Killer List of Videogames ^ a b Moto-Cross at the Killer List of Videogames ^ a b Fonz at the Killer List of Videogames ^ Road Race at the Killer List of Videogames ^ "Where Were They Then: The First Games of Nintendo, Konami, and More from 1UP.com". October 17, 2012. Archived from the original on October 17, 2012. Retrieved March 19, 2018. ^ Space Tactics at the Killer List of Videogames ^ Space Seeker at the Killer List of Videogames ^ Star Trek at the Killer List of Videogames ^ SubRoc-3D at the Killer List of Videogames ^ "Astron Belt - Overview - allgame". Archived from the original on November 14, 2014. ^ Tac/Scan at the Killer List of Videogames ^ Ambush at the Killer List of Videogames ^ "Tube Panic - Overview - allgame". Archived from the original on November 15, 2014. ^ Buck Rogers – Planet Of Zoom at the Killer List of Videogames ^ a b Fahs, Travis (April 21, 2009). "IGN Presents the History of SEGA". ign.com. Retrieved March 19, 2018. ^ Bernard Perron & Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), Video game theory reader two, p. 158, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-415-96282-X ^ Congo Bongo at the Killer List of Videogames ^ Antarctic Adventure at the Killer List of Videogames ^ "Antarctic Adventure - Overview - allgame". Archived from the original on November 14, 2014. ^ a b Antarctic Adventure at MobyGames ^ "Gaming's most important evolutions". GamesRadar. Archived from the original on June 15, 2011. ^ a b "IGN Presents the History of SEGA". ign.com. April 21, 2009. Retrieved March 19, 2018. ^ Bernard Perron & Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), Video game theory reader two, p. 157, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-415-96282-X ^ a b c d Raper, Jonathan. "The 3-dimensional geoscientific mapping and modeling system: a conceptual design." In Three dimensional applications in Geographic Information Systems, edited by Jonathan F. Raper, 11–19. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis Inc., 19. vteComputer graphicsVector graphics Diffusion curve Pixel 2D graphics Alpha compositing Layers Text-to-image 2.5D Isometric graphics Mode 7 Parallax scrolling Ray casting Skybox 3D graphics 3D projection 3D rendering (Image-based Spectral Unbiased) Aliasing Anisotropic filtering Cel shading Fluid animation Lighting Global illumination Hidden-surface determination Polygon mesh (Triangle mesh) Shading Deferred Surface triangulation Wire-frame model Concepts Affine transformation Back-face culling Clipping Collision detection Planar projection Reflection Rendering Beam tracing Cone tracing Checkerboard rendering Ray tracing Path tracing Ray casting Scanline rendering Rotation Scaling Shadow mapping Shadow volume Shear matrix Shader Texel Translation Volume rendering Voxel Graphics software 3D computer graphics software animation modeling rendering Raster graphics editors Vector graphics editors Algorithms List of computer graphics algorithms

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2.5D (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5D_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"gameplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gameplay"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"virtual reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality"},{"link_name":"two-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"third dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional_space"},{"link_name":"2D graphical projections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"three-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional_space_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"geographic visualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_visualization"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacEachren-1"},{"link_name":"three-quarter profile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-quarter_profile"},{"link_name":"portraiture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait"},{"link_name":"facial recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_perception"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"For other uses, see 2.5D (disambiguation).2.5D (basic pronunciation two-and-a-half dimensional) perspective refers to gameplay or movement in a video game or virtual reality environment that is restricted to a two-dimensional (2D) plane with little or no access to a third dimension in a space that otherwise appears to be three-dimensional and is often simulated and rendered in a 3D digital environment.This is similar but different from pseudo-3D perspective (sometimes called three-quarter view when the environment is portrayed from an angled top-down perspective), which refers to 2D graphical projections and similar techniques used to cause images or scenes to simulate the appearance of being three-dimensional (3D) when in fact they are not.By contrast, games, spaces or perspectives that are simulated and rendered in 3D and used in 3D level design are said to be true 3D, and 2D rendered games made to appear as 2D without approximating a 3D image are said to be true 2D.Common in video games, 2.5D projections have also been useful in geographic visualization (GVIS) to help understand visual-cognitive spatial representations or 3D visualization.[1]The terms three-quarter perspective and three-quarter view trace their origins to the three-quarter profile in portraiture and facial recognition, which depicts a person's face that is partway between a frontal view and a side view.[2]","title":"2.5D"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Isometric computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_computer_graphics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lincity-ng.png"},{"link_name":"Lincity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincity"},{"link_name":"axonometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axonometric"},{"link_name":"axonometric projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axonometric_projection"},{"link_name":"oblique projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_projection"},{"link_name":"parallel projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_projection"},{"link_name":"top-down perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_perspective"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WPCleanerAuto1-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WPCleanerAuto1-3"},{"link_name":"2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"16-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_(fourth_generation)"},{"link_name":"handheld consoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_video_game"},{"link_name":"strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_video_game"},{"link_name":"role-playing video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-playing_video_game"},{"link_name":"top-down game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_perspective"},{"link_name":"side-scrolling game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-scrolling_video_game"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sprite_anatomy_2d.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sprite_anatomy_3d.svg"},{"link_name":"sprite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"engineering drawing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_drawing"},{"link_name":"oblique projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_projection"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Ultima VII: The Black Gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultima_VII:_The_Black_Gate"},{"link_name":"Paperboy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperboy_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"SimCity 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity_2000"},{"link_name":"Diablo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diablo_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Baldur's Gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldur%27s_Gate_(video_game)"}],"sub_title":"Axonometric and oblique projection","text":"See also: Isometric computer graphicsLincity tiles 2D axonometric graphical elements to form a pseudo-3D game environment.In axonometric projection and oblique projection, two forms of parallel projection, the viewpoint is rotated slightly to reveal other facets of the environment than what are visible in a top-down perspective or side view, thereby producing a three-dimensional effect. An object is \"considered to be in an inclined position resulting in foreshortening of all three axes\",[3] and the image is a \"representation on a single plane (as a drawing surface) of a three-dimensional object placed at an angle to the plane of projection.\"[3] Lines perpendicular to the plane become points, lines parallel to the plane have true length, and lines inclined to the plane are foreshortened.They are popular camera perspectives among 2D video games, most commonly those released for 16-bit or earlier and handheld consoles, as well as in later strategy and role-playing video games. The advantage of these perspectives is that they combine the visibility and mobility of a top-down game with the character recognizability of a side-scrolling game. Thus the player can be presented an overview of the game world in the ability to see it from above, more or less, and with additional details in artwork made possible by using an angle: Instead of showing a humanoid in top-down perspective, as a head and shoulders seen from above, the entire body can be drawn when using a slanted angle; turning a character around would reveal how it looks from the sides, the front and the back, while the top-down perspective will display the same head and shoulders regardless.Anatomy of an axonometric sprite. 2D sprite coordinates are on the left. 3D model coordinates are on the right.There are three main divisions of axonometric projection: isometric (equal measure), dimetric (symmetrical and unsymmetrical), and trimetric (single-view or only two sides). The most common of these drawing types in engineering drawing is isometric projection. This projection is tilted so that all three axes create equal angles at intervals of 120 degrees. The result is that all three axes are equally foreshortened. In video games, a form of dimetric projection with a 2:1 pixel ratio is more common due to the problems of anti-aliasing and square pixels found on most computer monitors.In oblique projection typically all three axes are shown without foreshortening. All lines parallel to the axes are drawn to scale, and diagonals and curved lines are distorted. One tell-tale sign of oblique projection is that the face pointed toward the camera retains its right angles with respect to the image plane.[clarification needed]Two examples of oblique projection are Ultima VII: The Black Gate and Paperboy. Examples of axonometric projection include SimCity 2000, and the role-playing games Diablo and Baldur's Gate.","title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard"},{"link_name":"sprite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"Rome: Total War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome:_Total_War"},{"link_name":"Marathon Trilogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_Trilogy"},{"link_name":"Wolfenstein 3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfenstein_3D"},{"link_name":"Doom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doom_(1993_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Hexen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexen:_Beyond_Heretic"},{"link_name":"Duke Nukem 3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Nukem_3D"},{"link_name":"Carmageddon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmageddon"},{"link_name":"Super Mario Kart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Kart"},{"link_name":"Super Mario 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_64"}],"sub_title":"Billboarding","text":"In three-dimensional scenes, the term billboarding is applied to a technique in which objects are sometimes represented by two-dimensional images applied to a single polygon which is typically kept perpendicular to the line of sight. The name refers to the fact that objects are seen as if drawn on a billboard. This technique was commonly used in early 1990s video games when consoles did not have the hardware power to render fully 3D objects. This is also known as a backdrop. This can be used to good effect for a significant performance boost when the geometry is sufficiently distant that it can be seamlessly replaced with a 2D sprite. In games, this technique is most frequently applied to objects such as particles (smoke, sparks, rain) and low-detail vegetation. It has since become mainstream, and is found in many games such as Rome: Total War, where it is exploited to simultaneously display thousands of individual soldiers on a battlefield. Early examples include early first-person shooters like Marathon Trilogy, Wolfenstein 3D, Doom, Hexen and Duke Nukem 3D as well as racing games like Carmageddon and Super Mario Kart and platformers like Super Mario 64.","title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Skybox (video games)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skybox_(video_games)"},{"link_name":"level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_(video_gaming)"},{"link_name":"cube mapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_mapping"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"}],"sub_title":"Skyboxes and skydomes","text":"See also: Skybox (video games)Skyboxes and skydomes are methods used to easily create a background to make a game level look bigger than it really is. If the level is enclosed in a cube, the sky, distant mountains, distant buildings, and other unreachable objects are rendered onto the cube's faces using a technique called cube mapping, thus creating the illusion of distant three-dimensional surroundings. A skydome employs the same concept but uses a sphere or hemisphere instead of a cube.As a viewer moves through a 3D scene, it is common for the skybox or skydome to remain stationary with respect to the viewer. This technique gives the skybox the illusion of being very far away since other objects in the scene appear to move, while the skybox does not. This imitates real life, where distant objects such as clouds, stars and even mountains appear to be stationary when the viewpoint is displaced by relatively small distances. Effectively, everything in a skybox will always appear to be infinitely distant from the viewer. This consequence of skyboxes dictates that designers should be careful not to carelessly include images of discrete objects in the textures of a skybox since the viewer may be able to perceive the inconsistencies of those objects' sizes as the scene is traversed.","title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Out Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_Run"},{"link_name":"Sega OutRun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_OutRun"},{"link_name":"arcade system board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_system_board"},{"link_name":"bitmap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitmap"},{"link_name":"reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality"},{"link_name":"Test Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Drive_(1987_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Drakkhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drakkhen"},{"link_name":"role-playing video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-playing_video_game"},{"link_name":"Eternam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternam"},{"link_name":"Asphalt: Urban GT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphalt_Urban_GT"},{"link_name":"Driver: L.A. Undercover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driver:_L.A._Undercover"},{"link_name":"Thunder Blade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder_Blade"},{"link_name":"Cool Riders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_Riders"},{"link_name":"Road Rash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_Rash_(video_game)#CD-based_versions"},{"link_name":"Asphalt 4: Elite Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphalt_4:_Elite_Racing"},{"link_name":"Iron Man 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2_(video_game)"}],"sub_title":"Scaling along the Z axis","text":"In some games, sprites are scaled larger or smaller depending on its distance to the player, producing the illusion of motion along the Z (forward) axis. Sega's 1986 video game Out Run, which runs on the Sega OutRun arcade system board, is a good example of this technique.In Out Run, the player drives a Ferrari into depth of the game window. The palms on the left and right side of the street are the same bitmap, but have been scaled to different sizes, creating the illusion that some are closer than others. The angles of movement are \"left and right\" and \"into the depth\" (while still capable of doing so technically, this game did not allow making a U-turn or going into reverse, therefore moving \"out of the depth\", as this did not make sense to the high-speed game play and tense time limit). Notice the view is comparable to that which a driver would have in reality when driving a car. The position and size of any billboard is generated by a (complete 3D) perspective transformation as are the vertices of the poly-line representing the center of the street. Often the center of the street is stored as a spline and sampled in a way that on straight streets every sampling point corresponds to one scan-line on the screen. Hills and curves lead to multiple points on one line and one has to be chosen. Or one line is without any point and has to be interpolated lineary from the adjacent lines. Very memory intensive billboards are used in Out Run to draw corn-fields and water waves which are wider than the screen even at the largest viewing distance and also in Test Drive to draw trees and cliffs.Drakkhen was notable for being among the first role-playing video games to feature a three-dimensional playing field. However, it did not employ a conventional 3D game engine, instead emulating one using character-scaling algorithms. The player's party travels overland on a flat terrain made up of vectors, on which 2D objects are zoomed. Drakkhen features an animated day-night cycle, and the ability to wander freely about the game world, both rarities for a game of its era. This type of engine was later used in the game Eternam.Some mobile games that were released on the Java ME platform, such as the mobile version of Asphalt: Urban GT and Driver: L.A. Undercover, used this method for rendering the scenery. While the technique is similar to some of Sega's arcade games, such as Thunder Blade and Cool Riders and the 32-bit version of Road Rash, it uses polygons instead of sprite scaling for buildings and certain objects though it looks flat shaded. Later mobile games (mainly from Gameloft), such as Asphalt 4: Elite Racing and the mobile version of Iron Man 2, uses a mix of sprite scaling and texture mapping for some buildings and objects.","title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parallax_scroll.gif"},{"link_name":"parallax scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_scrolling"},{"link_name":"Parallaxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax"},{"link_name":"2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"sprites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pile-4"},{"link_name":"multiplane camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_camera"},{"link_name":"traditional animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_animation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-art-5"},{"link_name":"arcade game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"Moon Patrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_Patrol"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Rise of the Triad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_the_Triad"},{"link_name":"Rygar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rygar"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_(1991_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Street Fighter II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_Fighter_II"},{"link_name":"Shadow of the Beast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_of_the_Beast_(1989_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Dracula X Chronicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castlevania:_Rondo_of_Blood#Castlevania:_The_Dracula_X_Chronicles"},{"link_name":"Super Mario World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_World"}],"sub_title":"Parallax scrolling","text":"An example of parallax scrollingParallaxing refers to when a collection of 2D sprites or layers of sprites are made to move independently of each other and/or the background to create a sense of added depth.[4]: 103  This depth cue is created by relative motion of layers. The technique grew out of the multiplane camera technique used in traditional animation since the 1940s.[5] This type of graphical effect was first used in the 1982 arcade game Moon Patrol.[6]\nExamples include the skies in Rise of the Triad, the arcade version of Rygar, Sonic the Hedgehog, Street Fighter II, Shadow of the Beast and Dracula X Chronicles, as well as Super Mario World.","title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mode 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_7"},{"link_name":"SNES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System"}],"sub_title":"Mode 7","text":"Mode 7, a display system effect that included rotation and scaling, allowed for a 3D effect while moving in any direction without any actual 3D models, and was used to simulate 3D graphics on the SNES.","title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Camera_Rotation_vs_Shearing.gif"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-giantbomb_raycasting-7"},{"link_name":"first person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-person_(video_games)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-explanation_raycasting_2.5d-9"}],"sub_title":"Ray casting","text":"Ray casting renderers cannot rotate the camera vertically[7] like true 3D renderers (as seen on the right), therefore tricks such as shearing (left) are sometimes used to create an illusion of rotation.Ray casting is a first person pseudo-3D technique in which a ray for every vertical slice of the screen is sent from the position of the camera. These rays shoot out until they hit an object or wall, and that part of the wall is rendered in that vertical screen slice.[8] Due to the limited camera movement and internally 2D playing field, this is often considered 2.5D.[9]","title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"textures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mapping"},{"link_name":"3D rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_rendering"},{"link_name":"video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"polygons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygonal_modeling"},{"link_name":"surface normals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_normal"},{"link_name":"grayscale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grayscale"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blinn-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bump-map-demo-full.png"},{"link_name":"bump mapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bump_mapping"},{"link_name":"vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(geometric)"},{"link_name":"dotted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_product"},{"link_name":"height map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_map"},{"link_name":"parallax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax"}],"sub_title":"Bump, normal and parallax mapping","text":"Bump mapping, normal mapping and parallax mapping are techniques applied to textures in 3D rendering applications such as video games to simulate bumps and wrinkles on the surface of an object without using more polygons. To the end user, this means that textures such as stone walls will have more apparent depth and thus greater realism with less of an influence on the performance of the simulation.Bump mapping is achieved by perturbing the surface normals of an object and using a grayscale image and the perturbed normal during illumination calculations. The result is an apparently bumpy surface rather than a perfectly smooth surface although the surface of the underlying object is not actually changed. Bump mapping was introduced by Blinn in 1978.[10]A sphere without bump mapping (left). The bump map to be applied to the sphere (middle). The sphere with the bump map applied (right).In normal mapping, the unit vector from the shading point to the light source is dotted with the unit vector normal to that surface, and the dot product is the intensity of the light on that surface. Imagine a polygonal model of a sphere—you can only approximate the shape of the surface. By using a 3-channel bitmapped image textured across the model, more detailed normal vector information can be encoded. Each channel in the bitmap corresponds to a spatial dimension (x, y and z). These spatial dimensions are relative to a constant coordinate system for object-space normal maps, or to a smoothly varying coordinate system (based on the derivatives of position with respect to texture coordinates) in the case of tangent-space normal maps. This adds much more detail to the surface of a model, especially in conjunction with advanced lighting techniques.Parallax mapping (also called offset mapping or virtual displacement mapping) is an enhancement of the bump mapping and normal mapping techniques implemented by displacing the texture coordinates at a point on the rendered polygon by a function of the view angle in tangent space (the angle relative to the surface normal) and the value of the height map at that point. At steeper view-angles, the texture coordinates are displaced more, giving the illusion of depth due to parallax effects as the view changes.","title":"Computer graphics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animation"},{"link_name":"The Kid Stays in the Picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kid_Stays_in_the_Picture"},{"link_name":"Robert Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Evans_(film_producer)"},{"link_name":"Liz Phair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_Phair"},{"link_name":"Rodney Ascher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Ascher"},{"link_name":"Giorgio Moroder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Moroder"},{"link_name":"In Saturn's Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Saturn%27s_Rings"}],"text":"The term is also used to describe an animation effect commonly used in music videos and, more frequently, title sequences. Brought to wide attention by the motion picture The Kid Stays in the Picture, an adaptation of film producer Robert Evans's memoir, it involves the layering and animating of two-dimensional pictures in three-dimensional space. Earlier examples of this technique include Liz Phair's music video \"Down\" (directed by Rodney Ascher) and \"A Special Tree\" (directed by musician Giorgio Moroder).On a larger scale, the 2018 movie In Saturn's Rings used over 7.5 million separate two-dimensional images, captured in space or by telescopes, which were composited and moved using multi-plane animation techniques.","title":"Film and animation techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"icons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon_(computing)"},{"link_name":"graphical user interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"computer monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_display"},{"link_name":"ZBrush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZBrush"},{"link_name":"z-index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-index"},{"link_name":"specularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specularity"}],"text":"The term also refers to an often-used effect in the design of icons and graphical user interfaces (GUIs), where a slight 3D illusion is created by the presence of a virtual light source to the left (or in some cases right) side, and above a person's computer monitor. The light source itself is always invisible, but its effects are seen in the lighter colors for the top and left side, simulating reflection, and the darker colours to the right and below of such objects, simulating shadow.An advanced version of this technique can be found in some specialised graphic design software, such as Pixologic's ZBrush. The idea is that the program's canvas represents a normal 2D painting surface, but that the data structure that holds the pixel information is also able to store information with respect to a z-index, as well material settings, specularity, etc. Again, with this data it is thus possible to simulate lighting, shadows, and so forth.","title":"Graphic design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"arcade games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"microprocessors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"Taito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taito"},{"link_name":"Interceptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomohiro_Nishikado#Interceptor"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreams-11"},{"link_name":"first-person shooter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-person_shooter"},{"link_name":"combat flight simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_flight_simulation_game"},{"link_name":"jet fighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircraft"},{"link_name":"joystick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Interceptor-12"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Moto-Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonz_(arcade)"},{"link_name":"motorbike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorbike"},{"link_name":"racing video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_video_game"},{"link_name":"motocross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motocross"},{"link_name":"third-person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-person_(video_games)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moto-Cross-13"},{"link_name":"Sega-Gremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gremlin_Industries"},{"link_name":"Fonz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonz_(arcade)"},{"link_name":"sitcom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitcom"},{"link_name":"Happy Days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Days"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fonz-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moto-Cross-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fonz-14"},{"link_name":"driving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driving"},{"link_name":"first-person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_person_(video_games)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Road-Race-15"},{"link_name":"Atari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari"},{"link_name":"Night Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_Driver_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"vector graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphics"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"Radar Scope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_Scope"},{"link_name":"shoot 'em up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoot_%27em_up"},{"link_name":"shooters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooter_game"},{"link_name":"Konami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konami"},{"link_name":"Juno First","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_First"},{"link_name":"Activision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activision"},{"link_name":"Beamrider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beamrider"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Battlezone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlezone_(1980_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Red Baron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Baron_(1980_video_game)"},{"link_name":"rail shooter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_shooter"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Taito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taito"},{"link_name":"Space Seeker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Taito_games"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Star Trek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"SubRoc-3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SubRoc-3D"},{"link_name":"stereoscopic 3-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stereoscopic_video_games"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Astron Belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astron_Belt"},{"link_name":"laserdisc video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserdisc_video_game"},{"link_name":"full-motion video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full-motion_video"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Third-person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-person_shooter"},{"link_name":"Tac/Scan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tac/Scan"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Nippon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Electric_Company"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Nichibutsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Bussan"},{"link_name":"Tube Panic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Bussan#Action_role-playing"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Buck Rogers: Planet of Zoom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_Rogers:_Planet_of_Zoom"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN-Sega-26"},{"link_name":"Turbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"sprite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN-Sega-26"},{"link_name":"Pole Position","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_Position"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"palette animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palette_animation"},{"link_name":"Zaxxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaxxon"},{"link_name":"game to use isometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_graphics_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"axonometric projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axonometric_projection"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Perron-27"},{"link_name":"isometric platformer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_adventure_game"},{"link_name":"Congo Bongo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_Bongo"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"platform game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_game"},{"link_name":"Konami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konami"},{"link_name":"Antarctic Adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_Adventure"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KLOV-Antarctic-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allgame-Antarctic-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moby-Antarctic-31"},{"link_name":"MSX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSX"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moby-Antarctic-31"},{"link_name":"Irem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irem"},{"link_name":"Moon Patrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_Patrol"},{"link_name":"side-scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-scrolling_video_game"},{"link_name":"run & gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run_and_gun_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"parallax scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_scrolling"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-parallax-32"},{"link_name":"Space Harrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Harrier"},{"link_name":"Super Scaler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Super_Scaler"},{"link_name":"sprite-scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)#Move_to_3D"},{"link_name":"frame rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-33"},{"link_name":"sprites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"console game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Console_game"},{"link_name":"Intellivision World Series Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellivision_World_Series_Baseball"},{"link_name":"Don Daglow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Daglow"},{"link_name":"Eddie Dombrower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Dombrower"},{"link_name":"Mattel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattel"},{"link_name":"sports games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_game"},{"link_name":"Sega SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_SG-1000"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-33"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raper-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raper-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raper-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raper-35"},{"link_name":"PC Gamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Gamer"},{"link_name":"Wolfenstein 3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfenstein_3D"},{"link_name":"System Shock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Shock"},{"link_name":"computer systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_system"},{"link_name":"polygons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon"},{"link_name":"3D computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Geabios_alps.gif"},{"link_name":"Trenta Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenta_(valley)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacEachren-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacEachren-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacEachren-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacEachren-1"}],"text":"The first video games that used pseudo-3D were primarily arcade games, the earliest known examples dating back to the mid-1970s, when they began using microprocessors. In 1975, Taito released Interceptor,[11] an early first-person shooter and combat flight simulator that involved piloting a jet fighter, using an eight-way joystick to aim with a crosshair and shoot at enemy aircraft that move in formations of two and increase/decrease in size depending on their distance to the player.[12] In 1976, Sega released Moto-Cross, an early black-and-white motorbike racing video game, based on the motocross competition, that was most notable for introducing an early three-dimensional third-person perspective.[13] Later that year, Sega-Gremlin re-branded the game as Fonz, as a tie-in for the popular sitcom Happy Days.[14] Both versions of the game displayed a constantly changing forward-scrolling road and the player's bike in a third-person perspective where objects nearer to the player are larger than those nearer to the horizon, and the aim was to steer the vehicle across the road, racing against the clock, while avoiding any on-coming motorcycles or driving off the road.[13][14] That same year also saw the release of two arcade games that extended the car driving subgenre into three dimensions with a first-person perspective: Sega's Road Race, which displayed a constantly changing forward-scrolling S-shaped road with two obstacle race cars moving along the road that the player must avoid crashing while racing against the clock,[15] and Atari's Night Driver, which presented a series of posts by the edge of the road though there was no view of the road or the player's car. Games using vector graphics had an advantage in creating pseudo-3D effects. 1979's Speed Freak recreated the perspective of Night Driver in greater detail.In 1979, Nintendo debuted Radar Scope, a shoot 'em up that introduced a three-dimensional third-person perspective to the genre, imitated years later by shooters such as Konami's Juno First and Activision's Beamrider.[16] In 1980, Atari's Battlezone was a breakthrough for pseudo-3D gaming, recreating a 3D perspective with unprecedented realism, though the gameplay was still planar. It was followed up that same year by Red Baron, which used scaling vector images to create a forward scrolling rail shooter.Sega's arcade shooter Space Tactics, released in 1980, allowed players to take aim using crosshairs and shoot lasers into the screen at enemies coming towards them, creating an early 3D effect.[17] It was followed by other arcade shooters with a first-person perspective during the early 1980s, including Taito's 1981 release Space Seeker,[18] and Sega's Star Trek in 1982.[19] Sega's SubRoc-3D in 1982 also featured a first-person perspective and introduced the use of stereoscopic 3-D through a special eyepiece.[20] Sega's Astron Belt in 1983 was the first laserdisc video game, using full-motion video to display the graphics from a first-person perspective.[21] Third-person rail shooters were also released in arcades at the time, including Sega's Tac/Scan in 1982,[22] Nippon's Ambush in 1983,[23] Nichibutsu's Tube Panic in 1983,[24] and Sega's 1982 release Buck Rogers: Planet of Zoom,[25] notable for its fast pseudo-3D scaling and detailed sprites.[26]In 1981, Sega's Turbo was the first racing game to use sprite scaling with full-colour graphics.[26] Pole Position by Namco is one of the first racing games to use the trailing camera effect that is now so familiar [citation needed]. In this particular example, the effect was produced by linescroll—the practice of scrolling each line independently in order to warp an image. In this case, the warping would simulate curves and steering. To make the road appear to move towards the player, per-line color changes were used, though many console versions opted for palette animation instead.Zaxxon, a shooter introduced by Sega in 1982, was the first game to use isometric axonometric projection, from which its name is derived. Though Zaxxon's playing field is semantically 3D, the game has many constraints which classify it as 2.5D: a fixed point of view, scene composition from sprites, and movements such as bullet shots restricted to straight lines along the axes. It was also one of the first video games to display shadows.[27] The following year, Sega released the first pseudo-3D isometric platformer, Congo Bongo.[28] Another early pseudo-3D platform game released that year was Konami's Antarctic Adventure, where the player controls a penguin in a forward-scrolling third-person perspective while having to jump over pits and obstacles.[29][30][31] It was one of the earliest pseudo-3D games available on a computer, released for the MSX in 1983.[31] That same year, Irem's Moon Patrol was a side-scrolling run & gun platform-shooter that introduced the use of layered parallax scrolling to give a pseudo-3D effect.[32] In 1985, Space Harrier introduced Sega's \"Super Scaler\" technology that allowed pseudo-3D sprite-scaling at high frame rates,[33] with the ability to scale 32,000 sprites and fill a moving landscape with them.[34]The first original home console game to use pseudo-3D, and also the first to use multiple camera angles mirrored on television sports broadcasts, was Intellivision World Series Baseball (1983) by Don Daglow and Eddie Dombrower, published by Mattel. Its television sports style of display was later adopted by 3D sports games and is now used by virtually all major team sports titles. In 1984, Sega ported several pseudo-3D arcade games to the Sega SG-1000 console, including a smooth conversion of the third-person pseudo-3D rail shooter Buck Rogers: Planet of Zoom.[33]By 1989, 2.5D representations were surfaces drawn with depth cues and a part of graphic libraries like GINO.[35] 2.5D was also used in terrain modeling with software packages such as ISM from Dynamic Graphics, GEOPAK from Uniras and the Intergraph DTM system.[35] 2.5D surface techniques gained popularity within the geography community because of its ability to visualize the normal thickness to area ratio used in many geographic models; this ratio was very small and reflected the thinness of the object in relation to its width, which made it the object realistic in a specific plane.[35] These representations were axiomatic in that the entire subsurface domain was not used or the entire domain could not be reconstructed; therefore, it used only a surface and a surface is one aspect not the full 3D identity.[35]The specific term \"two-and-a-half-D\" was used as early as 1994 by Warren Spector in an interview in the North American premiere issue of PC Gamer magazine. At the time, the term was understood to refer specifically to first-person shooters like Wolfenstein 3D and Doom, to distinguish them from System Shock's \"true\" 3D engine.With the advent of consoles and computer systems that were able to handle several thousand polygons (the most basic element of 3D computer graphics) per second and the usage of 3D specialized graphics processing units, pseudo-3D became obsolete. But even today, there are computer systems in production, such as cellphones, which are often not powerful enough to display true 3D graphics, and therefore use pseudo-3D for that purpose. Many games from the 1980s' pseudo-3D arcade era and 16-bit console era are ported to these systems, giving the manufacturers the possibility to earn revenues from games that are several decades old.Fly through the Trenta ValleyThe resurgence of 2.5D or visual analysis, in natural and earth science, has increased the role of computer systems in the creation of spatial information in mapping.[1] GVIS has made real the search for unknowns, real-time interaction with spatial data, and control over map display and has paid particular attention to three-dimensional representations.[1] Efforts in GVIS have attempted to expand higher dimensions and make them more visible; most efforts have focused on \"tricking\" vision into seeing three dimensions in a 2D plane.[1] Much like 2.5D displays where the surface of a three-dimensional object is represented but locations within the solid are distorted or not accessible.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bitmaps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitmap"}],"text":"The reason for using pseudo-3D instead of \"real\" 3D computer graphics is that the system that has to simulate a 3D-looking graphic is not powerful enough to handle the calculation-intensive routines of 3D computer graphics, yet is capable of using tricks of modifying 2D graphics like bitmaps. One of these tricks is to stretch a bitmap more and more, therefore making it larger with each step, as to give the effect of an object coming closer and closer towards the player.Even simple shading and size of an image could be considered pseudo-3D, as shading makes it look more realistic. If the light in a 2D game were 2D, it would only be visible on the outline, and because outlines are often dark, they would not be very clearly visible. However, any visible shading would indicate the usage of pseudo-3D lighting and that the image uses pseudo-3D graphics. Changing the size of an image can cause the image to appear to be moving closer or further away, which could be considered simulating a third dimension.Dimensions are the variables of the data and can be mapped to specific locations in space; 2D data can be given 3D volume by adding a value to the x, y, or z plane. \"Assigning height to 2D regions of a topographic map\" associating every 2D location with a height/elevation value creates a 2.5D projection; this is not considered a \"true 3D representation\", however is used like 3D visual representation to \"simplify visual processing of imagery and the resulting spatial cognition\".","title":"Technical aspects and generalizations"}]

[{"image_text":"Lincity tiles 2D axonometric graphical elements to form a pseudo-3D game environment.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Lincity-ng.png/225px-Lincity-ng.png"},{"image_text":"An example of parallax scrolling","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Parallax_scroll.gif/225px-Parallax_scroll.gif"},{"image_text":"Ray casting renderers cannot rotate the camera vertically[7] like true 3D renderers (as seen on the right), therefore tricks such as shearing (left) are sometimes used to create an illusion of rotation.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Camera_Rotation_vs_Shearing.gif/220px-Camera_Rotation_vs_Shearing.gif"},{"image_text":"A sphere without bump mapping (left). The bump map to be applied to the sphere (middle). The sphere with the bump map applied (right).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Bump-map-demo-full.png/300px-Bump-map-demo-full.png"},{"image_text":"Fly through the Trenta Valley","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Geabios_alps.gif"}]

[{"title":"3D computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"title":"Bas-relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas-relief"},{"title":"Cel-shaded animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cel-shaded_animation"},{"title":"Flash animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_animation"},{"title":"Head-coupled perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-coupled_perspective"},{"title":"Isometric graphics in video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_graphics_in_video_games"},{"title":"Limited animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_animation"},{"title":"List of stereoscopic video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stereoscopic_video_games"},{"title":"Live2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live2D"},{"title":"Ray casting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_casting"},{"title":"Trompe-l'œil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il"},{"title":"Vector graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphics"}]

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Retrieved March 27, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090401041713/http://www.dreams-game.com/profile/president.html","url_text":"\"Tomohiro Nishikado's biography at his company's web site\""},{"url":"http://www.dreams-game.com/profile/president.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Where Were They Then: The First Games of Nintendo, Konami, and More from 1UP.com\". October 17, 2012. Archived from the original on October 17, 2012. Retrieved March 19, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121017222352/http://www.1up.com/do/feature?pager.offset=1&cId=3181467","url_text":"\"Where Were They Then: The First Games of Nintendo, Konami, and More from 1UP.com\""},{"url":"http://www.1up.com/do/feature?pager.offset=1&cId=3181467","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Astron Belt - Overview - allgame\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Peruvian

Japanese Peruvians

["1 Japanese schools in Peru","2 World War II","3 Post-war Japanese Peruvians","3.1 Alberto Fujimori","4 Dekasegi Japanese Peruvians","5 The Japanese press in Peru","6 Cuisine","7 Notable people","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","10.1 Other cited works","11 External links"]

Ethnic group in Peru This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article has an unclear citation style. The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of citation and footnoting. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Ethnic group Japanese PeruviansTotal population22,534 by self-reported ancestry according to the Peruvian National Census (2017). 300,000 have been estimated by the Embassy of Peru in Japan (2024)Regions with significant populationsLima, Trujillo, Huancayo, ChiclayoLanguagesSpanish • JapaneseReligionPredominantly Roman Catholicism,Buddhism, ShintoismRelated ethnic groupsChinese Peruvians, Japanese Americans, Japanese Canadians, Japanese Brazilians, Asian Latinos A poster used in Japan to attract immigrants to Peru and Brazil. It reads: "Join your Family, Let's Go to South America." Arrival of the Sakura Maru to Peru with the first 790 new immigrants, 1899 Japanese Peruvians (Spanish: peruano-japonés or nipo-peruano; Japanese: 日系ペルー人, Nikkei Perūjin) are Peruvian citizens of Japanese origin or ancestry. Peru has the second largest ethnic Japanese population in South America after Brazil. This community has made a significant cultural impact on the country, and as of the 2017 Census in Peru, 22,534 people or 0.2% of the Peruvian population self reported themselves as having Nikkei or Japanese ancestry. Though the Japanese government estimates that at least 100,000 Peruvians have some degree of Japanese ancestry. The Peruvian Congress indicated that the emigration of Peruvian Nikkeis to Japan began in the 1980s, and the Japanese government estimates that around 300,000 Peruvians of the Peruvian-Japanese community, 40,000 Nikkeis went to work in Japan. Peru was the first Latin American country to establish diplomatic relations with Japan, in June 1873. Peru was also the first Latin American country to accept Japanese immigration. The Sakura Maru carried Japanese families from Yokohama to Peru and arrived on April 3, 1899, at the Peruvian port city of Callao. This group of 790 Japanese became the first of several waves of emigrants who made new lives for themselves in Peru, some nine years before emigration to Brazil began. Most immigrants arrived from Okinawa, Gifu, Hiroshima, Kanagawa and Osaka prefectures. Many arrived as farmers or to work in the fields but, after their contracts were completed, settled in the cities. In the period before World War II, the Japanese community in Peru was largely run by issei immigrants born in Japan. "Those of the second generation were almost inevitably excluded from community decision-making." Peru and Japan celebrate the 140th anniversary of diplomatic ties (2013). Embassy of Peru in Japan Embassy of Japan in Peru Japanese schools in Peru Peru's current Japanese international school is Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa in Surco, Lima. World War II Although there had been ongoing tensions between non-Japanese and Japanese Peruvians, the situation was drastically exacerbated by the war. Rising tensions ultimately led to a series of discriminatory laws being passed in 1936, the results of which included stigmatization of Japanese immigrants as "bestial," "untrustworthy," "militaristic," and "unfairly" competing with Peruvians for wages. Fueled by legislative discrimination and media campaigns, a massive race riot (referred to as the "Saqueo") began on May 13, 1940, and lasted for three days. During the riots Japanese Peruvians were attacked and their homes and businesses destroyed. Despite its massive scale, the saqueo was underreported, a reflection of public sentiment towards the Japanese population at the time. By 1941, there were around 26,000 immigrants of Japanese nationality in Peru. In December of that year, the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, would mark the beginning of the Pacific War campaign for the United States of America in World War II. After the Japanese air raids on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, the U.S. Office of Strategic Services (OSS), formed during World War II to coordinate secret espionage activities against the Axis Powers for the branches of the United States Armed Forces and the United States State Department, were alarmed at the large Japanese Peruvian community living in Peru and were also wary of the increasing new arrivals of Japanese nationals to Peru. Fearing the Empire of Japan could sooner or later decide to invade the Republic of Peru and use the Southern American country as a landing base for its troops and its nationals living there as foreign agents against the US, in order to open another military front in the American Pacific, the U.S. government quickly negotiated with Lima a political–military alliance agreement in 1942. This alliance provided Peru with new military technology such as military aircraft, tanks, modern infantry equipment, and new boats for the Peruvian Navy, as well as new American bank loans and new investments in the Peruvian economy. In return, the Americans ordered the Peruvians to track, identify and create ID files for all the Japanese Peruvians living in Peru. Later, at the end of 1942 and during all of 1943 and 1944, the Peruvian government on behalf of the U.S. Government and the OSS organized and started the massive arrests, without warrants and without judicial proceedings or hearings and the deportation of many of the Japanese Peruvian community to several American internment camps run by the U.S. Justice Department in the states of Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Georgia and Virginia. Racism and economic self-interest were major motivating factors in Peru's eager compliance with American deportation requests. As noted in a 1943 memorandum, Raymond Ickes of the Central and South American division of the Alien Enemy Control Unit had observed that many ethnic Japanese had been sent to the United States "... merely because the Peruvians wanted their businesses and not because there was any adverse evidence against them." The enormous groups of Japanese Peruvian forced exiles were initially placed among the Japanese Americans who had been excluded from the US west coast; later they were interned in the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) facilities in Crystal City, Texas; Kenedy, Texas; and Santa Fe, New Mexico. The Japanese Peruvians were kept in these "alien detention camps" for more than two years before, through the efforts of civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins, being offered "parole" relocation to the labor-starved farming community in Seabrook, New Jersey. The interned Japanese Peruvian nisei in the United States were further separated from the issei, in part because of distance between the internment camps and in part because the interned nisei knew almost nothing about their parents' homeland and language. The deportation of Japanese Peruvians to the United States also involved expropriation without compensation of their property and other assets in Peru. At war's end, only 790 Japanese Peruvian citizens returned to Peru, and about 400 remained in the United States as "stateless" refugees. The interned Peruvian nisei who became naturalized American citizens would consider their children sansei, meaning three generations from the grandparents who had left Japan for Peru. Post-war Japanese Peruvians Alberto Fujimori Main article: Alberto Fujimori First Japanese Peruvian President of Peru, Alberto Fujimori. October 1991. Alberto Fujimori was born in Peru on 28 July 1938 to Japanese parents who immigrated to Peru from Japan and was the 54th President of Peru from 1990 until his downfall in 2000. Dekasegi Japanese Peruvians Main article: Dekasegi In 1998, with new strict laws from the Japanese immigration, many fake-nikkei were deported or went back to Peru. The requirements to bring Japanese descendants were more strict, including documents as "zairyūshikaku-ninteishōmeisho" or Certificate of Eligibility for Resident, which probes the Japanese bloodline of the applicant. With the onset of the global recession in 2008, among the expatriate communities in Japan, Peruvians accounted for the smallest share of those who returned to their homelands. People returning from Japan also made up the smallest share of those applying for assistance under the new law. As of the end of November 2013, only three Peruvians who had returned from Japan had received reintegration assistance. The law provides some attractive benefits, but most Peruvians (as of 2015, there were 60,000 Peruvians in Japan) were not interested in returning to Peru. Peruvians in Japan came together to offer support for Japanese victims of the devastating March 2011 earthquake and tsunami. In the wake of the disaster, the town of Minamisanriku in Miyagi Prefecture lost all but two of its fishing vessels. Peruvians raised money to buy the town new boats as a service to Japan and to express their gratitude for the hospitality received in Japan. The Japanese press in Peru In June 1921, Nippi Shimpo (Japanese Peruvian News) was published. Cuisine This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The cuisine of Peru is a heterogeneous mixture of the diverse cultural influences that enriched the South American country. Nikkei cuisine, which fuses Peruvian and Japanese cuisine, has become a gastronomic sensation in many countries. The origins of Nikkei cuisine relied on the wide variety of fresh ingredients in Peru, the prosperous fishing industry of Peru, the Japanese know-how using fresh seafood, and adopting ceviche, which is the Peruvian flag dish, and Chifa dishes as well (fusion cuisine that came from the Chinese community in Peru). Japanese fusion dishes like Acevichado maki sushi rolls were created by incorporating the recipes and flavors from the indigenous Peruvians. Some examples of chefs who use Nikkei cuisine include Nobu Matsuhisa, Ferran Adrià and Kurt Zdesar. Notable people This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Anthony Aoki- Peruvian Footballer and Midfielder Alberto Fujimori: Former President and dictator of Peru Koichi Aparicio: Peruvian footballer Ernesto Arakaki: International footballer Hideyoshi Arakaki: Peruvian footballer Keiko Fujimori: Former First Lady, Congresswoman and businesswoman (daughter of Alberto Fujimori) Kenji Fujimori: Congressman (son of Alberto Fujimori) Santiago Fujimori: Lawyer (younger brother of Alberto Fujimori) Víctor García Toma: Former Minister of Justice Susana Higuchi: Politician, former First Lady, ex-spouse of Alberto Fujimori Jorge Hirano: International footballer Fernando Iwasaki: Writer Aldo Miyashiro: Writer, TV host and celebrity Augusto Miyashiro: Mayor of the City of Chorrillos since 1999, an important middle class southern suburban district of Metropolitan Lima Kaoru Morioka: Japanese futsal player Venancio Shinki: Artist David Soria Yoshinari: International footballer Tony Succar: percussionist and music producer José Pereda Maruyama: Retired international footballer, having notably played for Argentinian powerhouse Boca Juniors Akio Tamashiro: Karate athlete. Pan American Gold medalist. Head of the Peruvian Karate Federation Eduardo Tokeshi: Plastic artist Tilsa Tsuchiya: Artist José Watanabe: Poet Arturo Yamasaki: Football referee, famous for officiating the Match of the Century in the 1970 FIFA World Cup Rafael Yamashiro: Peruvian Congressman and politician Cesar Ychikawa: Singer and economist Jaime Yoshiyama: Former Prime Minister, former Cabinet Minister, former vice president and former President of the Peruvian Congress Carlos Yushimito (Yoshimitsu): Writer and analyst See also Peru portalJapan portal Asian Latin Americans Chinese Peruvians Japan–Peru relations Hirohito Ōta Notes ^ Other estimates, including from the Japanese government themselves, state that Peru has at least 300,000 Japanese descendants. References ^ "Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. p. 214. ^ Embassy of Peru in Japan ^ Peruvian Japanese NewsPaper PeruShimpo ^ Masterson, Daniel et al. (2004). The Japanese in Latin America: The Asian American Experience, p. 237., p. 237, at Google Books ^ Takenaka, Ayumi. “The Japanese in Peru: History of Immigration, Settlement, and Racialization.” Latin American Perspectives 31, no. 3, 2004, pp. 77–98 ^ "Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. p. 214. ^ "Japan-Peru Relations (Basic Data)". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Retrieved 2023-08-24. ^ "Celebran 110° aniversario de la inmigración japonesa al Perú". www2.congreso.gob.pe. Retrieved 2023-08-24. ^ a b Palm, Hugo (March 12, 2008). "Desafíos que nos acercan – El capitán de navío de la Marina Peruana Arturo García y García llegó al puerto de Yokohama hace 135 ańos, en febrero de 1873" (in Spanish). Lima, Peru: universia.edu.pe. Archived from the original on April 15, 2009. ^ a b Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), Japan: Japan–Peru relations (in Japanese) ^ "First Emigration Ship to Peru: Sakura Maru," Archived 2005-11-05 at the Wayback Machine Seascope (NYK newsletter). No. 157, July 2000. ^ Irie, Toraji. "History of the Japanese Migration to Peru," Hispanic American Historical Review. 31:3, 437–452 (August–November 1951); 31:4, 648–664 (no. 4). ^ Higashide, Seiichi. (2000). Adios to Tears, p. 218., p. 218, at Google Books ^ "リマ日本人学校の概要" (Archive). Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa. Retrieved on October 25, 2015. "Calle Las Clivias(Antes Calle"A") No.276, Urb. Pampas de Santa Teresa, Surco, LIMA-PERU （ペルー国リマ市スルコ区パンパス・デ・サンタテレサ町クリヴィアス通り２７６番地）" ^ a b c d DuMontier (2018). Between Menace and Model Citizen: Lima's Japanese Peruvians, 1936–1963 (Doctor of Philosophy thesis). University of Arizona. ^ a b Densho, Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. "Japanese Latin Americans," c. 2003, accessed 12 Apr 2009. ^ Robinson, Greg. (2001). By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans, p. 264., p. 264, at Google Books ^ Weglyn, Michi Nishiura (1976). Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps. New York: William Morrow & Company. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-0688079963. ^ Weglyn, Michi Nishiura (1976). Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps. New York: William Morrow & Company. p. 64. ISBN 978-0688079963. ^ Higashide, pp. 157–158., p. 157, at Google Books ^ "Japanese Americans, the Civil Rights Movement and Beyond" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-14. Retrieved 2009-04-10. ^ Higashide, p. 161., p. 161, at Google Books ^ Higashide, p. 219., p. 219, at Google Books ^ Barnhart, Edward N. "Japanese Internees from Peru," Pacific Historical Review. 31:2, 169–178 (May 1962). ^ Riley, Karen Lea. (2002). Schools Behind Barbed Wire: The Untold Story of Wartime Internment and the Children of Arrested Enemy Aliens, p. 10., p. 10, at Google Books ^ Higashide, p. 222., p. 222, at Google Books ^ "法務省：在留資格認定証明書交付申請". www.moj.go.jp. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 25 November 2018. ^ Ministry of Foreign affairs of Japan ^ Your Doorway to Japan ^ Sep 2010, Michael M. Brescia / 20. "The Japanese Press in Peru – Part 1". Discover Nikkei. Retrieved 2020-11-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Other cited works Connell, Thomas. (2002). America's Japanese Hostages: The US Plan For A Japanese Free Hemisphere. Westport: Praeger-Greenwood. ISBN 9780275975357; OCLC 606835431 Gardiner, Clinton Harvey. (1975). The Japanese and Peru. 1873–1973. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-0391-2; OCLC 2047887 Gardiner, C. Harvey. (1981). Pawns in a Triangle of Hate: The Peruvian Japanese and the United States. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295958552; OCLC 164799077 Higashide, Seiichi. (2000). Adios to Tears: The Memoirs of a Japanese Peruvian Internee in U.S. Concentration Camps. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295979143 ISBN 9780295979144; OCLC 247923540 López-Calvo, Ignacio. (2009). One World Periphery Reads the Other. Knowing the 'Oriental' in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009. 130–147. ISBN 9781443816571 ISBN 1443816574; OCLC 473479607 Masterson, Daniel M. and Sayaka Funada-Classen. (2004), The Japanese in Latin America: The Asian American Experience. (View at Google Books) Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07144-7; OCLC 253466232 External links Association website vte Japanese diaspora and Japanese expatriatesAfrica Egypt South Africa AmericasCaribbean Cuba Dominican Republic Jamaica Elsewhere Argentina Bolivia Brazil São Paulo City Canada British Columbia Montreal Toronto Chile Colombia Mexico Mexico City Paraguay Peru Uruguay Venezuela United States By state and/or city Asia China Shanghai Japanese orphans in China Hong Kong India Indonesia Korea North Korea South Korea Malaysia Nepal Philippines Singapore Sri Lanka Thailand Turkey United Arab Emirates Vietnam Europe Belgium (Brussels) France Paris Germany Düsseldorf Netherlands Russia Sakhalin Japanese  Spain United Kingdom London OceaniaMicronesia Federated States of Micronesia Kiribati Marshall Islands Palau Elsewhere Australia Melbourne Hawaii United States New Caledonia France New Zealand Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands Generations Issei immigrants Nisei second generation Sansei third generation Yonsei fourth generation Gosei fifth generation Related articles Dekasegi Foreign-born Japanese The Japanese and Europe The Japanese in Latin America Japantown Hoshū jugyō kō list Looking Like the Enemy New Worlds, New Lives Nihonjin gakkō vte Ancestry and ethnicity in PeruIndigenousAndean Aymara Huancas Maina Q'ero Quechuas Uros Amazonian Achuar Aguano Aguaruna Amahuaca Asháninka Bora Canelos-Quichua Cashibo Harakmbut Huambisas Jibitos Jíbaro Kichwa-Lamista Machiguenga Matsés (Mayoruna) Quijos-Quichua Sápara Secoya Shipibo-Conibo Urarina Yagua Yanesha Non-indigenousEuropean British Croatian French German Italian Polish Portuguese Spanish Asian Chinese Indian Japanese Jews B'nai Moshe Korean Others African Arab Mestizo Romani people Category:Ethnic groups in Peru Portals: Japan Peru

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Affiche_%C3%A9migration_JP_au_BR-d%C3%A9b._XXe_s..jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:01_puerto_cerro_azul_y_sakura_maru_full.jpg"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Peruvian citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruvians"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_people"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Brazilians"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Latin_2004-6"},{"link_name":"2017 Census in Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_in_Peru"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Nikkeis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikkei_people"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Latin American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-palm2008-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mofa1-11"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-palm2008-10"},{"link_name":"Yokohama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokohama"},{"link_name":"Callao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callao"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mofa1-11"},{"link_name":"Okinawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinawa"},{"link_name":"Gifu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"Hiroshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"Kanagawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanagawa_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"Osaka prefectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"issei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issei"},{"link_name":"nisei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisei"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Per%C3%BA_y_Jap%C3%B3n_conmemoran_140_a%C3%B1os_de_relaciones_diplom%C3%A1ticas_(9563192665).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Embajada_del_Per%C3%BA_en_Tokio,_Japan.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Embajada_de_Jap%C3%B3n_en_Lima,_Per%C3%BA.jpg"}],"text":"Ethnic groupA poster used in Japan to attract immigrants to Peru and Brazil. It reads: \"Join your Family, Let's Go to South America.\"Arrival of the Sakura Maru to Peru with the first 790 new immigrants, 1899Japanese Peruvians (Spanish: peruano-japonés or nipo-peruano; Japanese: 日系ペルー人, Nikkei Perūjin) are Peruvian citizens of Japanese origin or ancestry.Peru has the second largest ethnic Japanese population in South America after Brazil. This community has made a significant cultural impact on the country,[5] and as of the 2017 Census in Peru, 22,534 people or 0.2% of the Peruvian population self reported themselves as having Nikkei or Japanese ancestry.[6] Though the Japanese government estimates that at least 100,000 Peruvians have some degree of Japanese ancestry.[7] The Peruvian Congress indicated that the emigration of Peruvian Nikkeis to Japan began in the 1980s, and the Japanese government estimates that around 300,000 Peruvians of the Peruvian-Japanese community, 40,000 Nikkeis went to work in Japan.[8]Peru was the first Latin American country to establish diplomatic relations with Japan,[9] in June 1873.[10] Peru was also the first Latin American country to accept Japanese immigration.[9] The Sakura Maru carried Japanese families from Yokohama to Peru and arrived on April 3, 1899, at the Peruvian port city of Callao.[11] This group of 790 Japanese became the first of several waves of emigrants who made new lives for themselves in Peru, some nine years before emigration to Brazil began.[10]Most immigrants arrived from Okinawa, Gifu, Hiroshima, Kanagawa and Osaka prefectures. Many arrived as farmers or to work in the fields but, after their contracts were completed, settled in the cities.[12] In the period before World War II, the Japanese community in Peru was largely run by issei immigrants born in Japan. \"Those of the second generation [the nisei] were almost inevitably excluded from community decision-making.\"[13]Peru and Japan celebrate the 140th anniversary of diplomatic ties (2013).Embassy of Peru in JapanEmbassy of Japan in Peru","title":"Japanese Peruvians"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japanese international school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihonjin_gakko"},{"link_name":"Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asociaci%C3%B3n_Academia_de_Cultura_Japonesa_(Peru)"},{"link_name":"Surco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surco"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Peru's current Japanese international school is Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa in Surco, Lima.[14]","title":"Japanese schools in Peru"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dumontier-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dumontier-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dumontier-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dumontier-16"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"Attack on Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"Pacific War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War"},{"link_name":"United States of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jla-17"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Office of Strategic Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services"},{"link_name":"Axis Powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_Powers"},{"link_name":"United States Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"United States State Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_State_Department"},{"link_name":"Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Empire of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Republic of Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"U.S. government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._government"},{"link_name":"Lima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lima"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weglyn60-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weglyn64-20"},{"link_name":"Immigration and Naturalization Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service"},{"link_name":"Crystal City, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_City,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Kenedy, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenedy,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe, New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Wayne M. Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_M._Collins"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jla-17"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sfjhw-22"},{"link_name":"parole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parole"},{"link_name":"Seabrook, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabrook,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"nisei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisei"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Although there had been ongoing tensions between non-Japanese and Japanese Peruvians, the situation was drastically exacerbated by the war.[15] Rising tensions ultimately led to a series of discriminatory laws being passed in 1936, the results of which included stigmatization of Japanese immigrants as \"bestial,\" \"untrustworthy,\" \"militaristic,\" and \"unfairly\" competing with Peruvians for wages.[15]Fueled by legislative discrimination and media campaigns, a massive race riot (referred to as the \"Saqueo\") began on May 13, 1940, and lasted for three days. During the riots Japanese Peruvians were attacked and their homes and businesses destroyed.[15] Despite its massive scale, the saqueo was underreported, a reflection of public sentiment towards the Japanese population at the time.[15]By 1941, there were around 26,000 immigrants of Japanese nationality in Peru. In December of that year, the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, would mark the beginning of the Pacific War campaign for the United States of America in World War II.[16] \nAfter the Japanese air raids on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, the U.S. Office of Strategic Services (OSS), formed during World War II to coordinate secret espionage activities against the Axis Powers for the branches of the United States Armed Forces and the United States State Department, were alarmed at the large Japanese Peruvian community living in Peru and were also wary of the increasing new arrivals of Japanese nationals to Peru.[citation needed]Fearing the Empire of Japan could sooner or later decide to invade the Republic of Peru and use the Southern American country as a landing base for its troops and its nationals living there as foreign agents against the US, in order to open another military front in the American Pacific, the U.S. government quickly negotiated with Lima a political–military alliance agreement in 1942. This alliance provided Peru with new military technology such as military aircraft, tanks, modern infantry equipment, and new boats for the Peruvian Navy, as well as new American bank loans and new investments in the Peruvian economy.[citation needed]In return, the Americans ordered the Peruvians to track, identify and create ID files for all the Japanese Peruvians living in Peru. Later, at the end of 1942 and during all of 1943 and 1944, the Peruvian government on behalf of the U.S. Government and the OSS organized and started the massive arrests, without warrants and without judicial proceedings or hearings and the deportation of many of the Japanese Peruvian community to several American internment camps run by the U.S. Justice Department in the states of Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Georgia and Virginia.[17]Racism and economic self-interest were major motivating factors in Peru's eager compliance with American deportation requests.[18] As noted in a 1943 memorandum, Raymond Ickes of the Central and South American division of the Alien Enemy Control Unit had observed that many ethnic Japanese had been sent to the United States \"... merely because the Peruvians wanted their businesses and not because there was any adverse evidence against them.\"[19]The enormous groups of Japanese Peruvian forced exiles were initially placed among the Japanese Americans who had been excluded from the US west coast; later they were interned in the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) facilities in Crystal City, Texas; Kenedy, Texas; and Santa Fe, New Mexico.[20] The Japanese Peruvians were kept in these \"alien detention camps\" for more than two years before, through the efforts of civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins,[16][21] being offered \"parole\" relocation to the labor-starved farming community in Seabrook, New Jersey.[22] The interned Japanese Peruvian nisei in the United States were further separated from the issei, in part because of distance between the internment camps and in part because the interned nisei knew almost nothing about their parents' homeland and language.[23]The deportation of Japanese Peruvians to the United States also involved expropriation without compensation of their property and other assets in Peru.[24] At war's end, only 790 Japanese Peruvian citizens returned to Peru, and about 400 remained in the United States as \"stateless\" refugees.[25] The interned Peruvian nisei who became naturalized American citizens would consider their children sansei, meaning three generations from the grandparents who had left Japan for Peru.[26]","title":"World War II"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Post-war Japanese Peruvians"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Visit_of_Alberto_Fujimori,_President_of_Peru,_to_the_CEC_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"President of Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Peru"},{"link_name":"Alberto Fujimori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori"},{"link_name":"President of Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Peru"}],"sub_title":"Alberto Fujimori","text":"First Japanese Peruvian President of Peru, Alberto Fujimori. October 1991.Alberto Fujimori was born in Peru on 28 July 1938 to Japanese parents who immigrated to Peru from Japan and was the 54th President of Peru from 1990 until his downfall in 2000.","title":"Post-war Japanese Peruvians"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"the global recession in 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Recession"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"March 2011 earthquake and tsunami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami"},{"link_name":"Minamisanriku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamisanriku"},{"link_name":"Miyagi Prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyagi_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"In 1998, with new strict laws from the Japanese immigration, many fake-nikkei were deported or went back to Peru. The requirements to bring Japanese descendants were more strict, including documents as \"zairyūshikaku-ninteishōmeisho\" [27] or Certificate of Eligibility for Resident, which probes the Japanese bloodline of the applicant.With the onset of the global recession in 2008, among the expatriate communities in Japan, Peruvians accounted for the smallest share of those who returned to their homelands. People returning from Japan also made up the smallest share of those applying for assistance under the new law. As of the end of November 2013, only three Peruvians who had returned from Japan had received reintegration assistance. The law provides some attractive benefits, but most Peruvians (as of 2015, there were 60,000 Peruvians in Japan)[28] were not interested in returning to Peru.Peruvians in Japan came together to offer support for Japanese victims of the devastating March 2011 earthquake and tsunami. In the wake of the disaster, the town of Minamisanriku in Miyagi Prefecture lost all but two of its fishing vessels. Peruvians raised money to buy the town new boats as a service to Japan and to express their gratitude for the hospitality received in Japan.[29]","title":"Dekasegi Japanese Peruvians"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"In June 1921, Nippi Shimpo (Japanese Peruvian News) was published.[30]","title":"The Japanese press in Peru"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cuisine of Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruvian_cuisine"},{"link_name":"ceviche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceviche"},{"link_name":"Nobu Matsuhisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobu_Matsuhisa"},{"link_name":"Ferran Adrià","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferran_Adri%C3%A0"},{"link_name":"Kurt Zdesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurt_Zdesar&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"The cuisine of Peru is a heterogeneous mixture of the diverse cultural influences that enriched the South American country. Nikkei cuisine, which fuses Peruvian and Japanese cuisine, has become a gastronomic sensation in many countries.The origins of Nikkei cuisine relied on the wide variety of fresh ingredients in Peru, the prosperous fishing industry of Peru, the Japanese know-how using fresh seafood, and adopting ceviche, which is the Peruvian flag dish, and Chifa dishes as well (fusion cuisine that came from the Chinese community in Peru). Japanese fusion dishes like Acevichado maki sushi rolls were created by incorporating the recipes and flavors from the indigenous Peruvians. Some examples of chefs who use Nikkei cuisine include Nobu Matsuhisa, Ferran Adrià and Kurt Zdesar.","title":"Cuisine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dynamic list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Dynamic_lists"},{"link_name":"adding missing items","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Japanese_Peruvians"},{"link_name":"reliable sources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"Anthony Aoki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Aoki"},{"link_name":"Alberto Fujimori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori"},{"link_name":"Koichi Aparicio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koichi_Aparicio"},{"link_name":"Ernesto Arakaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Arakaki"},{"link_name":"Hideyoshi Arakaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideyoshi_Arakaki"},{"link_name":"Keiko Fujimori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keiko_Fujimori"},{"link_name":"Kenji Fujimori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenji_Fujimori"},{"link_name":"Santiago Fujimori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Fujimori"},{"link_name":"Víctor García Toma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADctor_Garc%C3%ADa_Toma"},{"link_name":"Susana Higuchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susana_Higuchi"},{"link_name":"Jorge Hirano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Hirano"},{"link_name":"Fernando Iwasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Iwasaki"},{"link_name":"Aldo Miyashiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldo_Miyashiro"},{"link_name":"Augusto Miyashiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_Miyashiro"},{"link_name":"Kaoru Morioka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaoru_Morioka"},{"link_name":"Venancio Shinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venancio_Shinki"},{"link_name":"David Soria Yoshinari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Soria_Yoshinari"},{"link_name":"Tony Succar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Succar"},{"link_name":"José Pereda Maruyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Pereda"},{"link_name":"Boca Juniors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boca_Juniors"},{"link_name":"Akio Tamashiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akio_Tamashiro"},{"link_name":"Eduardo Tokeshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Tokeshi"},{"link_name":"Tilsa Tsuchiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilsa_Tsuchiya"},{"link_name":"José Watanabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Watanabe"},{"link_name":"Arturo Yamasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arturo_Yamasaki"},{"link_name":"Match of the Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy_v_West_Germany_(1970_FIFA_World_Cup)"},{"link_name":"1970 FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970_FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"Rafael Yamashiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Yamashiro"},{"link_name":"Cesar Ychikawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesar_Ychikawa"},{"link_name":"Jaime Yoshiyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaime_Yoshiyama"},{"link_name":"Carlos Yushimito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Yushimito"}],"text":"This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.Anthony Aoki- Peruvian Footballer and Midfielder\nAlberto Fujimori: Former President and dictator of Peru\nKoichi Aparicio: Peruvian footballer\nErnesto Arakaki: International footballer\nHideyoshi Arakaki: Peruvian footballer\nKeiko Fujimori: Former First Lady, Congresswoman and businesswoman (daughter of Alberto Fujimori)\nKenji Fujimori: Congressman (son of Alberto Fujimori)\nSantiago Fujimori: Lawyer (younger brother of Alberto Fujimori)\nVíctor García Toma: Former Minister of Justice\nSusana Higuchi: Politician, former First Lady, ex-spouse of Alberto Fujimori\nJorge Hirano: International footballer\nFernando Iwasaki: Writer\nAldo Miyashiro: Writer, TV host and celebrity\nAugusto Miyashiro: Mayor of the City of Chorrillos since 1999, an important middle class southern suburban district of Metropolitan Lima\nKaoru Morioka: Japanese futsal player\nVenancio Shinki: Artist\nDavid Soria Yoshinari: International footballer\nTony Succar: percussionist and music producer\nJosé Pereda Maruyama: Retired international footballer, having notably played for Argentinian powerhouse Boca Juniors\nAkio Tamashiro: Karate athlete. Pan American Gold medalist. Head of the Peruvian Karate Federation\nEduardo Tokeshi: Plastic artist\nTilsa Tsuchiya: Artist\nJosé Watanabe: Poet\nArturo Yamasaki: Football referee, famous for officiating the Match of the Century in the 1970 FIFA World Cup\nRafael Yamashiro: Peruvian Congressman and politician\nCesar Ychikawa: Singer and economist\nJaime Yoshiyama: Former Prime Minister, former Cabinet Minister, former vice president and former President of the Peruvian Congress\nCarlos Yushimito (Yoshimitsu): Writer and analyst","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"^ Other estimates, including from the Japanese government themselves, state that Peru has at least 300,000 Japanese descendants.[2][3]","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"A poster used in Japan to attract immigrants to Peru and Brazil. It reads: \"Join your Family, Let's Go to South America.\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Affiche_%C3%A9migration_JP_au_BR-d%C3%A9b._XXe_s..jpg/170px-Affiche_%C3%A9migration_JP_au_BR-d%C3%A9b._XXe_s..jpg"},{"image_text":"Arrival of the Sakura Maru to Peru with the first 790 new immigrants, 1899","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/01_puerto_cerro_azul_y_sakura_maru_full.jpg/220px-01_puerto_cerro_azul_y_sakura_maru_full.jpg"},{"image_text":"Peru and Japan celebrate the 140th anniversary of diplomatic ties (2013).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Per%C3%BA_y_Jap%C3%B3n_conmemoran_140_a%C3%B1os_de_relaciones_diplom%C3%A1ticas_%289563192665%29.jpg/220px-Per%C3%BA_y_Jap%C3%B3n_conmemoran_140_a%C3%B1os_de_relaciones_diplom%C3%A1ticas_%289563192665%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Embassy of Peru in Japan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Embajada_del_Per%C3%BA_en_Tokio%2C_Japan.jpg/220px-Embajada_del_Per%C3%BA_en_Tokio%2C_Japan.jpg"},{"image_text":"Embassy of Japan in Peru","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Embajada_de_Jap%C3%B3n_en_Lima%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg/220px-Embajada_de_Jap%C3%B3n_en_Lima%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg"},{"image_text":"First Japanese Peruvian President of Peru, Alberto Fujimori. October 1991.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Visit_of_Alberto_Fujimori%2C_President_of_Peru%2C_to_the_CEC_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Visit_of_Alberto_Fujimori%2C_President_of_Peru%2C_to_the_CEC_%28cropped%29.jpg"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MarkLogic

MarkLogic

["1 Overview","2 History","2.1 Funding","3 Products","3.1 Releases","3.2 Licensing and support","4 Technology","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading"]

American software company This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) MarkLogic CorporationCompany typePrivateIndustrySoftwareFounded2001; 23 years ago (2001)FounderChristopher LindbladHeadquartersSan Carlos, California, United StatesKey peopleJeff Casale (CEO)ProductsMarkLogic licenses, support, and consulting servicesRevenue $100 MillionOwnerIndependent (2001–20)Vector Capital (2020–23)Progress Software (2023–present)Number of employees500Websitemarklogic.com MarkLogic is an American software business that develops and provides an enterprise NoSQL database, which is also named MarkLogic. They have offices in the United States, Europe, Asia, and Australia. In February 2023, MarkLogic was acquired by Progress Software for $355 million. Overview Founded in 2001 by Christopher Lindblad and Paul Pedersen, MarkLogic Corporation is a privately held company with over 500 employees that was acquired by Vector Capital in October 2020. The company claims to have over 1,000 customers, including Chevron, JPMorgan Chase, Erie Insurance Group, Johnson & Johnson, and the US Army. MarkLogic has gotten positive reception by multiple tech newsletters. History MarkLogic was originally named Cerisent when it was founded in 2001 by Christopher Lindblad, who was the Chief Architect of the Ultraseek search engine at Infoseek, as well as Paul Pedersen, a professor of computer science at Cornell University and UCLA, and Frank R. Caufield, Founder of Darwin Ventures, to address shortcomings with existing search and data products. The product first focused on using XML document markup standard and XQuery as the query standard for accessing collections of documents up to hundreds of terabytes in size. In 2009, IDC mentioned MarkLogic as one of the top Innovative Information Access Companies with under $100 million in revenue. In May 2012, Gary Bloom was appointed as Chief Executive Officer. He held senior positions at Symantec Corporation, Veritas Software, and Oracle. Post-acquisition, the company named Jeffrey Casale as its new CEO. Funding MarkLogic received its first financing of $6 million in 2002 led by Sequoia Capital, followed by a $12 million investment in June 2004, this time led by Lehman Brothers Venture Partners. The company received additional funding of $15 million in 2007 from its existing investors Sequoia and Lehman. The same investors put another $12.5 million into the company in 2009. On 12 April 2013, MarkLogic received an additional $25 million in funding, led by Sequoia Capital and Tenaya Capital. On May 12, 2015, MarkLogic received an additional $102 million in funding, led by Wellington Management Company, with contributions from Arrowpoint Partners and existing backers, Sequoia Capital, Tenaya Capital, and Northgate Capital. This brought the company's total funding to $173 million and gave MarkLogic a pre-money valuation of $1 billion. NTT Data announced a strategic investment in MarkLogic on 31 May 2017. Products Further information: MarkLogic Server The MarkLogic product is considered a multi-model NoSQL database for its ability to store, manage, search JSON and XML documents and semantic data (RDF triples). Releases 2001 – Cerisent XQE 1.0 2004 – Cerisent XQE 2.0 2005 – MarkLogic Server 3.0 2006 – MarkLogic Server 3.1 2007 – MarkLogic Server 3.2 2008 – MarkLogic Server 4.0 2009 – MarkLogic Server 4.1 2010 – MarkLogic Server 4.2 2011 – MarkLogic Server 5.0 2012 – MarkLogic Server 6.0 2013 – MarkLogic Server 7.0 2015 – MarkLogic Server 8.0: Ability to store JSON data and process data using JavaScript. 2017 – MarkLogic Server 9.0: Data integration across Relational and Non-Relational data. 2019 – MarkLogic Server 10.0 Licensing and support MarkLogic is proprietary software, available under a freeware developer software license or a commercial "Essential Enterprise" license. Licenses are available from MarkLogic or directly from cloud marketplaces such as Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure. Technology MarkLogic is a multi-model NoSQL database that has evolved from its XML database roots to also natively store JSON documents and RDF triples for its semantic data model. It uses a distributed architecture that can handle hundreds of billions of documents and hundreds of terabytes of data. MarkLogic maintains ACID consistency for transactions and has a Common Criteria certification security model, high availability, and disaster recovery. It is designed to run on-premises within public or private cloud computing environments like Amazon Web Services. MarkLogic's Enterprise NoSQL database platform is utilized in various sectors, including publishing, government and finance. It is employed in a number of systems currently in production. See also Document database Graph database Multi-model database NoSQL Triple store MongoDB References ^ "About MarkLogic - the Data Hub Experts". ^ "Progress officially acquires MarkLogic". KMWorld. 2023-02-07. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Corporate Event Expert Profile: Wendy Laugesen, Director of Global Events, MarkLogic | Corporate Event News". www.corporateeventnews.com. Retrieved 2020-06-02. ^ "Vector Capital Completes Acquisition of MarkLogic". MarkLogic. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ "Customers". MarkLogic. Retrieved 13 March 2017. ^ Yuhanna, Noel. "The Forrester Wave™: Big Data NoSQL, Q3 2016". Forrester. Forrester Research. Retrieved 23 January 2017. ^ "Data Warehouse Disruptions 2016: Gartner Magic Quadrant - InformationWeek". InformationWeek. Retrieved 2018-01-02. ^ "MarkLogic Recognized as a Visionary in the 2017 Gartner Magic Quadrant for Operational Database Management Systems". Microsoft. 14 November 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2018. ^ "Company Overview of MarkLogic Corporation". Bloomberg. Retrieved 13 March 2017. ^ Loizos, Connie (18 August 2008). "Like Father Like Son? Darwin Ventures Raising $100M". The PEHub Network. Retrieved 13 March 2017. ^ "IDC Names Innovative Information Access Companies Under $100M to Watch, Highlighting New Ways to Leverage Information Assets". businesswire.com. Business Wire Inc. 2009-10-26. Retrieved 2017-01-31. ^ Hoge, Patrick (17 May 2012). "MarkLogic appoints Gary Bloom CEO". San Francisco Business Times. Retrieved 27 January 2015. ^ Foremski, Tom (17 May 2012). "Former senior Oracle exec Gary Bloom named CEO of Mark Logic". ZDnet. Retrieved 27 January 2015. ^ a b "MarkLogic: AngelList". Angel. AngelList. Retrieved 13 March 2017. ^ Rao, Leena (2009-05-26). "Mark Logic Raises $12.5 Million For XML Server Software". techcrunch.com. TechCrunch. Retrieved 2017-01-31. ^ Novet, Jordan. "MarkLogic nets $25M to keep up enterprise NoSQL pitch". GigaOM. Retrieved 23 November 2015. ^ Joyce, Wells (11 April 2013). "MarkLogic Secures New $25 Million Investment and Targets Four Primary Product Areas". DBTA.com. Retrieved 27 January 2015. ^ Darrow, Barb. "MarkLogic snags $102 million in new funding to push its database abroad". Fortune. Retrieved 23 November 2015. ^ Lardinois, Frederic. "NTT Data announces strategic investment in NoSQL database provider MarkLogic". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2018-01-04. ^ "MarkLogic 4.0 Introduces Stable of New Features for the XML Server". Information Today. 9 October 2008. Retrieved 27 January 2015. ^ MacFadden, Gary (30 October 2013). "MarkLogic 7 Leads the NoSQL Class, Adding Semantics and Other Enhancements". Wikibon. Retrieved 27 January 2015. ^ a b Nick Heudecker; Merv Adrian (23 August 2013). Who's Who in NoSQL DBMSs (G00252015 ed.). Gartner. Further reading Fowler, Adam. "NoSQL for Dummies". ISBN 1118905628, 9781118905623. Taylor, Allen. "Semantics for Dummies". ISBN 9781119112204. Hunter, Jason. "Inside MarkLogic Server" McCreary, Dan, and Ann Kelly. Making Sense of NoSQL. Manning Publications Co. August 2012. ISBN 9781617291074. Zhang, Andy. Beginning MarkLogic with XQuery and MarkLogic Server. Champion Writers, Inc. 24 June 2009. ISBN 1608300153.

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They have offices in the United States, Europe, Asia, and Australia.In February 2023, MarkLogic was acquired by Progress Software for $355 million.[2]","title":"MarkLogic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Chevron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporation"},{"link_name":"JPMorgan Chase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase"},{"link_name":"Erie Insurance Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erie_Insurance_Group"},{"link_name":"Johnson & Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_%26_Johnson"},{"link_name":"US Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Customers-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forrester-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gardner_Report-8"}],"text":"Founded in 2001 by Christopher Lindblad and Paul Pedersen, MarkLogic Corporation is a privately held company with over 500 employees[3] that was acquired by Vector Capital in October 2020.[4]The company claims to have over 1,000 customers, including Chevron, JPMorgan Chase, Erie Insurance Group, Johnson & Johnson, and the US Army.[5]MarkLogic has gotten positive reception by multiple tech newsletters.[6][7][8]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bloomberg-9"},{"link_name":"search engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_engine"},{"link_name":"Infoseek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infoseek"},{"link_name":"Cornell University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University"},{"link_name":"UCLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PeHub-10"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"XQuery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XQuery"},{"link_name":"IDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Symantec Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NortonLifeLock"},{"link_name":"Veritas Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas_Software"},{"link_name":"Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"MarkLogic was originally named Cerisent when it was founded in 2001[9] by Christopher Lindblad, who was the Chief Architect of the Ultraseek search engine at Infoseek, as well as Paul Pedersen, a professor of computer science at Cornell University and UCLA, and Frank R. Caufield, Founder of Darwin Ventures,[10] to address shortcomings with existing search and data products. The product first focused on using XML document markup standard and XQuery as the query standard for accessing collections of documents up to hundreds of terabytes in size.In 2009, IDC mentioned MarkLogic as one of the top Innovative Information Access Companies with under $100 million in revenue.[11]In May 2012, Gary Bloom was appointed as Chief Executive Officer.[12] He held senior positions at Symantec Corporation, Veritas Software, and Oracle.[13]Post-acquisition, the company named Jeffrey Casale as its new CEO.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sequoia Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequoia_Capital"},{"link_name":"Lehman Brothers Venture Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehman_Brothers_Venture_Partners"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AngelList-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AngelList-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Sequoia Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequoia_Capital"},{"link_name":"Tenaya Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenaya_Capital"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Wellington Management Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_Management_Company"},{"link_name":"Sequoia Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequoia_Capital"},{"link_name":"Tenaya Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenaya_Capital"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"NTT Data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTT_Data"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Funding","text":"MarkLogic received its first financing of $6 million in 2002 led by Sequoia Capital, followed by a $12 million investment in June 2004, this time led by Lehman Brothers Venture Partners.[14] The company received additional funding of $15 million in 2007 from its existing investors Sequoia and Lehman.[14] The same investors put another $12.5 million into the company in 2009.[15]On 12 April 2013, MarkLogic received an additional $25 million in funding, led by Sequoia Capital and Tenaya Capital.[16][17] On May 12, 2015, MarkLogic received an additional $102 million in funding, led by Wellington Management Company, with contributions from Arrowpoint Partners and existing backers, Sequoia Capital, Tenaya Capital, and Northgate Capital. This brought the company's total funding to $173 million and gave MarkLogic a pre-money valuation of $1 billion.[18]NTT Data announced a strategic investment in MarkLogic on 31 May 2017.[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MarkLogic Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MarkLogic_Server"},{"link_name":"multi-model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-model_database"},{"link_name":"JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"semantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"RDF triples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDF_triple"}],"text":"Further information: MarkLogic ServerThe MarkLogic product is considered a multi-model NoSQL database for its ability to store, manage, search JSON and XML documents and semantic data (RDF triples).","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON"},{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Releases","text":"2001 – Cerisent XQE 1.0[citation needed]\n2004 – Cerisent XQE 2.0[citation needed]\n2005 – MarkLogic Server 3.0[citation needed]\n2006 – MarkLogic Server 3.1\n2007 – MarkLogic Server 3.2\n2008 – MarkLogic Server 4.0\n2009 – MarkLogic Server 4.1\n2010 – MarkLogic Server 4.2\n2011 – MarkLogic Server 5.0\n2012 – MarkLogic Server 6.0\n2013 – MarkLogic Server 7.0\n2015 – MarkLogic Server 8.0: Ability to store JSON data and process data using JavaScript.[20]\n2017 – MarkLogic Server 9.0: Data integration across Relational and Non-Relational data.\n2019 – MarkLogic Server 10.0","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"proprietary software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"link_name":"freeware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeware"},{"link_name":"software license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_license"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-macfadden-21"},{"link_name":"Amazon Web Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Web_Services"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Azure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Azure"}],"sub_title":"Licensing and support","text":"MarkLogic is proprietary software, available under a freeware developer software license or a commercial \"Essential Enterprise\" license.[21] Licenses are available from MarkLogic or directly from cloud marketplaces such as Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure.","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multi-model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-model_database"},{"link_name":"XML database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_database"},{"link_name":"JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON"},{"link_name":"RDF triples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDF_triple"},{"link_name":"semantic data model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_data_model"},{"link_name":"distributed architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_architecture"},{"link_name":"terabytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabyte"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"ACID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACID"},{"link_name":"Common Criteria certification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Criteria_Evaluation_and_Validation_Scheme"},{"link_name":"high availability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_availability"},{"link_name":"disaster recovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_recovery"},{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"Amazon Web Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Web_Services"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nick_Heudecker-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nick_Heudecker-22"}],"text":"MarkLogic is a multi-model NoSQL database that has evolved from its XML database roots to also natively store JSON documents and RDF triples for its semantic data model. It uses a distributed architecture that can handle hundreds of billions of documents and hundreds of terabytes of data.[citation needed] MarkLogic maintains ACID consistency for transactions and has a Common Criteria certification security model, high availability, and disaster recovery. It is designed to run on-premises within public or private cloud computing environments like Amazon Web Services.[22]MarkLogic's Enterprise NoSQL database platform is utilized in various sectors, including publishing, government and finance. It is employed in a number of systems currently in production.[22]","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1118905628","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1118905628"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781119112204","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119112204"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781617291074","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781617291074"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1608300153","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1608300153"}],"text":"Fowler, Adam. \"NoSQL for Dummies\". ISBN 1118905628, 9781118905623.\nTaylor, Allen. \"Semantics for Dummies\". ISBN 9781119112204.\nHunter, Jason. \"Inside MarkLogic Server\"\nMcCreary, Dan, and Ann Kelly. Making Sense of NoSQL. Manning Publications Co. August 2012. ISBN 9781617291074.\nZhang, Andy. Beginning MarkLogic with XQuery and MarkLogic Server. Champion Writers, Inc. 24 June 2009. ISBN 1608300153.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Document database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document-oriented_database"},{"title":"Graph database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_database"},{"title":"Multi-model database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-model_database"},{"title":"NoSQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NoSQL"},{"title":"Triple store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplestore"},{"title":"MongoDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MongoDB"}]

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Retrieved 2020-06-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.corporateeventnews.com/news/corporate-event-expert-profile-wendy-laugesen-director-global-events-marklogic","url_text":"\"Corporate Event Expert Profile: Wendy Laugesen, Director of Global Events, MarkLogic | Corporate Event News\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vector Capital Completes Acquisition of MarkLogic\". MarkLogic. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marklogic.com/news/vector-capital-completes-acquisition-of-marklogic/","url_text":"\"Vector Capital Completes Acquisition of MarkLogic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201101012750/https://www.marklogic.com/news/vector-capital-completes-acquisition-of-marklogic/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Customers\". MarkLogic. Retrieved 13 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.marklogic.com/customers/","url_text":"\"Customers\""}]},{"reference":"Yuhanna, Noel. \"The Forrester Wave™: Big Data NoSQL, Q3 2016\". Forrester. Forrester Research. Retrieved 23 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://reprints.forrester.com/#/assets/2/364/'RES125643'/reports","url_text":"\"The Forrester Wave™: Big Data NoSQL, Q3 2016\""}]},{"reference":"\"Data Warehouse Disruptions 2016: Gartner Magic Quadrant - InformationWeek\". InformationWeek. Retrieved 2018-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.informationweek.com/software/information-management/data-warehouse-disruptions-2016-gartner-magic-quadrant/d/d-id/1324544","url_text":"\"Data Warehouse Disruptions 2016: Gartner Magic Quadrant - InformationWeek\""}]},{"reference":"\"MarkLogic Recognized as a Visionary in the 2017 Gartner Magic Quadrant for Operational Database Management Systems\". Microsoft. 14 November 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.technet.microsoft.com/dataplatforminsider/2017/03/07/gartner-names-microsoft-a-leader-in-the-magic-quadrant-for-data-management-solutions-for-analytics-dmsa/","url_text":"\"MarkLogic Recognized as a Visionary in the 2017 Gartner Magic Quadrant for Operational Database Management Systems\""}]},{"reference":"\"Company Overview of MarkLogic Corporation\". Bloomberg. Retrieved 13 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=5923526","url_text":"\"Company Overview of MarkLogic Corporation\""}]},{"reference":"Loizos, Connie (18 August 2008). \"Like Father Like Son? Darwin Ventures Raising $100M\". The PEHub Network. Retrieved 13 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pehub.com/2008/08/like-father-like-son-darwin-ventures-raising-100m/#","url_text":"\"Like Father Like Son? Darwin Ventures Raising $100M\""}]},{"reference":"\"IDC Names Innovative Information Access Companies Under $100M to Watch, Highlighting New Ways to Leverage Information Assets\". businesswire.com. Business Wire Inc. 2009-10-26. Retrieved 2017-01-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20091026005137/en/IDC-Names-Innovative-Information-Access-Companies-100M","url_text":"\"IDC Names Innovative Information Access Companies Under $100M to Watch, Highlighting New Ways to Leverage Information Assets\""}]},{"reference":"Hoge, Patrick (17 May 2012). \"MarkLogic appoints Gary Bloom CEO\". San Francisco Business Times. Retrieved 27 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/blog/2012/05/marklogic-appoints-gary-bloom-ceo.html","url_text":"\"MarkLogic appoints Gary Bloom CEO\""}]},{"reference":"Foremski, Tom (17 May 2012). \"Former senior Oracle exec Gary Bloom named CEO of Mark Logic\". ZDnet. Retrieved 27 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/blog/foremski/former-senior-oracle-exec-gary-bloom-named-ceo-of-mark-logic/2264","url_text":"\"Former senior Oracle exec Gary Bloom named CEO of Mark Logic\""}]},{"reference":"\"MarkLogic: AngelList\". Angel. AngelList. Retrieved 13 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://angel.co/marklogic","url_text":"\"MarkLogic: AngelList\""}]},{"reference":"Rao, Leena (2009-05-26). \"Mark Logic Raises $12.5 Million For XML Server Software\". techcrunch.com. TechCrunch. Retrieved 2017-01-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2009/05/26/mark-logic-raises-125-million-for-xml-server-software/","url_text":"\"Mark Logic Raises $12.5 Million For XML Server Software\""}]},{"reference":"Novet, Jordan. \"MarkLogic nets $25M to keep up enterprise NoSQL pitch\". GigaOM. Retrieved 23 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://gigaom.com/2013/04/10/marklogic-nets-25m-to-keep-up-enterprise-nosql-pitch/","url_text":"\"MarkLogic nets $25M to keep up enterprise NoSQL pitch\""}]},{"reference":"Joyce, Wells (11 April 2013). \"MarkLogic Secures New $25 Million Investment and Targets Four Primary Product Areas\". DBTA.com. Retrieved 27 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dbta.com/Articles/Editorial/News-Flashes/MarkLogic-Secures-New-$25-Million-Investment-and-Targets-Four-Primary-Product-Areas-88961.aspx","url_text":"\"MarkLogic Secures New $25 Million Investment and Targets Four Primary Product Areas\""}]},{"reference":"Darrow, Barb. \"MarkLogic snags $102 million in new funding to push its database abroad\". Fortune. Retrieved 23 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://fortune.com/2015/05/12/marklogic-snags-102-million/","url_text":"\"MarkLogic snags $102 million in new funding to push its database abroad\""}]},{"reference":"Lardinois, Frederic. \"NTT Data announces strategic investment in NoSQL database provider MarkLogic\". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2018-01-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2017/05/31/ntt-data-announces-strategic-investment-in-nosql-database-provider-marklogic/","url_text":"\"NTT Data announces strategic investment in NoSQL database provider MarkLogic\""}]},{"reference":"\"MarkLogic 4.0 Introduces Stable of New Features for the XML Server\". Information Today. 9 October 2008. Retrieved 27 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://newsbreaks.infotoday.com/NewsBreaks/MarkLogic--Introduces-Stable-of-New-Features-for-the-XML-Server-51064.asp","url_text":"\"MarkLogic 4.0 Introduces Stable of New Features for the XML Server\""}]},{"reference":"MacFadden, Gary (30 October 2013). \"MarkLogic 7 Leads the NoSQL Class, Adding Semantics and Other Enhancements\". Wikibon. Retrieved 27 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://wikibon.org/wiki/v/MarkLogic_7_Leads_the_NoSQL_Class,_Adding_Semantics_and_Other_Enhancements","url_text":"\"MarkLogic 7 Leads the NoSQL Class, Adding Semantics and Other Enhancements\""}]},{"reference":"Nick Heudecker; Merv Adrian (23 August 2013). Who's Who in NoSQL DBMSs (G00252015 ed.). Gartner.","urls":[]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Lovell

Bernard Lovell

["1 Early life and education","2 Career and research","2.1 Lectures","3 Awards and honours","4 Personal life","5 Read also","6 References","7 External links"]

English physicist and radio astronomer (1913–2012) SirBernard LovellOBE FRSBornAlfred Charles Bernard Lovell(1913-08-31)31 August 1913Oldland Common, Gloucestershire, EnglandDied6 August 2012(2012-08-06) (aged 98)Swettenham, Cheshire, EnglandAlma materUniversity of BristolKnown forRadio astronomyAwardsRoyal MedalGold Medal of the Royal Astronomical SocietyGabor Medal and PrizeKnight BachelorBenjamin Franklin MedalDalton MedalScientific careerFieldsAstronomyphysicsInstitutionsUniversity of ManchesterTelecommunications Research EstablishmentJodrell Bank ObservatoryThesisThe electrical conductivity of thin metallic films (1936) Sir Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell OBE FRS (/ˈlʌvəl/ LUV-əl; 31 August 1913 – 6 August 2012) was an English physicist and radio astronomer. He was the first director of Jodrell Bank Observatory, from 1945 to 1980. Early life and education Lovell was born at Oldland Common, Bristol, in 1913, the son of local tradesman and Methodist preacher Gilbert Lovell (1881–1956) and Emily Laura, née Adams. Gilbert Lovell was an "authority on the Bible" and, having "studied English literature and grammar", was still "bombarding his son with complaints on points of grammar, punctuation and method of speaking" when Lovell was in his forties. Lovell's childhood hobbies and interests included cricket and music, mainly the piano. He had a Methodist upbringing and attended Kingswood Grammar School. Career and research Lovell studied physics at the University of Bristol obtaining a Bachelor of Science degree in 1934, and a PhD in 1936 for his work on the electrical conductivity of thin films. At this time, he also received lessons in music from Raymond Jones, a teacher at Bath Technical School and later an organist at Bath Abbey. The church organ was one of the main loves of his life, apart from science. Lovell worked in the cosmic ray research team at the University of Manchester until the outbreak of the Second World War. At the beginning of the war, Lovell published his first book, Science and Civilization. During the war he worked for the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) developing radar systems to be installed in aircraft, among them H2S. In June 1942, following the crash in England of a Halifax bomber on a flight to demonstrate the H2S, Lovell aided in the recovery of the H2S's highly secret (and nearly indestructible) cavity magnetron from the plane's wreckage. All 11 on board were killed, including a number of his colleagues, notably EMI engineer Alan Blumlein. Despite the tragedy, Lovell resumed his work as the government considered the H2S radar critical to the war effort. At the end of the Second World War, Lovell attempted to continue his studies of cosmic rays with an ex-military radar detector unit, but suffered much background interference from the electric trams on Manchester's Oxford Road. He moved his equipment to a more remote location, one which was free from such electrical interference, and where he established the Jodrell Bank Observatory, near Goostrey in Cheshire. It was an outpost of the university's botany department and had been a searchlight station during the war. In the course of his experiments, he was able to show that radar echoes could be obtained from daytime meteor showers as they entered the Earth's atmosphere and ionised the surrounding air. He was later able to determine the orbits of meteors in annual meteor showers to show they were in solar orbit and not of interstellar origin. With university funding, he constructed the then-largest steerable radio telescope in the world, which now bears his name: the Lovell Telescope. Over 50 years later, it remains a productive radio telescope, now operated mostly as part of the MERLIN and European VLBI Network interferometric arrays of radio telescopes. Portrait by Reginald Gray, 1966, for The New York Times In 2009, Lovell claimed he had been the subject of a Cold War assassination attempt during a 1963 visit to the Soviet Deep-Space Communication Centre (Eupatoria). He alleged that his hosts tried to kill him with a lethal radiation dose because he was head of the Jodrell Bank space telescope when it was also being used as part of an early warning system for Soviet nuclear attacks. He wrote a full account of the incident which, at his determination, was only published after his death. Lectures In 1958, Lovell was invited by the BBC to deliver the annual Reith Lectures, a series of six radio broadcasts called The Individual and the Universe, in which he examined the history of enquiry into the solar system and the origin of the universe. In 1959, he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject "Radio Astronomy and the Structure of the Universe". In 1965 he was invited to co-deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on Exploration of the Universe. In 1975 he gave the presidential address (In the Centre of Immensities) to the British Association meeting in Guildford. Awards and honours Lovell won numerous awards including: 1946 – Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), for his work on H2S 1955 – Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society 1955 – Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1960 – Royal Medal 1961 – Knight Bachelor for his important contributions to the development of radio astronomy 1967 – Honorary Degree (Doctor of Science), University of Bath 1969 – Lorimer Medal of the Astronomical Society of Edinburgh 1969–71 – President of the Royal Astronomical Society 1974 – Elected to the American Philosophical Society 1980 – Benjamin Franklin Medal 1981 – Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Lovell was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Beyond professional recognition, Lovell has a secondary school named after him in Oldland Common, Bristol, which he officially opened. A building on the QinetiQ site in Malvern is also named after him, as was the fictional scientist Bernard Quatermass, the hero of several BBC Television science-fiction serials of the 1950s, whose first name was chosen in honour of Lovell. Personal life In 1937, Lovell married Mary Joyce Chesterman (d. 1993) and they had two sons and three daughters. In later life Lovell was physically very frail; he lived in quiet retirement in the countryside, surrounded by music, his books and a vast garden filled with trees he planted many decades before. Lovell died at home in Swettenham, Cheshire on 6 August 2012. Read also Lovell, Bernard (1967). Our Present Knowledge of the Universe. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Lovell, Bernard (1990). Astronomer by Chance. New York, USA: Basic Books. References ^ Smith, F.G.; Davies, R.; Lyne, A. (2012). "Bernard Lovell (1913–2012)". Nature. 488 (7413): 592. Bibcode:2012Natur.488..592S. doi:10.1038/488592a. PMID 22932377. ^ Anon (2007). "Sir Bernard Lovell at Jodrell Bank". Astronomy & Geophysics. 48 (5): 5.21–5.22. Bibcode:2007A&G....48e..21.. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48521.x. ^ Zijlstra, A.A.; Davis, R.J. (2012). "Sir Bernard Lovell (1913–2012)". Science. 337 (6100): 1307. Bibcode:2012Sci...337.1307Z. doi:10.1126/science.1229080. PMID 22984062. S2CID 11177729. ^ "Sir Bernard Lovell | Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics". Retrieved 7 August 2012. ^ "Lovell, Bernard (1913–)". Wolfram Research. Retrieved 22 November 2006. ^ a b c d e Davies, Rodney D.; Graham-Smith, Francis; Lyne, Andrew G. (2016). "Sir Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell OBE. 31 August 1913 – 6 August 2012". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 62: 323–344. doi:10.1098/rsbm.2015.0026. ^ Murdin, Paul (2016). "Lovell, Sir (Alfred Charles) Bernard (1913–2012), astronomer". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/105432. ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b Hecker, Don R. (8 August 2012). "Sir Bernard Lovell dies at 98; a radio telescope bears his name". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 August 2012. ^ Bernard Lovell- A Biography, Dudley Saward, R. Hale, 1984, p. 13 ^ "Bernard Lovell: 2 – Secondary school & the lecture that changed my life". Web of Stories. 5 September 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2012. ^ Index to Theses in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Theses.com (3 August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-08-21. ^ Lovell, A. C. B. (1936). "The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. I. Rubidium on Pyrex Glass Surfaces". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 157 (891): 311–330. Bibcode:1936RSPSA.157..311L. doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0197. ^ Appleyard, E. T. S.; Lovell, A. C. B. (1937). "The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. II. Caesium and Potassium on Pyrex Glass Surfaces". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 158 (895): 718. Bibcode:1937RSPSA.158..718A. doi:10.1098/rspa.1937.0050. ^ Lovell, A. C. B. (1938). "The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. III. Alkali Films with the Properties of the Normal Metal". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 166 (925): 270–277. Bibcode:1938RSPSA.166..270L. doi:10.1098/rspa.1938.0092. ^ "Bernard Lovell / Astronomer". Webofstories.com. Retrieved 6 January 2011. ^ LovelI, Bernard. "Lovell's Memories / Student Memories of Bristol" (PDF). University of Bristol. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2019. ^ Lovell, A. C. B. (1939). "Shower Production by Penetrating Cosmic Rays". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 172 (951): 568–582. Bibcode:1939RSPSA.172..568L. doi:10.1098/rspa.1939.0122. ^ Blackett, P. M. S.; Lovell, A. C. B. (1941). "Radio Echoes and Cosmic Ray Showers". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 177 (969): 183. Bibcode:1941RSPSA.177..183B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1941.0003. ^ Lovell, A. C. B.; Clegg, J. A. (1948). "Characteristics of Radio Echoes from Meteor Trails: I. The Intensity of the Radio Reflections and Electron Density in the Trails". Proceedings of the Physical Society. 60 (5): 491. Bibcode:1948PPS....60..491L. doi:10.1088/0959-5309/60/5/312. ^ Lovell, Bernard (1991). Echoes of War: The Story of H2S Radar. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 126–131. ISBN 0852743173. Retrieved 24 May 2024. ^ "Sir Bernard Lovell claims Russians tried to kill him with radiation". The Telegraph. 22 May 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2023. ^ "Sir Bernard Lovell (1913-2012)". 24 September 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2018. ^ "BBC Radio 4 – The Reith Lectures, Bernard Lovell: The Individual and the Universe: 1958". Retrieved 7 August 2012. ^ "Hugh Miller Macmillan". Macmillan Memorial Lectures. Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2019. ^ Renn, D. F.; Steeds, A. J. (June 1976). "The British Association for the Advancement of Science: Annual Meeting 1975, Guildford". Journal of the Institute of Actuaries. 103 (1): 113–115. doi:10.1017/s0020268100017790. JSTOR 41140365. ^ "78 – Work on meteors at Jodrell Bank: observing the Giacobinid meteor shower of 1946". Webofstories.com. Retrieved 9 January 2011. ^ Bernard Lovell telling his life story at Web of Stories ^ Article about Bernard Lovell's life, by John Bromley Davenport in The Daily Telegraph, 19 April 2011. ^ "Lovell, Alfred Charles Bernard (Oral history)". Imperial War Museums. ^ "Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell". 9 February 2023. ^ "Sir Bernard Lovell". Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, University of Manchester 28 August 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011. ^ Honorary Graduates 1966 to 1988 | University of Bath Archived 25 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Bath.ac.uk. Retrieved on 2012-08-21. ^ Astronomical Society of Edinburgh, Lorimer Medal https://www.astronomyedinburgh.org/about-us/lorimer-medal/ ^ "APS Member History". ^ "The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences: Bernard Lovell". Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2011. ^ "Sir Bernard Lovell School in Oldland Common". Archived from the original on 5 February 2007. Retrieved 22 November 2006. ^ Murray, Andy (2006). Into the Unknown: The Fantastic Life of Nigel Kneale (paperback). London: Headpress. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-900486-50-7. ^ "LOVELL, Sir Alfred Charles Bernard, Who Was Who". A & C Black, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc, 1920–2015; online edn, Oxford University Press, 2014; online edn. April 2014. Retrieved 17 November 2015. ^ "Astronomer Sir Bernard Lovell dies". BBC News. 7 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012. ^ Sir Bernard Lovell, University of Manchester, 7 August 2012 External links Media related to Bernard Lovell at Wikimedia Commons Portraits of Bernard Lovell at the National Portrait Gallery, London vteJodrell Bank Observatory Timeline Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics Jodrell Bank Observatory Telescopes BINGO Lovell Telescope Mark II Mark III MERLIN Tenerife Experiment Very Small Array Directors Bernard Lovell Francis Graham-Smith Rod Davies Andrew Lyne Phil Diamond Michael Garrett Engineers Charles Husband Astronomers Richard Battye Robert Hanbury Brown Roger Clifton Jennison Sarah Bridle Richard Davis Ian Morison Tim O'Brien Anna Scaife Dennis Walsh Other The Jodcast vteDalton MedallistsRecipients Henry Edward Schunck (1898) Sir Henry Roscoe (1900) Osborne Reynolds (1903) Sir Ernest Rutherford (1919) Sir Joseph 'J. J.' Thomson (1931) Sir Lawrence Bragg (1942) Patrick Blackett (1948) Sir Cyril Hinshelwood (1966) Dorothy Hodgkin (1981) Sir Harold Kroto (1997) Sir Walter Bodmer (2002) Sir Roger Penrose (2005) Sir Bernard Lovell (2009) Lord Rees of Ludlow (2012) Sir Konstantin Novoselov (2016) Category Portals: United Kingdom Biography Science Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Spain Germany Israel Belgium United States Sweden Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Croatia Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii MathSciNet zbMATH People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other SNAC IdRef

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He was the first director of Jodrell Bank Observatory, from 1945 to 1980.[1][2][3][4][5][6]","title":"Bernard Lovell"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oldland Common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldland_Common"},{"link_name":"Bristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimes-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"cricket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket"},{"link_name":"Methodist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist"},{"link_name":"Kingswood Grammar School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Oak_Academy"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rsbm-6"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-School_days-10"}],"text":"Lovell was born at Oldland Common, Bristol, in 1913, the son of local tradesman and Methodist preacher Gilbert Lovell (1881–1956) and Emily Laura, née Adams.[7][8] Gilbert Lovell was an \"authority on the Bible\" and, having \"studied English literature and grammar\", was still \"bombarding his son with complaints on points of grammar, punctuation and method of speaking\" when Lovell was in his forties.[9] Lovell's childhood hobbies and interests included cricket and music, mainly the piano. He had a Methodist upbringing and attended Kingswood Grammar School.[6][10]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"University of Bristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bristol"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimes-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Bath Technical School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath_Technical_School"},{"link_name":"Bath Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath_Abbey"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"cosmic ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray"},{"link_name":"University of Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-doi10.1098/rspa.1939.0122-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Telecommunications Research Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_Research_Establishment"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"H2S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H2S_radar"},{"link_name":"the crash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1942_Herefordshire_TRE_Halifax_crash"},{"link_name":"Halifax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Halifax"},{"link_name":"cavity magnetron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavity_magnetron"},{"link_name":"EMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI"},{"link_name":"Alan Blumlein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Blumlein"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"cosmic rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray"},{"link_name":"background interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference"},{"link_name":"Oxford Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmslow_Road"},{"link_name":"Jodrell Bank Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodrell_Bank_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Goostrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goostrey"},{"link_name":"botany department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_of_Life_Sciences_(University_of_Manchester)#Department_of_Botany"},{"link_name":"meteor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor"},{"link_name":"atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere"},{"link_name":"ionised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionised"},{"link_name":"radio telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_telescope"},{"link_name":"Lovell Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope"},{"link_name":"MERLIN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERLIN"},{"link_name":"European VLBI Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_VLBI_Network"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sir_Bernard_Lovell_by_Reginald_Gray.jpg"},{"link_name":"Reginald Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Gray_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"Eupatoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluton_(complex)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"early warning system for Soviet nuclear attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-minute_warning"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Lovell studied physics at the University of Bristol obtaining a Bachelor of Science degree in 1934,[8] and a PhD in 1936 for his work on the electrical conductivity of thin films.[11][12][13][14] At this time, he also received lessons in music from Raymond Jones, a teacher at Bath Technical School and later an organist at Bath Abbey. The church organ was one of the main loves of his life, apart from science.[15][16]Lovell worked in the cosmic ray research team at the University of Manchester[17][18][19] until the outbreak of the Second World War. At the beginning of the war, Lovell published his first book, Science and Civilization. During the war he worked for the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) developing radar systems to be installed in aircraft, among them H2S.In June 1942, following the crash in England of a Halifax bomber on a flight to demonstrate the H2S, Lovell aided in the recovery of the H2S's highly secret (and nearly indestructible) cavity magnetron from the plane's wreckage. All 11 on board were killed, including a number of his colleagues, notably EMI engineer Alan Blumlein. Despite the tragedy, Lovell resumed his work as the government considered the H2S radar critical to the war effort.[20]At the end of the Second World War, Lovell attempted to continue his studies of cosmic rays with an ex-military radar detector unit, but suffered much background interference from the electric trams on Manchester's Oxford Road. He moved his equipment to a more remote location, one which was free from such electrical interference, and where he established the Jodrell Bank Observatory, near Goostrey in Cheshire. It was an outpost of the university's botany department and had been a searchlight station during the war. In the course of his experiments, he was able to show that radar echoes could be obtained from daytime meteor showers as they entered the Earth's atmosphere and ionised the surrounding air. He was later able to determine the orbits of meteors in annual meteor showers to show they were in solar orbit and not of interstellar origin. With university funding, he constructed the then-largest steerable radio telescope in the world, which now bears his name: the Lovell Telescope. Over 50 years later, it remains a productive radio telescope, now operated mostly as part of the MERLIN and European VLBI Network interferometric arrays of radio telescopes.Portrait by Reginald Gray, 1966, for The New York TimesIn 2009, Lovell claimed he had been the subject of a Cold War assassination attempt during a 1963 visit to the Soviet Deep-Space Communication Centre (Eupatoria). He alleged that his hosts tried to kill him with a lethal radiation dose[21] because he was head of the Jodrell Bank space telescope when it was also being used as part of an early warning system for Soviet nuclear attacks. He wrote a full account of the incident which, at his determination, was only published after his death.[22]","title":"Career and research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reith Lectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reith_Lectures"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reithlectures-23"},{"link_name":"Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution_of_Engineers_and_Shipbuilders_in_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacmillanLecture1959-24"},{"link_name":"Royal Institution Christmas Lecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution_Christmas_Lectures"},{"link_name":"British Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Science_Association"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Lectures","text":"In 1958, Lovell was invited by the BBC to deliver the annual Reith Lectures, a series of six radio broadcasts called The Individual and the Universe,[23] in which he examined the history of enquiry into the solar system and the origin of the universe.In 1959, he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject \"Radio Astronomy and the Structure of the Universe\".[24]In 1965 he was invited to co-deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on Exploration of the Universe.In 1975 he gave the presidential address (In the Centre of Immensities) to the British Association meeting in Guildford.[25]","title":"Career and research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Officer of the Order of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rsbm-6"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"1955 – Elected a Fellow of the Royal 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Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_Society_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"President of the Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"American Philosophical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Franklin Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Medal_(Royal_Society_of_Arts)"},{"link_name":"Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Oldland Common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldland_Common"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-secondary_school-36"},{"link_name":"QinetiQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QinetiQ"},{"link_name":"Malvern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvern,_Worcestershire"},{"link_name":"Bernard Quatermass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Quatermass"},{"link_name":"BBC Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Television"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-quatermass-37"}],"text":"Lovell won numerous awards including:1946 – Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), for his work on H2S[6][26][27][28][29]\n1955 – Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society[6]\n1955 – Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences[30]\n1960 – Royal Medal\n1961 – Knight Bachelor[31] for his important contributions to the development of radio astronomy\n1967 – Honorary Degree (Doctor of Science), University of Bath[32]\n1969 – Lorimer Medal of the Astronomical Society of Edinburgh[33]\n1969–71 – President of the Royal Astronomical Society\n1974 – Elected to the American Philosophical Society[34]\n1980 – Benjamin Franklin Medal\n1981 – Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical SocietyLovell was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.[35]Beyond professional recognition, Lovell has a secondary school named after him in Oldland Common, Bristol, which he officially opened.[36] A building on the QinetiQ site in Malvern is also named after him, as was the fictional scientist Bernard Quatermass, the hero of several BBC Television science-fiction serials of the 1950s, whose first name was chosen in honour of Lovell.[37]","title":"Awards and honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rsbm-6"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Swettenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swettenham"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"text":"In 1937, Lovell married Mary Joyce Chesterman (d. 1993) and they had two sons and three daughters.[6][38]In later life Lovell was physically very frail; he lived in quiet retirement in the countryside, surrounded by music, his books and a vast garden filled with trees he planted many decades before. Lovell died at home in Swettenham, Cheshire on 6 August 2012.[39][40]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Lovell, Bernard (1967). Our Present Knowledge of the Universe. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.\nLovell, Bernard (1990). Astronomer by Chance. New York, USA: Basic Books.","title":"Read also"}]

[{"image_text":"Portrait by Reginald Gray, 1966, for The New York Times","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Sir_Bernard_Lovell_by_Reginald_Gray.jpg/220px-Sir_Bernard_Lovell_by_Reginald_Gray.jpg"}]

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PMID 22932377.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Graham-Smith","url_text":"Smith, F.G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lyne","url_text":"Lyne, A."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F488592a","url_text":"\"Bernard Lovell (1913–2012)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)","url_text":"Nature"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.488..592S","url_text":"2012Natur.488..592S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F488592a","url_text":"10.1038/488592a"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22932377","url_text":"22932377"}]},{"reference":"Anon (2007). \"Sir Bernard Lovell at Jodrell Bank\". Astronomy & Geophysics. 48 (5): 5.21–5.22. Bibcode:2007A&G....48e..21.. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48521.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-4004.2007.48521.x","url_text":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell at Jodrell Bank\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Geophysics","url_text":"Astronomy & Geophysics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007A&G....48e..21.","url_text":"2007A&G....48e..21."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-4004.2007.48521.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48521.x"}]},{"reference":"Zijlstra, A.A.; Davis, R.J. (2012). \"Sir Bernard Lovell (1913–2012)\". Science. 337 (6100): 1307. Bibcode:2012Sci...337.1307Z. doi:10.1126/science.1229080. PMID 22984062. S2CID 11177729.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)","url_text":"Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Sci...337.1307Z","url_text":"2012Sci...337.1307Z"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1229080","url_text":"10.1126/science.1229080"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22984062","url_text":"22984062"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11177729","url_text":"11177729"}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell | Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics\". Retrieved 7 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/news/2012/SirBernard/","url_text":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell | Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lovell, Bernard (1913–)\". Wolfram Research. Retrieved 22 November 2006.","urls":[{"url":"http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Lovell.html","url_text":"\"Lovell, Bernard (1913–)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfram_Research","url_text":"Wolfram Research"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Rodney D.; Graham-Smith, Francis; Lyne, Andrew G. (2016). \"Sir Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell OBE. 31 August 1913 – 6 August 2012\". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 62: 323–344. doi:10.1098/rsbm.2015.0026.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_Davies","url_text":"Davies, Rodney D."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Graham-Smith","url_text":"Graham-Smith, Francis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lyne","url_text":"Lyne, Andrew G."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.2015.0026","url_text":"\"Sir Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell OBE. 31 August 1913 – 6 August 2012\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society","url_text":"Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.2015.0026","url_text":"10.1098/rsbm.2015.0026"}]},{"reference":"Murdin, Paul (2016). \"Lovell, Sir (Alfred Charles) Bernard (1913–2012), astronomer\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/105432. ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Murdin","url_text":"Murdin, Paul"},{"url":"https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-105432","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F105432","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/105432"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861412-8","url_text":"978-0-19-861412-8"}]},{"reference":"Hecker, Don R. (8 August 2012). \"Sir Bernard Lovell dies at 98; a radio telescope bears his name\". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/08/science/space/sir-bernard-lovell-dies-at-98-a-radio-telescope-bears-his-name.html?ref=science","url_text":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell dies at 98; a radio telescope bears his name\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bernard Lovell: 2 – Secondary school & the lecture that changed my life\". Web of Stories. 5 September 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.webofstories.com/play/17785","url_text":"\"Bernard Lovell: 2 – Secondary school & the lecture that changed my life\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_of_Stories","url_text":"Web of Stories"}]},{"reference":"Lovell, A. C. B. (1936). \"The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. I. Rubidium on Pyrex Glass Surfaces\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 157 (891): 311–330. Bibcode:1936RSPSA.157..311L. doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0197.","urls":[{"url_text":"Lovell, A. C. B."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1936.0197","url_text":"\"The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. I. Rubidium on Pyrex Glass Surfaces\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1936RSPSA.157..311L","url_text":"1936RSPSA.157..311L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1936.0197","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1936.0197"}]},{"reference":"Appleyard, E. T. S.; Lovell, A. C. B. (1937). \"The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. II. Caesium and Potassium on Pyrex Glass Surfaces\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 158 (895): 718. Bibcode:1937RSPSA.158..718A. doi:10.1098/rspa.1937.0050.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._T._S._Appleyard","url_text":"Appleyard, E. T. S."},{"url_text":"Lovell, A. C. B."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1937.0050","url_text":"\"The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. II. Caesium and Potassium on Pyrex Glass Surfaces\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1937RSPSA.158..718A","url_text":"1937RSPSA.158..718A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1937.0050","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1937.0050"}]},{"reference":"Lovell, A. C. B. (1938). \"The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. III. Alkali Films with the Properties of the Normal Metal\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 166 (925): 270–277. Bibcode:1938RSPSA.166..270L. doi:10.1098/rspa.1938.0092.","urls":[{"url_text":"Lovell, A. C. B."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1938.0092","url_text":"\"The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films. III. Alkali Films with the Properties of the Normal Metal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1938RSPSA.166..270L","url_text":"1938RSPSA.166..270L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1938.0092","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1938.0092"}]},{"reference":"\"Bernard Lovell / Astronomer\". Webofstories.com. Retrieved 6 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.webofstories.com/play/17826","url_text":"\"Bernard Lovell / Astronomer\""}]},{"reference":"LovelI, Bernard. \"Lovell's Memories / Student Memories of Bristol\" (PDF). University of Bristol. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bristol.ac.uk/physics/media/histories/10-lovell.pdf","url_text":"\"Lovell's Memories / Student Memories of Bristol\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120205072152/http://www.phy.bris.ac.uk/history/10.%20Lovell's%20Memories.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lovell, A. C. B. (1939). \"Shower Production by Penetrating Cosmic Rays\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 172 (951): 568–582. Bibcode:1939RSPSA.172..568L. doi:10.1098/rspa.1939.0122.","urls":[{"url_text":"Lovell, A. C. B."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1939.0122","url_text":"\"Shower Production by Penetrating Cosmic Rays\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939RSPSA.172..568L","url_text":"1939RSPSA.172..568L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1939.0122","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1939.0122"}]},{"reference":"Blackett, P. M. S.; Lovell, A. C. B. (1941). \"Radio Echoes and Cosmic Ray Showers\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 177 (969): 183. Bibcode:1941RSPSA.177..183B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1941.0003.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Blackett","url_text":"Blackett, P. M. S."},{"url_text":"Lovell, A. C. B."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1941.0003","url_text":"\"Radio Echoes and Cosmic Ray Showers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1941RSPSA.177..183B","url_text":"1941RSPSA.177..183B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1941.0003","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1941.0003"}]},{"reference":"Lovell, A. C. B.; Clegg, J. A. (1948). \"Characteristics of Radio Echoes from Meteor Trails: I. The Intensity of the Radio Reflections and Electron Density in the Trails\". Proceedings of the Physical Society. 60 (5): 491. Bibcode:1948PPS....60..491L. doi:10.1088/0959-5309/60/5/312.","urls":[{"url_text":"Lovell, A. C. B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948PPS....60..491L","url_text":"1948PPS....60..491L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0959-5309%2F60%2F5%2F312","url_text":"10.1088/0959-5309/60/5/312"}]},{"reference":"Lovell, Bernard (1991). Echoes of War: The Story of H2S Radar. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 126–131. ISBN 0852743173. Retrieved 24 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tnGo5BywLj8C","url_text":"Echoes of War: The Story of H2S Radar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852743173","url_text":"0852743173"}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell claims Russians tried to kill him with radiation\". The Telegraph. 22 May 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/space/5362829/Sir-Bernard-Lovell-claims-Russians-tried-to-kill-him-with-radiation.html","url_text":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell claims Russians tried to kill him with radiation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell (1913-2012)\". 24 September 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://rylandscollections.wordpress.com/2012/09/24/sir-bernard-lovell-1913-2012/","url_text":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell (1913-2012)\""}]},{"reference":"\"BBC Radio 4 – The Reith Lectures, Bernard Lovell: The Individual and the Universe: 1958\". Retrieved 7 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00h9ld8","url_text":"\"BBC Radio 4 – The Reith Lectures, Bernard Lovell: The Individual and the Universe: 1958\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hugh Miller Macmillan\". Macmillan Memorial Lectures. Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iesis.org/macmillan.html","url_text":"\"Hugh Miller Macmillan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution_of_Engineers_and_Shipbuilders_in_Scotland","url_text":"Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181004102303/http://www.iesis.org/macmillan.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Renn, D. F.; Steeds, A. J. (June 1976). \"The British Association for the Advancement of Science: Annual Meeting 1975, Guildford\". Journal of the Institute of Actuaries. 103 (1): 113–115. doi:10.1017/s0020268100017790. JSTOR 41140365.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020268100017790","url_text":"10.1017/s0020268100017790"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/41140365","url_text":"41140365"}]},{"reference":"\"78 – Work on meteors at Jodrell Bank: observing the Giacobinid meteor shower of 1946\". Webofstories.com. Retrieved 9 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.webofstories.com/play/17861","url_text":"\"78 – Work on meteors at Jodrell Bank: observing the Giacobinid meteor shower of 1946\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lovell, Alfred Charles Bernard (Oral history)\". Imperial War Museums.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/80009494","url_text":"\"Lovell, Alfred Charles Bernard (Oral history)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell\". 9 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amacad.org/person/alfred-charles-bernard-lovell/","url_text":"\"Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell\". Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, University of Manchester 28 August 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/multimedia/images/BernardLovell.html","url_text":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell\""}]},{"reference":"\"APS Member History\".","urls":[{"url":"https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Bernard+Lovell&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced/","url_text":"\"APS Member History\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences: Bernard Lovell\". Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120313050853/http://www.kva.se/en/Members/Kontakt-sida/?personId=658","url_text":"\"The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences: Bernard Lovell\""},{"url":"http://www.kva.se/en/Members/Kontakt-sida/?personId=658","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell School in Oldland Common\". Archived from the original on 5 February 2007. Retrieved 22 November 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070205075706/http://www.sirbernardlovell.s-gloucs.sch.uk/","url_text":"\"Sir Bernard Lovell School in Oldland Common\""},{"url":"http://www.sirbernardlovell.s-gloucs.sch.uk/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Murray, Andy (2006). Into the Unknown: The Fantastic Life of Nigel Kneale (paperback). London: Headpress. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-900486-50-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-900486-50-7","url_text":"978-1-900486-50-7"}]},{"reference":"\"LOVELL, Sir Alfred Charles Bernard, Who Was Who\". A & C Black, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc, 1920–2015; online edn, Oxford University Press, 2014; online edn. April 2014. Retrieved 17 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U24983","url_text":"\"LOVELL, Sir Alfred Charles Bernard, Who Was Who\""}]},{"reference":"\"Astronomer Sir Bernard Lovell dies\". BBC News. 7 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-19164236","url_text":"\"Astronomer Sir Bernard Lovell dies\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SFlow

sFlow

["1 Operation","1.1 Flow samples","1.2 Counter samples","1.3 sFlow datagrams","2 sFlow versions","3 Related technologies","3.1 NetFlow, IPFIX","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

A network packet standard sFlow, short for "sampled flow", is an industry standard for packet export at Layer 2 of the OSI model. sFlow was originally developed by InMon Corp. It provides a means for exporting truncated packets, together with interface counters for the purpose of network monitoring. Maintenance of the protocol is performed by the sFlow.org consortium, the authoritative source of the sFlow protocol specifications. The current version of sFlow is v5. Operation sFlow uses mandatory sampling to achieve scalability and is, for this reason, applicable to high speed networks (gigabit per second speeds and higher). sFlow is supported by multiple network device manufacturers and network management software vendors. An sFlow system consists of multiple devices performing two types of sampling: random sampling of packets or application layer operations, and time-based sampling of counters. The sampled packet/operation and counter information, referred to as flow samples and counter samples respectively, are sent as sFlow datagrams to a central server running software that analyzes and reports on network traffic; the sFlow collector. Flow samples Based on a defined sampling rate, an average of 1 out of n packets/operations is randomly sampled. This type of sampling does not provide a 100% accurate result, but it does provide a result with quantifiable accuracy. Counter samples A polling interval defines how often the network device sends interface counters. sFlow counter sampling is more efficient than SNMP polling when monitoring a large number of interfaces. sFlow datagrams The sampled data is sent as a UDP packet to the specified host and port. The official port number for sFlow is port 6343. The lack of reliability in the UDP transport mechanism does not significantly affect the accuracy of the measurements obtained from an sFlow agent. If counter samples are lost then new values will be sent when the next polling interval has passed. The loss of packet flow samples results in a slight reduction of the effective sampling rate. The UDP payload contains the sFlow datagram. Each datagram provides information about the sFlow version, the originating device’s IP address, a sequence number, the number of samples it contains and one or more flow and/or counter samples. sFlow versions Version Comment v1 Initial version v2 (Unknown) v3 Adds support for extended_url information. v4 Adds support BGP communities. v5 Several protocol enhancements. This is the current version, which is globally supported. Related technologies A well known alternative is NetFlow (see below). Moreover, depending on the IT resources available it could be possible to perform full packet captures using dedicated network taps (which are then subsequently analysed). NetFlow, IPFIX NetFlow and IPFIX are flow export protocols that aim at aggregating packets into flows. After that, flow records are sent to a collection point for storage and analysis. sFlow, however, has no notion of flows or packet aggregation at all. sFlow allows for exporting packet data chunks and interface counters, which are non-typical features of flow export protocols. Note however that (recent) IPFIX developments provide a means for exporting SNMP MIB variables and packet data chunks. While flow export can be performed with 1:1 sampling (i.e., considering every packet), this is typically not possible with sFlow, as it was not designed to do so. Sampling forms an integral part of sFlow, aiming to provide scalability for network-wide monitoring. See also NetFlow Network Management Packet analyzer RMON References ^ "InMon: SFlow". ^ "sFlow.org - Making the Network Visible". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2016-03-09. ^ Jedwab, Jonathan; Phaal, Peter; Pinna, Bob (March 1992). "Traffic Estimation for the Largest Sources on a Network, Using Packet Sampling with Limited Storage" (PDF). HP Labs. Retrieved 2016-03-09. ^ Jasinska, Elisa (December 2006). "sFlow, I can feel your traffic" (PDF). Amsterdam Internet Exchange (AMS-IX). Retrieved 2016-03-09. ^ "sFlow Products: Network Equipment". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2016-03-09. ^ "sFlow Products: sFlow Collectors". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2016-03-09. ^ a b Phaal, Peter; Lavine, Marc (July 2004). "sFlow Version 5". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2014-06-26. ^ Phaal, Peter; Jordan, Robert (July 2010). "sFlow Host Structures". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2010-10-23. ^ "Traffic Monitoring using sFlow" (PDF). sFlow.org. 2003. Retrieved 2010-10-23. ^ Phaal, Peter; Panchen, Sonia (2002). "Packet Sampling Basics". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2010-10-23. ^ Liu, G.; Neufeld, N. (December 2009). "Management of the LHCb network based on SCADA system" (PDF). CERN. Retrieved 2010-10-23. ^ "Port Numbers". IANA. Retrieved 2010-10-23. ^ a b Phaal, Peter; Panchen, Sonia; McKee, Neil (September 2001). "sFlow Datagram Format". InMon Corporation's sFlow: A Method for Monitoring Traffic in Switched and Routed Networks. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC3176. RFC 3176. Retrieved 2014-06-20. ^ "sFlow Version 5". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2014-06-20. ^ a b Hofstede, Rick; Celeda, Pavel; Trammell, Brian; Drago, Idilio; Sadre, Ramin; Sperotto, Anna; Pras, Aiko (2014). "Flow Monitoring Explained: From Packet Capture to Data Analysis with NetFlow and IPFIX" (PDF). IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials. 16 (4): 2037–2064. doi:10.1109/COMST.2014.2321898. S2CID 14042725. ^ "Packet capture". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "Exporting MIB Variables using the IPFIX Protocol". IETF. Retrieved 2014-06-19. ^ "IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) Entities". IANA. Retrieved 2014-06-19. ^ "Scalability and accuracy of packet sampling". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2014-06-19. External links Official site Differences between Sflow vs Netflow

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[]

[{"title":"NetFlow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetFlow"},{"title":"Network Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Management"},{"title":"Packet analyzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_analyzer"},{"title":"RMON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMON"}]

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Retrieved 2016-03-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://events.ccc.de/congress/2006/Fahrplan/attachments/1137-sFlowPaper.pdf","url_text":"\"sFlow, I can feel your traffic\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Internet_Exchange","url_text":"Amsterdam Internet Exchange (AMS-IX)"}]},{"reference":"\"sFlow Products: Network Equipment\". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2016-03-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sflow.org/products/network.php","url_text":"\"sFlow Products: Network Equipment\""}]},{"reference":"\"sFlow Products: sFlow Collectors\". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2016-03-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sflow.org/products/collectors.php","url_text":"\"sFlow Products: sFlow Collectors\""}]},{"reference":"Phaal, Peter; Lavine, Marc (July 2004). \"sFlow Version 5\". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2014-06-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sflow.org/sflow_version_5.txt","url_text":"\"sFlow Version 5\""}]},{"reference":"Phaal, Peter; Jordan, Robert (July 2010). \"sFlow Host Structures\". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2010-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sflow.org/sflow_host.txt","url_text":"\"sFlow Host Structures\""}]},{"reference":"\"Traffic Monitoring using sFlow\" (PDF). sFlow.org. 2003. Retrieved 2010-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sflow.org/sFlowOverview.pdf","url_text":"\"Traffic Monitoring using sFlow\""}]},{"reference":"Phaal, Peter; Panchen, Sonia (2002). \"Packet Sampling Basics\". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2010-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sflow.org/packetSamplingBasics/index.htm","url_text":"\"Packet Sampling Basics\""}]},{"reference":"Liu, G.; Neufeld, N. (December 2009). \"Management of the LHCb network based on SCADA system\" (PDF). CERN. Retrieved 2010-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/1216160/files/LHCb-CONF-2009-047.pdf","url_text":"\"Management of the LHCb network based on SCADA system\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN","url_text":"CERN"}]},{"reference":"\"Port Numbers\". IANA. Retrieved 2010-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers","url_text":"\"Port Numbers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority","url_text":"IANA"}]},{"reference":"Phaal, Peter; Panchen, Sonia; McKee, Neil (September 2001). \"sFlow Datagram Format\". InMon Corporation's sFlow: A Method for Monitoring Traffic in Switched and Routed Networks. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC3176. RFC 3176. Retrieved 2014-06-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3176","url_text":"InMon Corporation's sFlow: A Method for Monitoring Traffic in Switched and Routed Networks"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC3176","url_text":"10.17487/RFC3176"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3176","url_text":"3176"}]},{"reference":"\"sFlow Version 5\". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2014-06-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://sflow.org/sflow_version_5.txt","url_text":"\"sFlow Version 5\""}]},{"reference":"Hofstede, Rick; Celeda, Pavel; Trammell, Brian; Drago, Idilio; Sadre, Ramin; Sperotto, Anna; Pras, Aiko (2014). \"Flow Monitoring Explained: From Packet Capture to Data Analysis with NetFlow and IPFIX\" (PDF). IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials. 16 (4): 2037–2064. doi:10.1109/COMST.2014.2321898. S2CID 14042725.","urls":[{"url":"https://iris.polito.it/bitstream/11583/2658703/1/tutorial.pdf","url_text":"\"Flow Monitoring Explained: From Packet Capture to Data Analysis with NetFlow and IPFIX\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCOMST.2014.2321898","url_text":"10.1109/COMST.2014.2321898"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14042725","url_text":"14042725"}]},{"reference":"\"Packet capture\". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2019-07-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.sflow.com/2011/11/tcpdump.html","url_text":"\"Packet capture\""}]},{"reference":"\"Exporting MIB Variables using the IPFIX Protocol\". IETF. Retrieved 2014-06-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ietf-ipfix-mib-variable-export","url_text":"\"Exporting MIB Variables using the IPFIX Protocol\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"}]},{"reference":"\"IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) Entities\". IANA. Retrieved 2014-06-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iana.org/assignments/ipfix/ipfix.xhtml","url_text":"\"IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) Entities\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority","url_text":"IANA"}]},{"reference":"\"Scalability and accuracy of packet sampling\". sFlow.org. Retrieved 2014-06-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.sflow.com/2009/05/scalability-and-accuracy-of-packet.html","url_text":"\"Scalability and accuracy of packet sampling\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_Automatic_Protection_Switching

Ethernet Automatic Protection Switching

["1 Operation","2 EAPS v2","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]

Ethernet fault-tolerance technique Ethernet Automatic Protection Switching (EAPS) is used to create a fault tolerant topology by configuring a primary and secondary path for each VLAN. Invented by Extreme Networks and submitted to IETF as RFC3619. The idea is to provide highly available Ethernet switched rings (commonly used in Metro Ethernet) to replace legacy TDM based transport protection fiber rings. Other implementations include Ethernet Protection Switching Ring (EPSR) by Allied Telesis which enhanced EAPS to provide full protected transport of IP Triple Play services (voice, video and internet traffic) for xDSL/FTTx deployments. EAPS/EPSR is the most widely deployed Ethernet protection switching solution deployed with major multi-vendor inter-operability support. The EAPS/EPSR are the basis of the ITU G.8032 Ethernet Protection recommendation. Operation A ring is formed by configuring a Domain. Each domain has a single "master node" and many "transit nodes". Each node will have a primary port and a secondary port, both known to be able to send control traffic to the master node. Under normal operation, the secondary port on the master is blocked for all protected vlans. When there is a link down situation, the devices that detect the failure send a control message to the master, and the master will then unblock the secondary port and instruct the transits to flush their forwarding databases. The next packets sent by the network can then be flooded and learned out of the (now enabled) secondary port without any network disruption. Fail-over times are demonstrably in the region of 50ms. The same switch can belong to multiple domains and thus multiple rings. However, these act as independent entities and can be controlled individually. EAPS v2 EAPSv2 is configured and enabled to avoid the potential of super-loops in environments where multiple EAPS domains share a common link. EAPSv2 works using the concept of a controller and partner mechanism. Shared port status is verified using health PDUs exchanged by controller and partner. When a shared link goes down, the configured Controller will open only one segment port for each of the protected VLANs, keeping all other segment ports in a blocking state. This state is maintained as long as the Controller fails to receive the health PDUs over the (broken) shared link. Although not supported by Extreme Networks, it is possible to complete this shared link with non-EAPS (but tag-aware) switches between the Controller and Partner. When the shared link is restored, the Controller can then unblock its ports, the masters will see their hello packets, and the rings will be protected by their respective masters. See also Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol Ethernet Ring Protection Switching References ^ "How to configure EPSR" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-24. Retrieved 2013-09-10. Further reading Kwang-Koog Lee, Jeong-dong Ryoo, and Seungwook Min, "An Ethernet Ring Protection Method to Minimize Transient Traffic by Selective FDB Advertisement," ETRI Journal, vol.31, no.5, Oct. 2009, pp.631-633 Archived 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine Kwang-Koog Lee, and Jeong-dong Ryoo, "Flush Optimizations to Guarantee Less Transient Traffic in Ethernet Ring Protection," ETRI Journal, vol.32, no.2, Apr. 2010, pp.184-194 External links RFC 3619 (EAPS) ITU-T G.8031/Y.1342 EPSR Feature Overview and Configuration Guide

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[]

[{"title":"Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_Spanning_Tree_Protocol"},{"title":"Ethernet Ring Protection Switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ERPS"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrometer

Pyrometer

["1 Principle","2 History","3 Applications","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Type of thermometer sensing radiation An optical pyrometer A sailor checking the temperature of a ventilation system A pyrometer, or radiation thermometer, is a type of remote sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of distant objects. Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed. In the modern usage, it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the amount of the thermal radiation it emits, a process known as pyrometry, a type of radiometry. The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "πῦρ" (pyr), and meter, meaning to measure. The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring the temperature of an object by its incandescence, visible light emitted by a body which is at least red-hot. Infrared thermometers, can also measure the temperature of cooler objects, down to room temperature, by detecting their infrared radiation flux. Modern pyrometers are available for a wide range of wavelengths and are generally called radiation thermometers. Principle It is based on the principle that the intensity of light received by the observer depends upon the distance of the observer from the source and the temperature of the distant source. A modern pyrometer has an optical system and a detector. The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (temperature T) is related to the thermal radiation or irradiance j ⋆ {\displaystyle j^{\star }} of the target object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the constant of proportionality σ, called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of the object: j ⋆ = ε σ T 4 . {\displaystyle j^{\star }=\varepsilon \sigma T^{4}.} This output is used to infer the object's temperature from a distance, with no need for the pyrometer to be in thermal contact with the object; most other thermometers (e.g. thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)) are placed in thermal contact with the object and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium. Pyrometry of gases presents difficulties. These are most commonly overcome by using thin-filament pyrometry or soot pyrometry. Both techniques involve small solids in contact with hot gases. History A pyrometer from 1852. Heating the metal bar (a) presses against a lever (b), which moves a pointer (c) along a scale that serves as a measuring index. (e) is an immovable prop which holds the bar in place. A spring on (c) pushes against (b), causing the index to fall back once the bar cools. The term "pyrometer" was coined in the 1730s by Pieter van Musschenbroek, better known as the inventor of the Leyden jar. His device, of which no surviving specimens are known, may be now called a dilatometer because it measured the dilation of a metal rod. The earliest example of a pyrometer thought to be in existence is the Hindley Pyrometer held by the London Science Museum, dating from 1752, produced for the Royal collection. The pyrometer was a well known enough instrument that it was described in some detail by the mathematician Euler in 1760. Around 1782 potter Josiah Wedgwood invented a different type of pyrometer (or rather a pyrometric device) to measure the temperature in his kilns, which first compared the color of clay fired at known temperatures, but was eventually upgraded to measuring the shrinkage of pieces of clay, which depended on kiln temperature (see Wedgwood scale for details). Later examples used the expansion of a metal bar. In 1860s–1870s brothers William and Werner Siemens developed a platinum resistance thermometer, initially to measure temperature in undersea cables, but then adapted for measuring temperatures in metallurgy up to 1000 °C, hence deserving a name of a pyrometer. Technician measuring the temperature of molten silicon at 2,650 °F (1,450 °C) with a disappearing-filament pyrometer in Czochralski crystal growing equipment at Raytheon transistor plant in 1956 The first disappearing-filament pyrometer was built by L. Holborn and F. Kurlbaum in 1901. This device had a thin electrical filament between an observer's eye and an incandescent object. The current through the filament was adjusted until it was of the same colour (and hence temperature) as the object, and no longer visible; it was calibrated to allow temperature to be inferred from the current. The temperature returned by the vanishing-filament pyrometer and others of its kind, called brightness pyrometers, is dependent on the emissivity of the object. With greater use of brightness pyrometers, it became obvious that problems existed with relying on knowledge of the value of emissivity. Emissivity was found to change, often drastically, with surface roughness, bulk and surface composition, and even the temperature itself. To get around these difficulties, the ratio or two-color pyrometer was developed. They rely on the fact that Planck's law, which relates temperature to the intensity of radiation emitted at individual wavelengths, can be solved for temperature if Planck's statement of the intensities at two different wavelengths is divided. This solution assumes that the emissivity is the same at both wavelengths and cancels out in the division. This is known as the gray-body assumption. Ratio pyrometers are essentially two brightness pyrometers in a single instrument. The operational principles of the ratio pyrometers were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, and they were commercially available in 1939. As the ratio pyrometer came into popular use, it was determined that many materials, of which metals are an example, do not have the same emissivity at two wavelengths. For these materials, the emissivity does not cancel out, and the temperature measurement is in error. The amount of error depends on the emissivities and the wavelengths where the measurements are taken. Two-color ratio pyrometers cannot measure whether a material's emissivity is wavelength-dependent. To more accurately measure the temperature of real objects with unknown or changing emissivities, multiwavelength pyrometers were envisioned at the US National Institute of Standards and Technology and described in 1992. Multiwavelength pyrometers use three or more wavelengths and mathematical manipulation of the results to attempt to achieve accurate temperature measurement even when the emissivity is unknown, changing or differs according to wavelength of measurement. Applications A tuyère pyrometer. (1) Display. (2) Optical. (3) Fibre optic cable and periscope. (4) Pyrometer tuyère adapter having: i. Bustle pipe connection. ii. Tuyère clamp. iii. Clamp washer. iv. Clamp stud c/w and fastening hardware. v. Gasket. vi. Noranda tuyère silencer. vii. Valve seat. viii. Ball. (5) Pneumatic cylinder: i. Smart cylinder assembly with Internal proximity switch. ii. Guard plate assembly. iii. Temporary flange cover plate, used to cover periscope entry hole on tuyère adapter when no cylinder is installed on the tuyère. (6) Operator station panel. (7) Pyrometer light station. (8) Limit switches. (9) 4 conductor cab tire. (10) Ball Valve. (11) Periscope air pressure switch. (12) Bustle pipe air pressure switch. (13) Airline filter/regulator. (14) Directional control valve, sub-plate, silencer and speed control mufflers. (15) 2" nom. low pressure air hose, 40 m length. Pyrometers are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that cannot be reached or cannot be touched. Contemporary multispectral pyrometers are suitable for measuring high temperatures inside combustion chambers of gas turbine engines with high accuracy. Temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace operations. Reliable and continuous measurement of the metal temperature is essential for effective control of the operation. Smelting rates can be maximized, slag can be produced at the optimal temperature, fuel consumption is minimized and refractory life may also be lengthened. Thermocouples were the traditional devices used for this purpose, but they are unsuitable for continuous measurement because they melt and degrade. Measuring the combustion temperature of coke in the blast furnace using an optical pyrometer, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, 1930 Salt bath furnaces operate at temperatures up to 1300 °C and are used for heat treatment. At very high working temperatures with intense heat transfer between the molten salt and the steel being treated, precision is maintained by measuring the temperature of the molten salt. Most errors are caused by slag on the surface, which is cooler than the salt bath. The tuyère pyrometer is an optical instrument for temperature measurement through the tuyeres, which are normally used for feeding air or reactants into the bath of the furnace. A steam boiler may be fitted with a pyrometer to measure the steam temperature in the superheater. A hot air balloon is equipped with a pyrometer for measuring the temperature at the top of the envelope in order to prevent overheating of the fabric. Pyrometers may be fitted to experimental gas turbine engines to measure the surface temperature of turbine blades. Such pyrometers can be paired with a tachometer to tie the pyrometer output with the position of an individual turbine blade. Timing combined with a radial position encoder allows engineers to determine the temperature at exact points on blades moving past the probe. See also Aethrioscope Tasimeter Thermography References ^ "incandescence". Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, LLC. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ Coates, P.; Lowe, D. (2016). The Fundamentals of Radiation Thermometers. CRC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4987-7822-0. Historically the term 'pyrometer' has been widely used. At the present time the term 'radiation thermometer' is more generally favoured. ^ https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/object/PyrometerDilatometer.html ^ Euler, Leonhard (1823). Letters of Euler on Different Subjects in Physics and Philosophy, Addressed to a German Princess. With Notes, and a Life of Euler. Translated by Henry Hunter. ^ "History — Historic Figures: Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795)". BBC. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2013-08-31. ^ "Pyrometer". Wedgwood Museum. Retrieved 23 August 2013. ^ Draper, John William (1861). A Textbook on chemistry. Harper & Bros. p. 24. draper, john william. ^ a b c Michalski, L.; Eckersdorf, K.; Kucharski, J.; McGhee, J. (2001). Temperature Measurement. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 162–208. ISBN 978-0-471-86779-1. ^ a b c d Mercer, Carolyn (2003). Optical Metrology for Fluids, Combustion and Solids. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 297–305. ISBN 978-1-4020-7407-3. ^ a b Ng, Daniel; Fralick, Gustave (2001). "Use of a multiwavelength pyrometer in several elevated temperature aerospace applications". Review of Scientific Instruments. 72 (2): 1522. Bibcode:2001RScI...72.1522N. doi:10.1063/1.1340558. hdl:2060/20010035857. S2CID 52218391. ^ a b D. Olinger; J. Gray; R. Felice (2007-10-14). Successful Pyrometry in Investment Casting (PDF). Investment Casting Institute 55th Technical Conference and Expo. Investment Casting Institute. Retrieved 2015-04-02. ^ Mekhrengin, M. V.; Meshkovskii, I. K.; Tashkinov, V. A.; Guryev, V. I.; Sukhinets, A. V.; Smirnov, D. S. (June 2019). "Multispectral pyrometer for high temperature measurements inside combustion chamber of gas turbine engines". Measurement. 139: 355–360. Bibcode:2019Meas..139..355M. doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2019.02.084. S2CID 116260472. ^ Michalski, L.; Eckersdorf, K.; Kucharski, J.; McGhee, J. (2001). Temperature Measurement. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 403–404. ISBN 978-0-471-86779-1. External links Media related to Pyrometers at Wikimedia Commons The tuyère pyrometer patent Infrared and radiation pyrometers A multiwavelength pyrometer patent Optical Pyrometer Authority control databases: National France BnF data Germany Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gluehfadenpyrometer.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pyrometer_040824.jpg"},{"link_name":"remote sensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing"},{"link_name":"thermometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermometer"},{"link_name":"temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"thermal radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation"},{"link_name":"radiometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometry"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"incandescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescence"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Infrared thermometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_thermometer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Coates2016-2"}],"text":"An optical pyrometerA sailor checking the temperature of a ventilation systemA pyrometer, or radiation thermometer, is a type of remote sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of distant objects. Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed. In the modern usage, it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the amount of the thermal radiation it emits, a process known as pyrometry, a type of radiometry.The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, \"πῦρ\" (pyr), and meter, meaning to measure. The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring the temperature of an object by its incandescence, visible light emitted by a body which is at least red-hot.[1] Infrared thermometers, can also measure the temperature of cooler objects, down to room temperature, by detecting their infrared radiation flux. Modern pyrometers are available for a wide range of wavelengths and are generally called radiation thermometers.[2]","title":"Pyrometer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"irradiance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irradiance"},{"link_name":"Stefan–Boltzmann law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law"},{"link_name":"constant of proportionality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_of_proportionality"},{"link_name":"Stefan–Boltzmann constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_constant"},{"link_name":"emissivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissivity"},{"link_name":"thermocouples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple"},{"link_name":"resistance temperature detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_temperature_detector"},{"link_name":"thermal equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"thin-filament pyrometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-filament_pyrometry"},{"link_name":"soot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soot"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"It is based on the principle that the intensity of light received by the observer depends upon the distance of the observer from the source and the temperature of the distant source. A modern pyrometer has an optical system and a detector. The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (temperature T) is related to the thermal radiation or irradiance \n \n \n \n \n j\n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle j^{\\star }}\n \n of the target object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the constant of proportionality σ, called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of the object:j\n \n ⋆\n \n \n =\n ε\n σ\n \n T\n \n 4\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j^{\\star }=\\varepsilon \\sigma T^{4}.}This output is used to infer the object's temperature from a distance, with no need for the pyrometer to be in thermal contact with the object; most other thermometers (e.g. thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)) are placed in thermal contact with the object and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium.Pyrometry of gases presents difficulties. These are most commonly overcome by using thin-filament pyrometry or soot pyrometry. Both techniques involve small solids in contact with hot gases.[citation needed]","title":"Principle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pyrometer_example.png"},{"link_name":"Pieter van Musschenbroek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_van_Musschenbroek"},{"link_name":"Leyden jar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Hindley Pyrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co1668/hindleys-pyrometer-pyrometers-dilatometers"},{"link_name":"Science Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Museum,_London"},{"link_name":"Euler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Josiah Wedgwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood"},{"link_name":"pyrometric device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrometric_device"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Wedgwood scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedgwood_scale"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"resistance thermometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_thermometer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silicon_grown_by_Czochralski_process_1956.jpg"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"disappearing-filament pyrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearing-filament_pyrometer"},{"link_name":"Czochralski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czochralski_process"},{"link_name":"disappearing-filament pyrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearing-filament_pyrometer"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Michalski-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mercer-9"},{"link_name":"emissivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissivity"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ng-10"},{"link_name":"Planck's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck%27s_law"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mercer-9"},{"link_name":"gray-body assumption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissivity#Explanation"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Michalski-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Olinger-11"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mercer-9"},{"link_name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Michalski-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mercer-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ng-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Olinger-11"}],"text":"A pyrometer from 1852. Heating the metal bar (a) presses against a lever (b), which moves a pointer (c) along a scale that serves as a measuring index. (e) is an immovable prop which holds the bar in place. A spring on (c) pushes against (b), causing the index to fall back once the bar cools.The term \"pyrometer\" was coined in the 1730s by Pieter van Musschenbroek, better known as the inventor of the Leyden jar. His device, of which no surviving specimens are known, may be now called a dilatometer because it measured the dilation of a metal rod.[3]The earliest example of a pyrometer thought to be in existence is the Hindley Pyrometer held by the London Science Museum, dating from 1752, produced for the Royal collection. The pyrometer was a well known enough instrument that it was described in some detail by the mathematician Euler in 1760.[4]Around 1782 potter Josiah Wedgwood invented a different type of pyrometer (or rather a pyrometric device) to measure the temperature in his kilns,[5] which first compared the color of clay fired at known temperatures, but was eventually upgraded to measuring the shrinkage of pieces of clay, which depended on kiln temperature (see Wedgwood scale for details).[6] Later examples used the expansion of a metal bar.[7]In 1860s–1870s brothers William and Werner Siemens developed a platinum resistance thermometer, initially to measure temperature in undersea cables, but then adapted for measuring temperatures in metallurgy up to 1000 °C, hence deserving a name of a pyrometer.Technician measuring the temperature of molten silicon at 2,650 °F (1,450 °C) with a disappearing-filament pyrometer in Czochralski crystal growing equipment at Raytheon transistor plant in 1956The first disappearing-filament pyrometer was built by L. Holborn and F. Kurlbaum in 1901.[8] This device had a thin electrical filament between an observer's eye and an incandescent object. The current through the filament was adjusted until it was of the same colour (and hence temperature) as the object, and no longer visible; it was calibrated to allow temperature to be inferred from the current.[9]The temperature returned by the vanishing-filament pyrometer and others of its kind, called brightness pyrometers, is dependent on the emissivity of the object. With greater use of brightness pyrometers, it became obvious that problems existed with relying on knowledge of the value of emissivity. Emissivity was found to change, often drastically, with surface roughness, bulk and surface composition, and even the temperature itself.[10]To get around these difficulties, the ratio or two-color pyrometer was developed. They rely on the fact that Planck's law, which relates temperature to the intensity of radiation emitted at individual wavelengths, can be solved for temperature if Planck's statement of the intensities at two different wavelengths is divided. This solution assumes that the emissivity is the same at both wavelengths[9] and cancels out in the division. This is known as the gray-body assumption. Ratio pyrometers are essentially two brightness pyrometers in a single instrument. The operational principles of the ratio pyrometers were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, and they were commercially available in 1939.[8]As the ratio pyrometer came into popular use, it was determined that many materials, of which metals are an example, do not have the same emissivity at two wavelengths.[11] For these materials, the emissivity does not cancel out, and the temperature measurement is in error. The amount of error depends on the emissivities and the wavelengths where the measurements are taken.[9] Two-color ratio pyrometers cannot measure whether a material's emissivity is wavelength-dependent.To more accurately measure the temperature of real objects with unknown or changing emissivities, multiwavelength pyrometers were envisioned at the US National Institute of Standards and Technology and described in 1992.[8] Multiwavelength pyrometers use three or more wavelengths and mathematical manipulation of the results to attempt to achieve accurate temperature measurement even when the emissivity is unknown, changing or differs according to wavelength of measurement.[9][10][11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Smelter-pyrometer.png"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"metallurgical furnace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgical_furnace"},{"link_name":"slag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slag"},{"link_name":"Thermocouples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:THC_2003.902.127_T._Hignett_Optical_Pyrometer.tif"},{"link_name":"Salt bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing"},{"link_name":"heat treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_treatment"},{"link_name":"slag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slag"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"tuyeres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuyere"},{"link_name":"boiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler"},{"link_name":"superheater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheater"},{"link_name":"hot air balloon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_air_balloon"},{"link_name":"gas turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine"},{"link_name":"turbine blade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine_blade"}],"text":"A tuyère pyrometer. (1) Display. (2) Optical. (3) Fibre optic cable and periscope. (4) Pyrometer tuyère adapter having: i. Bustle pipe connection. ii. Tuyère clamp. iii. Clamp washer. iv. Clamp stud c/w and fastening hardware. v. Gasket. vi. Noranda tuyère silencer. vii. Valve seat. viii. Ball. (5) Pneumatic cylinder: i. Smart cylinder assembly with Internal proximity switch. ii. Guard plate assembly. iii. Temporary flange cover plate, used to cover periscope entry hole on tuyère adapter when no cylinder is installed on the tuyère. (6) Operator station panel. (7) Pyrometer light station. (8) Limit switches. (9) 4 conductor cab tire. (10) Ball Valve. (11) Periscope air pressure switch. (12) Bustle pipe air pressure switch. (13) Airline filter/regulator. (14) Directional control valve, sub-plate, silencer and speed control mufflers. (15) 2\" nom. low pressure air hose, 40 m length.Pyrometers are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that cannot be reached or cannot be touched. Contemporary multispectral pyrometers are suitable for measuring high temperatures inside combustion chambers of gas turbine engines with high accuracy.[12]Temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace operations. Reliable and continuous measurement of the metal temperature is essential for effective control of the operation. Smelting rates can be maximized, slag can be produced at the optimal temperature, fuel consumption is minimized and refractory life may also be lengthened. Thermocouples were the traditional devices used for this purpose, but they are unsuitable for continuous measurement because they melt and degrade.Measuring the combustion temperature of coke in the blast furnace using an optical pyrometer, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, 1930Salt bath furnaces operate at temperatures up to 1300 °C and are used for heat treatment. At very high working temperatures with intense heat transfer between the molten salt and the steel being treated, precision is maintained by measuring the temperature of the molten salt. Most errors are caused by slag on the surface, which is cooler than the salt bath.[13]The tuyère pyrometer is an optical instrument for temperature measurement through the tuyeres, which are normally used for feeding air or reactants into the bath of the furnace.A steam boiler may be fitted with a pyrometer to measure the steam temperature in the superheater.A hot air balloon is equipped with a pyrometer for measuring the temperature at the top of the envelope in order to prevent overheating of the fabric.Pyrometers may be fitted to experimental gas turbine engines to measure the surface temperature of turbine blades. Such pyrometers can be paired with a tachometer to tie the pyrometer output with the position of an individual turbine blade. Timing combined with a radial position encoder allows engineers to determine the temperature at exact points on blades moving past the probe.","title":"Applications"}]

[{"image_text":"An optical pyrometer","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Gluehfadenpyrometer.jpg/170px-Gluehfadenpyrometer.jpg"},{"image_text":"A sailor checking the temperature of a ventilation system","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Pyrometer_040824.jpg/170px-Pyrometer_040824.jpg"},{"image_text":"A pyrometer from 1852. Heating the metal bar (a) presses against a lever (b), which moves a pointer (c) along a scale that serves as a measuring index. (e) is an immovable prop which holds the bar in place. A spring on (c) pushes against (b), causing the index to fall back once the bar cools.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Pyrometer_example.png/220px-Pyrometer_example.png"},{"image_text":"Technician measuring the temperature of molten silicon at 2,650 °F (1,450 °C) with a disappearing-filament pyrometer in Czochralski crystal growing equipment at Raytheon transistor plant in 1956","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Silicon_grown_by_Czochralski_process_1956.jpg/170px-Silicon_grown_by_Czochralski_process_1956.jpg"},{"image_text":"A tuyère pyrometer. (1) Display. (2) Optical. (3) Fibre optic cable and periscope. (4) Pyrometer tuyère adapter having: i. Bustle pipe connection. ii. Tuyère clamp. iii. Clamp washer. iv. Clamp stud c/w and fastening hardware. v. Gasket. vi. Noranda tuyère silencer. vii. Valve seat. viii. Ball. (5) Pneumatic cylinder: i. Smart cylinder assembly with Internal proximity switch. ii. Guard plate assembly. iii. Temporary flange cover plate, used to cover periscope entry hole on tuyère adapter when no cylinder is installed on the tuyère. (6) Operator station panel. (7) Pyrometer light station. (8) Limit switches. (9) 4 conductor cab tire. (10) Ball Valve. (11) Periscope air pressure switch. (12) Bustle pipe air pressure switch. (13) Airline filter/regulator. (14) Directional control valve, sub-plate, silencer and speed control mufflers. (15) 2\" nom. low pressure air hose, 40 m length.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/Smelter-pyrometer.png/440px-Smelter-pyrometer.png"},{"image_text":"Measuring the combustion temperature of coke in the blast furnace using an optical pyrometer, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, 1930","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/THC_2003.902.127_T._Hignett_Optical_Pyrometer.tif/lossy-page1-220px-THC_2003.902.127_T._Hignett_Optical_Pyrometer.tif.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Aethrioscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethrioscope"},{"title":"Tasimeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasimeter"},{"title":"Thermography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography"}]

[{"reference":"\"incandescence\". Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, LLC. Retrieved 2 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dictionary.reference.com/browse/incandescence","url_text":"\"incandescence\""}]},{"reference":"Coates, P.; Lowe, D. (2016). The Fundamentals of Radiation Thermometers. CRC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4987-7822-0. Historically the term 'pyrometer' has been widely used. At the present time the term 'radiation thermometer' is more generally favoured.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dzMNDgAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Fundamentals of Radiation Thermometers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4987-7822-0","url_text":"978-1-4987-7822-0"}]},{"reference":"Euler, Leonhard (1823). Letters of Euler on Different Subjects in Physics and Philosophy, Addressed to a German Princess. With Notes, and a Life of Euler. Translated by Henry Hunter.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"History — Historic Figures: Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795)\". BBC. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2013-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/wedgwood_josiah.shtml","url_text":"\"History — Historic Figures: Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"}]},{"reference":"\"Pyrometer\". Wedgwood Museum. Retrieved 23 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wedgwoodmuseum.org.uk/learning/discovery-packs/pack/lives-of-the-wedgwoods/chapter/pyrometer","url_text":"\"Pyrometer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedgwood_Museum","url_text":"Wedgwood Museum"}]},{"reference":"Draper, John William (1861). A Textbook on chemistry. Harper & Bros. p. 24. draper, john william.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HKwS7QDh5eMC","url_text":"A Textbook on chemistry"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HKwS7QDh5eMC/page/n38","url_text":"24"}]},{"reference":"Michalski, L.; Eckersdorf, K.; Kucharski, J.; McGhee, J. (2001). Temperature Measurement. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 162–208. ISBN 978-0-471-86779-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-86779-1","url_text":"978-0-471-86779-1"}]},{"reference":"Mercer, Carolyn (2003). Optical Metrology for Fluids, Combustion and Solids. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 297–305. ISBN 978-1-4020-7407-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-7407-3","url_text":"978-1-4020-7407-3"}]},{"reference":"Ng, Daniel; Fralick, Gustave (2001). \"Use of a multiwavelength pyrometer in several elevated temperature aerospace applications\". Review of Scientific Instruments. 72 (2): 1522. Bibcode:2001RScI...72.1522N. doi:10.1063/1.1340558. hdl:2060/20010035857. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocatalysis

Autocatalysis

["1 Examples","2 Mathematical description","2.1 Asymmetric autocatalysis","2.2 Possible role in origin of life","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Chemical reaction whose product is also its catalyst In chemistry, a chemical reaction is said to be autocatalytic if one of the reaction products is also a catalyst for the same reaction. Many forms of autocatalysis are recognized. A set of chemical reactions can be said to be "collectively autocatalytic" if a number of those reactions produce, as reaction products, catalysts for enough of the other reactions that the entire set of chemical reactions is self-sustaining given an input of energy and food molecules (see autocatalytic set). Examples Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of esters produces carboxylic acids that also catalyze the same reaction. Indeed, the observation of an accelerating hydrolysis of gamma valerolactone to gamma-hydroxyvaleric acid led to the introduction of the concept of autocatalysis in 1890. The oxidation of hydrocarbons by air or oxygen is the basis of autoxidation. Like many radical reactions, the rate vs time plot shows a sigmoidal behavior, characteristic of autocatalysis. Many reactions of organic compounds with halogen involve autocatalytic radical mechanisms. For example the reaction of acetophenone with bromine to give phenacyl bromide. Oscillating reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction are more complicated examples that involve autocatalysis. In such reactions the concentrations of some intermediates oscillate, as does the rate of formation of products. Other notable examples are the Lotka–Volterra equations for the predator-prey model, and the Brusselator model. Autocatalysis applies also to reactions involving solids. Crystal growth provide dramatic examples of autocatalysis: the growth rate depends on the surface area of the growing crystal. The growth of metal films from solution using the technique of electroless plating is autocatalytic. The rate of plating accelerates after some deposition has occurred, i.e., nucleation. Mathematical description Sigmoid variation of product concentration in autocatalytic reactions Autocatalytic reactions are those in which at least one of the products is also a reactant. A simple autocatalytic reaction can be written A + B ⇌ 2 B {\displaystyle A+B\rightleftharpoons 2B} with the rate equations (for an elementary reaction) d d t [ A ] = − k + [ A ] [ B ] + k − [ B ] 2 {\displaystyle {d \over dt}=-k_{+}+k_{-}^{2}\,} d d t [ B ] = + k + [ A ] [ B ] − k − [ B ] 2 {\displaystyle {d \over dt}=+k_{+}-k_{-}^{2}\,} . This reaction is one in which a molecule of species A interacts with a molecule of species B. The A molecule is converted into a B molecule. The final product consists of the original B molecule plus the B molecule created in the reaction. The key feature of these rate equations is that they are nonlinear; the second term on the right varies as the square of the concentration of B. This feature can lead to multiple fixed points of the system, much like a quadratic equation can have two roots. Multiple fixed points allow for multiple states of the system. A system existing in multiple macroscopic states is more orderly (has lower entropy) than a system in a single state. The concentrations of A and B vary in time according to [ B ] = [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 ( [ A ] 0 [ B ] 0 − k − k + ) e − k + ( [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 ) t + 1 + k − k + {\displaystyle ={\frac {_{0}+_{0}}{({\frac {_{0}}{_{0}}}-{\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}})e^{-k_{+}(_{0}+_{0})t}+1+{\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}}}}} and [ A ] = ( [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 ) ( ( [ A ] 0 [ B ] 0 − k − k + ) e − k + ( [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 ) t + k − k + ) ( [ A ] 0 [ B ] 0 − k − k + ) e − k + ( [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 ) t + 1 + k − k + {\displaystyle ={\frac {(_{0}+_{0})(({\frac {_{0}}{_{0}}}-{\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}})e^{-k_{+}(_{0}+_{0})t}+{\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}})}{({\frac {_{0}}{_{0}}}-{\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}})e^{-k_{+}(_{0}+_{0})t}+1+{\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}}}}} . For an irreversible reaction (i.e. k − = 0 {\displaystyle k_{-}=0} ) [ A ] = [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 1 + [ B ] 0 [ A ] 0 e ( [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 ) k t {\displaystyle ={\frac {_{0}+_{0}}{1+{\frac {_{0}}{_{0}}}e^{(_{0}+_{0})kt}}}} and [ B ] = [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 1 + [ A ] 0 [ B ] 0 e − ( [ A ] 0 + [ B ] 0 ) k t {\displaystyle ={\frac {_{0}+_{0}}{1+{\frac {_{0}}{_{0}}}e^{-(_{0}+_{0})kt}}}} . The graph for these equations is a sigmoid curve (specifically a logistic function), which is typical for autocatalytic reactions: these chemical reactions proceed slowly at the start (the induction period) because there is little catalyst present, the rate of reaction increases progressively as the reaction proceeds as the amount of catalyst increases and then it again slows down as the reactant concentration decreases. If the concentration of a reactant or product in an experiment follows a sigmoid curve, the reaction may be autocatalytic. These kinetic equations apply for example to the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of some esters to carboxylic acids and alcohols. There must be at least some acid present initially to start the catalyzed mechanism; if not the reaction must start by an alternate uncatalyzed path which is usually slower. The above equations (which do not consider the alternate pathway) for the catalyzed mechanism would imply that the concentration of acid product remains zero forever. Asymmetric autocatalysis Asymmetric autocatalysis occurs when the reaction product is chiral and thus serves as a catalyst for its own production. Reactions of this type, such as the Soai reaction, have the property that they can amplify a very small enantiomeric excess into a large one. In another example, sodium chlorate crystallizes as an equilibrium mixture of left- and right-handed crystals. When seeded appropriated, saturated solutions of this salt (which is optically inactive), will produce batches of single enantiomeric crystals. Possible role in origin of life Main article: Abiogenesis Autocatalytic cycle of formose reaction showing how glyceraldehyde can be both the catalyst and the product of one portion of this complex reaction type. An early example of autocatalysis is the formose reaction, in which formaldehyde and base produce sugars and related polyols. Characteristic of autocatalysis, this reaction rate is extremely slow initially but accelerates with time. This kind of reaction has often been cited as being relevant to the origin of life. Autocatalysis is one explanation for abiogenesis. Illustrative is the reaction amino adenosine and pentafluorophenyl ester in the presence of amino adenosine triacid ester (AATE). This experiment demonstrated that autocatalysts could exhibit competition within a population of entities with heredity, which could be interpreted as a rudimentary form of natural selection, and that certain environmental changes (such as irradiation) could alter the chemical structure of some of these self-replicating molecules (an analog for mutation) in such ways that could either boost or interfere with its ability to react, thus boosting or interfering with its ability to replicate and spread in the population. See also Assembly theory Catalytic cycle Reaction–diffusion system Morphogenesis References ^ "Autocatalytic Reaction". IUPAC Gold Book. 1994. ^ a b c Bissette, Andrew J.; Fletcher, Stephen P. (2013). "Mechanisms of Autocatalysis". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 52 (49): 12800–12826. doi:10.1002/anie.201303822. PMID 24127341. ^ a b c Steinfeld J.I., Francisco J.S. and Hase W.L. Chemical Kinetics and Dynamics (2nd ed., Prentice-Hall 1999) pp. 151–2 ISBN 0-13-737123-3 ^ Ostwald W (1890). "Über autokatalyse". Ber. Verh. KGL. Sächs. Ges. Wiss. Leipzig, Math.- Phys. Classe. 42: 189–191. ^ Denisov, Evgeny (2015). "Hydrocarbon Oxidation". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0825041808150202.a01.pub2. ISBN 9780471238966. ^ Durkin, Bradley (2016). "Electroless Deposition". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. pp. 1–59. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0512050311182112.a01.pub3. ISBN 9780471238966. ^ a b c Moore J.W. and Pearson R.G. Kinetics and Mechanism (John Wiley 1981) p.26 ISBN 0-471-03558-0 ^ Blackmond, Donna G. (2020). "Autocatalytic Models for the Origin of Biological Homochirality". Chemical Reviews. 120 (11): 4831–4847. arXiv:1909.13015. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00557. PMID 31797671. ^ Buhse, Thomas; Cruz, José-Manuel; Noble-Terán, María E.; Hochberg, David; Ribó, Josep M.; Crusats, Joaquim; Micheau, Jean-Claude (2021). "Spontaneous Deracemizations". Chemical Reviews. 121 (4): 2147–2229. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00819. PMID 33464058. S2CID 231640216. ^ Stuart Kauffman (1995). At Home in the Universe: The Search for the Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509599-9. ^ Ecology, the Ascendent Perspective", Robert Ulanowicz, Columbia Univ. Press 1997. ^ Investigations, Stuart Kauffman. ^ Rebeck, Julius (July 1994). "Synthetic Self-Replicating Molecules". Scientific American. 271 (1): 48–55. Bibcode:1994SciAm.271a..48R. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0794-48. External links Some Remarks on Autocatalysis and Autopoiesis (Barry McMullin) Jain, Sanjay; Krishna, Sandeep (21 December 1998). "Autocatalytic Sets and the Growth of Complexity in an Evolutionary Model". Physical Review Letters. 81 (25): 5684–5687. arXiv:adap-org/9809003. Bibcode:1998PhRvL..81.5684J. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.5684. S2CID 14471886. Authority control databases: National Germany

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Indeed, the observation of an accelerating hydrolysis of gamma valerolactone to gamma-hydroxyvaleric acid led to the introduction of the concept of autocatalysis in 1890.[4]The oxidation of hydrocarbons by air or oxygen is the basis of autoxidation. Like many radical reactions, the rate vs time plot shows a sigmoidal behavior, characteristic of autocatalysis.[5] Many reactions of organic compounds with halogen involve autocatalytic radical mechanisms. For example the reaction of acetophenone with bromine to give phenacyl bromide.Oscillating reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction are more complicated examples that involve autocatalysis.[2] In such reactions the concentrations of some intermediates oscillate, as does the rate of formation of products. Other notable examples are the Lotka–Volterra equations for the predator-prey model, and the Brusselator model.Autocatalysis applies also to reactions involving solids. Crystal growth provide dramatic examples of autocatalysis: the growth rate depends on the surface area of the growing crystal. The growth of metal films from solution using the technique of electroless plating is autocatalytic. The rate of plating accelerates after some deposition has occurred, i.e., nucleation.[6]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmoid_curve_for_an_autocatalytical_reaction.jpg"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steinfeld-3"},{"link_name":"nonlinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_system#Nonlinear_differential_equations"},{"link_name":"quadratic equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation"},{"link_name":"macroscopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroscopic"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steinfeld-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore-7"},{"link_name":"sigmoid curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmoid_function"},{"link_name":"logistic function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_function"},{"link_name":"induction period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_period"},{"link_name":"esters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester"},{"link_name":"carboxylic acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylic_acid"},{"link_name":"alcohols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore-7"}],"text":"Sigmoid variation of product concentration in autocatalytic reactionsAutocatalytic reactions are those in which at least one of the products is also a reactant. A simple autocatalytic reaction can be written[3]A\n +\n B\n ⇌\n 2\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A+B\\rightleftharpoons 2B}with the rate equations (for an elementary reaction)d\n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n [\n A\n ]\n =\n −\n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n [\n A\n ]\n [\n B\n ]\n +\n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {d \\over dt}[A]=-k_{+}[A][B]+k_{-}[B]^{2}\\,}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n [\n B\n ]\n =\n +\n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n [\n A\n ]\n [\n B\n ]\n −\n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {d \\over dt}[B]=+k_{+}[A][B]-k_{-}[B]^{2}\\,}\n \n.This reaction is one in which a molecule of species A interacts with a molecule of species B. The A molecule is converted into a B molecule. The final product consists of the original B molecule plus the B molecule created in the reaction.The key feature of these rate equations is that they are nonlinear; the second term on the right varies as the square of the concentration of B. This feature can lead to multiple fixed points of the system, much like a quadratic equation can have two roots. Multiple fixed points allow for multiple states of the system. A system existing in multiple macroscopic states is more orderly (has lower entropy) than a system in a single state.The concentrations of A and B vary in time according to[\n B\n ]\n =\n \n \n \n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n e\n \n −\n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n (\n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n t\n \n \n +\n 1\n +\n \n \n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle [B]={\\frac {[A]_{0}+[B]_{0}}{({\\frac {[A]_{0}}{[B]_{0}}}-{\\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}})e^{-k_{+}([A]_{0}+[B]_{0})t}+1+{\\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}}}}}and[\n A\n ]\n =\n \n \n \n (\n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n (\n (\n \n \n \n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n e\n \n −\n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n (\n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n t\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n e\n \n −\n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n (\n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n t\n \n \n +\n 1\n +\n \n \n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle [A]={\\frac {([A]_{0}+[B]_{0})(({\\frac {[A]_{0}}{[B]_{0}}}-{\\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}})e^{-k_{+}([A]_{0}+[B]_{0})t}+{\\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}})}{({\\frac {[A]_{0}}{[B]_{0}}}-{\\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}})e^{-k_{+}([A]_{0}+[B]_{0})t}+1+{\\frac {k_{-}}{k_{+}}}}}}\n \n.For an irreversible reaction (i.e. \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n −\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k_{-}=0}\n \n)[3][7][\n A\n ]\n =\n \n \n \n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n (\n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n k\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle [A]={\\frac {[A]_{0}+[B]_{0}}{1+{\\frac {[B]_{0}}{[A]_{0}}}e^{([A]_{0}+[B]_{0})kt}}}}and[\n B\n ]\n =\n \n \n \n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n (\n [\n A\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n [\n B\n \n ]\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n k\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle [B]={\\frac {[A]_{0}+[B]_{0}}{1+{\\frac {[A]_{0}}{[B]_{0}}}e^{-([A]_{0}+[B]_{0})kt}}}}\n \n.The graph for these equations is a sigmoid curve (specifically a logistic function), which is typical for autocatalytic reactions: these chemical reactions proceed slowly at the start (the induction period) because there is little catalyst present, the rate of reaction increases progressively as the reaction proceeds as the amount of catalyst increases and then it again slows down as the reactant concentration decreases. If the concentration of a reactant or product in an experiment follows a sigmoid curve, the reaction may be autocatalytic.These kinetic equations apply for example to the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of some esters to carboxylic acids and alcohols.[7] There must be at least some acid present initially to start the catalyzed mechanism; if not the reaction must start by an alternate uncatalyzed path which is usually slower. The above equations (which do not consider the alternate pathway) for the catalyzed mechanism would imply that the concentration of acid product remains zero forever.[7]","title":"Mathematical description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiral"},{"link_name":"Soai reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soai_reaction"},{"link_name":"enantiomeric excess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantiomeric_excess"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"sodium chlorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chlorate"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Asymmetric autocatalysis","text":"Asymmetric autocatalysis occurs when the reaction product is chiral and thus serves as a catalyst for its own production. Reactions of this type, such as the Soai reaction, have the property that they can amplify a very small enantiomeric excess into a large one.[8] In another example, sodium chlorate crystallizes as an equilibrium mixture of left- and right-handed crystals. When seeded appropriated, saturated solutions of this salt (which is optically inactive), will produce batches of single enantiomeric crystals.[9]","title":"Mathematical description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FormoseRxn.svg"},{"link_name":"formose reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formose_reaction"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACIE-2"},{"link_name":"abiogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"natural selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Possible role in origin of life","text":"Autocatalytic cycle of formose reaction showing how glyceraldehyde can be both the catalyst and the product of one portion of this complex reaction type.An early example of autocatalysis is the formose reaction, in which formaldehyde and base produce sugars and related polyols. Characteristic of autocatalysis, this reaction rate is extremely slow initially but accelerates with time. This kind of reaction has often been cited as being relevant to the origin of life.[2]Autocatalysis is one explanation for abiogenesis.[10][11][12] Illustrative is the reaction amino adenosine and pentafluorophenyl ester in the presence of amino adenosine triacid ester (AATE). This experiment demonstrated that autocatalysts could exhibit competition within a population of entities with heredity, which could be interpreted as a rudimentary form of natural selection, and that certain environmental changes (such as irradiation) could alter the chemical structure of some of these self-replicating molecules (an analog for mutation) in such ways that could either boost or interfere with its ability to react, thus boosting or interfering with its ability to replicate and spread in the population.[13]","title":"Mathematical description"}]

[{"image_text":"Sigmoid variation of product concentration in autocatalytic reactions","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Sigmoid_curve_for_an_autocatalytical_reaction.jpg/256px-Sigmoid_curve_for_an_autocatalytical_reaction.jpg"},{"image_text":"Autocatalytic cycle of formose reaction showing how glyceraldehyde can be both the catalyst and the product of one portion of this complex reaction type.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/FormoseRxn.svg/288px-FormoseRxn.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Assembly theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_theory"},{"title":"Catalytic cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_cycle"},{"title":"Reaction–diffusion system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction%E2%80%93diffusion_system"},{"title":"Morphogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphogenesis"}]

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ISBN 9780471238966.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F0471238961.0512050311182112.a01.pub3","url_text":"10.1002/0471238961.0512050311182112.a01.pub3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471238966","url_text":"9780471238966"}]},{"reference":"Blackmond, Donna G. (2020). \"Autocatalytic Models for the Origin of Biological Homochirality\". Chemical Reviews. 120 (11): 4831–4847. arXiv:1909.13015. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00557. PMID 31797671.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1909.13015","url_text":"1909.13015"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.chemrev.9b00557","url_text":"10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00557"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31797671","url_text":"31797671"}]},{"reference":"Buhse, Thomas; Cruz, José-Manuel; Noble-Terán, María E.; Hochberg, David; Ribó, Josep M.; Crusats, Joaquim; Micheau, Jean-Claude (2021). \"Spontaneous Deracemizations\". Chemical Reviews. 121 (4): 2147–2229. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00819. PMID 33464058. S2CID 231640216.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.chemrev.0c00819","url_text":"10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00819"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33464058","url_text":"33464058"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:231640216","url_text":"231640216"}]},{"reference":"Stuart Kauffman (1995). At Home in the Universe: The Search for the Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity. Oxford University Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanyo

Sanyo

["1 History","1.1 Beginnings","1.2 Sanyo in America","1.3 1990s corporate culture","1.4 Acquisition","2 Energy","2.1 Solar cells and plants","2.2 Rechargeable batteries","2.3 Electric vehicle batteries","3 Sanyo India","3.1 Televisions","3.2 Air conditioners","4 Sanyo TV USA","4.1 Funai Era","5 Record-breaking achievements","6 Sponsorship","7 References","8 External links"]

Japanese electronics company For other uses, see Sanyo (disambiguation). Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd.Logo since 1987Native name三洋電機株式会社Romanized nameSan'yō Denki Kabushiki-gaishaCompany typeSubsidiaryIndustryElectronicsFounded1947; 77 years ago (1947)April 1950; 74 years ago (1950-04) (incorporated)FounderToshio IueFateAcquired by PanasonicHeadquartersMoriguchi, Osaka, JapanArea servedWorldwideKey peopleSeiichirou Igaki (president)ProductsConsumer electronicsdry batteriesvacuum cleanerscellular phonesRevenue ¥84.678 billion (2018)Operating income ¥6.590 billion (2018)Net income ¥4.983 billion (2018)Total assets ¥106.304 billion (2018)Total equity ¥64.832 billion (2018)Number of employees104,882 (consolidated)9,504 (non-consolidated)(March 31, 2010)ParentPanasonicWebsitesanyo-av.com (Audiovisual products, American market only) Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd. (三洋電機株式会社, San'yō Denki Kabushiki-gaisha) is a Japanese electronics manufacturer founded in 1947 by Toshio Iue, the brother-in-law of Kōnosuke Matsushita, the founder of Panasonic. Iue left Matsushita Electric Industrial (now Panasonic) to start his own business, acquiring some of its equipment to produce bicycle generator lamps. In 1950, the company was established. Sanyo began to diversify in the 1960s, having launched Japan's first spray-type washing machine in 1953. In the 2000s, it was known as one of the 3S along with Sony and Sharp. Sanyo also focused on solar cell and lithium battery businesses. In 1992, it developed the world's first hybrid solar cell, and in 2002, it had a 41% share of the global lithium-ion battery market. In its heyday in 2003, Sanyo had sales of about ¥2.5 trillion. However, it fell into a financial crisis as a result of its huge investment in the semiconductor business. In 2009, Sanyo was acquired by Panasonic, and in 2011, it was fully consolidated into Panasonic and its brand disappeared. The company still exists as a legal entity for the purpose of winding up its affairs. History Beginnings Old logo, used from 1976 to 1987 Transistor radio, model 8S-P3, released in 1959Sanyo was founded when Toshio Iue, the brother-in-law of Konosuke Matsushita and also a former Matsushita employee, was lent an unused Matsushita plant in 1947 and used it to make bicycle generator lamps. Sanyo was incorporated in 1949; it made Japan's first plastic radio in 1952 and Japan's first pulsator-type washing machine in 1954. The company's name means three oceans in Japanese, referring to the founder's ambition to sell their products worldwide, across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Sanyo in America In 1969, Howard Ladd became the Executive Vice President and COO of Sanyo Corporation. Ladd introduced the Sanyo brand to the United States in 1970. The ambition to sell Sanyo products worldwide was realized in the mid-1970s after Sanyo introduced home audio equipment, car stereos and other consumer electronics to the North American market. The company embarked on a heavy television-based advertising campaign. Ladd negotiated a purchase of the Fisher Electronics audio equipment manufacturer by Sanyo in May 1975. Under Ladd's leadership, the Fisher Corporation under Sanyo grew to be a multi-million dollar leader in the consumer electronics industry. The new, profitable Fisher Corporation moved its headquarters from New York to Ladd's Los Angeles. Ladd was named president and CEO of the combined Sanyo / Fisher Corporation in 1977, serving until 1987. Ladd was instrumental at Sanyo in promoting Quadraphonic sound audio equipment for the American market, producing 4-channel audio equipment in both SQ and Matrix formats. He said "we make all kinds of quadrasonic equipment because this is the business we're in... let the consumer buy the kind of software he prefers and we'll provide him the hardware to play it on". Sanyo realized tremendous growth during Ladd's tenure in the 1970s; annual sales grew from $71.4 million (equivalent to $520,078,000 in 2023) in 1972 to $855 million (equivalent to $3,994,071,000 in 2023) in 1978. After a fairly slow selling line in their own V-Cord video format, Sanyo adopted Sony's Betamax video cassette format around 1977 with initial success, including SuperBeta and Beta Hi-Fi models. From around 1984 onwards, production switched entirely to VHS. In 1976, Sanyo expanded their North American presence with the purchase of Whirlpool Corporation's television business, Warwick Electronics, which manufactured televisions for Sears. In 1986, Sanyo's U.S. affiliate merged with Fisher to become Sanyo Fisher (U.S.A.) Corporation (later renamed Sanyo Fisher Company). The mergers made the entire organization more efficient, but also resulted in the departure of certain key executives, including Ladd, who had first introduced the Sanyo name to the United States in the early 1970s. In 1982, Sanyo started selling the MBC-1000 series of CP/M computers. In 1983, it introduced the MBC-550 PC, the lowest-cost IBM PC compatible personal computer available at the time, but its lack of full compatibility drove Sanyo from the market and no follow-on models were released. 1990s corporate culture An article on "Sanyo Style" written in 1992 described that Sanyo utilizes an extensive socialization process for new employees, so that they will be acclimatized to Sanyo's corporate culture. New employees take a five-month course during which they eat together and sleep together in accommodation. They learn everything from basic job requirements to company expectations for personal grooming and the appropriate way in which to dress for their co-workers and superiors. Technologically, Sanyo has had good ties with Sony, supporting the Betamax video format from invention until the mid-1980s (the best selling video recorder in the UK in 1983 was the Sanyo VTC5000), while producing the VHS video format at the same time for the Fisher brand during the early 1980s, and later being an early adopter of the highly successful Video8 camcorder format. More recently, though, Sanyo decided against supporting Sony's format, the Blu-ray Disc, and instead gave its backing to Toshiba's HD DVD. This was ultimately unsuccessful, however, as Sony's Blu-ray triumphed. In North America, Sanyo manufactured CDMA cellular phones exclusively for Sprint's Sprint PCS brand in the United States and for Bell Mobility in Canada. Acquisition The 2004 Chūetsu earthquake severely damaged Sanyo's semiconductor plant and as a result Sanyo recorded a huge financial loss for that year. The 2005 fiscal year financial results saw a 205 billion yen net income loss. The same year the company announced a restructuring plan called the Sanyo Evolution Project, launching a new corporate vision to make the corporation into an environmental company, plowing investment into strong products like rechargeable batteries, solar photovoltaics, air conditioning, hybrid car batteries and key consumer electronics such as the Xacti camera, projectors and mobile phones. Sanyo posted signs of recovery after the announcement of positive operating income of 2.6 billion yen. Sanyo remains the world number one producer of rechargeable batteries. Recent product innovations in this area include the Eneloop Low self-discharge NiMH battery, a "hybrid" rechargeable NiMH (Nickel-metal hydride battery) which, unlike typical NiMH cells, can be used from-the-package without an initial recharge cycle and retain a charge significantly longer than batteries using standard NiMH battery design. The Eneloop line competes against similar products such as Rayovac's "Hybrid Rechargeable" line. On November 24, 2006, Sanyo announced heavy losses and job cuts. Tomoyo Nonaka, a former NHK anchorwoman who was appointed chairwoman of the company, stepped down in March 2007. The President, Toshimasa Iue, also stepped down in April of that year; Seiichiro Sano was appointed to head the company effective April 2007. In October 2007, Sanyo cancelled a 110 billion yen sale of its semiconductor business, blaming the global credit crisis for the decision and stating that after exploring its other options, it had decided to keep the business and develop it as part of its portfolio. A Sanyo M9998LU Boombox manufactured circa 1979-80 for the European market with user customized dial and tape lights. Sanyo logo on neon signs of Piccadilly Circus Sanyo's three-year restructuring project In 2008, Sanyo's mobile phone division was acquired by Kyocera. On November 2, 2008, Sanyo and Panasonic announced that they have agreed on the main points of a proposed buyout that would make Sanyo a subsidiary of Panasonic. They became a subsidiary of Panasonic on December 21, 2009. In 2010, Sanyo sold its semiconductor operations to ON Semiconductor. On July 29, 2010, Panasonic reached an agreement to acquire the remaining shares of Panasonic Electric Works and Sanyo shares for $9.4 billion. By March 2012, parent company Panasonic plans to terminate the Sanyo brand, however it will remain on some of the products where the Sanyo brand still holds value to consumers. In the same month, Sanyo's Southeast Asian unit, responsible for the manufacturing of consumer electric appliances in the region, was announced to be formally acquired by Haier. In August 2013, a 51% majority stake in Chinese company Hefei Royalstar Sanyo, a 2000 joint venture between Sanyo and Chinese government investment company Hefei, was purchased by American multinational manufacturer Whirlpool Corporation for $552 million. Energy Solar cells and plants "Eneloop" Rechargeable LED Lantern (ENL-1EX) by Sanyo The Sanyo HIT (Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin layer) solar cell is composed of a mono thin crystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultra-thin amorphous silicon layers. Sanyo Energy opened its solar module assembly plants in Hungary and in Mexico in 2004, and in 2006 it produced solar modules worth $213 million. In 2007, Sanyo completed a new unit at its solar module plant in Hungary that was to triple its annual capacity to 720,000 units in 2008. Schematics of a HIT-cell Plans to expand production were based on rising demands for Sanyo Hungary products, whose leading markets are Germany, Italy, Spain and Scandinavia. The plant at Dorog, outside Budapest, became Sanyo's largest solar module production facility in the world. Germany, Italy, Spain and the Scandinavian countries. The plant at Dorog, outside Budapest, will be Sanyo Electric's largest facility producing solar modules in the entire world. In late September 2008, Sanyo announced its decision to build a manufacturing plant for solar ingots and wafers (the building blocks for silicon solar cells) in Inagi, Japan. The plant began operating in October 2009 and was to reach its full production capacity of 70 megawatts (MW) of solar wafers per year by April 2010. Sanyo and Nippon Oil decided to launch a joint company, known as Sanyo Eneos Solar Co., Ltd., for the production and sale of thin-film solar panels. The new joint company began production and sales at an initial scale of 80 MW, while gradually increasing its production capacity. For this joint project, Sanyo drew on its solar cell technologies, based on the technology acquired through the development of the HIT solar cell. Sanyo is also responsible for the construction of the Solar Ark. Rechargeable batteries Sanyo pioneered the production of nickel cadmium batteries in 1964, nickel metal hydride batteries (NiMh) in 1990, lithium-ion batteries in 1994, and lithium polymer batteries in 1999. In 2000, it acquired Toshiba's NiMh business, including the Takasaki factory. Since the acquisition of Sanyo by Panasonic, ownership of the Takasaki factory was transferred to the FDK Corporation. Electric vehicle batteries Sanyo supplies NiMh batteries to Honda, Ford, Volkswagen and PSA Peugeot Citroen. Sanyo is developing NiMH batteries for hybrid electric vehicles with the Volkswagen group, while their lithium-ion batteries for plug-in HEV will also be housed in Suzuki fleet vehicles. Sanyo planned to raise monthly production of NiMH batteries for hybrid vehicles from 1 million units to up to 2.5 million by the end of fiscal 2005. Sanyo India Televisions Panasonic reintroduced the Sanyo brand in India, with the launch of Sanyo LED TV range on August 8, 2016. On July 11, 2017, Sanyo launched its range of smart TVs on Amazon Prime Day. In August 2017, Sanyo unveiled its NXT range of LED televisions exclusively on Flipkart. In December 2017, Sanyo introduced its first 4K smart TV range in India. In September 2019, Sanyo introduced a range of Android TV sets known as the Sanyo Kaizen Series. Air conditioners Sanyo worked with Energy Efficiency Services Limited to develop a 1.5-ton inverter air conditioner (AC) with an Indian Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (ISEER) of 5.2. Distribution of these air conditioners began in September 2017. On April 4, 2019, Sanyo launched a new AC range exclusively on Amazon. Sanyo TV USA Though founded in Japan, Sanyo has sold TVs in America for over 50 years; Sanyo TV USA was headquartered in San Diego, California with facilities located in Tijuana, Mexico. Many of Sanyo's television sets offer MHL compatibility along with Roku-ready branding via HDMI, meaning the TVs are compatible with Roku's MHL-specific streaming stick. Sometimes included with purchase, such as with the Sanyo FVF5044, this stick enables video streaming and other online functions as an affordable alternative to certain smart TVs; the TV's original remote is capable of browsing the service. Multiple models also have USB ports which allow for immediate photo sharing directly off the stick without any additional software/upgrades. Funai Era In October 2014, Panasonic announced its intent to transfer the Sanyo TV unit to Funai in the US market in return for annual royalty payments. Funai is a major Walmart supplier that also supplies Philips and Emerson TV sets to the retail chain. Consumer Reports commented in 2018 that Sanyo TVs "seem to turn up mostly in Walmart stores, almost as a private label for the retailer." Record-breaking achievements Sanyo is also known for its thermal management sector, Sanyo Denki, which makes high speed, large airflow, high static pressure DC fans sold under the moniker "San Ace", a product line mainly geared towards the enterprise market. As of October 2020, Sanyo Denki holds the world record for both rotational speed and static pressure of various dimensions and models. Some notable records are: A 40 millimetres (1.6 in) 12V 31.2W fan released in May 2020, with a rotational speed of 38,000 RPM and a static pressure of 2.3 kilopascals (0.33 psi). A 40 millimetres (1.6 in) 12V 37.2W contra-rotating fan released in August 2020, with a rotational speed of 36,200 (inlet) and 32,000 (outlet) RPM in opposite directions, creating a static pressure of 2.4 kilopascals (0.35 psi). A 80 millimetres (3.1 in) 12V 57.6W fan able to spin at 18,300 RPM and provide a static pressure of 1.6 kilopascals (0.23 psi). Sponsorship Sanyo was the primary sponsor of the Penrith Panthers in the National Rugby League in Australia from 2000 to 2012. In Formula One, the company sponsored Benetton from 1989 to 1995, Williams from 1995 to 1997 and Stewart Grand Prix from 1997 to 1999. In football, the company sponsored the Argentinian club River Plate from 1992 until 1995 and the Brazilian Coritiba from 1995 until 1999. References ^ a b "SANYO Electric Co., Ltd". Panasonic. Retrieved November 20, 2019. ^ "Consolidation Continues: Panasonic to Buy Sanyo". July 30, 2010. ^ a b c d e "2019 Integrated Report" (PDF). Sanyo. Retrieved November 20, 2019. ^ a b "Outline". Panasonic. Archived from the original on April 9, 2011. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ a b c "SANYO Electric Co., Ltd". 2006. Retrieved March 27, 2019. ^ "Obituary Notices". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. August 29, 1908. Retrieved March 27, 2019. ^ "Sanyo to Bow TVC, 9 Music Systems". Billboard. Los Angeles, California: Billboard Publications, Inc. May 5, 1973. Retrieved March 28, 2019. ^ Reid, T. R. (September 2, 1977). "A Curious Marriage". Retrieved March 18, 2020. ^ "Whirlpool Corporation - 100 Years at a Glance" (PDF). Whirlpool Corporation. Retrieved November 20, 2019. ^ Myer, Edwin W. (November 29, 1982). "Hardware Review: Sanyo MBC 1000 Small Business Computer". InfoWorld. InfoWorld Media Group. p. 101. Retrieved February 14, 2017. ^ Shea, Tom (July 11, 1983). "Sanyo Developing IBM Clone". InfoWorld. InfoWorld Media Group. p. 1. Retrieved February 14, 2017. ^ "Sanyo 555, small business computers. (evaluation)". ^ J. Impoco, "Basic Training, Sanyo Style". U.S. News & World Report, July 13, 1992, pp. 46–48. ^ "Toshiba to give up on HD DVD, end format war: source". Reuters. February 16, 2008. ^ "The Japan Times - News on Japan, Business News, Opinion, Sports, Entertainment and More". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ "Sanyo Chairwoman Tomoyo Nonaka resigns". UPI. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ Lewis, Leo (October 18, 2007). "Sanyo calls off semiconductor sale". The Sunday Times. Archived from the original on June 11, 2011. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ "Kyocera merges two S.D. divisions, cutting 36 jobs". The San Diego Union-Tribune. April 2, 2010. ^ "Sanyo head agrees to Panasonic takeover-sources". reuters.com. November 2, 2008. Retrieved May 15, 2024. ^ "Panasonic Acquires Majority of Sanyo". The New York Times. December 10, 2009. Retrieved November 22, 2019. ^ "Sanyo signs $366 million deal to sell semiconductor unit to US chipmaker ON". Guelph Mercury Tribune. July 15, 2010. Retrieved November 20, 2019. ^ "Panasonic buying Sanyo and other unit for $9.4 billion". Reuters. Archived from the original on December 5, 2010. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ "Panasonic to buy Sanyo in $9 billion deal". NBC News. December 19, 2008. Retrieved May 15, 2024. ^ "Sanyo Electric brand to end in '12". The Japan Times. October 24, 2010. Archived from the original on February 8, 2021. Retrieved November 20, 2019. ^ "Haier Completes Sanyo Acquisition in Southeast Asia". Official Haier website (Malaysia). March 30, 2012. Archived from the original on July 5, 2022. Retrieved December 28, 2022. ^ T. K., Rohit; Kelleher, James B. (August 13, 2013). "Whirlpool buys 51 percent stake in China appliance maker". Reuters. ^ a b "SANYO & Nippon Oil Establish Thin-film Solar Cell Joint Company". eepower.com. January 26, 2009. Retrieved May 15, 2024. ^ a b "Sanyo Hungary completes new plant, set to triple output, start new project - BBJ". BBJ.hu. Retrieved May 15, 2024. ^ Utsunomiya, Yuji (June 3, 2003). "Sanyo charging ahead in cell phone battery sector". The Japan Times. Retrieved November 21, 2019. ^ "Sanyo to Acquire Toshiba Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery Assets". PowerPulse.net. November 28, 2000. Retrieved November 21, 2019. ^ "Announcement of basic agreement concerning the transfer of shares of SANYO Energy Twicell Co., Ltd. and SANYO Energy Tottori Co., Ltd. to FDK Corporation" (PDF). FDK Corporation. October 28, 2009. Retrieved November 21, 2009. ^ "FTC Order Sets Conditions for Panasonic's Acquisition of Sanyo". Federal Trade Commission. November 24, 2009. Retrieved May 15, 2024. ^ "Sanyo completes construction of lithium-ion battery facility in Japan". International Business Times. November 23, 2010. Retrieved November 21, 2019. ^ BioAge Media (September 22, 2005). "Sanyo to More than Double NiMH Battery Production Based on Hybrid Demand". Green Car Congress. ^ "Japanese company Sanyo enters India with affordable TV sets". The Financial Express. August 11, 2016. Retrieved August 11, 2016. ^ Das, Sharmila (August 9, 2017). "Launched exclusively on Amazon last year, Japanese TV brand Sanyo TV now signs Flipkart". ETRetail.com. Retrieved August 9, 2017. ^ "Sanyo launches its first 4K Smart TV series in India, starting at Rs 64,990". The Mobile Indian. December 6, 2017. Retrieved November 22, 2019. ^ "Panasonic's online brand Sanyo launches new Kaizen TV series powered by Android TV - Panasonic India". www.panasonic.com. Retrieved May 16, 2024. ^ Sengupta, Debjoy (May 24, 2017). "Panasonic emerges as lowest bidder for EESL's super-efficient ACs". The Economic Times. Retrieved May 24, 2017. ^ "Panasonic eyes 10 pc market share of online AC sales with brand Sanyo". The Times of India. April 4, 2019. Retrieved August 1, 2019. ^ "Sanyo launches Duo Cool inverter ACs in India, price starts Rs 24,490". The Times of India. April 4, 2019. Retrieved August 1, 2019. ^ Greenwald, Will (June 17, 2014). "Sanyo FVF5044". PCMag. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ Katzmaier, David (April 22, 2014). "Sanyo introduces 65-inch LCD TV for $998". CNET. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ Murai, Reiji; Kelly, Tim (October 26, 2014). "Panasonic says to transfer Sanyo TV unit in U.S. to Funai Electric". Reuters. Retrieved November 22, 2019. ^ Willcox, James (July 9, 2018). "TV Brands Aren't Always What They Seem". Consumer Reports. Retrieved April 15, 2019. Two years ago, Panasonic agreed to license the Sanyo TV brand to Funai. Today, Sanyo TVs seem to turn up mostly in Walmart stores, almost as a private label for the retailer. ^ "SANYO DENKI Develops 40 × 40 × 28 mm High Static Pressure Fan Achieves the highest static pressure in the industry". May 28, 2020. Retrieved October 3, 2020. ^ "SANYO DENKI Releases 40 × 40 × 56 mm Counter Rotating Fan With the highest static pressure in the industry". August 18, 2020. Retrieved October 3, 2020. ^ "SANYO DENKI Develops 80 × 80 × 38 mm High Static Pressure Fan Achieves the highest static pressure and airflow in the industry". September 29, 2020. Retrieved October 3, 2020. ^ Ma, Wenlei (October 27, 2011). "Sanyo and NRL's Panthers split". AdNews. Retrieved November 22, 2019. 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(sold to Seagram's) Universal Lighting Technologies (sold to Atar capital in 2021) Brands Eneloop Eluga KDK Lumix National (phased out) Panasonic Quasar Sanyo NXT Kaizen Technics Varicam ProductsConsoles 3DO Interactive Multiplayer Panasonic M2 Panasonic Q Jungle Turntables Technics SL-1200 Technics SL-10 Technics SL-J2 Other Bicycles Camcorders CD interface Hospi Lenses Lumix cameras MN103 Panapet Panasonic JR series Panasonic Toot-a-Loop Radio Toughpad Toughbook Panasonic TR-005 Venus Engine Formats and standards D5 HD M-3DI Standard Micro Four Thirds system MicroP2 MII P2 VHS Viera Cast VX People Kōnosuke Matsushita Masaharu Matsushita Masayuki Matsushita Hiro Matsushita Hirofumi Hirano Toshio Iue Kazuhiro Tsuga Other Gamba Osaka Panasonic Panthers Panasonic Wild Knights Panasonic cycling team Panasonic Toyota Racing Panasonic Gobel Awards Panasonic Impulse Category Commons vteHome appliance brands Amica Arçelik Arctic Beko Dawlance Defy Grundig Ariston Bertazzoni Bialetti Bissell Braun Breville Group Breville Kambrook Bork BSH Balay Bosch Constructa Gaggenau Neff Pitsos Profilo Siemens Thermador Bticino Colston-Ariston Cuisinart Danby De Dietrich Remeha De'Longhi Kenwood Dualit Dustbot Dyson Edesa Electrolux AEG Anova Frigidaire Kelvinator Lehel Parkinson Cowan White-Westinghouse Zanussi Elica Faema Fulgor Gaggia Giacomini Gree Haceb Haier Candy Fisher & Paykel GE Hoover Hotpoint Hamilton Beach Proctor Silex Havells Hisense Asko Gorenje Kelon IKEA InSinkErator iRobot Roomba Scooba JS Global Lifestyle Joyoung Kenmore Khind-Mistral Kleenmaid LG Liebherr Lofra Mabe Magic Bullet Magic Chef Medion Middleby AGA La Cornue Rangemaster Rayburn Viking Midea Eureka Miele Mitsubishi Moffat Morphy Richards Newell Crock-Pot Holmes Mr. Coffee Oster Sunbeam Olympic OXO Panasonic KDK Sanyo Pars Khazar Peerless-Premier Pensonic Philips Pyramis Saeco Samsung Dacor SEB Krups Moulinex Rowenta Supor Tefal Servis SharkNinja Sharp Sisil Skyworth Smeg Snowa Spectrum Black+Decker George Foreman Remington Russell Hobbs Toastmaster Sub-Zero Tiger Vestel Vestfrost Finlux Videocon Voltas Vorwerk West Bend Whirlpool Admiral Amana Bauknecht Hotpoint Indesit Inglis Jenn-Air KitchenAid Maytag Winia Zojirushi Zyliss Authority control databases International VIAF National Japan Academics CiNii

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sanyo (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanyo_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Toshio Iue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshio_Iue"},{"link_name":"Kōnosuke Matsushita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dnosuke_Matsushita"},{"link_name":"Panasonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Sharp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_Corporation"},{"link_name":"hybrid solar cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_solar_cell"},{"link_name":"lithium-ion battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"}],"text":"For other uses, see Sanyo (disambiguation).Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd. (三洋電機株式会社, San'yō Denki Kabushiki-gaisha) is a Japanese electronics manufacturer founded in 1947 by Toshio Iue, the brother-in-law of Kōnosuke Matsushita, the founder of Panasonic. Iue left Matsushita Electric Industrial (now Panasonic) to start his own business, acquiring some of its equipment to produce bicycle generator lamps. In 1950, the company was established. Sanyo began to diversify in the 1960s, having launched Japan's first spray-type washing machine in 1953. In the 2000s, it was known as one of the 3S along with Sony and Sharp. Sanyo also focused on solar cell and lithium battery businesses. In 1992, it developed the world's first hybrid solar cell, and in 2002, it had a 41% share of the global lithium-ion battery market. In its heyday in 2003, Sanyo had sales of about ¥2.5 trillion. However, it fell into a financial crisis as a result of its huge investment in the semiconductor business. In 2009, Sanyo was acquired by Panasonic, and in 2011, it was fully consolidated into Panasonic and its brand disappeared. The company still exists as a legal entity for the purpose of winding up its affairs.","title":"Sanyo"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SANYO_Electric_Old_logo_1976.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanyo_Transistor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Toshio Iue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshio_Iue"},{"link_name":"Konosuke Matsushita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konosuke_Matsushita"},{"link_name":"Matsushita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic_Corporation"},{"link_name":"plastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"washing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Corporate_Profile_-_outline-4"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean"}],"sub_title":"Beginnings","text":"Old logo, used from 1976 to 1987Transistor radio, model 8S-P3, released in 1959Sanyo was founded when Toshio Iue, the brother-in-law of Konosuke Matsushita and also a former Matsushita employee, was lent an unused Matsushita plant in 1947 and used it to make bicycle generator lamps. Sanyo was incorporated in 1949; it made Japan's first plastic radio in 1952 and Japan's first pulsator-type washing machine in 1954.[4] The company's name means three oceans in Japanese, referring to the founder's ambition to sell their products worldwide, across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Howard Ladd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Ladd"},{"link_name":"Fisher Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher_Electronics"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SanyoHistory-5"},{"link_name":"electronics industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_industry"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Obituary-6"},{"link_name":"Quadraphonic sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadraphonic_sound"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SanyoHistory-5"},{"link_name":"V-Cord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-Cord"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Betamax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betamax"},{"link_name":"VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS"},{"link_name":"Whirlpool Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Sears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sears"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SanyoHistory-5"},{"link_name":"CP/M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/M"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"MBC-550","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBC-550"},{"link_name":"IBM PC compatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible"},{"link_name":"personal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Sanyo in America","text":"In 1969, Howard Ladd became the Executive Vice President and COO of Sanyo Corporation. Ladd introduced the Sanyo brand to the United States in 1970. The ambition to sell Sanyo products worldwide was realized in the mid-1970s after Sanyo introduced home audio equipment, car stereos and other consumer electronics to the North American market. The company embarked on a heavy television-based advertising campaign.Ladd negotiated a purchase of the Fisher Electronics audio equipment manufacturer by Sanyo in May 1975.[5] Under Ladd's leadership, the Fisher Corporation under Sanyo grew to be a multi-million dollar leader in the consumer electronics industry. The new, profitable Fisher Corporation moved its headquarters from New York to Ladd's Los Angeles. Ladd was named president and CEO of the combined Sanyo / Fisher Corporation in 1977, serving until 1987.[6]Ladd was instrumental at Sanyo in promoting Quadraphonic sound audio equipment for the American market, producing 4-channel audio equipment in both SQ and Matrix formats. He said \"we make all kinds of quadrasonic equipment because this is the business we're in... let the consumer buy the kind of software he prefers and we'll provide him the hardware to play it on\".[7]Sanyo realized tremendous growth during Ladd's tenure in the 1970s; annual sales grew from $71.4 million (equivalent to $520,078,000 in 2023) in 1972 to $855 million (equivalent to $3,994,071,000 in 2023) in 1978.[5]After a fairly slow selling line in their own V-Cord video format, Sanyo adopted Sony's Betamax video cassette format around 1977 with initial success, including SuperBeta and Beta Hi-Fi models. From around 1984 onwards, production switched entirely to VHS.In 1976, Sanyo expanded their North American presence with the purchase of Whirlpool Corporation's television business, Warwick Electronics, which manufactured televisions for Sears.[8][9]In 1986, Sanyo's U.S. affiliate merged with Fisher to become Sanyo Fisher (U.S.A.) Corporation (later renamed Sanyo Fisher Company). The mergers made the entire organization more efficient, but also resulted in the departure of certain key executives, including Ladd, who had first introduced the Sanyo name to the United States in the early 1970s.[5]In 1982, Sanyo started selling the MBC-1000 series of CP/M computers.[10] In 1983,[11] it introduced the MBC-550 PC, the lowest-cost IBM PC compatible personal computer available at the time,[12] but its lack of full compatibility drove Sanyo from the market and no follow-on models were released.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"personal grooming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_grooming"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Betamax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betamax"},{"link_name":"VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS"},{"link_name":"Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Video8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video8"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray Disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"HD DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_DVD"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"CDMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA"},{"link_name":"Sprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprint-Nextel"}],"sub_title":"1990s corporate culture","text":"An article on \"Sanyo Style\" written in 1992 described that Sanyo utilizes an extensive socialization process for new employees, so that they will be acclimatized to Sanyo's corporate culture.[13] New employees take a five-month course during which they eat together and sleep together in accommodation. They learn everything from basic job requirements to company expectations for personal grooming and the appropriate way in which to dress for their co-workers and superiors.Technologically, Sanyo has had good ties with Sony, supporting the Betamax video format from invention until the mid-1980s (the best selling video recorder in the UK in 1983 was the Sanyo VTC5000), while producing the VHS video format at the same time for the Fisher brand during the early 1980s, and later being an early adopter of the highly successful Video8 camcorder format. More recently, though, Sanyo decided against supporting Sony's format, the Blu-ray Disc, and instead gave its backing to Toshiba's HD DVD. This was ultimately unsuccessful, however, as Sony's Blu-ray triumphed.[14]In North America, Sanyo manufactured CDMA cellular phones exclusively for Sprint's Sprint PCS brand in the United States and for Bell Mobility in Canada.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2004 Chūetsu earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Ch%C5%ABetsu_earthquake"},{"link_name":"rechargeable batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_battery"},{"link_name":"photovoltaics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics"},{"link_name":"air conditioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioning"},{"link_name":"hybrid car","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_car"},{"link_name":"Xacti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xacti"},{"link_name":"mobile phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"Eneloop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eneloop"},{"link_name":"Low self-discharge NiMH battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_self-discharge_NiMH_battery"},{"link_name":"Nickel-metal hydride battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-metal_hydride_battery"},{"link_name":"Rayovac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayovac"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Tomoyo Nonaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomoyo_Nonaka"},{"link_name":"NHK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHK"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"yen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yen"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanyo_M9998LU_Boombox.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piccadilly-Circus-Publicit%C3%A9-Nuit.jpg"},{"link_name":"Piccadilly Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccadilly_Circus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanyoevolutionproject.svg"},{"link_name":"Kyocera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyocera"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Panasonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dealbook-20"},{"link_name":"ON Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ON_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Panasonic Electric Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic_Electric_Works"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Haier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haier"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Whirlpool Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Acquisition","text":"The 2004 Chūetsu earthquake severely damaged Sanyo's semiconductor plant and as a result Sanyo recorded a huge financial loss for that year. The 2005 fiscal year financial results saw a 205 billion yen net income loss. The same year the company announced a restructuring plan called the Sanyo Evolution Project, launching a new corporate vision to make the corporation into an environmental company, plowing investment into strong products like rechargeable batteries, solar photovoltaics, air conditioning, hybrid car batteries and key consumer electronics such as the Xacti camera, projectors and mobile phones.Sanyo posted signs of recovery after the announcement of positive operating income of 2.6 billion yen. Sanyo remains the world number one producer of rechargeable batteries. Recent product innovations in this area include the Eneloop Low self-discharge NiMH battery, a \"hybrid\" rechargeable NiMH (Nickel-metal hydride battery) which, unlike typical NiMH cells, can be used from-the-package without an initial recharge cycle and retain a charge significantly longer than batteries using standard NiMH battery design. The Eneloop line competes against similar products such as Rayovac's \"Hybrid Rechargeable\" line.On November 24, 2006, Sanyo announced heavy losses and job cuts.[15]Tomoyo Nonaka, a former NHK anchorwoman who was appointed chairwoman of the company, stepped down in March 2007.[16] The President, Toshimasa Iue, also stepped down in April of that year; Seiichiro Sano was appointed to head the company effective April 2007.\nIn October 2007, Sanyo cancelled a 110 billion yen sale of its semiconductor business, blaming the global credit crisis for the decision and stating that after exploring its other options, it had decided to keep the business and develop it as part of its portfolio.[17]A Sanyo M9998LU Boombox manufactured circa 1979-80 for the European market with user customized dial and tape lights.Sanyo logo on neon signs of Piccadilly CircusSanyo's three-year restructuring projectIn 2008, Sanyo's mobile phone division was acquired by Kyocera.[18]On November 2, 2008, Sanyo and Panasonic announced that they have agreed on the main points of a proposed buyout that would make Sanyo a subsidiary of Panasonic.[19] They became a subsidiary of Panasonic on December 21, 2009.[20]In 2010, Sanyo sold its semiconductor operations to ON Semiconductor.[21]On July 29, 2010, Panasonic reached an agreement to acquire the remaining shares of Panasonic Electric Works and Sanyo shares for $9.4 billion.[22][23]By March 2012, parent company Panasonic plans to terminate the Sanyo brand, however it will remain on some of the products where the Sanyo brand still holds value to consumers.[24] In the same month, Sanyo's Southeast Asian unit, responsible for the manufacturing of consumer electric appliances in the region, was announced to be formally acquired by Haier.[25]In August 2013, a 51% majority stake in Chinese company Hefei Royalstar Sanyo, a 2000 joint venture between Sanyo and Chinese government investment company Hefei, was purchased by American multinational manufacturer Whirlpool Corporation for $552 million.[26]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Energy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eneloop_Rechargeable_LED_Lantern.jpg"},{"link_name":"Heterojunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterojunction"},{"link_name":"Intrinsic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_semiconductor"},{"link_name":"Thin layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell"},{"link_name":"amorphous silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_silicon"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-27"},{"link_name":"solar module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_module"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HIT_cell.jpg"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Scandinavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia"},{"link_name":"Dorog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorog"},{"link_name":"Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest"},{"link_name":"Dorog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorog"},{"link_name":"Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-28"},{"link_name":"ingots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingot"},{"link_name":"wafers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer"},{"link_name":"Inagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inagi"},{"link_name":"solar wafers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wafer"},{"link_name":"Nippon Oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Oil"},{"link_name":"thin-film solar panels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_solar_panel"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-27"},{"link_name":"Solar Ark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Ark"}],"sub_title":"Solar cells and plants","text":"\"Eneloop\" Rechargeable LED Lantern (ENL-1EX) by SanyoThe Sanyo HIT (Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin layer) solar cell is composed of a mono thin crystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultra-thin amorphous silicon layers.[27]Sanyo Energy opened its solar module assembly plants in Hungary and in Mexico in 2004, and in 2006 it produced solar modules worth $213 million. In 2007, Sanyo completed a new unit at its solar module plant in Hungary that was to triple its annual capacity to 720,000 units in 2008.[28]Schematics of a HIT-cellPlans to expand production were based on rising demands for Sanyo Hungary products, whose leading markets are Germany, Italy, Spain and Scandinavia. The plant at Dorog, outside Budapest, became Sanyo's largest solar module production facility in the world. Germany, Italy, Spain and the Scandinavian countries. The plant at Dorog, outside Budapest, will be Sanyo Electric's largest facility producing solar modules in the entire world.[28]In late September 2008, Sanyo announced its decision to build a manufacturing plant for solar ingots and wafers (the building blocks for silicon solar cells) in Inagi, Japan. The plant began operating in October 2009 and was to reach its full production capacity of 70 megawatts (MW) of solar wafers per year by April 2010. Sanyo and Nippon Oil decided to launch a joint company, known as Sanyo Eneos Solar Co., Ltd., for the production and sale of thin-film solar panels. The new joint company began production and sales at an initial scale of 80 MW, while gradually increasing its production capacity. For this joint project, Sanyo drew on its solar cell technologies, based on the technology acquired through the development of the HIT solar cell.[27]Sanyo is also responsible for the construction of the Solar Ark.","title":"Energy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nickel cadmium batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_cadmium_batteries"},{"link_name":"nickel metal hydride batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_metal_hydride_battery"},{"link_name":"lithium-ion batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery"},{"link_name":"lithium polymer batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_polymer_batteries"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"Takasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takasaki"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Rechargeable batteries","text":"Sanyo pioneered the production of nickel cadmium batteries in 1964, nickel metal hydride batteries (NiMh) in 1990, lithium-ion batteries in 1994, and lithium polymer batteries in 1999.[29] In 2000, it acquired Toshiba's NiMh business, including the Takasaki factory.[30] Since the acquisition of Sanyo by Panasonic, ownership of the Takasaki factory was transferred to the FDK Corporation.[31][32]","title":"Energy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"Volkswagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen"},{"link_name":"PSA Peugeot Citroen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupe_PSA"},{"link_name":"Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Electric vehicle batteries","text":"Sanyo supplies NiMh batteries to Honda, Ford, Volkswagen and PSA Peugeot Citroen. Sanyo is developing NiMH batteries for hybrid electric vehicles with the Volkswagen group, while their lithium-ion batteries for plug-in HEV will also be housed in Suzuki fleet vehicles.[33]Sanyo planned to raise monthly production of NiMH batteries for hybrid vehicles from 1 million units to up to 2.5 million by the end of fiscal 2005.[34]","title":"Energy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Sanyo India"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Panasonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"smart TVs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_TV"},{"link_name":"Amazon Prime Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Prime_Day"},{"link_name":"Flipkart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flipkart"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Android TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_TV"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Televisions","text":"Panasonic reintroduced the Sanyo brand in India, with the launch of Sanyo LED TV range on August 8, 2016.[35] On July 11, 2017, Sanyo launched its range of smart TVs on Amazon Prime Day. In August 2017, Sanyo unveiled its NXT range of LED televisions exclusively on Flipkart.[36] In December 2017, Sanyo introduced its first 4K smart TV range in India.[37]In September 2019, Sanyo introduced a range of Android TV sets known as the Sanyo Kaizen Series.[38]","title":"Sanyo India"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Energy Efficiency Services Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Efficiency_Services_Limited"},{"link_name":"inverter air conditioner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_inverter"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Amazon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company)"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Air conditioners","text":"Sanyo worked with Energy Efficiency Services Limited to develop a 1.5-ton inverter air conditioner (AC) with an Indian Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (ISEER) of 5.2. Distribution of these air conditioners began in September 2017.[39]On April 4, 2019, Sanyo launched a new AC range exclusively on Amazon.[40][41]","title":"Sanyo India"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Tijuana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijuana"},{"link_name":"MHL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_High-Definition_Link"},{"link_name":"Roku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roku"},{"link_name":"HDMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDMI"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"Though founded in Japan, Sanyo has sold TVs in America for over 50 years; Sanyo TV USA was headquartered in San Diego, California with facilities located in Tijuana, Mexico.Many of Sanyo's television sets offer MHL compatibility along with Roku-ready branding via HDMI, meaning the TVs are compatible with Roku's MHL-specific streaming stick. Sometimes included with purchase, such as with the Sanyo FVF5044,[42] this stick enables video streaming and other online functions as an affordable alternative to certain smart TVs; the TV's original remote is capable of browsing the service. Multiple models also have USB ports which allow for immediate photo sharing directly off the stick without any additional software/upgrades.[43]","title":"Sanyo TV USA"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Funai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funai"},{"link_name":"royalty payments.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royalty_payment"},{"link_name":"Funai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funai"},{"link_name":"Walmart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walmart"},{"link_name":"Philips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips"},{"link_name":"Emerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson_Radio"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Consumer Reports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_Reports"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Funai Era","text":"In October 2014, Panasonic announced its intent to transfer the Sanyo TV unit to Funai in the US market in return for annual royalty payments. Funai is a major Walmart supplier that also supplies Philips and Emerson TV sets to the retail chain.[44] Consumer Reports commented in 2018 that Sanyo TVs \"seem to turn up mostly in Walmart stores, almost as a private label for the retailer.\"[45]","title":"Sanyo TV USA"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"thermal management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_management_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"airflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airflow"},{"link_name":"static pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_pressure"},{"link_name":"DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current"},{"link_name":"fans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(machine)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt"},{"link_name":"RPM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPM"},{"link_name":"contra-rotating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra-rotating_propellers"}],"text":"Sanyo is also known for its thermal management sector, Sanyo Denki, which makes high speed, large airflow, high static pressure DC fans sold under the moniker \"San Ace\", a product line mainly geared towards the enterprise market. As of October 2020, Sanyo Denki holds the world record for both rotational speed and static pressure of various dimensions and models. Some notable records are:[46][47][48]A 40 millimetres (1.6 in) 12V 31.2W fan released in May 2020, with a rotational speed of 38,000 RPM and a static pressure of 2.3 kilopascals (0.33 psi).\nA 40 millimetres (1.6 in) 12V 37.2W contra-rotating fan released in August 2020, with a rotational speed of 36,200 (inlet) and 32,000 (outlet) RPM in opposite directions, creating a static pressure of 2.4 kilopascals (0.35 psi).\nA 80 millimetres (3.1 in) 12V 57.6W fan able to spin at 18,300 RPM and provide a static pressure of 1.6 kilopascals (0.23 psi).","title":"Record-breaking achievements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Penrith Panthers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrith_Panthers"},{"link_name":"National Rugby League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rugby_League"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Formula One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_One"},{"link_name":"Benetton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benetton_Formula"},{"link_name":"Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_Grand_Prix_Engineering"},{"link_name":"Stewart Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_Grand_Prix"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"Argentinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"River Plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club_Atl%C3%A9tico_River_Plate"},{"link_name":"Brazilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Coritiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coritiba_Foot_Ball_Club"}],"text":"Sanyo was the primary sponsor of the Penrith Panthers in the National Rugby League in Australia from 2000 to 2012.[49] In Formula One, the company sponsored Benetton from 1989 to 1995, Williams from 1995 to 1997 and Stewart Grand Prix from 1997 to 1999. In football, the company sponsored the Argentinian club River Plate from 1992 until 1995 and the Brazilian Coritiba from 1995 until 1999.","title":"Sponsorship"}]

[{"image_text":"Old logo, used from 1976 to 1987","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/SANYO_Electric_Old_logo_1976.png/220px-SANYO_Electric_Old_logo_1976.png"},{"image_text":"Transistor radio, model 8S-P3, released in 1959","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sanyo_Transistor.jpg/220px-Sanyo_Transistor.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Sanyo M9998LU Boombox manufactured circa 1979-80 for the European market with user customized dial and tape lights.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sanyo_M9998LU_Boombox.png/220px-Sanyo_M9998LU_Boombox.png"},{"image_text":"Sanyo logo on neon signs of Piccadilly Circus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Piccadilly-Circus-Publicit%C3%A9-Nuit.jpg/220px-Piccadilly-Circus-Publicit%C3%A9-Nuit.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sanyo's three-year restructuring project","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6e/Sanyoevolutionproject.svg/220px-Sanyoevolutionproject.svg.png"},{"image_text":"\"Eneloop\" Rechargeable LED Lantern (ENL-1EX) by Sanyo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Eneloop_Rechargeable_LED_Lantern.jpg/220px-Eneloop_Rechargeable_LED_Lantern.jpg"},{"image_text":"Schematics of a HIT-cell","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/HIT_cell.jpg/200px-HIT_cell.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"\"SANYO Electric Co., Ltd\". Panasonic. Retrieved November 20, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.panasonic.com/global/corporate/profile/group-companies/sanyo.html","url_text":"\"SANYO Electric Co., Ltd\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic","url_text":"Panasonic"}]},{"reference":"\"Consolidation Continues: Panasonic to Buy Sanyo\". July 30, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/2010/07/30/consolidation-continues-panasonic-to-buy-sanyo/","url_text":"\"Consolidation Continues: Panasonic to Buy Sanyo\""}]},{"reference":"\"2019 Integrated Report\" (PDF). Sanyo. Retrieved November 20, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://contents.xj-storage.jp/xcontents/AS02420/e9d0946b/c7c2/42fa/835d/d297bfa163bb/20191028095327911s.pdf","url_text":"\"2019 Integrated Report\""}]},{"reference":"\"Outline\". Panasonic. Archived from the original on April 9, 2011. 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BBJ\""},{"Link":"https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2003/06/03/business/sanyo-charging-ahead-in-cell-phone-battery-sector/","external_links_name":"\"Sanyo charging ahead in cell phone battery sector\""},{"Link":"https://powerpulse.net/sanyo-to-acquire-toshiba-nickel-metal-hydride-battery-assets/","external_links_name":"\"Sanyo to Acquire Toshiba Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery Assets\""},{"Link":"http://www.fdk.com/whatsnew-e/release091028b-e.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Announcement of basic agreement concerning the transfer of shares of SANYO Energy Twicell Co., Ltd. and SANYO Energy Tottori Co., Ltd. to FDK Corporation\""},{"Link":"https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2009/11/ftc-order-sets-conditions-panasonics-acquisition-sanyo","external_links_name":"\"FTC Order Sets Conditions for Panasonic's Acquisition of Sanyo\""},{"Link":"https://www.ibtimes.com/sanyo-completes-construction-lithium-ion-battery-facility-japan-248102","external_links_name":"\"Sanyo completes construction of lithium-ion battery facility in Japan\""},{"Link":"http://www.greencarcongress.com/2005/09/sanyo_to_more_t.html","external_links_name":"\"Sanyo to More than Double NiMH Battery Production Based on Hybrid Demand\""},{"Link":"http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/japanese-company-sanyo-enters-india-with-affordable-tv-sets/344918/","external_links_name":"\"Japanese company Sanyo enters India with affordable TV sets\""},{"Link":"https://retail.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/e-commerce/e-tailing/launched-exclusively-on-amazon-last-year-japanese-tv-brand-sanyo-tv-now-signs-flipkart/59987944","external_links_name":"\"Launched exclusively on Amazon last year, Japanese TV brand Sanyo TV now signs Flipkart\""},{"Link":"https://www.themobileindian.com/news/sanyo-launches-its-first-4k-smart-tv-series-in-india-starting-at-rs-64990-20101","external_links_name":"\"Sanyo launches its first 4K Smart TV series in India, starting at Rs 64,990\""},{"Link":"https://www.panasonic.com/in/corporate/news/articles/panasonic-s-online-brand-sanyo-launches-new-kaizen-tv-series-powered-by-android-tv.html","external_links_name":"\"Panasonic's online brand Sanyo launches new Kaizen TV series powered by Android TV - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_management

Communications management

["1 The role of communication in management","2 Importance of communications management","3 Communication management and project management","4 Management and communication in organizations","5 The communication process","5.1 Four-step process for effective communication","6 The role of communication in management","7 Method of communication","8 Oral communication","9 Weekly reporting method","10 Management in communication media system","11 References"]

System of communication in an organization This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Communications management" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Business administration Management of a business Accounting Management accounting Financial accounting Audit Business entity (list) Corporate group Corporation sole Conglomerate (company) Holding company Cooperative Corporation Joint-stock company Limited liability company Partnership Privately held company Sole proprietorship State-owned enterprise Corporate governance Annual general meeting Board of directors Supervisory board Advisory board Audit committee Corporate law Commercial law Constitutional documents Contract Corporate crime Corporate liability Insolvency law International trade law Mergers and acquisitions Corporate title Chairman Chief business officer/Chief brand officer Chief executive officer/Chief operating officer Chief financial officer Chief human resources officer Chief information officer/Chief marketing officer Chief product officer/Chief technology officer Economics Commodity Public economics Labour economics Development economics International economics Mixed economy Planned economy Econometrics Environmental economics Open economy Market economy Knowledge economy Microeconomics Macroeconomics Economic development Economic statistics Finance Financial statement Insurance Factoring Cash conversion cycle Insider dealing Capital budgeting Commercial bank Derivative Financial statement analysis Financial risk Public finance Corporate finance Managerial finance International finance Liquidation Stock market Financial market Tax Financial institution Capital management Venture capital Types of management Asset Brand Business intelligence Business development Capacity Capability Change innovation Commercial Marketing Communications Configuration Conflict Content Customer relationship Distributed Earned value Electronic business Enterprise resource planning  management information system Financial Human resource  development Incident Knowledge Legal Materials Network administrator Office Operations  services Performance Power Problem Process Product life-cycle Product Project Property Quality Records Resource Risk  crisis Sales Security Service Strategic Supply chain Systems administrator Talent Technology Organization Architecture Behavior Communication Culture Conflict Development Engineering Hierarchy Patterns Space Structure Trade Business analysis Business ethics Business plan Business judgment rule Consumer behaviour Business operations International business Business model International trade Trade route Business process Business statistics Business and economics portalvte Communications management is the systematic planning, implementing, monitoring, and revision of all the channels of communication within an organization and between organizations. It also includes the organization and dissemination of new communication directives connected with an organization, network, or communications technology. Aspects of communications management include developing corporate communication strategies, designing internal and external communications directives, and managing the flow of information, including online communication. It is a process that helps an organization to be systematic as one within the bounds of communication. Communication and management are closely linked together. Since communication is the process of information exchange of two or people and management includes managers that gives out information to their people. Moreover, communication and management go hand in hand. It is the way to extend control; the fundamental component of project management. Without the advantage of a good communications management system, the cycles associated with the development of a task from start to finish can be genuinely compelled. It also gives the fundamental project integrity needed to give an information help among all individuals from the team. This information must stream descending, upward, and horizontally inside the association. Moreover, it is both master and servant of project control. It is the action component, the integrator of the process toward assembling the project. As project management is both a craftsmanship and a science, the project manager leads the multidiscipline of the plan and construct team. The role of communication in management The management's part is to achieve the objectives of the organization itself. To be able to do this, managers should make an action plan that simply defines what, when, and how it would be done & finished. In order to execute the plan, managers must pass on the information to everybody in the organization. Good communication advises as well as assists with making a culture that causes individuals to feel like they have a place with and need to help the organization. Organizations are totally reliant on communication, which is defined as the exchange of ideas, messages, or information by speech, signals, or writing. Without communication, organizations would not function. If communication is diminished or hampered, the entire organization suffers. When communication is thorough, accurate, and timely, the organization tends to be vibrant and effective. Communication is central to the entire management process for four primary reasons: Communication is a linking process of management. Communication is the primary means by which people obtain and exchange information. The most time‐consuming activity a manager engages in is communication. Information and communication represent power in organizations. The ability to communicate well, both orally and in writing, is a critical managerial skill and a foundation of effective leadership. Through communication, people exchange and share information with one another and influence one another's attitudes, behaviors, and understandings. Importance of communications management It is basically everything and not a simple plan that everyone will follow. When you make a plan and get everybody ready, it is possible that you or a point person should be the one dealing with the arrangement all through the aggregate of the task. To ensure solid communication management throughout a project, a communication management plan should be created. The benefits of a communication management plan are five-fold: A written framework that both client/stakeholders/team members can reference. This can help in case there is any need for mediation—you have a written paper trail you can refer back to. It can also be beneficial for accounts payable to reference in case there are gaps in time tracked for the project. The plan itself will manage expectations from stakeholders to not anticipate a finished project before the deliverables have been tested for quality assurance. The points at which communication is shared allow both stakeholders to provide valuable feedback to the project process as well as the final product, and give team members a chance to brainstorm ideas together, bridging the divide between the two groups. It allows all involved to better discover risks and issues early on. It helps to eliminate the need to hold unnecessary meetings on the books, saving both time and money. Communication helps manage organizational conflict. Putnam (2013) Definition of Organizational Conflict – Putnam & Poole (1987) defines conflict as “the interaction of interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims, values, and who see the other party as potentially interfering with the realization of these goals” (p. 552). Communication eases the process of conflict resolution, and helps maintain the balanced relationships, and sets parameters on interactions between affected individuals and groups in the organization. Putnam (2013) explains that “a few scholars would deny that communication is an essential feature of conflict.” She cited Thomas and Pondy (1977) noted this in their extensive review of conflict in organizations, and that “It is communication with which we are most concerned in understanding conflict management."  Communication helps form issues, frame perceptions, translate feelings into conflict, and enact the conflict itself (Putnam & Poole, 1987). Putnam (2013) further stressed that “communication is the means by which conflict gets socially defined” (Simons, 1974b. p. 3) Source: Putnam, L. (2013). Definitions and approaches to conflict and communication. In J. G. Oetzel & S. Ting -Toomey The SAGE handbook of conflict communication (pp. 1–40). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc. doi: 104135/9781452281988.n1 Communication management and project management In project management, communication management must address the following questions: What information needs to flow in and out of the project? Who needs what information? When is the information needed? What is the format of the information? Who will be responsible for transmitting and providing the information? Moreover, this only serves as guidelines and must take into account other factors like cost and access to information. As defined by the Project Management Institute (1996), project communications management includes processes required to ensure timely and appropriate generation, collection, dissemination, storage, and ultimate disposition of project information. The following communication processes are involved in Project Communications Management, to wit: Communication planning – In this phase, the problems, needs and future plans are being identified to ensure attainment of goals and objectives. Information distribution – This involves dissemination of information needed by the stakeholders and other members of the organization. Performance reporting – This includes status reporting, progress measurement, and forecasting for the future of the organization. Administrative closure – This involves generating, gathering, and disseminating information to formalize phase or project completion. Management and communication in organizations Management and communication are closely tied together. As defined, communication is the process by which information is shared between two or more people (which includes machines, e.g. computers). Management literature (Lumenways.com) discusses that each management roles – planning, organizing, leading, and controlling – depends on effective communication. Hence, managers must be able to obtain and share accurate and relevant information to be acted upon. When accurate information is sent, received, and shared, employees can be informed, making them more empowered to perform well. However, when information is mangled and misinterpreted, probably, mistaken information will be spread that will cause communication error. Significant problem in the organization would likely occur. Hence, it is imperative for a manager to effectively understand and apply the basics of the communication process in his/her management and leadership. Further, Lunenburg (2010) recognizes ‘noise’ that distorts a message. He states, ‘different perceptions of the message, language barriers, interruptions, emotions, and attitude are examples of noise’ that hinders one to obtain a clear message to and from the members of the organization. Stereotypes, prejudice (personal bias), feelings (emotions), and language also can serve as ‘noise’ in the communication process. It is also essential that managers must recognize common impediments to effective communication in their respective organizations. In a world filled with multicultural individuals, members of an organization may have different and unfamiliar norms and mores. Managers therefore should be mindful not to discriminate his/her employees based on what is commonly practiced, acknowledge other's feelings (empathy), and communicate simply so everyone gets the message clearly. Effective managers must be adept with the practice of effective communication skills and ICT along with his/her management and leadership practice despite radical changes in the environment. This would lead to a more productive performance of the organization. With these, a manager would eventually stand out in the global world. The communication process Some would say that the communication process may seem simple where an individual sends a message and someone would receive it. The communication process describes how a message is delivered and received. When looking at communication as a process, then, one must also look into its elements. Berlo's model of communication (1961) is one good example to discuss the process since the model elucidates the commonly used elements such as the source, receiver, message, channel, and feedback. As Ongkiko & Flor (2006) pointed out, a basic understanding of the communication process is important to achieve the highest social good in its application. According to Berlo (1961) (cited in Ongkiko & Flor, 20016), source refers to a person or a group of persons “with a purpose, a reason for engaging in communication”. Here, the source serves as the initiator in the communication process. On the other hand, the receiver is the person or group of persons at the other end of the communication process. The receiver according to Berlo (1961) is the target of communication, where he/she listens when the source communicates (verbally or nonverbally). The message is the transmitted idea, purpose, or intention that has been translated into a code or a systematic set of symbols from the source. Berlo (1961) identified three factors of a message which include: message code (e.g. language), message content (e.g. information presented, conclusions, etc.), and message treatment (e.g. angle of the story, news framing, etc.). The channel is the medium through which the message is transmitted. These could be in the form of sound waves (message-vehicles), a manager's speaking mechanism that serves as a mode of encoding and decoding messages, or even the air that serves as vehicle-carrier (Berlo, 1961). The feedback occurs when a receiver decoded the transmitted messaged (converts the message), then encoded a message and sends it back to the source. This also shows an interactive communication process (lumenlearning.com) where the receiver can send feedback to the sender to indicate that the message has been delivered and how it has been interpreted. Interactive communication means that there is a back-and-forth exchange of message and that can assure the source that the message has been received and interpreted correctly. In project management, managers should always consider and understand that in a communication process, there are always elements that are continually changing, dynamic, and interacting (Ongkiko and Flor, 2006). Further, the events and relationships among the elements are seen as being: on-going, cyclic, ever-changing, no beginning and no end, interdependent, and interrelated. In an organization, an effective manager should communicate well and competently with his or her subordinates. It is essential for managers and leaders to ably express their opinions and issue instructions clearly with their members to understand what exactly is expected from them (Lumenlearning.com). Effective communication in an organization can be a basis for sound decision-making and planning, facilitates smooth and efficient work and coordination in the organization, increases managerial capacity, can be a useful tool for public relations (image building), increases productivity, and others. It may seem simple, but the communication process is more than just a process wherein a person sends a message and others receive it. In the communication process, the message must be sent and received correctly and accurately. From the sender who encodes the message, he/she will send the message through a channel. The Receiver now decodes the message and after which, he/she will give a feedback back to the sender of the message. The feedback indicates how the message has been interpreted by the receiver. It may or it may not be the same with how the sender encodes the message. Four-step process for effective communication The project manager and the project team work together to identify who needs what information. In other words, project management needs to know what the requirements of successful communications are in order to plan on how to achieve those requirements. Identify communication requirements "A project of this size, with this vast amount of stakeholders, requires this much communication," said project sponsor Kisper, as she stretched her arms wider and wider apart. "Communication is, without a doubt, a project manager's most important job." Identify the 5Ws (Why, What, When, Where, Who) and 1H (How) Who needs to be communicated to. This is based on the communication formula and needs to be determined. What needs to be communicated. All information related to the project need not be communicated to everyone in the team. When it should be communicated. The timeline of communication should be monitored. Where should it be communicated. If the team involves many people, then individual level and team level communications needs to be resolved. Why communication of information is essential and to what level is important. Why is it not encouraged as it is blame rather than change. How the communication needs to be done. Is it conducted via e-mail, phone, or a presentation done to the team members? Identify and accommodate the enterprise environmental factors Much of the communications management processes are linked to the enterprise environmental factors. Identify organizational process assets The organizational process assets affect how the project manager, project team, and the stakeholders will communicate within a project. The role of communication in management Communication and management come hand in hand. Communication as defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary, is a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs of behavior. On the other hand, management is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively by means of its four functions: planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. These four functions depend on effective communication. Communication is considered to be the means through which members of organization relate with one another by interchanging ideals, facts and feeling, through the use of words, letters, memoranda, symbols and bulletins (Nnamseh, 2009). And one way for the organization to attain certain organizational objectives, is through efficient transmission of information, ideals, attitudes, and feelings within its members, through the process of communication (Etuk, 1991). Management aims to accomplish the goals and objectives of an organization. They must plan for the future of their organization and these plans must be communicated well to the members of the organization in order for these to succeed. Without proper communication, the plans of the management would be hard to achieve. An effective communication can help in the following areas of management, to wit: Provides clarity – Without effective communication, information would not be disseminated properly. It gives clear instructions and information to everyone to avoid confusion, conflicts and misunderstanding. Builds relationship – If the management can communicate well with their people, it can result to a reduced-tension between them. Good communication can help builds relationship and gain trust. Creates commitment – Communication is a two-way process, we send and we receive message. If there is an effective communication strategy, the management can also listen well to their people, thus encouraging people's opinion and points of view. People who feel belong and engaged are most likely to give a good feedback which is very essential in communication. Defines expectations – When there are standards that are set, people will be aware of what they need to do to get a positive feedback and the benefits that come with it. The management can reach their goals and objectives through the help of an effective communication. The role of communication is not only crucial between management and employees within the organization but also in the interaction and relationship between the management and the organization's external stakeholders.   External stakeholders are those who do not directly work with a company but are affected somehow by the actions and outcomes of the business. Suppliers, creditors, and public groups are all considered external stakeholders.  It is through communication in the form of meetings, newsletter, summary report and conference calls with external stakeholders that specialists acting in behalf of management, are able to procure resources, support and feedback on organizational products and services which are important to measure overall organization performance.  The role of communication with external stakeholders is also important in management strategic planning.  In the early stages of strategic planning process, external stakeholder opinions and insights are especially valuable as they add to understanding the operating environment, as well as to the vision of the organization's future.  It is through using all communication means available such as newsletters, electronic messaging, emails, meeting, posters, etc. that management is able to let external stakeholders engage and understand the organization's core purpose, why the organization exists and what value it provides for its customers, vendors, and the market. Method of communication Communication process alone would not be the only basis for communications management's success. Managers should take note about the methods of Communication. The standard method that is usually used is oral and written ones. Aside from this, there is also the non – verbal communication. Management uses various effective methods of communication with internal and external audiences.  The most common traditional methods and styles are oral, written, face-to-face, nonverbal, physical nonverbal, paralanguage and visual.  A better understanding of these methods and styles will help management in knowing as well as dealing with staff in a better way, clear any misconceptions or misunderstandings that may exist and thus contribute to the organization's success. Oral communication includes the spoken word which are done formally over the phone, face to-face, lectures, video conferencing, voice chat, meetings and conferences, and informally over grapevine and rumor mill.  It also includes the speed, volume, pitch, voice modulation, clarity of speech and also the non-verbal communications like visual cues and body language.  Written communication on the other hand refers to the writing and typing paper and pen documents and letters, text chats, emails, typed electronic documents, reports, SMS and anything else that might be conveyed by the use of written symbols in any documents that are part of the day-to-day business life. Such method of communication is indispensable for any formal business communication and for the issue of legal instructions. Face-to-face style of communication is the preferred method of communication especially in meetings and participation in discussion.  While the nonverbal communication or the sending and receiving of wordless messages convey authentic feelings and thoughts, it is not effective in a workplace communication without the supplement of verbal or written communication. The body language style or physical nonverbal communication consists of body posture, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures like a pointed finger, wave and the like touch tone of voice, overall movements of the body and others.  From body language such as facial expressions and facial muscles, silent messages and authentic human emotions can be sent and conveyed without uttering a word.  Thus, a change in the emotional state becomes visible when there is a change in facial expression. The paralanguage style of communication refers to the way something is said, instead of what is actually said.  This is manifested in the style of speaking, tone, emotion, stress, pitch, intonation and voice quality.  The visual communication type takes place through the help of visual aids, color, illustration, graphic design, drawing, typography, signs charts, graphs and other electronic resources. Technology, worldwide lockdowns and the social distancing protocol caused by the COVID-19 pandemic have caused new and popular methods such as video conferencing and social media chat meetings to emerge popular.  They brought the Zoom Video Communications platform, as people replaced in-person work and social events with videoconferencing, widely utilized. Oral communication A huge extent of oral communication is straightforwardly associated with Communications Management. For instance, if a manager doesn't speak or make it clear to a sales group, this may prompt contrasts in objectives and accomplishments. There are two parts of oral communication: Active listening - It is where the person, who receives the message pays attention to the information, interprets and remembers. Constructive feedback - It is where managers fail most of the time. Feedback needs to be constructive and then it will help the employees to shape up their performance instead of mere criticism. A major skill which should be developed to master oral communication is active listening. It constitutes a complex parameter of communication rather than a natural effortless hearing process. Effective listening encompasses both the literal and the critical understanding of information and ideas, which are conveyed through oral communication. Through listening, people are exposed to a broad spectrum of experiences, which help them develop their linguistic potential. Active listening skills promote information collection, evaluation of situations, empathy, acceptance of persons and ideas (Mousena and Sidiropoulou, 2018). Weekly reporting method One simple and popular communications method is called the weekly reporting method: every employee composes an e-mail report, once a week, including information on their activities in the preceding week, their plans for the following week, and any other information deemed relevant to the larger group, bearing in mind length considerations. Reports are sent to managers, who summarize and report to their own managers, eventually leading to an overall summary led by the CEO, which is then sent to the board of directors. The CEO then sends the board's summary back down the ladder, where each manager can append an additional summary or note before referring it to their employees. Eventually, each employee will receive a long e-mail, containing many or all of the above-mentioned summaries, from every level of management; reading the full result is rarely a requirement. Curious or ambitious employees are considered more likely to read the result; task-centered employees, however, are not. Management in communication media system Social media system is considered as the fast-moving platform adjacent to the immense development of digital media as the modern-day tool in communicating knowledge and information. The merging of one's capacity to create a message and the digital means to translate it has an enormous influence in considering social media as a prevailing and an easily reached facility. The dominant function of social media to code or translate a content into comprehensible expression with the support of technical medium has yielded a unique facet in the contemporary mode of communication. However, this cutting-edge approach of conveying contents can be more credible if efficient type of communication management in social media system is employed as construct to essentially add force to the essence of news and information distribution. Now, a point at issue that may possibly raise here, what type or style of management will suit the structure and context of the present-day interaction and exchange of ideas in social media system? The ‘organizational dynamics’ of management is considerably relevant to this present-day communication system that has been occupied by digital sophistications and uncertainties due to the ever-growing properties and features of social media. Organizational dynamics refers to the course of action in developing the resources continuously, and in augmenting the maximum capacity of the individuals within the system through organizational learning, exercises and decisive leadership (“What is Organizational Dynamics?,” n.d.). This communication management regulates the initial worth in realizing the communication goals that may lead to the potential results that would produce a lasting impact change within the organization or institution. Social media system has its luminous quality, with no exact structure and trend. As time changes, social media communication will still be around for expansion, but its management will be regarded as a functional reinforcing structure for its goal, task, and purpose. Most significantly, this type of management necessitates high degree or quantity of creativity as the primary requirement in the production of contents. According to Küng (2007), high volumes of creativity involve countless elevations of deep-rooted motivation which are strongly swayed by five precise attributes of work environment as follows: a) reinforcement in creating innovative ideas; b) self-sufficiency in attaining the targets; c) properties in setting task motivation and mastery; d) challenge in modeling imaginative and inspired thinking skills; and e) team structure with variety of viewpoints and familiarities. The article of Jo Silvester, Leading in the Digital Era (2019), deliberates and proposes the type of leader or manager a digital society must have, more explicitly with the growth of the internet and social media devices for the efficient distribution of tasks and accountabilities. The article urges contemporary leaders or managers to be both politically aware and digitally/technically skilled. The author deems that there are enormous modifications in the way leaders or managers perform their roles and duties, from the customary way of seeing the working situation, setting up an organizational goal, and executing the program of action, leaders or managers now participate in freely accessible electronic or digital conferences and discourses with investors and turn out to be familiarized with the rapid change of ethical, social, and situational patterns. Moreover, the article gives emphasis on the practicality of social media as a system in framing the qualities of a leader or a manager in terms of the way he generates impressions from individuals and other major elements of the organizational system. The author recognizes the five most important contexts in shaping the role, extent, and tasks of a leader or a manager, which are all associated with the purpose, relevance, and service of social media in delivering quality leadership. First, the context of a wide-ranging impact in which social media can touch diverse people where the control of a leader or a manager can even move beyond his workers, clients and providers. The second idea is immense clarity or directness that utilizes an established recording of previous plans and actions that can transform leader or manager into more observable or evident one. Third is the notion of a better democratization which is considered function of a greater transparency in which a leader or a manager who obtains more followers on social media can be more influential and powerful. Fourth, high-speed communication process where the utilization of digital method like using hashtags can get hold of more people in real time. Finally, the opportunity of gaining control of media since the merging of one's capacity to create a message and the digital means to translate it has an enormous influence in considering social media as a prevailing and an easily reached facility. References ^ "Communication and Management | Principles of Management". ^ Oliver, C. E. (1983). Communications management. Project Management Quarterly, 14(1), 28–30. ^ "The Significance of Communication". ^ Weber, J.L., Communication Management Techniques Every PM Should Know, January 6, 2020, web, https://www.projectmanager.com/blog/communication-management-techniques ^ "Communication and Collaboration in Project Management – Introduction – Project Management Hut". pmhut.com. 17 February 2010. ^ “Communications Management”, Tutorialspoint, 2020, web, https://www.tutorial//spoint.com/management_concepts/communications_management.htm ^ Project Management Institute (1996). Project Communications Management. United States of America. ^ Ongkiko, Ila Virginia, and Flor, Alexander (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. University of the Philippines-Open University ^ Lumen Learning (n.d.) Principles of Management – Communication and Management. Retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-principlesofmanagement/chapter/communication-in-the-management-function/ ^ Sinha, K. (n.d.) Importance of Communication in Management: 13 Importance’s. Retrieved from: https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/management/communication/importance-of-communication-in-management-13-importances/64033 ^ Lunenberg, F. (2010) Communication: The Process, Barriers, and Improving Effectiveness. Sam Houston State University. ^ "Communication and Management | Principles of Management". ^ Rajkumar, S. (2010). Art of communication in project management. Paper presented at PMI® Research Conference: Defining the Future of Project Management, Washington, DC. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. ^ "Communication Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster". 23 August 2023. ^ Nnamseh, M. (2009). The Role of Communication in Business Success. Nigeria Journal of Management Research, 1(4). ^ Etuk, E. J. (1991) Foundation of Modern Management. Calabar: Unical Press ^ "Communication and Management | Principles of Management". ^ Chen, James. "Learn What Stakeholders Are and the Roles That They Play". Investopedia. Retrieved 2020-12-06. ^ Van Riel, Cees B.M.; Fombrun, Charles J. (2007). Essentials of Corporate Communication. New York: Routledge. p. 205. ^ www.everettcc.edu https://www.everettcc.edu/ccec/enewsletters/stakeholder-engagement-strategic-planning#:~:text=External%20stakeholders%20need%20to%20understand,goal(s)%20and%20direction. Retrieved 2020-12-06. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ "Different Effective Methods of Communication (Useful)". EDUCBA. 2016-03-01. Retrieved 2020-12-06. ^ "Video Conferencing, Web Conferencing, Webinars, Screen Sharing". Zoom Video. Retrieved 2020-12-06. ^ Mousena, Eleni & Sidiropoulou, Trifeni. (2018). Oral Communication Skills and Pedagogy. 10.5772/intechopen.70831. ^ What is Organizational Dynamics?. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.humanresourcesmba.net/faq/what-is-organizational-dynamics/ ^ Küng, L. (2007). Strategic Leadership in the Media Industry. The Ashridge Journal, 1–6. Retrieved from http://www.lucykung.com/360_Sept07.pdf ^ Silvester, J. (2019). Leading in the Digital Era. BizEd AACSB International. Retrieved from https://bized.aacsb.edu/articles/2019/april/leading-in-the-digital-era vteManagement Outline of management Index of management articles By type of organization Academic Association Business Restaurant Court Healthcare Intelligence Military Public Reputation By focus (within an organization)By scopeStrategic(top-level) Capability Capital Change Communication Financial Innovation Legal Performance Risk Systems By component Facility Product Product lifecycle Brand Project Construction Program By activity ordepartment managedLine Marketing Operations/production Process Quality Sales Staff Accounting Office Records By aspect orrelationship Customer relationship Engineering Logistics Perception Supply chain Talent By problem Conflict Crisis Stress By resource Environmental resource Field inventory Human resources Information Information technology Knowledge Land Materials Skills Technology Time Managementpositions Interim Middle Senior Methodsand approaches Adhocracy Collaborative method Distributed Earned value management Evidence-based management Full Range of Leadership Model Management by objectives Management style Macromanagement Micromanagement Scientific management Social entrepreneurship Sustainable management Team building Virtual management Management skillsand activities Decision-making Forecasting Leadership Pioneers andscholars Peter Drucker Eliyahu M. Goldratt Oliver E. Williamson Education Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering Business school Certified Business Manager Chartered Management Institute Critical management studies Degrees Bachelor of Business Administration Master of Business Administration PhD in management Doctor of Business Administration Other Administration Collaboration Corporate governance Executive compensation Management consulting Management control Management cybernetics Management development Management fad Management system Managerial economics Managerial psychology Managerialism Organization development Organizational behavior management Pointy-haired Boss Williamson's model of managerial discretion Systems science portal

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication"},{"link_name":"organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization"},{"link_name":"network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network"},{"link_name":"communications technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_technology"},{"link_name":"corporate communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_communication"},{"link_name":"strategies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy"},{"link_name":"flow of information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_flow"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Communications management is the systematic planning, implementing, monitoring, and revision of all the channels of communication within an organization and between organizations. It also includes the organization and dissemination of new communication directives connected with an organization, network, or communications technology. Aspects of communications management include developing corporate communication strategies, designing internal and external communications directives, and managing the flow of information, including online communication. It is a process that helps an organization to be systematic as one within the bounds of communication.Communication and management are closely linked together. Since communication is the process of information exchange of two or people and management includes managers that gives out information to their people. Moreover, communication and management go hand in hand.[1] It is the way to extend control; the fundamental component of project management. Without the advantage of a good communications management system, the cycles associated with the development of a task from start to finish can be genuinely compelled. It also gives the fundamental project integrity needed to give an information help among all individuals from the team. This information must stream descending, upward, and horizontally inside the association. Moreover, it is both master and servant of project control. It is the action component, the integrator of the process toward assembling the project. As project management is both a craftsmanship and a science, the project manager leads the multidiscipline of the plan and construct team.[2]","title":"Communications management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The management's part is to achieve the objectives of the organization itself. To be able to do this, managers should make an action plan that simply defines what, when, and how it would be done & finished. In order to execute the plan, managers must pass on the information to everybody in the organization. Good communication advises as well as assists with making a culture that causes individuals to feel like they have a place with and need to help the organization.Organizations are totally reliant on communication, which is defined as the exchange of ideas, messages, or information by speech, signals, or writing. Without communication, organizations would not function. If communication is diminished or hampered, the entire organization suffers. When communication is thorough, accurate, and timely, the organization tends to be vibrant and effective.[3]Communication is central to the entire management process for four primary reasons:Communication is a linking process of management.\nCommunication is the primary means by which people obtain and exchange information.\nThe most time‐consuming activity a manager engages in is communication.\nInformation and communication represent power in organizations.The ability to communicate well, both orally and in writing, is a critical managerial skill and a foundation of effective leadership. Through communication, people exchange and share information with one another and influence one another's attitudes, behaviors, and understandings.","title":"The role of communication in management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"It is basically everything and not a simple plan that everyone will follow. When you make a plan and get everybody ready, it is possible that you or a point person should be the one dealing with the arrangement all through the aggregate of the task.To ensure solid communication management throughout a project, a communication management plan should be created. The benefits of a communication management plan are five-fold:A written framework that both client/stakeholders/team members can reference. This can help in case there is any need for mediation—you have a written paper trail you can refer back to. It can also be beneficial for accounts payable to reference in case there are gaps in time tracked for the project.\nThe plan itself will manage expectations from stakeholders to not anticipate a finished project before the deliverables have been tested for quality assurance.\nThe points at which communication is shared allow both stakeholders to provide valuable feedback to the project process as well as the final product, and give team members a chance to brainstorm ideas together, bridging the divide between the two groups.\nIt allows all involved to better discover risks and issues early on.\nIt helps to eliminate the need to hold unnecessary meetings on the books, saving both time and money.[4]\nCommunication helps manage organizational conflict. Putnam (2013)Definition of Organizational Conflict – Putnam & Poole (1987) defines conflict as “the interaction of interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims, values, and who see the other party as potentially interfering with the realization of these goals” (p. 552). Communication eases the process of conflict resolution, and helps maintain the balanced relationships, and sets parameters on interactions between affected individuals and groups in the organization.Putnam (2013) explains that “a few scholars would deny that communication is an essential feature of conflict.” She cited Thomas and Pondy (1977) noted this in their extensive review of conflict in organizations, and that “It is communication with which we are most concerned in understanding conflict management.\"  Communication helps form issues, frame perceptions, translate feelings into conflict, and enact the conflict itself (Putnam & Poole, 1987). Putnam (2013) further stressed that “communication is the means by which conflict gets socially defined” (Simons, 1974b. p. 3)Source:Putnam, L. (2013). Definitions and approaches to conflict and communication. In J. G. Oetzel & S. Ting -Toomey The SAGE handbook of conflict communication (pp. 1–40). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc. doi: 104135/9781452281988.n1","title":"Importance of communications management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"In project management, communication management must address the following questions:[5]What information needs to flow in and out of the project?\nWho needs what information?\nWhen is the information needed?\nWhat is the format of the information?\nWho will be responsible for transmitting and providing the information?Moreover, this only serves as guidelines and must take into account other factors like cost and access to information.[6]As defined by the Project Management Institute (1996),[7] project communications management includes processes required to ensure timely and appropriate generation, collection, dissemination, storage, and ultimate disposition of project information. The following communication processes are involved in Project Communications Management, to wit:Communication planning – In this phase, the problems, needs and future plans are being identified to ensure attainment of goals and objectives.\nInformation distribution – This involves dissemination of information needed by the stakeholders and other members of the organization.\nPerformance reporting – This includes status reporting, progress measurement, and forecasting for the future of the organization.\nAdministrative closure – This involves generating, gathering, and disseminating information to formalize phase or project completion.","title":"Communication management and project management"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Management and communication are closely tied together. As defined, communication is the process by which information is shared between two or more people (which includes machines, e.g. computers). Management literature (Lumenways.com) discusses that each management roles – planning, organizing, leading, and controlling – depends on effective communication. Hence, managers must be able to obtain and share accurate and relevant information to be acted upon. When accurate information is sent, received, and shared, employees can be informed, making them more empowered to perform well. However, when information is mangled and misinterpreted, probably, mistaken information will be spread that will cause communication error. Significant problem in the organization would likely occur.Hence, it is imperative for a manager to effectively understand and apply the basics of the communication process in his/her management and leadership. Further, Lunenburg (2010) recognizes ‘noise’ that distorts a message. He states, ‘different perceptions of the message, language barriers, interruptions, emotions, and attitude are examples of noise’ that hinders one to obtain a clear message to and from the members of the organization. Stereotypes, prejudice (personal bias), feelings (emotions), and language also can serve as ‘noise’ in the communication process. It is also essential that managers must recognize common impediments to effective communication in their respective organizations. In a world filled with multicultural individuals, members of an organization may have different and unfamiliar norms and mores. Managers therefore should be mindful not to discriminate his/her employees based on what is commonly practiced, acknowledge other's feelings (empathy), and communicate simply so everyone gets the message clearly. Effective managers must be adept with the practice of effective communication skills and ICT along with his/her management and leadership practice despite radical changes in the environment. This would lead to a more productive performance of the organization. With these, a manager would eventually stand out in the global world.","title":"Management and communication in organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Some would say that the communication process may seem simple where an individual sends a message and someone would receive it. The communication process describes how a message is delivered and received. When looking at communication as a process, then, one must also look into its elements. Berlo's model of communication (1961) is one good example to discuss the process since the model elucidates the commonly used elements such as the source, receiver, message, channel, and feedback. As Ongkiko & Flor (2006) pointed out, a basic understanding of the communication process is important to achieve the highest social good in its application.According to Berlo (1961) (cited in Ongkiko & Flor, 20016), source refers to a person or a group of persons “with a purpose, a reason for engaging in communication”. Here, the source serves as the initiator in the communication process. On the other hand, the receiver is the person or group of persons at the other end of the communication process.The receiver according to Berlo (1961) is the target of communication, where he/she listens when the source communicates (verbally or nonverbally). The message is the transmitted idea, purpose, or intention that has been translated into a code or a systematic set of symbols from the source. Berlo (1961) identified three factors of a message which include: message code (e.g. language), message content (e.g. information presented, conclusions, etc.), and message treatment (e.g. angle of the story, news framing, etc.).The channel is the medium through which the message is transmitted. These could be in the form of sound waves (message-vehicles), a manager's speaking mechanism that serves as a mode of encoding and decoding messages, or even the air that serves as vehicle-carrier (Berlo, 1961).\nThe feedback occurs when a receiver decoded the transmitted messaged (converts the message), then encoded a message and sends it back to the source. This also shows an interactive communication process (lumenlearning.com) where the receiver can send feedback to the sender to indicate that the message has been delivered and how it has been interpreted. Interactive communication means that there is a back-and-forth exchange of message and that can assure the source that the message has been received and interpreted correctly.In project management, managers should always consider and understand that in a communication process, there are always elements that are continually changing, dynamic, and interacting (Ongkiko and Flor, 2006). Further, the events and relationships among the elements are seen as being: on-going, cyclic, ever-changing, no beginning and no end, interdependent, and interrelated.In an organization, an effective manager should communicate well and competently with his or her subordinates. It is essential for managers and leaders to ably express their opinions and issue instructions clearly with their members to understand what exactly is expected from them (Lumenlearning.com). Effective communication in an organization can be a basis for sound decision-making and planning, facilitates smooth and efficient work and coordination in the organization, increases managerial capacity, can be a useful tool for public relations (image building), increases productivity, and others.[8]\n[9]\n[10]\n[11]It may seem simple, but the communication process is more than just a process wherein a person sends a message and others receive it. In the communication process, the message must be sent and received correctly and accurately. From the sender who encodes the message, he/she will send the message through a channel. The Receiver now decodes the message and after which, he/she will give a feedback back to the sender of the message. The feedback indicates how the message has been interpreted by the receiver. It may or it may not be the same with how the sender encodes the message.[12]","title":"The communication process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"5Ws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Ws"}],"sub_title":"Four-step process for effective communication","text":"The project manager and the project team work together to identify who needs what information. In other words, project management needs to know what the requirements of successful communications are in order to plan on how to achieve those requirements.[13]Identify communication requirements\n\"A project of this size, with this vast amount of stakeholders, requires this much communication,\" said project sponsor Kisper, as she stretched her arms wider and wider apart. \"Communication is, without a doubt, a project manager's most important job.\"Identify the 5Ws (Why, What, When, Where, Who) and 1H (How)Who needs to be communicated to. This is based on the communication formula and needs to be determined.\nWhat needs to be communicated. All information related to the project need not be communicated to everyone in the team.\nWhen it should be communicated. The timeline of communication should be monitored.\nWhere should it be communicated. If the team involves many people, then individual level and team level communications needs to be resolved.\nWhy communication of information is essential and to what level is important. Why is it not encouraged as it is blame rather than change.\nHow the communication needs to be done. Is it conducted via e-mail, phone, or a presentation done to the team members?Identify and accommodate the enterprise environmental factors\nMuch of the communications management processes are linked to the enterprise environmental factors.Identify organizational process assets\nThe organizational process assets affect how the project manager, project team, and the stakeholders will communicate within a project.","title":"The communication process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Communication and management come hand in hand. Communication as defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary,[14] is a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs of behavior. On the other hand, management is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively by means of its four functions: planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. These four functions depend on effective communication.Communication is considered to be the means through which members of organization relate with one another by interchanging ideals, facts and feeling, through the use of words, letters, memoranda, symbols and bulletins (Nnamseh, 2009).[15] And one way for the organization to attain certain organizational objectives, is through efficient transmission of information, ideals, attitudes, and feelings within its members, through the process of communication (Etuk, 1991).[16]Management aims to accomplish the goals and objectives of an organization. They must plan for the future of their organization and these plans must be communicated well to the members of the organization in order for these to succeed. Without proper communication, the plans of the management would be hard to achieve. An effective communication can help in the following areas of management,[17] to wit:Provides clarity – Without effective communication, information would not be disseminated properly. It gives clear instructions and information to everyone to avoid confusion, conflicts and misunderstanding.\nBuilds relationship – If the management can communicate well with their people, it can result to a reduced-tension between them. Good communication can help builds relationship and gain trust.\nCreates commitment – Communication is a two-way process, we send and we receive message. If there is an effective communication strategy, the management can also listen well to their people, thus encouraging people's opinion and points of view. People who feel belong and engaged are most likely to give a good feedback which is very essential in communication.\nDefines expectations – When there are standards that are set, people will be aware of what they need to do to get a positive feedback and the benefits that come with it.The management can reach their goals and objectives through the help of an effective communication.The role of communication is not only crucial between management and employees within the organization but also in the interaction and relationship between the management and the organization's external stakeholders.   External stakeholders are those who do not directly work with a company but are affected somehow by the actions and outcomes of the business. Suppliers, creditors, and public groups are all considered external stakeholders.[18]  It is through communication in the form of meetings, newsletter, summary report and conference calls with external stakeholders that specialists acting in behalf of management, are able to procure resources, support and feedback on organizational products and services which are important to measure overall organization performance.[19]  The role of communication with external stakeholders is also important in management strategic planning.  In the early stages of strategic planning process, external stakeholder opinions and insights are especially valuable as they add to understanding the operating environment, as well as to the vision of the organization's future.  It is through using all communication means available such as newsletters, electronic messaging, emails, meeting, posters, etc. that management is able to let external stakeholders engage and understand the organization's core purpose, why the organization exists and what value it provides for its customers, vendors, and the market.[20]","title":"The role of communication in management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Communication process alone would not be the only basis for communications management's success. Managers should take note about the methods of Communication. The standard method that is usually used is oral and written ones. Aside from this, there is also the non – verbal communication.Management uses various effective methods of communication with internal and external audiences.  The most common traditional methods and styles are oral, written, face-to-face, nonverbal, physical nonverbal, paralanguage and visual.  A better understanding of these methods and styles will help management in knowing as well as dealing with staff in a better way, clear any misconceptions or misunderstandings that may exist and thus contribute to the organization's success.Oral communication includes the spoken word which are done formally over the phone, face to-face, lectures, video conferencing, voice chat, meetings and conferences, and informally over grapevine and rumor mill.  It also includes the speed, volume, pitch, voice modulation, clarity of speech and also the non-verbal communications like visual cues and body language.  Written communication on the other hand refers to the writing and typing paper and pen documents and letters, text chats, emails, typed electronic documents, reports, SMS and anything else that might be conveyed by the use of written symbols in any documents that are part of the day-to-day business life. Such method of communication is indispensable for any formal business communication and for the issue of legal instructions.Face-to-face style of communication is the preferred method of communication especially in meetings and participation in discussion.  While the nonverbal communication or the sending and receiving of wordless messages convey authentic feelings and thoughts, it is not effective in a workplace communication without the supplement of verbal or written communication. The body language style or physical nonverbal communication consists of body posture, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures like a pointed finger, wave and the like touch tone of voice, overall movements of the body and others.  From body language such as facial expressions and facial muscles, silent messages and authentic human emotions can be sent and conveyed without uttering a word.  Thus, a change in the emotional state becomes visible when there is a change in facial expression.The paralanguage style of communication refers to the way something is said, instead of what is actually said.  This is manifested in the style of speaking, tone, emotion, stress, pitch, intonation and voice quality.  The visual communication type takes place through the help of visual aids, color, illustration, graphic design, drawing, typography, signs charts, graphs and other electronic resources.[21]Technology, worldwide lockdowns and the social distancing protocol caused by the COVID-19 pandemic have caused new and popular methods such as video conferencing and social media chat meetings to emerge popular.  They brought the Zoom Video Communications platform, as people replaced in-person work and social events with videoconferencing, widely utilized.[22]","title":"Method of communication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"A huge extent of oral communication is straightforwardly associated with Communications Management. For instance, if a manager doesn't speak or make it clear to a sales group, this may prompt contrasts in objectives and accomplishments.There are two parts of oral communication:Active listening - It is where the person, who receives the message pays attention to the information, interprets and remembers.\nConstructive feedback - It is where managers fail most of the time. Feedback needs to be constructive and then it will help the employees to shape up their performance instead of mere criticism.A major skill which should be developed to master oral communication is active listening. It constitutes a complex parameter of communication rather than a natural effortless hearing process. Effective listening encompasses both the literal and the critical understanding of information and ideas, which are conveyed through oral communication. Through listening, people are exposed to a broad spectrum of experiences, which help them develop their linguistic potential. Active listening skills promote information collection, evaluation of situations, empathy, acceptance of persons and ideas (Mousena and Sidiropoulou, 2018).[23]","title":"Oral communication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"e-mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail"},{"link_name":"CEO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_executive_officer"},{"link_name":"board of directors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_directors"}],"text":"One simple and popular communications method is called the weekly reporting method: every employee composes an e-mail report, once a week, including information on their activities in the preceding week, their plans for the following week, and any other information deemed relevant to the larger group, bearing in mind length considerations. Reports are sent to managers, who summarize and report to their own managers, eventually leading to an overall summary led by the CEO, which is then sent to the board of directors. The CEO then sends the board's summary back down the ladder, where each manager can append an additional summary or note before referring it to their employees.Eventually, each employee will receive a long e-mail, containing many or all of the above-mentioned summaries, from every level of management; reading the full result is rarely a requirement. Curious or ambitious employees are considered more likely to read the result; task-centered employees, however, are not.","title":"Weekly reporting method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Social media system is considered as the fast-moving platform adjacent to the immense development of digital media as the modern-day tool in communicating knowledge and information. The merging of one's capacity to create a message and the digital means to translate it has an enormous influence in considering social media as a prevailing and an easily reached facility. The dominant function of social media to code or translate a content into comprehensible expression with the support of technical medium has yielded a unique facet in the contemporary mode of communication. However, this cutting-edge approach of conveying contents can be more credible if efficient type of communication management in social media system is employed as construct to essentially add force to the essence of news and information distribution. Now, a point at issue that may possibly raise here, what type or style of management will suit the structure and context of the present-day interaction and exchange of ideas in social media system?The ‘organizational dynamics’ of management is considerably relevant to this present-day communication system that has been occupied by digital sophistications and uncertainties due to the ever-growing properties and features of social media. Organizational dynamics refers to the course of action in developing the resources continuously, and in augmenting the maximum capacity of the individuals within the system through organizational learning, exercises and decisive leadership (“What is Organizational Dynamics?,” n.d.).[24] This communication management regulates the initial worth in realizing the communication goals that may lead to the potential results that would produce a lasting impact change within the organization or institution. Social media system has its luminous quality, with no exact structure and trend. As time changes, social media communication will still be around for expansion, but its management will be regarded as a functional reinforcing structure for its goal, task, and purpose.Most significantly, this type of management necessitates high degree or quantity of creativity as the primary requirement in the production of contents. According to Küng (2007),[25] high volumes of creativity involve countless elevations of deep-rooted motivation which are strongly swayed by five precise attributes of work environment as follows: a) reinforcement in creating innovative ideas; b) self-sufficiency in attaining the targets; c) properties in setting task motivation and mastery; d) challenge in modeling imaginative and inspired thinking skills; and e) team structure with variety of viewpoints and familiarities.The article of Jo Silvester, Leading in the Digital Era (2019),[26] deliberates and proposes the type of leader or manager a digital society must have, more explicitly with the growth of the internet and social media devices for the efficient distribution of tasks and accountabilities. The article urges contemporary leaders or managers to be both politically aware and digitally/technically skilled. The author deems that there are enormous modifications in the way leaders or managers perform their roles and duties, from the customary way of seeing the working situation, setting up an organizational goal, and executing the program of action, leaders or managers now participate in freely accessible electronic or digital conferences and discourses with investors and turn out to be familiarized with the rapid change of ethical, social, and situational patterns.Moreover, the article gives emphasis on the practicality of social media as a system in framing the qualities of a leader or a manager in terms of the way he generates impressions from individuals and other major elements of the organizational system. The author recognizes the five most important contexts in shaping the role, extent, and tasks of a leader or a manager, which are all associated with the purpose, relevance, and service of social media in delivering quality leadership. First, the context of a wide-ranging impact in which social media can touch diverse people where the control of a leader or a manager can even move beyond his workers, clients and providers. The second idea is immense clarity or directness that utilizes an established recording of previous plans and actions that can transform leader or manager into more observable or evident one. Third is the notion of a better democratization which is considered function of a greater transparency in which a leader or a manager who obtains more followers on social media can be more influential and powerful. Fourth, high-speed communication process where the utilization of digital method like using hashtags can get hold of more people in real time. Finally, the opportunity of gaining control of media since the merging of one's capacity to create a message and the digital means to translate it has an enormous influence in considering social media as a prevailing and an easily reached facility.","title":"Management in communication media system"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gareth_Branwyn

Gareth Branwyn

["1 References","2 External links"]

American writer & media critic (1958-) Gareth Branwyn (left) and Mark Frauenfelder at Maker Faire Austin 2007. Photograph by Jon Lebkowsky Kevin Maloof (born January 21, 1958), better known by his pseudonym, Gareth Branwyn, is a writer, editor, and media critic. He has covered technology, DIY media, and cyberculture for Wired, Esquire, the Baltimore Sun and other publications. He has also been an editor at Mondo 2000, and at Boing Boing when it was a print zine (he had his own column Going Gaga). He founded the personal tech site, Street Tech, where he was self-described "Cyborg-in-Chief." He is the former editorial director for MAKE Magazine where he oversaw all content. In April 2013, he returned to freelance writing to begin work on his lazy memoir, Borg Like Me. The book was crowdfunded, via Kickstarter, and self-published. It was finally released on September 2, 2014, on Branwyn's own Sparks of Fire Press. In April, 2014, Branwyn joined Kevin Kelly, Mark Frauenfelder, and Carla Sinclair as a regular contributor to Wink Books, a daily review of art, instructional, graphical, and other "remarkable books that belong on paper." Branwyn was a co-editor of The Happy Mutant Handbook and is the author of Jargon Watch: A Pocket Dictionary for the Jitterati, Jamming the Media, The Absolute Beginner's Guide to Building Robots and Mosaic Quick Tour: Accessing and Navigating the World Wide Web, one of the first books written about the Web. Along with Boing Boing's Mark Frauenfelder, he was also involved in Billy Idol's controversial 1993 recording Cyberpunk. In the early 1990s, Branwyn published the small-format alternative art and culture zine Going Gaga. Gareth Branwyn was married to DC-area jazz singer and Thievery Corporation vocalist Pam Bricker, who committed suicide in 2005. Together they had a son, Blake Maloof, who is now an adult. In September, 2021, Branwyn married his long-time girlfriend, fine artist and arts educator, Angela White. They currently reside in Benicia, CA. References ^ Branwyn, Gareth. "We Did It! Thanks to All My Backers", Sparks of Fire Press, Arlington, VA, USA, August 20, 2013. Retrieved on 10 June 2015. ^ a b Gareth Branwyn interviewed on the TV show Triangulation on the TWiT.tv network External links Mindbone: Gareth's Writing Blog Sparks of Fire Press Gareth Branwyn on Boing Boing Gareth Branwyn on Make: Gareth Branwyn's book and game reviews on Wink Books Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Germany Israel Belgium United States Japan Academics CiNii Other IdRef This article about an American journalist born in the 1950s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-pairs_testing

All-pairs testing

["1 Rationale","2 N-wise testing","3 Example","4 See also","5 Notes","6 External links"]

In computer science, all-pairs testing or pairwise testing is a combinatorial method of software testing that, for each pair of input parameters to a system (typically, a software algorithm), tests all possible discrete combinations of those parameters. Using carefully chosen test vectors, this can be done much faster than an exhaustive search of all combinations of all parameters by "parallelizing" the tests of parameter pairs. Rationale In most cases, a single input parameter or an interaction between two parameters is what causes a program's bugs. Bugs involving interactions between three or more parameters are both progressively less common and also progressively more expensive to find---such testing has as its limit the testing of all possible inputs. Thus, a combinatorial technique for picking test cases like all-pairs testing is a useful cost-benefit compromise that enables a significant reduction in the number of test cases without drastically compromising functional coverage. More rigorously, if we assume that a test case has N {\displaystyle N} parameters given in a set { P i } = { P 1 , P 2 , . . . , P N } {\displaystyle \{P_{i}\}=\{P_{1},P_{2},...,P_{N}\}} . The range of the parameters are given by R ( P i ) = R i {\displaystyle R(P_{i})=R_{i}} . Let's assume that | R i | = n i {\displaystyle |R_{i}|=n_{i}} . We note that the number of all possible test cases is a ∏ n i {\displaystyle \prod n_{i}} . Imagining that the code deals with the conditions taking only two parameters at a time, might reduce the number of needed test cases. To demonstrate, suppose there are X,Y,Z parameters. We can use a predicate of the form P ( X , Y , Z ) {\displaystyle P(X,Y,Z)} of order 3, which takes all 3 as input, or rather three different order 2 predicates of the form p ( u , v ) {\displaystyle p(u,v)} . P ( X , Y , Z ) {\displaystyle P(X,Y,Z)} can be written in an equivalent form of p x y ( X , Y ) , p y z ( Y , Z ) , p z x ( Z , X ) {\displaystyle p_{xy}(X,Y),p_{yz}(Y,Z),p_{zx}(Z,X)} where comma denotes any combination. If the code is written as conditions taking "pairs" of parameters, then the set of choices of ranges X = { n i } {\displaystyle X=\{n_{i}\}} can be a multiset, because there can be multiple parameters having same number of choices. m a x ( S ) {\displaystyle max(S)} is one of the maximum of the multiset S {\displaystyle S} The number of pair-wise test cases on this test function would be:- T = m a x ( X ) × m a x ( X ∖ m a x ( X ) ) {\displaystyle T=max(X)\times max(X\setminus max(X))} Therefore, if the n = m a x ( X ) {\displaystyle n=max(X)} and m = m a x ( X ∖ m a x ( X ) ) {\displaystyle m=max(X\setminus max(X))} then the number of tests is typically O(nm), where n and m are the number of possibilities for each of the two parameters with the most choices, and it can be quite a lot less than the exhaustive ∏ n i {\displaystyle \prod n_{i}} · N-wise testing N-wise testing can be considered the generalized form of pair-wise testing. The idea is to apply sorting to the set X = { n i } {\displaystyle X=\{n_{i}\}} so that P = { P i } {\displaystyle P=\{P_{i}\}} gets ordered too. Let the sorted set be a N {\displaystyle N} tuple :- P s =< P i > ; i < j ⟹ | R ( P i ) | < | R ( P j ) | {\displaystyle P_{s}=<P_{i}>\;;\;i<j\implies |R(P_{i})|<|R(P_{j})|} Now we can take the set X ( 2 ) = { P N − 1 , P N − 2 } {\displaystyle X(2)=\{P_{N-1},P_{N-2}\}} and call it the pairwise testing. Generalizing further we can take the set X ( 3 ) = { P N − 1 , P N − 2 , P N − 3 } {\displaystyle X(3)=\{P_{N-1},P_{N-2},P_{N-3}\}} and call it the 3-wise testing. Eventually, we can say X ( T ) = { P N − 1 , P N − 2 , . . . , P N − T } {\displaystyle X(T)=\{P_{N-1},P_{N-2},...,P_{N-T}\}} T-wise testing. The N-wise testing then would just be, all possible combinations from the above formula. Example Consider the parameters shown in the table below. Parameter name Value 1 Value 2 Value 3 Value 4 Enabled True False - - Choice type 1 2 3 - Category a b c d 'Enabled', 'Choice Type' and 'Category' have a choice range of 2, 3 and 4, respectively. An exhaustive test would involve 24 tests (2 x 3 x 4). Multiplying the two largest values (3 and 4) indicates that a pair-wise tests would involve 12 tests. The pairwise test cases, generated by Microsoft's "pict" tool, are shown below. Enabled Choice type Category True 3 a True 1 d False 1 c False 2 d True 2 c False 2 a False 1 a False 3 b True 2 b True 3 d False 3 c True 1 b See also Software testing Orthogonal array testing Notes ^ Berger, Bernie (2003). "Efficient Testing with All-Pairs" (PDF). TechWell Corporation. Retrieved 21 November 2023. ^ Black, Rex (2007). Pragmatic Software Testing: Becoming an Effective and Efficient Test Professional. New York: Wiley. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-470-12790-2. ^ Kuhn, D. Richard; Wallace, Dolores R.; Gallo, Albert M. Jr. (June 2004). "Software Fault Interactions and Implications for Software Testing" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. 30 (6): 418–421. doi:10.1109/TSE.2004.24. S2CID 206778290. ^ Kuhn, D. Richard; Kacker, Raghu N.; Yu Lei (October 2010). Practical Combinatorial Testing. SP 800-142 (Report). National Institute of Standards and Technology. doi:10.6028/NIST.SP.800-142. ^ IEEE 12. Proceedings from the 5th International Conference on Software Testing and Validation (ICST). Software Competence Center Hagenberg. "Test Design: Lessons Learned and Practical Implications. July 18, 2008. pp. 1–150. doi:10.1109/IEEESTD.2008.4578383. ISBN 978-0-7381-5746-7. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help) External links Pairwise testing Pairwise and generalized t-way combinatorial testing Pairwise Testing in the Real World: Practical Extensions to Test-Case Scenarios Pairwise Testing - Combinatorial Test Case Generation vteSoftware testingThe "box" approach Black-box testing All-pairs testing Exploratory testing Fuzz testing Model-based testing Scenario testing Grey-box testing White-box testing API testing Mutation testing Static testing Testing levels Acceptance testing Integration testing System testing Unit testing Testing types, techniques,and tactics A/B testing Benchmark Compatibility testing Concolic testing Concurrent testing Conformance testing Continuous testing Destructive testing Development testing Differential testing Dynamic program analysis Installation testing Negative testing Random testing Regression testing Security testing Smoke testing (software) Software performance testing Stress testing Symbolic execution Test automation Usability testing See also Graphical user interface testing Manual testing Orthogonal array testing Pair testing Soak testing Software reliability testing Stress testing Web testing

[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"All-pairs testing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"predicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"multiset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"text":"In most cases, a single input parameter or an interaction between two parameters is what causes a program's bugs.[2] Bugs involving interactions between three or more parameters are both progressively less common [3] and also progressively more expensive to find---such testing has as its limit the testing of all possible inputs.[4] Thus, a combinatorial technique for picking test cases like all-pairs testing is a useful cost-benefit compromise that enables a significant reduction in the number of test cases without drastically compromising functional coverage.[5]More rigorously, if we assume that a test case has \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N}\n \n parameters given in a set \n \n \n \n {\n \n P\n \n i\n \n \n }\n =\n {\n \n P\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n P\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n ,\n \n P\n \n N\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{P_{i}\\}=\\{P_{1},P_{2},...,P_{N}\\}}\n \n.\nThe range of the parameters are given by \n \n \n \n R\n (\n \n P\n \n i\n \n \n )\n =\n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R(P_{i})=R_{i}}\n \n.\nLet's assume that \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n =\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |R_{i}|=n_{i}}\n \n.\nWe note that the number of all possible test cases is a \n \n \n \n ∏\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\prod n_{i}}\n \n. Imagining that the code deals with the conditions taking only two parameters at a time, might reduce the number of needed test cases.[clarification needed]To demonstrate, suppose there are X,Y,Z parameters.\nWe can use a predicate of the form \n \n \n \n P\n (\n X\n ,\n Y\n ,\n Z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P(X,Y,Z)}\n \n of order 3, which takes all 3 as input, or rather three different order 2 predicates of the form \n \n \n \n p\n (\n u\n ,\n v\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(u,v)}\n \n. \n \n \n \n P\n (\n X\n ,\n Y\n ,\n Z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P(X,Y,Z)}\n \n can be written in an equivalent form of \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n x\n y\n \n \n (\n X\n ,\n Y\n )\n ,\n \n p\n \n y\n z\n \n \n (\n Y\n ,\n Z\n )\n ,\n \n p\n \n z\n x\n \n \n (\n Z\n ,\n X\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{xy}(X,Y),p_{yz}(Y,Z),p_{zx}(Z,X)}\n \n where comma denotes any combination. If the code is written as conditions taking \"pairs\" of parameters,\nthen the set of choices of ranges \n \n \n \n X\n =\n {\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X=\\{n_{i}\\}}\n \n can be a multiset[clarification needed], because there can be multiple parameters having same number of choices.m\n a\n x\n (\n S\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle max(S)}\n \n is one of the maximum of the multiset \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n\nThe number of pair-wise test cases on this test function would be:-\n\n \n \n \n T\n =\n m\n a\n x\n (\n X\n )\n ×\n m\n a\n x\n (\n X\n ∖\n m\n a\n x\n (\n X\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T=max(X)\\times max(X\\setminus max(X))}Therefore, if the \n \n \n \n n\n =\n m\n a\n x\n (\n X\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=max(X)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n m\n =\n m\n a\n x\n (\n X\n ∖\n m\n a\n x\n (\n X\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m=max(X\\setminus max(X))}\n \n then the number of tests is typically O(nm), where n and m are the number of possibilities for each of the two parameters with the most choices, and it can be quite a lot less than the exhaustive \n \n \n \n ∏\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\prod n_{i}}\n \n·","title":"Rationale"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"sorting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting"}],"text":"N-wise testing can be considered the generalized form of pair-wise testing.[citation needed]The idea is to apply sorting to the set \n \n \n \n X\n =\n {\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X=\\{n_{i}\\}}\n \n so that \n \n \n \n P\n =\n {\n \n P\n \n i\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P=\\{P_{i}\\}}\n \n gets ordered too.\nLet the sorted set be a \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N}\n \n tuple :-P\n \n s\n \n \n =<\n \n P\n \n i\n \n \n >\n \n ;\n \n i\n <\n j\n \n ⟹\n \n \n |\n \n R\n (\n \n P\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n |\n \n <\n \n |\n \n R\n (\n \n P\n \n j\n \n \n )\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle P_{s}=<P_{i}>\\;;\\;i<j\\implies |R(P_{i})|<|R(P_{j})|}Now we can take the set \n \n \n \n X\n (\n 2\n )\n =\n {\n \n P\n \n N\n −\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n P\n \n N\n −\n 2\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X(2)=\\{P_{N-1},P_{N-2}\\}}\n \n and call it the pairwise testing.\nGeneralizing further we can take the set \n \n \n \n X\n (\n 3\n )\n =\n {\n \n P\n \n N\n −\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n P\n \n N\n −\n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n P\n \n N\n −\n 3\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X(3)=\\{P_{N-1},P_{N-2},P_{N-3}\\}}\n \n and call it the 3-wise testing.\nEventually, we can say \n \n \n \n X\n (\n T\n )\n =\n {\n \n P\n \n N\n −\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n P\n \n N\n −\n 2\n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n ,\n \n P\n \n N\n −\n T\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X(T)=\\{P_{N-1},P_{N-2},...,P_{N-T}\\}}\n \n T-wise testing.The N-wise testing then would just be, all possible combinations from the above formula.","title":"N-wise testing"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Consider the parameters shown in the table below.'Enabled', 'Choice Type' and 'Category' have a choice range of 2, 3 and 4, respectively. An exhaustive test would involve 24 tests (2 x 3 x 4). Multiplying the two largest values (3 and 4) indicates that a pair-wise tests would involve 12 tests. The pairwise test cases, generated by Microsoft's \"pict\" tool, are shown below.","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Efficient Testing with All-Pairs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//techwell.com/sites/default/files/articles/XDD6488filelistfilename1_0.pdf"},{"link_name":"TechWell Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechWell_Corporation"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Wiley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-470-12790-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-12790-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Software Fault Interactions and Implications for Software Testing\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//csrc.nist.gov/staff/Kuhn/kuhn-wallace-gallo-04.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/TSE.2004.24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FTSE.2004.24"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"206778290","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206778290"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.6028/NIST.SP.800-142","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-142"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/IEEESTD.2008.4578383","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FIEEESTD.2008.4578383"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7381-5746-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7381-5746-7"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored"}],"text":"^ Berger, Bernie (2003). \"Efficient Testing with All-Pairs\" (PDF). TechWell Corporation. Retrieved 21 November 2023.\n\n^ Black, Rex (2007). Pragmatic Software Testing: Becoming an Effective and Efficient Test Professional. New York: Wiley. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-470-12790-2.\n\n^ Kuhn, D. Richard; Wallace, Dolores R.; Gallo, Albert M. Jr. (June 2004). \"Software Fault Interactions and Implications for Software Testing\" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. 30 (6): 418–421. doi:10.1109/TSE.2004.24. S2CID 206778290.\n\n^ Kuhn, D. Richard; Kacker, Raghu N.; Yu Lei (October 2010). Practical Combinatorial Testing. SP 800-142 (Report). National Institute of Standards and Technology. doi:10.6028/NIST.SP.800-142.\n\n^ IEEE 12. Proceedings from the 5th International Conference on Software Testing and Validation (ICST). Software Competence Center Hagenberg. \"Test Design: Lessons Learned and Practical Implications. July 18, 2008. pp. 1–150. doi:10.1109/IEEESTD.2008.4578383. ISBN 978-0-7381-5746-7. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)","title":"Notes"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_method

Template method pattern

["1 Overview","2 Structure","2.1 UML class diagram","3 Usage","3.1 Use with code generators","4 C++ example","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Behavioral design pattern in object-oriented programming Not to be confused with Template processor. This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In object-oriented programming, the template method is one of the behavioral design patterns identified by Gamma et al. in the book Design Patterns. The template method is a method in a superclass, usually an abstract superclass, and defines the skeleton of an operation in terms of a number of high-level steps. These steps are themselves implemented by additional helper methods in the same class as the template method. The helper methods may be either abstract methods, in which case subclasses are required to provide concrete implementations, or hook methods, which have empty bodies in the superclass. Subclasses can (but are not required to) customize the operation by overriding the hook methods. The intent of the template method is to define the overall structure of the operation, while allowing subclasses to refine, or redefine, certain steps. Overview This pattern has two main parts: The "template method" is implemented as a method in a base class (usually an abstract class). This method contains code for the parts of the overall algorithm that are invariant. The template ensures that the overarching algorithm is always followed. In the template method, portions of the algorithm that may vary are implemented by sending self messages that request the execution of additional helper methods. In the base class, these helper methods are given a default implementation, or none at all (that is, they may be abstract methods). Subclasses of the base class "fill in" the empty or "variant" parts of the "template" with specific algorithms that vary from one subclass to another. It is important that subclasses do not override the template method itself. At run-time, the algorithm represented by the template method is executed by sending the template message to an instance of one of the concrete subclasses. Through inheritance, the template method in the base class starts to execute. When the template method sends a message to self requesting one of the helper methods, the message will be received by the concrete sub-instance. If the helper method has been overridden, the overriding implementation in the sub-instance will execute; if it has not been overridden, the inherited implementation in the base class will execute. This mechanism ensures that the overall algorithm follows the same steps every time while allowing the details of some steps to depend on which instance received the original request to execute the algorithm. This pattern is an example of inversion of control because the high-level code no longer determines what algorithms to run; a lower-level algorithm is instead selected at run-time. Some of the self-messages sent by the template method may be to hook methods. These methods are implemented in the same base class as the template method, but with empty bodies (i.e., they do nothing). Hook methods exist so that subclasses can override them, and can thus fine-tune the action of the algorithm without the need to override the template method itself. In other words, they provide a "hook" on which to "hang" variant implementations. Structure UML class diagram A sample UML class diagram for the Template Method design pattern. In the above UML class diagram, the AbstractClass defines a templateMethod() operation that defines the skeleton (template) of a behavior by implementing the invariant parts of the behavior and sending to self the messages primitive1() and primitive2() , which, because they are implemented in SubClass1 , allow that subclass to provide a variant implementation of those parts of the algorithm. Template Method in LePUS3. Usage The template method is used in frameworks, where each implements the invariant parts of a domain's architecture, while providing hook methods for customization. This is an example of inversion of control. The template method is used for the following reasons. It lets subclasses implement varying behavior (through overriding of the hook methods). It avoids duplication in the code: the general workflow of the algorithm is implemented once in the abstract class's template method, and necessary variations are implemented in the subclasses. It controls the point(s) at which specialization is permitted. If the subclasses were to simply override the template method, they could make radical and arbitrary changes to the workflow. In contrast, by overriding only the hook methods, only certain specific details of the workflow can be changed, and the overall workflow is left intact. Use with code generators The template pattern is useful when working with auto-generated code. The challenge of working with generated code is that changes to the source code will lead to changes in the generated code; if hand-written modifications have been made to the generated code, these will be lost. How, then, should the generated code be customized? The Template pattern provides a solution. If the generated code follows the template method pattern, the generated code will all be an abstract superclass. Provided that hand-written customizations are confined to a subclass, the code generator can be run again without risk of over-writing these modifications. When used with code generation, this pattern is sometimes referred to as the generation gap pattern. C++ example This C++14 implementation is based on the pre C++98 implementation in the book. #include <iostream> #include <memory> class View { // AbstractClass public: // defines abstract primitive operations that concrete subclasses define to implement steps of an algorithm. virtual void doDisplay() {} // implements a template method defining the skeleton of an algorithm. The template method calls primitive operations as well as operations defined in AbstractClass or those of other objects. void display() { setFocus(); doDisplay(); resetFocus(); } virtual ~View() = default; private: void setFocus() { std::cout << "View::setFocus\n"; } void resetFocus() { std::cout << "View::resetFocus\n"; } }; class MyView : public View { // ConcreteClass // implements the primitive operations to carry out subclass-specific steps of the algorithm. void doDisplay() override { // render the view's contents std::cout << "MyView::doDisplay\n"; } }; int main() { // The smart pointers prevent memory leaks std::unique_ptr<View> myview = std::make_unique<MyView>(); myview->display(); } The program output is View::setFocus MyView::doDisplay View::resetFocus See also Inheritance (object-oriented programming) Method overriding (programming) GRASP (object-oriented designer) Adapter pattern Strategy pattern References ^ a b Gamma, Erich; Helm, Richard; Johnson, Ralph; Vlissides, John (1994). "Template Method". Design Patterns. Addison-Wesley. pp. 325–330. ISBN 0-201-63361-2. ^ Freeman, Eric; Freeman, Elisabeth; Sierra, Kathy; Bates, Bert (2004). Hendrickson, Mike; Loukides, Mike (eds.). Head First Design Patterns (paperback). Vol. 1. O'REILLY. pp. 289, 311. ISBN 978-0-596-00712-6. Retrieved 2012-09-12. ^ a b "Template Method Design Pattern". Source Making - teaching IT professional. Retrieved 2012-09-12. Template Method is used prominently in frameworks. ^ "The Template Method design pattern - Structure". w3sDesign.com. Retrieved 2017-08-12. ^ LePUS3 legend. Retrieved from http://lepus.org.uk/ref/legend/legend.xml. ^ a b c Chung, Carlo (2011). Pro Objective-C Design Patterns for iOS. Berkeley, CA: Apress. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-4302-3331-2. ^ Vlissides, John (1998-06-22). Pattern Hatching: Design Patterns Applied. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp. 85–101. ISBN 978-0201432930. External links The Wikibook Computer Science Design Patterns has a page on the topic of: Template method Six common uses of the template pattern Template Method Design Pattern vteSoftware design patternsGang of FourpatternsCreational Abstract factory Builder Factory method Prototype Singleton Structural Adapter Bridge Composite Decorator Facade Flyweight Proxy Behavioral Chain of responsibility Command Interpreter Iterator Mediator Memento Observer State Strategy Template method Visitor Concurrencypatterns Active object Balking Binding properties Double-checked locking Event-based asynchronous Guarded suspension Join Lock Monitor Proactor Reactor Read–write lock Scheduler Scheduled-task pattern Thread pool Thread-local storage Architecturalpatterns Front controller Interceptor MVC MVP MVVM ADR ECS n-tier Specification Publish–subscribe Naked objects Service locator Active record Identity map Data access object Data transfer object Inversion of control Model 2 Broker Otherpatterns Blackboard Business delegate Composite entity Dependency injection Intercepting filter Lazy loading Mock object Null object Object pool Servant Twin Type tunnel Method chaining Delegation Books Design Patterns Enterprise Integration Patterns People Christopher Alexander Erich Gamma Ralph Johnson John Vlissides Grady Booch Kent Beck Ward Cunningham Martin Fowler Robert Martin Jim Coplien Douglas Schmidt Linda Rising Communities The Hillside Group Portland Pattern Repository See also Anti-pattern Architectural pattern

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Template processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_processor"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"behavioral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_pattern"},{"link_name":"design patterns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_design_pattern"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Design Patterns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Patterns"},{"link_name":"abstract methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_method"},{"link_name":"hook methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hook_methods&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Subclasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclass_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"overriding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_overriding"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Template processor.In object-oriented programming, the template method is one of the behavioral design patterns identified by Gamma et al.[1] in the book Design Patterns. The template method is a method in a superclass, usually an abstract superclass, and defines the skeleton of an operation in terms of a number of high-level steps. These steps are themselves implemented by additional helper methods in the same class as the template method.The helper methods may be either abstract methods, in which case subclasses are required to provide concrete implementations, or hook methods, which have empty bodies in the superclass. Subclasses can (but are not required to) customize the operation by overriding the hook methods. The intent of the template method is to define the overall structure of the operation, while allowing subclasses to refine, or redefine, certain steps.[2]","title":"Template method pattern"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"base class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_class"},{"link_name":"abstract class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_class"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"inversion of control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inversion_of_control"}],"text":"This pattern has two main parts:The \"template method\" is implemented as a method in a base class (usually an abstract class). This method contains code for the parts of the overall algorithm that are invariant. The template ensures that the overarching algorithm is always followed.[1] In the template method, portions of the algorithm that may vary are implemented by sending self messages that request the execution of additional helper methods. In the base class, these helper methods are given a default implementation, or none at all (that is, they may be abstract methods).\nSubclasses of the base class \"fill in\" the empty or \"variant\" parts of the \"template\" with specific algorithms that vary from one subclass to another.[3] It is important that subclasses do not override the template method itself.At run-time, the algorithm represented by the template method is executed by sending the template message to an instance of one of the concrete subclasses. Through inheritance, the template method in the base class starts to execute. When the template method sends a message to self requesting one of the helper methods, the message will be received by the concrete sub-instance. If the helper method has been overridden, the overriding implementation in the sub-instance will execute; if it has not been overridden, the inherited implementation in the base class will execute. This mechanism ensures that the overall algorithm follows the same steps every time while allowing the details of some steps to depend on which instance received the original request to execute the algorithm.This pattern is an example of inversion of control because the high-level code no longer determines what algorithms to run; a lower-level algorithm is instead selected at run-time.Some of the self-messages sent by the template method may be to hook methods. These methods are implemented in the same base class as the template method, but with empty bodies (i.e., they do nothing). Hook methods exist so that subclasses can override them, and can thus fine-tune the action of the algorithm without the need to override the template method itself. In other words, they provide a \"hook\" on which to \"hang\" variant implementations.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:W3sDesign_Template_Method_Design_Pattern_UML.jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"UML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language"},{"link_name":"class diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_diagram"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Template_Method_pattern_in_LePUS3.gif"},{"link_name":"LePUS3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lepus3&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"UML class diagram","text":"A sample UML class diagram for the Template Method design pattern.[4]In the above UML class diagram, the AbstractClass defines a templateMethod() operation that defines the skeleton (template) of a behavior byimplementing the invariant parts of the behavior and\nsending to self the messages primitive1() and primitive2() , which, because they are implemented in SubClass1 , allow that subclass to provide a variant implementation of those parts of the algorithm.Template Method in LePUS3.[5]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inversion of control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inversion_of_control"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"overriding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_overriding_(programming)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"}],"text":"The template method is used in frameworks, where each implements the invariant parts of a domain's architecture, while providing hook methods for customization. This is an example of inversion of control. The template method is used for the following reasons.[3]It lets subclasses implement varying behavior (through overriding of the hook methods).[6]\nIt avoids duplication in the code: the general workflow of the algorithm is implemented once in the abstract class's template method, and necessary variations are implemented in the subclasses.[6]\nIt controls the point(s) at which specialization is permitted. If the subclasses were to simply override the template method, they could make radical and arbitrary changes to the workflow. In contrast, by overriding only the hook methods, only certain specific details of the workflow can be changed,[6] and the overall workflow is left intact.","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"generation gap pattern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_gap_(pattern)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Use with code generators","text":"The template pattern is useful when working with auto-generated code. The challenge of working with generated code is that changes to the source code will lead to changes in the generated code; if hand-written modifications have been made to the generated code, these will be lost. How, then, should the generated code be customized?The Template pattern provides a solution. If the generated code follows the template method pattern, the generated code will all be an abstract superclass. Provided that hand-written customizations are confined to a subclass, the code generator can be run again without risk of over-writing these modifications. When used with code generation, this pattern is sometimes referred to as the generation gap pattern.[7]","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cpp_template_method_pattern_UML.svg"}],"text":"This C++14 implementation is based on the pre C++98 implementation in the book.#include <iostream>\n#include <memory>\n\nclass View { // AbstractClass\npublic:\n // defines abstract primitive operations that concrete subclasses define to implement steps of an algorithm.\n virtual void doDisplay() {}\n // implements a template method defining the skeleton of an algorithm. The template method calls primitive operations as well as operations defined in AbstractClass or those of other objects.\n void display() {\n setFocus();\n doDisplay();\n resetFocus();\n }\n virtual ~View() = default;\nprivate:\n void setFocus() {\n std::cout << \"View::setFocus\\n\";\n }\n void resetFocus() {\n std::cout << \"View::resetFocus\\n\";\n }\n};\n\nclass MyView : public View { // ConcreteClass\n // implements the primitive operations to carry out subclass-specific steps of the algorithm.\n void doDisplay() override {\n // render the view's contents\n std::cout << \"MyView::doDisplay\\n\";\n }\n};\n\nint main() {\n // The smart pointers prevent memory leaks\n std::unique_ptr<View> myview = std::make_unique<MyView>();\n myview->display();\n}The program output isView::setFocus\nMyView::doDisplay\nView::resetFocus","title":"C++ example"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisthenes

Antisthenes

["1 Life","2 Philosophy","2.1 According to Diogenes Laertius","2.2 Ethics","2.3 Physics","2.4 Logic","2.5 Philosophy of language","3 Antisthenes and the Cynics","4 Notes","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]

Greek philosopher, founder of Cynicism (c.446–c.366 BCE) For other people named Antisthenes, see Antisthenes (disambiguation). AntisthenesPortrait bust of Antisthenes, found at the Villa of Cassius at Tivoli, Lazio, 1774 (Museo Pio-Clementino)Bornc. 446 BCEAthensDiedc. 366 BCE (aged approximately 80)AthensEraAncient Greek philosophyRegionWestern philosophySchoolCynicismMain interestsAsceticism, ethics, language, literature, logicNotable ideasLaying the foundations of Cynic philosophyDistinction between sense and reference Antisthenes (/ænˈtɪsθɪniːz/; Ancient Greek: Ἀντισθένης, pronounced ; c. 446 – c. 366 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy. Life Antisthenes was born c. 446 BCE, the son of Antisthenes, an Athenian. His mother was thought to have been a Thracian, though some say a Phrygian, an opinion probably derived from his sarcastic reply to a man who reviled him as not being a genuine Athenian citizen, that the mother of the gods was a Phrygian (referring to Cybele, the Anatolian counterpart of the Greek goddess Rhea). In his youth he fought at Tanagra (426 BCE), and was a disciple first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates; so eager was he to hear the words of Socrates that he used to walk daily from the port of Peiraeus to Athens (about 9 kilometres), and persuaded his friends to accompany him. Eventually he was present at Socrates' death. He never forgave his master's persecutors, and is said to have been instrumental in procuring their punishment. He survived the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE), as he is reported to have compared the victory of the Thebans to a set of schoolboys beating their master. Although Eudokia Makrembolitissa supposedly tells us that he died at the age of 70, he was apparently still alive in 366 BCE, and he must have been nearer to 80 years old when he died at Athens, c. 365 BCE. He is said to have lectured at the Cynosarges, a gymnasium for the use of Athenians born of foreign mothers, near the temple of Heracles. Filled with enthusiasm for the Socratic idea of virtue, he founded a school of his own in the Cynosarges, where he attracted the poorer classes by the simplicity of his life and teaching. He wore a cloak and carried a staff and a wallet, and this costume became the uniform of his followers. Diogenes Laërtius says that his works filled ten volumes, but of these, only fragments remain. His favourite style seems to have been dialogues, some of them being vehement attacks on his contemporaries, as on Alcibiades in the second of his two works entitled Cyrus, on Gorgias in his Archelaus and on Plato in his Satho. His style was pure and elegant, and Theopompus even said that Plato stole from him many of his thoughts. Cicero, after reading some works by Antisthenes, found his works pleasing and called him "a man more intelligent than learned". He possessed considerable powers of wit and sarcasm, and was fond of playing upon words; saying, for instance, that he would rather fall among crows (korakes) than flatterers (kolakes), for the one devour the dead, but the other the living. Two declamations have survived, named Ajax and Odysseus, which are purely rhetorical. Antisthenes's nickname was The (Absolute) Dog (ἁπλοκύων, Diog. Laert. 6.13) Philosophy Marble bust of Antisthenes based on the same original (British Museum) According to Diogenes Laertius In his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers Diogenes Laertius lists the following as the favourite themes of Antisthenes: "He would prove that virtue can be taught; and that nobility belongs to none other than the virtuous. And he held virtue to be sufficient in itself to ensure happiness, since it needed nothing else except the strength of spirit. And he maintained that virtue is an affair of deeds and does not need a store of words or learning; that the wise man is self-sufficing, for all the goods of others are his; that ill repute is a good thing and much the same as pain; that the wise man will be guided in his public acts not by the established laws but by the law of virtue; that he will also marry in order to have children from union with the handsomest women; furthermore that he will not disdain to love, for only the wise man knows who are worthy to be loved". Ethics Antisthenes was a pupil of Socrates, from whom he imbibed the fundamental ethical precept that virtue, not pleasure, is the end of existence. Everything that the wise person does, Antisthenes said, conforms to perfect virtue, and pleasure is not only unnecessary, but a positive evil. He is reported to have held pain and even ill-repute (Greek: ἀδοξία) to be blessings, and he said, "I'd rather be mad than feel pleasure". However, it is probable that he did not consider all pleasure worthless, but only that which results from the gratification of sensual or artificial desires, for we find him praising the pleasures which spring "from out of one's soul," and the enjoyments of a wisely chosen friendship. The supreme good he placed in a life lived according to virtue — virtue consisting in action, which when obtained is never lost, and exempts the wise person from error. It is closely connected with reason, but to enable it to develop itself in action, and to be sufficient for happiness, it requires the aid of Socratic strength (Greek: Σωκρατικὴ ἱσχύς). Physics His work on natural philosophy (the Physicus) contained a theory of the nature of the gods, in which he argued that there were many gods believed in by the people, but only one natural God. He also said that God resembles nothing on earth, and therefore could not be understood from any representation. Logic In logic, Antisthenes was troubled by the problem of universals. As a proper nominalist, he held that definition and predication are either false or tautological, since we can only say that every individual is what it is, and can give no more than a description of its qualities, e.g. that silver is like tin in colour. Thus, he disbelieved the Platonic system of Ideas. "A horse I can see," said Antisthenes, "but horsehood I cannot see". Definition is merely a circuitous method of stating an identity: "a tree is a vegetable growth" is logically no more than "a tree is a tree". Philosophy of language Antisthenes, part of a fresco in the National University of Athens Antisthenes apparently distinguished "a general object that can be aligned with the meaning of the utterance" from "a particular object of extensional reference". This "suggests that he makes a distinction between sense and reference". The principal basis of this claim is a quotation in Alexander of Aphrodisias' “Comments on Aristotle's 'Topics'” with a three-way distinction: the semantic medium, δι' ὧν λέγουσι an object external to the semantic medium, περὶ οὗ λέγουσιν the direct indication of a thing, σημαίνειν … τὸ …} Antisthenes and the Cynics In later times Antisthenes came to be seen as the founder of the Cynics, but it is by no means certain that he would have recognized the term. Aristotle, writing a generation later refers several times to Antisthenes and his followers "the Antistheneans", but makes no reference to Cynicism. There are many later tales about the infamous Cynic Diogenes of Sinope dogging Antisthenes' footsteps and becoming his faithful hound, but it is similarly uncertain that the two men ever met. Some scholars, drawing on the discovery of defaced coins from Sinope dating from the period 350–340 BCE, believe that Diogenes only moved to Athens after the death of Antisthenes, and it has been argued that the stories linking Antisthenes to Diogenes were invented by the Stoics in a later period in order to provide a succession linking Socrates to Zeno via Antisthenes, Diogenes, and Crates. These tales were important to the Stoics for establishing a chain of teaching that ran from Socrates to Zeno. Others argue that the evidence from the coins is weak, and thus Diogenes could have moved to Athens well before 340 BCE. It is also possible that Diogenes visited Athens and Antisthenes before his exile, and returned to Sinope. Antisthenes certainly adopted a rigorous ascetic lifestyle, and he developed many of the principles of Cynic philosophy which became an inspiration for Diogenes and later Cynics. It was said that he had laid the foundations of the city which they afterwards built. Notes ^ a b c Luz, Menahem (2019). "Antisthenes' Portrayal of Socrates" from "Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates". Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 124. ISBN 978-90-04-39674-6. ^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter James; Hartman, James; Setter, Jane, eds. (2006). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (17th ed.). Cambridge UP. ^ Suda, Antisthenes.; Laërtius 1925, § 1. ^ "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology — Antisthenes". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-05-31. Retrieved 2021-08-10. ^ "CYBELE (Kybele) - Phrygian Goddess, Mother of the Gods". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2021-08-10. ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Antisthenes". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 146. ^ Plato, Phaedo, 59b. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 9. ^ Plutarch, Lycurgus, 30. ^ Eudocia, Violarium, 96 ^ Diodorus Siculus, xv. 76.4 ^ Laërtius 1925, § 13. ^ Athenaeus, v. 220c-e ^ Athenaeus, xi. 508c-d ^ "Κῦρος δ᾽, ε᾽ mihi sic placuit ut cetera Antisthenis, hominis acuti magis quam eruditi". Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum, Book XII, Letter 38, section 2. In English translation: "Books four (δ᾽) and five (ε᾽) of Cyrus I found as pleasing as the others composed by Antisthenes, he is a man who is sharp rather than learned". ^ Laërtius 1925, § 4. ^ Prince, Susan (Dept. of Classics, University of Colorado, Boulder). "Review of LE. Navia - Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 6 August 2017.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) — Navia, Luis E. (2001). Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright. Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. xii, 176. ISBN 0-313-31672-4. ^ Magill, Frank N. (2003). The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-135-45740-2. ^ Judge, Harry George; Blake, Robert (1988). World history. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-19-869135-8. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 10. ^ a b Laërtius 1925, § 11. ^ Julian, Oration, 6.181b ^ Laërtius 1925, § 3, 7. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 3. ^ Xenophon, Symposium, iv. 41. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 12. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 11–12, 104–105. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 13. ^ Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, v. ^ a b Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1043b24 ^ Simplicius, in Arist. Cat. 208, 28 ^ Prince, Susan (2015). Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary. University of Michigan Press. p. 20 ^ Prince 2015, pp. 518–522 (Antisthenes's literary remains: t. 153B.1). ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1024b26; Rhetoric, 1407a9; Topics, 104b21; Politics, 1284a15 ^ Long 1996, page 32 ^ Laërtius 1925, § 6, 18, 21; Dio Chrysostom, Orations, viii. 1–4; Aelian, x. 16; Stobaeus, Florilegium, 13.19 ^ a b Long 1996, page 45 ^ Dudley 1937, pages 2-4 ^ Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, page 100 ^ Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, pages 34, 112-3 ^ Xenophon, Symposium, iv. 34–44. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 15. References Brancacci, Aldo. Oikeios logos. La filosofia del linguaggio di Antistene, Napoli: Bibliopolis, 1990 (fr. tr. Antisthène, Le discours propre, Paris, Vrin, 2005) Dudley, Donald R. (1937), A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D.. Cambridge  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Cynics: Antisthenes" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:6. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–19. Long, A. A. (1996), "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics", in Bracht Branham, R.; Goulet-Caze Marie-Odile, The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21645-8 Luis E. Navia, (2005). Diogenes The Cynic: The War Against The World. Humanity Books. ISBN 1-59102-320-3 Prince, Susan (2015). Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11934-9 Further reading Branham, R. Bracht; Cazé, Marie-Odile Goulet, eds. (1996). The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fuentes González, Pedro Pablo (2013). "En defensa del encuentro entre dos Perros, Antístenes y Diógenes: historia de una tensa amistad". Cuadernos de Filología Clásica: Estudios Griegos e Indoeuropeos. 23: 225–267 (reprint in: V. Suvák , Antisthenica Cynica Socratica, Praha: Oikoumene, 2014, p. 11–71). Guthrie, William Keith Chambers (1969). The Fifth-Century Enlightenment. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 3. London: Cambridge University Press. Meijer P. A., A New Perspective on Antisthenes: Logos, Predicate and Ethics in his Philosophy, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press B.V., 2017 Navia, Luis E. (1996). Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Navia, Luis E. (1995). The Philosophy of Cynicism An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Rankin, H. D. (1986). Anthisthenes Sokratikos. Amsterdam: A.M. Hakkert. ISBN 90-256-0896-5. Rankin, H. D. (1983). Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 9780389204213.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Sayre, Farrand (1948). "Antisthenes the Socratic". The Classical Journal. 43: 237–244. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Antisthenes. Wikiquote has quotations related to Antisthenes. "Antisthenes". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Antisthenes (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisthenes_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ænˈtɪsθɪniːz/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[an.tis.tʰén.ε:s]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brill-1"},{"link_name":"Greek philosopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates"},{"link_name":"rhetoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric"},{"link_name":"Gorgias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias"},{"link_name":"ethical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical"},{"link_name":"ascetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascetic"},{"link_name":"virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue"},{"link_name":"Cynic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)"}],"text":"For other people named Antisthenes, see Antisthenes (disambiguation).Antisthenes (/ænˈtɪsθɪniːz/;[2] Ancient Greek: Ἀντισθένης, pronounced [an.tis.tʰén.ε:s]; c. 446 – c. 366 BCE)[1] was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.","title":"Antisthenes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Athenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian"},{"link_name":"Thracian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracians"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Phrygian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygians"},{"link_name":"Athenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Cybele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybele"},{"link_name":"Rhea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhea_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Tanagra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tanagra_(426_BC)"},{"link_name":"Gorgias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates"},{"link_name":"Peiraeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peiraeus"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_9-8"},{"link_name":"Battle of Leuctra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra"},{"link_name":"Thebans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thebans"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Eudokia Makrembolitissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudokia_Makrembolitissa"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Cynosarges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynosarges"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_13-12"},{"link_name":"Heracles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herakles"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-6"},{"link_name":"Diogenes Laërtius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-6"},{"link_name":"Alcibiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcibiades"},{"link_name":"Gorgias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Theopompus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theopompus"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Antisthenes was born c. 446 BCE, the son of Antisthenes, an Athenian. His mother was thought to have been a Thracian,[3] though some say a Phrygian, an opinion probably derived from his sarcastic reply to a man who reviled him as not being a genuine Athenian citizen, that the mother of the gods was a Phrygian[4] (referring to Cybele, the Anatolian counterpart of the Greek goddess Rhea).[5] In his youth he fought at Tanagra (426 BCE), and was a disciple first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates; so eager was he to hear the words of Socrates that he used to walk daily from the port of Peiraeus to Athens (about 9 kilometres), and persuaded his friends to accompany him.[6] Eventually he was present at Socrates' death.[7] He never forgave his master's persecutors, and is said to have been instrumental in procuring their punishment.[8] He survived the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE), as he is reported to have compared the victory of the Thebans to a set of schoolboys beating their master.[9] Although Eudokia Makrembolitissa supposedly tells us that he died at the age of 70,[10] he was apparently still alive in 366 BCE,[11] and he must have been nearer to 80 years old when he died at Athens, c. 365 BCE. He is said to have lectured at the Cynosarges,[12] a gymnasium for the use of Athenians born of foreign mothers, near the temple of Heracles. Filled with enthusiasm for the Socratic idea of virtue, he founded a school of his own in the Cynosarges, where he attracted the poorer classes by the simplicity of his life and teaching. He wore a cloak and carried a staff and a wallet, and this costume became the uniform of his followers.[6]Diogenes Laërtius says that his works filled ten volumes, but of these, only fragments remain.[6] His favourite style seems to have been dialogues, some of them being vehement attacks on his contemporaries, as on Alcibiades in the second of his two works entitled Cyrus, on Gorgias in his Archelaus and on Plato in his Satho.[13] His style was pure and elegant, and Theopompus even said that Plato stole from him many of his thoughts.[14] Cicero, after reading some works by Antisthenes, found his works pleasing and called him \"a man more intelligent than learned\".[15] He possessed considerable powers of wit and sarcasm, and was fond of playing upon words; saying, for instance, that he would rather fall among crows (korakes) than flatterers (kolakes), for the one devour the dead, but the other the living.[16] Two declamations have survived, named Ajax and Odysseus, which are purely rhetorical.Antisthenes's nickname was The (Absolute) Dog (ἁπλοκύων, Diog. Laert. 6.13) [17][18][19]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antisthenes_BM_1838.jpg"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"}],"text":"Marble bust of Antisthenes based on the same original (British Museum)","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lives_and_Opinions_of_Eminent_Philosophers"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_10-20"}],"sub_title":"According to Diogenes Laertius","text":"In his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers Diogenes Laertius lists the following as the favourite themes of Antisthenes: \"He would prove that virtue can be taught; and that nobility belongs to none other than the virtuous. And he held virtue to be sufficient in itself to ensure happiness, since it needed nothing else except the strength of spirit. And he maintained that virtue is an affair of deeds and does not need a store of words or learning; that the wise man is self-sufficing, for all the goods of others are his; that ill repute is a good thing and much the same as pain; that the wise man will be guided in his public acts not by the established laws but by the law of virtue; that he will also marry in order to have children from union with the handsomest women; furthermore that he will not disdain to love, for only the wise man knows who are worthy to be loved\".[20]","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue"},{"link_name":"pleasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_11-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_3,_7-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_3-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_12-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_11%E2%80%9312,_104%E2%80%93105-27"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_11-21"}],"sub_title":"Ethics","text":"Antisthenes was a pupil of Socrates, from whom he imbibed the fundamental ethical precept that virtue, not pleasure, is the end of existence. Everything that the wise person does, Antisthenes said, conforms to perfect virtue,[21] and pleasure is not only unnecessary, but a positive evil. He is reported to have held pain[22] and even ill-repute (Greek: ἀδοξία)[23] to be blessings, and he said, \"I'd rather be mad than feel pleasure\".[24] However, it is probable that he did not consider all pleasure worthless, but only that which results from the gratification of sensual or artificial desires, for we find him praising the pleasures which spring \"from out of one's soul,\"[25] and the enjoyments of a wisely chosen friendship.[26] The supreme good he placed in a life lived according to virtue — virtue consisting in action, which when obtained is never lost, and exempts the wise person from error.[27] It is closely connected with reason, but to enable it to develop itself in action, and to be sufficient for happiness, it requires the aid of Socratic strength (Greek: Σωκρατικὴ ἱσχύς).[21]","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"natural philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"},{"link_name":"gods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gods"},{"link_name":"God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Physics","text":"His work on natural philosophy (the Physicus) contained a theory of the nature of the gods, in which he argued that there were many gods believed in by the people, but only one natural God.[28] He also said that God resembles nothing on earth, and therefore could not be understood from any representation.[29]","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic"},{"link_name":"problem of universals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_universals"},{"link_name":"nominalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominalist"},{"link_name":"tautological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aristot1-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Logic","text":"In logic, Antisthenes was troubled by the problem of universals. As a proper nominalist, he held that definition and predication are either false or tautological, since we can only say that every individual is what it is, and can give no more than a description of its qualities, e.g. that silver is like tin in colour.[30] Thus, he disbelieved the Platonic system of Ideas. \"A horse I can see,\" said Antisthenes, \"but horsehood I cannot see\".[31] Definition is merely a circuitous method of stating an identity: \"a tree is a vegetable growth\" is logically no more than \"a tree is a tree\".","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antisthenes_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg"},{"link_name":"National University of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_and_Kapodistrian_University_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Alexander of Aphrodisias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Philosophy of language","text":"Antisthenes, part of a fresco in the National University of AthensAntisthenes apparently distinguished \"a general object that can be aligned with the meaning of the utterance\" from \"a particular object of extensional reference\". This \"suggests that he makes a distinction between sense and reference\".[32] The principal basis of this claim is a quotation in Alexander of Aphrodisias' “Comments on Aristotle's 'Topics'” with a three-way distinction:the semantic medium, δι' ὧν λέγουσι\nan object external to the semantic medium, περὶ οὗ λέγουσιν\nthe direct indication of a thing, σημαίνειν … τὸ …}[33]","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cynics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aristot1-30"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-long32-35"},{"link_name":"Diogenes of Sinope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of_Sinope"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Sinope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-long45-37"},{"link_name":"Stoics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoics"},{"link_name":"Zeno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium"},{"link_name":"Crates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-long45-37"},{"link_name":"ascetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascetic"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_15-42"}],"text":"In later times Antisthenes came to be seen as the founder of the Cynics, but it is by no means certain that he would have recognized the term. Aristotle, writing a generation later refers several times to Antisthenes[34] and his followers \"the Antistheneans\",[30] but makes no reference to Cynicism.[35] There are many later tales about the infamous Cynic Diogenes of Sinope dogging Antisthenes' footsteps and becoming his faithful hound,[36] but it is similarly uncertain that the two men ever met. Some scholars, drawing on the discovery of defaced coins from Sinope dating from the period 350–340 BCE, believe that Diogenes only moved to Athens after the death of Antisthenes,[37] and it has been argued that the stories linking Antisthenes to Diogenes were invented by the Stoics in a later period in order to provide a succession linking Socrates to Zeno via Antisthenes, Diogenes, and Crates.[38] These tales were important to the Stoics for establishing a chain of teaching that ran from Socrates to Zeno.[39] Others argue that the evidence from the coins is weak, and thus Diogenes could have moved to Athens well before 340 BCE.[40] It is also possible that Diogenes visited Athens and Antisthenes before his exile, and returned to Sinope.[37]Antisthenes certainly adopted a rigorous ascetic lifestyle,[41] and he developed many of the principles of Cynic philosophy which became an inspiration for Diogenes and later Cynics. It was said that he had laid the foundations of the city which they afterwards built.[42]","title":"Antisthenes and the Cynics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Brill_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Brill_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Brill_1-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-90-04-39674-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39674-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Suda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suda"},{"link_name":"Laërtius 1925","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLa%C3%ABrtius1925"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology — Antisthenes\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=antisthenes-bio-2"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210531064318/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=antisthenes-bio-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"CYBELE (Kybele) - Phrygian Goddess, Mother of the Gods\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.theoi.com/Phrygios/Kybele.html#:~:text=KYBELE%20(Cybele)%20was%20the%20ancient,gods--the%20Titaness%20Rhea."},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-EB1911_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-EB1911_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-EB1911_6-2"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Antisthenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Antisthenes"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_9_8-0"},{"link_name":"Laërtius 1925","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLa%C3%ABrtius1925"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_13_12-0"},{"link_name":"Laërtius 1925","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLa%C3%ABrtius1925"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELa%C3%ABrtius1925%C2%A7_4_16-0"},{"link_name":"Laërtius 1925","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLa%C3%ABrtius1925"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"\"Review of LE. 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Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 124. ISBN 978-90-04-39674-6.\n\n^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter James; Hartman, James; Setter, Jane, eds. (2006). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (17th ed.). Cambridge UP.\n\n^ Suda, Antisthenes.; Laërtius 1925, § 1.\n\n^ \"A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology — Antisthenes\". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-05-31. Retrieved 2021-08-10.\n\n^ \"CYBELE (Kybele) - Phrygian Goddess, Mother of the Gods\". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2021-08-10.\n\n^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Antisthenes\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 146.\n\n^ Plato, Phaedo, 59b.\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 9.\n\n^ Plutarch, Lycurgus, 30.\n\n^ Eudocia, Violarium, 96\n\n^ Diodorus Siculus, xv. 76.4\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 13.\n\n^ Athenaeus, v. 220c-e\n\n^ Athenaeus, xi. 508c-d\n\n^ \"Κῦρος δ᾽, ε᾽ mihi sic placuit ut cetera Antisthenis, hominis acuti magis quam eruditi\". Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum, Book XII, Letter 38, section 2. In English translation: \"Books four (δ᾽) and five (ε᾽) of Cyrus I found as pleasing as the others composed by Antisthenes, he is a man who is sharp rather than learned\".\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 4.\n\n^ Prince, Susan (Dept. of Classics, University of Colorado, Boulder). \"Review of LE. Navia - Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright\". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 6 August 2017.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) — Navia, Luis E. (2001). Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright. Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. xii, 176. ISBN 0-313-31672-4.\n\n^ Magill, Frank N. (2003). The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-135-45740-2.\n\n^ Judge, Harry George; Blake, Robert (1988). World history. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-19-869135-8.\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 10.\n\n^ a b Laërtius 1925, § 11.\n\n^ Julian, Oration, 6.181b\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 3, 7.\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 3.\n\n^ Xenophon, Symposium, iv. 41.\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 12.\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 11–12, 104–105.\n\n^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 13.\n\n^ Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, v.\n\n^ a b Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1043b24\n\n^ Simplicius, in Arist. Cat. 208, 28\n\n^ Prince, Susan (2015). Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary. University of Michigan Press. p. 20\n\n^ Prince 2015, pp. 518–522 (Antisthenes's literary remains: t. 153B.1).\n\n^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1024b26; Rhetoric, 1407a9; Topics, 104b21; Politics, 1284a15\n\n^ Long 1996, page 32\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 6, 18, 21; Dio Chrysostom, Orations, viii. 1–4; Aelian, x. 16; Stobaeus, Florilegium, 13.19\n\n^ a b Long 1996, page 45\n\n^ Dudley 1937, pages 2-4\n\n^ Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, page 100\n\n^ Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, pages 34, 112-3\n\n^ Xenophon, Symposium, iv. 34–44.\n\n^ Laërtius 1925, § 15.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"90-256-0896-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-256-0896-5"},{"link_name":"Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/sophistssocratic0000rank"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780389204213","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780389204213"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"}],"text":"Branham, R. Bracht; Cazé, Marie-Odile Goulet, eds. (1996). The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. Berkeley: University of California Press.\nFuentes González, Pedro Pablo (2013). \"En defensa del encuentro entre dos Perros, Antístenes y Diógenes: historia de una tensa amistad\". Cuadernos de Filología Clásica: Estudios Griegos e Indoeuropeos. 23: 225–267 (reprint in: V. Suvák [ed.], Antisthenica Cynica Socratica, Praha: Oikoumene, 2014, p. 11–71).\nGuthrie, William Keith Chambers (1969). The Fifth-Century Enlightenment. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 3. London: Cambridge University Press.\nMeijer P. A., A New Perspective on Antisthenes: Logos, Predicate and Ethics in his Philosophy, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press B.V., 2017\nNavia, Luis E. (1996). Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.\nNavia, Luis E. (1995). The Philosophy of Cynicism An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.\nRankin, H. D. (1986). Anthisthenes Sokratikos. Amsterdam: A.M. Hakkert. ISBN 90-256-0896-5.\nRankin, H. D. (1983). Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 9780389204213.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nSayre, Farrand (1948). \"Antisthenes the Socratic\". The Classical Journal. 43: 237–244.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Marble bust of Antisthenes based on the same original (British Museum)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Antisthenes_BM_1838.jpg/220px-Antisthenes_BM_1838.jpg"},{"image_text":"Antisthenes, part of a fresco in the National University of Athens","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Antisthenes_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg/220px-Antisthenes_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg"}]

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Retrieved 2021-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=antisthenes-bio-2","url_text":"\"A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology — Antisthenes\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210531064318/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=antisthenes-bio-2","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"CYBELE (Kybele) - Phrygian Goddess, Mother of the Gods\". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2021-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theoi.com/Phrygios/Kybele.html#:~:text=KYBELE%20(Cybele)%20was%20the%20ancient,gods--the%20Titaness%20Rhea.","url_text":"\"CYBELE (Kybele) - Phrygian Goddess, Mother of the Gods\""}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Antisthenes\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 146.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Antisthenes","url_text":"Antisthenes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Prince, Susan (Dept. of Classics, University of Colorado, Boulder). \"Review of LE. Navia - Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright\". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 6 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2001/2001-06-23.html","url_text":"\"Review of LE. Navia - Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright\""}]},{"reference":"Navia, Luis E. (2001). Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright. Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. xii, 176. ISBN 0-313-31672-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31672-4","url_text":"0-313-31672-4"}]},{"reference":"Magill, Frank N. (2003). The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-135-45740-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7NVFUi7G6TEC&pg=PA89","url_text":"89"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45740-2","url_text":"978-1-135-45740-2"}]},{"reference":"Judge, Harry George; Blake, Robert (1988). World history. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-19-869135-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OokYAAAAIAAJ&q=Antisthenes++%27%27+Dog","url_text":"104"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-869135-8","url_text":"978-0-19-869135-8"}]},{"reference":"Prince, Susan (2015). Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary. University of Michigan Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). \"The Cynics: Antisthenes\" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:6. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–19.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius","url_text":"Laërtius, Diogenes"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/Book_VI#Antisthenes","url_text":"\"The Cynics: Antisthenes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers","url_text":"Lives of the Eminent Philosophers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Drew_Hicks","url_text":"Hicks, Robert Drew"}]},{"reference":"Prince, Susan (2015). Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary. University of Michigan Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Branham, R. Bracht; Cazé, Marie-Odile Goulet, eds. (1996). The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. Berkeley: University of California Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Fuentes González, Pedro Pablo (2013). \"En defensa del encuentro entre dos Perros, Antístenes y Diógenes: historia de una tensa amistad\". Cuadernos de Filología Clásica: Estudios Griegos e Indoeuropeos. 23: 225–267 (reprint in: V. Suvák [ed.], Antisthenica Cynica Socratica, Praha: Oikoumene, 2014, p. 11–71).","urls":[]},{"reference":"Guthrie, William Keith Chambers (1969). The Fifth-Century Enlightenment. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 3. London: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Navia, Luis E. (1996). Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Navia, Luis E. (1995). The Philosophy of Cynicism An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rankin, H. D. (1986). Anthisthenes Sokratikos. Amsterdam: A.M. Hakkert. ISBN 90-256-0896-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-256-0896-5","url_text":"90-256-0896-5"}]},{"reference":"Rankin, H. D. (1983). Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics. London: Croom Helm. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Rock

Margaret Rock

["1 Early life","2 Education","3 World War II","4 After the war","5 References"]

British cryptoanalyst (1903–1983) Margaret Alice RockBorn7 July 1903Hammersmith, London, EnglandDied26 August 1983 (aged 80)Worcester, Worcestershire, EnglandEducationPortsmouth High SchoolAlma materBedford College, University of LondonOccupationCryptanalysisKnown for Codebreaking at Bletchley Park Margaret Alice Rock (7 July 1903 – 26 August 1983) was one of the 8000 women mathematicians who worked in Bletchley Park during World War II. With her maths skills and education, Rock was able to decode the Enigma Machine against the German Army. Her work during the war was classified by the Official Secrets Act 1939, so much of her work was not revealed during her lifetime. Early life Rock was born and raised in Hammersmith, London to parents of Frank Ernest Rock and Alice Margaret Simmonds. Rock attended Edmonton elementary and North Middlesex School. Rock's father served in the Royal Navy as a surgeon between 1894 and 1896 while her mother took care of her and her brother. Frank Rock would send letters to his children frequently, to stay in communication in 1914, just before World War I. In 1917, Margaret, her mother and brother settled in Portsmouth, London, after moving frequently for three years. Rock attended Portsmouth High School, an all female private boarding school. Her father died when HMS Laurentic sank off the coast of Ireland having struck two mines laid by a German U-boat. Rock was encouraged by the letters her late father wrote to her, telling her to keep up with her studies and to be successful in the future. Her brother, John Frank Rock, became a Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. Education Rock passed the London General School Exam in June 1919. During high school, she received honours in the classes of French, mathematics, and music. Rock went to Bedford College, University of London, to earn a Bachelors of Arts Degree in 1921. After college, Rock was employed as a statistician by the National Association of Manufacturers (The Federation of British Industry). Rock predicted the economic market and how different businesses and companies would respond to the market. In her free time, Margaret and her brother would travel to different countries such as Italy, France, Switzerland, and Sri Lanka. World War II In the beginning of World War II, Rock and her mother evacuated London to Cranleigh, Surrey. Margaret quit her old job, wanting a career in a time when the woman's role was primarily to be the wife and stay-at-home mother. She was then recruited for a new job at Bletchley Park on 15 April 1940. She worked for Admiral Sir Hugh Sinclair, who was the Head of Government Code and Cypher School and Secret Intelligence Service. She trained and worked alongside mathematicians and professors to break and decode enemy messages with the Enigma machine. Margaret went to work for Alfred Dilwyn Knox, where Margaret worked closely with Mavis Lever on the same projects. While working for Dilwyn Knox she became the most senior cryptographer. Knox employed women, because he believed they had great skill with cryptography work. Margaret Rock on August 1940, was considered by Dilwyn Knox to be the 4th or 5th best in the whole Enigma staff. She specialized in German and Russian code breaking. Code breaking was used to verify which individuals in the war were double agents that would skew information and present them as truth. German Military thought that the Enigma cipher was unbreakable because of the difficult codes it would produce every day. The Enigma Machine was not coding fast enough, thus a new device was needed to win the war. By her hard work, Rock was ranked one of the better workers on the Enigma Machine project, and was promoted to seniority and a higher salary. On 8 December 1941, the Abwehr Enigma (the German Enigma Machine) message was decoded and read by the team in Bletchley Park by the use of a manual technique called "rodding" that was identified by Knox. This feat gave an advantage to Britain to plan the D-Day attack. After the war Rock worked for governmental jobs, such as the Government Communications Headquarters until she retired in 1963. Because of the Official Secrets Act 1939, Rock never spoke about her work to anyone. Even late in her life and Bletchley Park and codebreaking was circulating the news, she would not comment about her contribution to the Colossus. On 26 August 1983 she died in Ronkswood Hospital, Worcester. References ^ "Margaret Alice Rock MBE -- Junior Administrative Assistant for the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park". Retrieved 11 September 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Howard, Kerry (2016). Dear Codebreaker: The Letters of Margaret Rock. Redditch, Worcestershire: BookTower Publishing. pp. 280, 355. ^ "Frank Ernest Rock". laurenticmemorial.com. 29 December 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2018. ^ a b "Margaret Rock". Spartacus Educational. Retrieved 3 February 2017. ^ "Women Were Key to WWII Code-Breaking at Bletchley Park". ^ a b Haufler, Hervie (1 April 2014). Codebreakers' Victory: How the Allied Cryptographers Won World War II. Open Road Media. ISBN 9781497622562. ^ Copeland, B. Jack (2006). Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers. Oxford University Press.

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Her work during the war was classified by the Official Secrets Act 1939, so much of her work was not revealed during her lifetime.[citation needed]","title":"Margaret Rock"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Portsmouth High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portsmouth_High_School_(Southsea)"},{"link_name":"U-boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-boat"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"Rock was born and raised in Hammersmith, London to parents of Frank Ernest Rock and Alice Margaret Simmonds.[2] Rock attended Edmonton elementary and North Middlesex School. Rock's father served in the Royal Navy as a surgeon between 1894 and 1896 while her mother took care of her and her brother.[2] Frank Rock would send letters to his children frequently, to stay in communication in 1914, just before World War I.In 1917, Margaret, her mother and brother settled in Portsmouth, London, after moving frequently for three years.[2] Rock attended Portsmouth High School, an all female private boarding school. Her father died when HMS Laurentic sank off the coast of Ireland having struck two mines laid by a German U-boat.[3] Rock was encouraged by the letters her late father wrote to her, telling her to keep up with her studies and to be successful in the future. Her brother, John Frank Rock, became a Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers.[2]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"Rock passed the London General School Exam in June 1919.[2] During high school, she received honours in the classes of French, mathematics, and music.[2] Rock went to Bedford College, University of London, to earn a Bachelors of Arts Degree in 1921.[2]After college, Rock was employed as a statistician by the National Association of Manufacturers (The Federation of British Industry).[2] Rock predicted the economic market and how different businesses and companies would respond to the market. 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Knox employed women, because he believed they had great skill with cryptography work.[4] Margaret Rock on August 1940, was considered by Dilwyn Knox to be the 4th or 5th best in the whole Enigma staff.[4] She specialized in German and Russian code breaking.[5] Code breaking was used to verify which individuals in the war were double agents that would skew information and present them as truth.[6]German Military thought that the Enigma cipher was unbreakable because of the difficult codes it would produce every day.[7] The Enigma Machine was not coding fast enough, thus a new device was needed to win the war. By her hard work, Rock was ranked one of the better workers on the Enigma Machine project, and was promoted to seniority and a higher salary. 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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsu-Jae_King_Liu

Tsu-Jae King Liu

["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 Research and select publications","4 Awards","5 References"]

American electrical engineer Tsu-Jae King LiuDean of the UC Berkeley College of EngineeringIncumbentAssumed office June 2018 Personal detailsBorn (1963-06-04) June 4, 1963 (age 61)Ithaca, New York, U.S.Alma materStanford University (BS, MS, PhD) Tsu-Jae King Liu is an American academic and engineer who serves as the Dean and the Roy W. Carlson Professor of Engineering at the UC Berkeley College of Engineering. Liu is an electrical engineer with extensive expertise and achievements in both academia and the semiconductor industry. At Berkeley, Liu leads a research team that explores the development of novel semiconductor devices, non-volatile memory devices, and M/NEMS technology for ultra-low power circuits. Her team is a part of the Berkeley Emerging Technologies Research Center and the NSF Center for Energy Efficient Electronics in Science. She is also a faculty member of the Kavli Energy NanoScience Institute at Berkeley and an affiliate faculty member of Berkeley's Applied Science & Technology Graduate Program and the Nanoscale Science and Engineering Graduate Group. Early life and education Liu was born in Ithaca, New York to Taiwanese parents who were graduate students at Cornell University. Her father's research was in the area of earthquake prediction and, as such, she spent the majority of her childhood in the San Francisco Bay Area. As a high-school student, Liu was given a tour of the PARC campus, where her interest in computing was stimulated by a demonstration of the Xerox Alto. Liu received a bachelor of science, a master of science, and a doctor of philosophy in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1984, 1986, and 1994, respectively. Career After graduating from Stanford, Liu joined the research staff at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Her time at PARC from 1992 to 1996 was distinguished by her work on polycrystalline thin-film transistors. In August 1996, Liu joined Berkeley as a faculty member of the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department. Liu has contributed to many developments in the field of semiconductor devices and technology and has co-authored over 500 papers. Liu's leading contributions span many research areas but she is perhaps best known for the development of polycrystalline silicon-germanium thin film technology for applications in integrated circuits and microsystems. Liu is also the co-inventor of the three-dimensional FinFET transistor (fin field-effect transistor) which is the design that is used in all leading microprocessor chips today. Liu was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 2017 "for contributions to the fin field effect transistor (FinFET) and its application to nanometer complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology". She holds over 94 patents in the area of semiconductor devices and fabrication methods, with 80 patents pending as of 2017, 37 of which had been assigned to a company she founded, Progressant Technologies, acquired by Synopsys in 2004. In her role as dean of Berkeley's College of Engineering, Liu has been outspoken about her commitment to increase diversity and foster inclusion and respect for women and members of underrepresented minorities in engineering. Prior to assuming her role as dean, Liu had served in extensive leadership roles at Berkeley. She was the faculty director of the Marvell Nanofabrication Laboratory. From 2008 to 2012, she was associate dean for research in the College of Engineering. She served as chair of the Electrical Engineering Division from 2012 to 2014 and as chair of the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department from 2014 to 2016. She was previously senior director of engineering in the Advanced Technology Group of Synopsys. Since 2016, Liu has served as a member of the board of directors of Intel. In 2024 she received the IEEE Founders Medal. Research and select publications A full list of Liu's publications are available online. This is a list are of her most cited works: Hisamoto, D.; Wen-Chin Lee; Kedzierski, J.; Takeuchi, H.; Asano, K.; Kuo, C.; Anderson, E.; Tsu-Jae King; Bokor, J. (2000). "FinFET-a self-aligned double-gate MOSFET scalable to 20 nm". IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 47 (12): 2320–2325. Bibcode:2000ITED...47.2320H. doi:10.1109/16.887014. ISSN 0018-9383. Choi, W. Y.; Park, B.; Lee, J. D.; Liu, T. K. (2007). "Tunneling Field-Effect Transistors (TFETs) With Subthreshold Swing (SS) Less Than 60 mV/dec". IEEE Electron Device Letters. 28 (8): 743–745. Bibcode:2007IEDL...28..743C. doi:10.1109/LED.2007.901273. ISSN 0741-3106. S2CID 8811022. Huang, Chong-Cheng; Tsai, Wen-Ta; Lee, Ju-Tung (February 1996). "Surface modification of carbon steel with laser treated nitrogen-containing stainless steel layers". Surface and Coatings Technology. 79 (1–3): 67–70. doi:10.1016/0257-8972(95)02438-7. Bin Yu; Leland Chang; Ahmed, S.; Haihong Wang; Bell, S.; Chih-Yuh Yang; Tabery, C.; Chau Ho; Qi Xiang (2002). "FinFET scaling to 10 nm gate length". Digest. International Electron Devices Meeting. pp. 251–254. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.136.3757. doi:10.1109/IEDM.2002.1175825. ISBN 0-7803-7462-2. S2CID 7106946. Xuejue Huang; Wen-Chin Lee; Kuo, C.; Hisamoto, D.; Leland Chang; Kedzierski, J.; Anderson, E.; Takeuchi, H.; Yang-Kyu Choi (2001). "Sub-50 nm P-channel FinFET". IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 48 (5): 880–886. Bibcode:2001ITED...48..880H. doi:10.1109/16.918235. ISSN 0018-9383. Yeo, Yee-Chia; King, Tsu-Jae; Hu, Chenming (2002-11-27). "Metal-dielectric band alignment and its implications for metal gate complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor technology". Journal of Applied Physics. 92 (12): 7266–7271. Bibcode:2002JAP....92.7266Y. doi:10.1063/1.1521517. ISSN 0021-8979. Yang-Kyu Choi; Lindert, N.; Peiqi Xuan; Tang, S.; Daewon Ha; Anderson, E.; Tsu-Jae King; Bokor, J.; Chenming Hu (2001). "Sub-20 nm CMOS FinFET technologies". International Electron Devices Meeting. Technical Digest (Cat. No.01CH37224). pp. 19.1.1–19.1.4. doi:10.1109/IEDM.2001.979526. ISBN 0-7803-7050-3. S2CID 8908553. Yu Cao; Groves, R. A.; Zamdmer, N. D.; Plouchart, J.-; Wachnik, R. A.; Xuejue Huang; King, T.-; Chenming Hu (2002). "Frequency-independent equivalent circuit model for on-chip spiral inductors". Proceedings of the IEEE 2002 Custom Integrated Circuits Conference (Cat. No.02CH37285). pp. 217–220. doi:10.1109/CICC.2002.1012800. ISBN 0-7803-7250-6. S2CID 6065522. Awards Liu has received numerous accolades for her research contributions: Elected Member, National Academy of Inventors (2018) Elected Member, National Academy of Engineering (2017) Fellow, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers DARPA Significant Technical Achievement Award, for her work on FinFET (2000) IEEE Kiyo Tomiyasu Award, for her contributions to nanoscale MOS transistors (2010) Outstanding Research Award, Semiconductor Industry Association (2014) Inductee, Silicon Valley Hall of Fame Outstanding Researcher in Nanotechnology Award, Intel (2012) SIA University Researcher Award (2012) Asia Society's Game Changer West Award (2021) She has also been recognized for her contributions to teaching and mentorship as a faculty member: Outstanding Teaching Award, Electrical Engineering Distinguished Faculty Mentoring Award, UC Berkeley Aristotle Award, Semiconductor Research Corporation References ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu | Kavli ENSI". kavli.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu named new dean of Berkeley Engineering". Berkeley Engineering. 2018-06-19. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Celebrating Women Inventors" (PDF). ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu". CITRIS and the Banatao Institute. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu | EECS at UC Berkeley". Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences at the University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2022-10-06. ^ "Professor Tsu-Jae Liu". NAE Website. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ Sanders, Robert (2017-12-12). "Three innovators elected to National Academy of Inventors". Berkeley News. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu named new dean of Berkeley Engineering". Berkeley Engineering. 2018-06-19. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu". CITRIS and the Banatao Institute. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu". CITRIS and the Banatao Institute. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu". CITRIS and the Banatao Institute. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu". Intel Newsroom. Retrieved 2021-04-11. ^ "IEEE Founders Medal". IEEE Awards. Retrieved 25 March 2024. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu - Google Scholar Citations". scholar.google.com. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ Sanders, Robert (2017-12-12). "Three innovators elected to National Academy of Inventors". Berkeley News. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Professor Tsu-Jae Liu". NAE Website. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Tsu-Jae King Liu | Kavli ENSI". kavli.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "Intel Board of Directors". ^ "Intel Board of Directors". ^ "Asia Game Changer West Awards Gala(4.8.) 상세보기|NoticeConsulate General of the Republic of Korea in San Francisco". overseas.mofa.go.kr. Retrieved 2021-04-11. vteIEEE Founders Medal1953–1975 David Sarnoff (1953) Alfred Norton Goldsmith (1954) No award (1955) No award (1956) Raymond A. Heising (1957) Walter Ransom Gail Baker (1958) No award (1959) Haraden Pratt (1960) Ralph Bown (1961) No award (1962) Frederick Terman (1963) Andrew McNaughton (1964) No award (1965) Elmer William Engstrom (1966) Harvey Fletcher (1967) Patrick E. Haggerty (1968) E. Finley Carter (1969) Morris D. Hooven (1970) Ernst Weber (1971) Masaru Ibuka (1972) Bill Hewlett and David Packard (1973) Lawrence A. Hyland (1974) John G. Brainerd (1975) 1976–2000 Edward W. Herold (1976) Jerome Wiesner (1977) Donald G. Fink (1978) Hanzo Omi (1979) Simon Ramo (1980) James Hillier (1981) Shigeru Yonezawa (1982) Joseph M. Pettit (1983) Koji Kobayashi (1984) William Norris (1985) George H. Heilmeier (1986) James B. Owens (1987) Ian Munro Ross (1988) Ivan A. Getting (1989) Erich Bloch (1990) Irwin Dorros (1991) Roland W. Schmitt (1992) Ken Olsen (1993) Akio Morita (1994) Malcolm R. Currie (1995) Norman R. Augustine (1996) Gordon Moore (1997) Alan W. Rudge (1998) Benjamin M. Rosen (1999) Bob Galvin (2000) 2001–present Robert A. Frosch (2001) Thomas Eugene Everhart (2002) Ray Stata (2003) Mildred Dresselhaus (2004) Eugene Wong (2005) Toshiharu Aoki (2006) Anita K. Jones (2007) Steven Sample (2008) Craig Barrett (2009) Paul E. Gray (2010) James F. Gibbons (2011) F. C. Kohli (2012) Leo Beranek (2013) Eric Schmidt (2014) James Plummer (2015) No award (2016) Takeo Kanade (2017) N. R. Narayana Murthy (2018) Robin Saxby (2019) Jen-Hsun Huang (2020) Henry Samueli (2021) John Brooks Slaughter (2022) Rodney Brooks (2023) Tsu-Jae King Liu (2024) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 National Norway Israel United States Academics Google Scholar Other IdRef 2

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UC Berkeley College of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UC_Berkeley_College_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"electrical engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineer"},{"link_name":"Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UC_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"NSF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Tsu-Jae King Liu is an American academic and engineer who serves as the Dean and the Roy W. Carlson Professor of Engineering at the UC Berkeley College of Engineering.Liu is an electrical engineer with extensive expertise and achievements in both academia and the semiconductor industry. At Berkeley, Liu leads a research team that explores the development of novel semiconductor devices, non-volatile memory devices, and M/NEMS technology for ultra-low power circuits. Her team is a part of the Berkeley Emerging Technologies Research Center and the NSF Center for Energy Efficient Electronics in Science. She is also a faculty member of the Kavli Energy NanoScience Institute at Berkeley[1] and an affiliate faculty member of Berkeley's Applied Science & Technology Graduate Program and the Nanoscale Science and Engineering Graduate Group.","title":"Tsu-Jae King Liu"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ithaca, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Cornell University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University"},{"link_name":"earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"PARC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARC_(company)"},{"link_name":"Xerox Alto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox_Alto"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"bachelor of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science"},{"link_name":"master of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science"},{"link_name":"doctor of philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Liu was born in Ithaca, New York to Taiwanese parents who were graduate students at Cornell University. Her father's research was in the area of earthquake prediction and, as such, she spent the majority of her childhood in the San Francisco Bay Area.[2] As a high-school student, Liu was given a tour of the PARC campus, where her interest in computing was stimulated by a demonstration of the Xerox Alto.[3][4]Liu received a bachelor of science, a master of science, and a doctor of philosophy in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1984, 1986, and 1994, respectively.[5]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stanford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"Xerox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistors"},{"link_name":"Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UC_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"FinFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FinFET"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Synopsys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synopsys"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"College of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UC_Berkeley_College_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Synopsys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synopsys"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"IEEE Founders Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Founders_Medal"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"After graduating from Stanford, Liu joined the research staff at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Her time at PARC from 1992 to 1996 was distinguished by her work on polycrystalline thin-film transistors. In August 1996, Liu joined Berkeley as a faculty member of the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department. Liu has contributed to many developments in the field of semiconductor devices and technology and has co-authored over 500 papers.Liu's leading contributions span many research areas but she is perhaps best known for the development of polycrystalline silicon-germanium thin film technology for applications in integrated circuits and microsystems. Liu is also the co-inventor of the three-dimensional FinFET transistor (fin field-effect transistor) which is the design that is used in all leading microprocessor chips today. Liu was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 2017 \"for contributions to the fin field effect transistor (FinFET) and its application to nanometer complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology\".[6]She holds over 94 patents in the area of semiconductor devices and fabrication methods, with 80 patents pending as of 2017, 37 of which had been assigned to a company she founded, Progressant Technologies, acquired by Synopsys in 2004.[7]In her role as dean of Berkeley's College of Engineering, Liu has been outspoken about her commitment to increase diversity and foster inclusion and respect for women and members of underrepresented minorities in engineering.[8] Prior to assuming her role as dean, Liu had served in extensive leadership roles at Berkeley. She was the faculty director of the Marvell Nanofabrication Laboratory.[9] From 2008 to 2012, she was associate dean for research in the College of Engineering. She served as chair of the Electrical Engineering Division from 2012 to 2014 and as chair of the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department from 2014 to 2016.[10]She was previously senior director of engineering in the Advanced Technology Group of Synopsys.[11]Since 2016, Liu has served as a member of the board of directors of Intel.[12]In 2024 she received the IEEE Founders Medal.[13]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2000ITED...47.2320H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ITED...47.2320H"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/16.887014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2F16.887014"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0018-9383","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9383"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2007IEDL...28..743C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007IEDL...28..743C"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/LED.2007.901273","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FLED.2007.901273"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0741-3106","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0741-3106"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"8811022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8811022"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0257-8972(95)02438-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0257-8972%2895%2902438-7"},{"link_name":"CiteSeerX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1.1.136.3757","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.136.3757"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/IEDM.2002.1175825","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FIEDM.2002.1175825"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7803-7462-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7803-7462-2"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"7106946","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7106946"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2001ITED...48..880H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ITED...48..880H"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/16.918235","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2F16.918235"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0018-9383","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9383"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2002JAP....92.7266Y","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JAP....92.7266Y"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1063/1.1521517","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1521517"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0021-8979","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8979"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/IEDM.2001.979526","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FIEDM.2001.979526"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7803-7050-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7803-7050-3"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"8908553","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8908553"},{"link_name":"\"Frequency-independent equivalent circuit model for on-chip spiral inductors\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/proceedingsofiee00cust/page/217"},{"link_name":"217–220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/proceedingsofiee00cust/page/217"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/CICC.2002.1012800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FCICC.2002.1012800"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7803-7250-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7803-7250-6"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"6065522","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6065522"}],"text":"A full list of Liu's publications are available online.[14] This is a list are of her most cited works:Hisamoto, D.; Wen-Chin Lee; Kedzierski, J.; Takeuchi, H.; Asano, K.; Kuo, C.; Anderson, E.; Tsu-Jae King; Bokor, J. (2000). \"FinFET-a self-aligned double-gate MOSFET scalable to 20 nm\". IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 47 (12): 2320–2325. Bibcode:2000ITED...47.2320H. doi:10.1109/16.887014. ISSN 0018-9383.\nChoi, W. Y.; Park, B.; Lee, J. D.; Liu, T. K. (2007). \"Tunneling Field-Effect Transistors (TFETs) With Subthreshold Swing (SS) Less Than 60 mV/dec\". IEEE Electron Device Letters. 28 (8): 743–745. Bibcode:2007IEDL...28..743C. doi:10.1109/LED.2007.901273. ISSN 0741-3106. S2CID 8811022.\nHuang, Chong-Cheng; Tsai, Wen-Ta; Lee, Ju-Tung (February 1996). \"Surface modification of carbon steel with laser treated nitrogen-containing stainless steel layers\". Surface and Coatings Technology. 79 (1–3): 67–70. doi:10.1016/0257-8972(95)02438-7.\nBin Yu; Leland Chang; Ahmed, S.; Haihong Wang; Bell, S.; Chih-Yuh Yang; Tabery, C.; Chau Ho; Qi Xiang (2002). \"FinFET scaling to 10 nm gate length\". Digest. International Electron Devices Meeting. pp. 251–254. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.136.3757. doi:10.1109/IEDM.2002.1175825. ISBN 0-7803-7462-2. S2CID 7106946.\nXuejue Huang; Wen-Chin Lee; Kuo, C.; Hisamoto, D.; Leland Chang; Kedzierski, J.; Anderson, E.; Takeuchi, H.; Yang-Kyu Choi (2001). \"Sub-50 nm P-channel FinFET\". IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 48 (5): 880–886. Bibcode:2001ITED...48..880H. doi:10.1109/16.918235. ISSN 0018-9383.\nYeo, Yee-Chia; King, Tsu-Jae; Hu, Chenming (2002-11-27). \"Metal-dielectric band alignment and its implications for metal gate complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor technology\". Journal of Applied Physics. 92 (12): 7266–7271. Bibcode:2002JAP....92.7266Y. doi:10.1063/1.1521517. ISSN 0021-8979.\nYang-Kyu Choi; Lindert, N.; Peiqi Xuan; Tang, S.; Daewon Ha; Anderson, E.; Tsu-Jae King; Bokor, J.; Chenming Hu (2001). \"Sub-20 nm CMOS FinFET technologies\". International Electron Devices Meeting. Technical Digest (Cat. No.01CH37224). pp. 19.1.1–19.1.4. doi:10.1109/IEDM.2001.979526. ISBN 0-7803-7050-3. S2CID 8908553.\nYu Cao; Groves, R. A.; Zamdmer, N. D.; Plouchart, J.-; Wachnik, R. A.; Xuejue Huang; King, T.-; Chenming Hu (2002). \"Frequency-independent equivalent circuit model for on-chip spiral inductors\". Proceedings of the IEEE 2002 Custom Integrated Circuits Conference (Cat. No.02CH37285). pp. 217–220. doi:10.1109/CICC.2002.1012800. ISBN 0-7803-7250-6. S2CID 6065522.","title":"Research and select publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Academy of Inventors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Inventors"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers"},{"link_name":"DARPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA"},{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"SIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_Industry_Association"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Asia Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Society"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Liu has received numerous accolades for her research contributions:Elected Member, National Academy of Inventors (2018)[15]\nElected Member, National Academy of Engineering (2017)[16]\nFellow, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers\nDARPA Significant Technical Achievement Award, for her work on FinFET (2000)\nIEEE Kiyo Tomiyasu Award, for her contributions to nanoscale MOS transistors (2010)\nOutstanding Research Award, Semiconductor Industry Association (2014)\nInductee, Silicon Valley Hall of Fame[17]\nOutstanding Researcher in Nanotechnology Award, Intel (2012) [18]\nSIA University Researcher Award (2012) [19]\nAsia Society's Game Changer West Award (2021)[20]She has also been recognized for her contributions to teaching and mentorship as a faculty member:Outstanding Teaching Award, Electrical Engineering\nDistinguished Faculty Mentoring Award, UC Berkeley\nAristotle Award, Semiconductor Research Corporation","title":"Awards"}]

[]

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Retrieved 2019-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://engineering.berkeley.edu/2018/06/tsu-jae-king-liu-named-new-dean-berkeley-engineering","url_text":"\"Tsu-Jae King Liu named new dean of Berkeley Engineering\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tsu-Jae King Liu\". CITRIS and the Banatao Institute. Retrieved 2019-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://citris-uc.org/person/dean-tsu-jae-king-liu/","url_text":"\"Tsu-Jae King Liu\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tsu-Jae King Liu\". CITRIS and the Banatao Institute. Retrieved 2019-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://citris-uc.org/person/dean-tsu-jae-king-liu/","url_text":"\"Tsu-Jae King Liu\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tsu-Jae King Liu\". CITRIS and the Banatao Institute. Retrieved 2019-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://citris-uc.org/person/dean-tsu-jae-king-liu/","url_text":"\"Tsu-Jae King Liu\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tsu-Jae King Liu\". Intel Newsroom. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anarchy_and_the_Ecstasy

The Anarchy and the Ecstasy

["1 Track listing","2 References"]

2011 studio album by World/Inferno Friendship SocietyThe Anarchy and the EcstasyStudio album by World/Inferno Friendship SocietyReleasedMarch 15, 2011Recorded2010GenrePunkLength34:58LabelChunksaah RecordsProducerDan ShatzkyWorld/Inferno Friendship Society chronology Addicted to Bad Ideas The Anarchy and the Ecstasy This Packed Funeral Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingPunknews.org The Phoenix (newspaper) The Anarchy and the Ecstasy is an album released by the World/Inferno Friendship Society on March 15, 2011. It is their fifth full-length album. Three members left the group between the previous release and Anarchy. Before the album's release, many demos were available online. Jack Terricloth commented, "I couldn't care less about the demos. Songs want to be free. Songs want you to whistle them!" Musically, this album is more eclectic than most of their previous work, with significant bluegrass influence. The lead singer, Jack Terricloth, claimed the title of the album was taken from a William Butler Yeats poem, but did not identify which one. Track listing "I Am Sick of People Being Sick of My Shit" "The Disarming Smile" "Canonize Philip K. Dick, Ok" "Thirteen Years Without Peter King" "They Talk of Nora's Badness" "The Politics of Passing Out" "Jake and Eggers" "Lean Times for Heroes" "The Apple Was Eve" "The Mighty Raritan" References ^ Punknews.org review ^ The Phoenix review ^ Chunksaah Record Online Store Archived 2011-05-02 at the Wayback Machine ^ The World/Inferno Friendship Society | The Anarchy and the Ecstasy - CD Reviews ^ a b c Punknews.org | Jack Terricloth (World/Inferno Friendship Society) Authority control databases MusicBrainz release group

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[]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Parkes

Alexander Parkes

["1 Biography","2 Personal and family details","3 Legacy","4 References","5 External links"]

English engineer, metallurgist and inventor Alexander ParkesBorn29 December 1813Suffolk Street, Birmingham, EnglandDied29 June 1890 (1890-06-30) (aged 76)NationalityEnglishOccupationEngineerEngineering careerProjectsParkesine Alexander Parkes (29 December 1813 – 29 June 1890) was a metallurgist and inventor from Birmingham, England. He created Parkesine, the first man-made plastic. Biography The son of a manufacturer of brass locks, Parkes was apprenticed to Messenger and Sons, brass founders of Birmingham, before going to work for George and Henry Elkington, who patented the electroplating process. Parkes was put in charge of the casting department, and his attention soon began to focus on electroplating. Parkes took out his first patent (No. 8905) in 1841 on a process for electroplating delicate works of art. His improved method for electroplating fine and fragile objects, such as flowers, was granted a patent in 1843. The process involved electroplating an object previously dipped in a solution of phosphorus contained in bisulphide of carbon, and then in nitrate of silver. A spider's web, silver-plated according to this method, was presented to Prince Albert when he visited the Elkington works in 1844. In total Parkes held at least 66 patents on processes and products, mostly related to electroplating and to development of plastics. In 1846, he patented the cold cure process for vulcanizing rubber, called by Thomas Hancock "one of the most valuable and extraordinary discoveries of the age". He pioneered the addition of small quantities of phosphorus to metals and alloys, and developed phosphor-bronze (patent 12325 of 1848, taken out jointly with his brother Henry Parkes). In 1850, he developed and patented the Parkes process for economically desilvering lead, also patenting refinements to the process in 1851 and 1852. In 1856, he patented Parkesine – the first thermoplastic – a celluloid based on nitrocellulose treated with a variety of solvents. This material, exhibited at the 1862 London International Exhibition, anticipated many of the modern aesthetic and utility uses of plastics. In 1866, he set up The Parkesine Company at Hackney Wick, London, for bulk low-cost production. It was not commercially successful, however, for Parkesine was expensive to produce, prone to cracking and highly flammable. The business closed in 1868. Parkes' material was developed later in improved form as Xylonite by his associate Daniel Spill, who brought a patent infringement lawsuit – ultimately unsuccessful – against John Wesley Hyatt, developer of celluloid in the US. In 1870, however, the judge ruled that Parkes was the true inventor, owing to his original experiments. Personal and family details Alexander Parkes was born at Suffolk Street, Birmingham, the fourth son of James Mears Parkes and his wife Kerenhappuch Childs. Samuel Harrison, described by Sir Josiah Mason as the inventor of the split-ring (or key-ring) and widely credited with the invention of the steel pen, was his great-uncle. Parkes was twice married. By his first marriage, to Jane Henshall Moore (1817–50), he had four sons and two daughters (the cricketer Howard Parkes was a grandson), and by his second marriage, to Mary Ann Roderick (1835–1919), four sons and seven daughters. The elder surviving son of his second marriage, Alexander Parkes junior, sometime President of the Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants, presented many original specimens of Parkesine to the Science Museum in 1937, the core of the museum's Parkesine collection. Parkes' younger brother Henry (1824–1909), a trained chemist, who was married to Fanny Roderick (1837–97), a sister of Alexander's second wife, assisted him in many of his experiments during a collaboration lasting more than fifty years. It is believed that the Parkes family descends from the Rev. Michael Parkes, Vicar of Penkridge, Staffordshire (died 1617), and had close connections with the metal-working towns of Wednesbury and Wolverhampton in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Legacy Blue plaque on the old Birmingham Science Museum Parkes is remembered in several locations: The Plastics Historical Society placed a blue plaque on his home in Dulwich, London, in 2002; The Birmingham Civic Society erected a blue plaque commemorating him in 2004 on the original Elkington Silver Electroplating Works (the old Science Museum), Newhall Street, Birmingham; There is also a plaque on the wall of the site of the Parkesine Works. In September 2005, Parkes was posthumously inducted into the American Plastics Academy's Hall of Fame. He is buried in West Norwood Cemetery, London, although his memorial was removed in the 1970s. References ^ Anon, A Short Memoir of Alexander Parkes (1813–1890), Chemist and Inventor, Printed for Private Circulation, n.d., c. 1890; John Naish Goldsmith, Alexander Parkes, Xylonite and Celluloid, 1934; M. Kaufman, The First Century of Plastics, 1963. ^ M. Kaufman, op. cit., p. 17 ^ Obituary in Iron, pp. 73–4, 25 July 1890. ^ "Parkes process (chemistry)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20 August 2009. ^ UK Patent Office (1857). Patents for inventions. UK Patent Office. p. 255. ^ J.T.Bunce, Memoir of Sir Josiah Mason, p. 208; Simon Parkes, A Tale of Two Knives, Midland Ancestor, vol. 8, no. 4, June 1987. Henry Bore, The Story of the Invention of Steel Pens, 1890, at p. 20 says that Harrison made a steel pen for Joseph Priestley in about 1780, "probably the first steel pen ever produced." ^ The Times, 8 March 1937. ^ Anon, Op. Cit., p.14. ^ William Percy Webb, Notes on the Parkes Family, typescript c. 1930, in Society of Genealogists Library, London. ^ "Blue Plaques". UK: The Birmingham Civic Society. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2014. ^ "First plastic in the world". UK: London Borough of Hackney. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2014. ^ "Alexander Parkes". US: Plastics Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2014. External links Plastics Historical Society New materials: Plastics – Making the Modern World online exhibit, Science Museum, London. Friends of West Norwood Cemetery – Newsletter, May 2002, A Plastic Plaque for Parkes. Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National United States

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He created Parkesine, the first man-made plastic.","title":"Alexander Parkes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"brass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass"},{"link_name":"locks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(security_device)"},{"link_name":"founders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry"},{"link_name":"George and Henry Elkington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Elkington"},{"link_name":"electroplating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroplating"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"phosphorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus"},{"link_name":"bisulphide of carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_disulphide"},{"link_name":"nitrate of silver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrate_of_silver"},{"link_name":"Prince Albert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert,_Prince_Consort"},{"link_name":"Thomas Hancock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hancock_(inventor)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Henry Parkes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Parkes_(chemist)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Parkes process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkes_process"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Parkesine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkesine"},{"link_name":"thermoplastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoplastic"},{"link_name":"celluloid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celluloid"},{"link_name":"nitrocellulose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellulose"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Hackney Wick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackney_Wick"},{"link_name":"Xylonite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylonite_(plastic)"},{"link_name":"Daniel Spill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Spill"},{"link_name":"John Wesley Hyatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesley_Hyatt"},{"link_name":"celluloid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celluloid"}],"text":"The son of a manufacturer of brass locks, Parkes was apprenticed to Messenger and Sons, brass founders of Birmingham, before going to work for George and Henry Elkington, who patented the electroplating process.[1] Parkes was put in charge of the casting department, and his attention soon began to focus on electroplating. Parkes took out his first patent (No. 8905) in 1841 on a process for electroplating delicate works of art. His improved method for electroplating fine and fragile objects, such as flowers, was granted a patent in 1843. The process involved electroplating an object previously dipped in a solution of phosphorus contained in bisulphide of carbon, and then in nitrate of silver. A spider's web, silver-plated according to this method, was presented to Prince Albert when he visited the Elkington works in 1844.In total Parkes held at least 66 patents on processes and products, mostly related to electroplating and to development of plastics.In 1846, he patented the cold cure process for vulcanizing rubber, called by Thomas Hancock \"one of the most valuable and extraordinary discoveries of the age\".[2]\nHe pioneered the addition of small quantities of phosphorus to metals and alloys, and developed phosphor-bronze (patent 12325 of 1848, taken out jointly with his brother Henry Parkes).[3]\nIn 1850, he developed and patented the Parkes process for economically desilvering lead, also patenting refinements to the process in 1851 and 1852.[4]\nIn 1856, he patented Parkesine – the first thermoplastic – a celluloid based on nitrocellulose treated with a variety of solvents.[5] This material, exhibited at the 1862 London International Exhibition, anticipated many of the modern aesthetic and utility uses of plastics.\nIn 1866, he set up The Parkesine Company at Hackney Wick, London, for bulk low-cost production. It was not commercially successful, however, for Parkesine was expensive to produce, prone to cracking and highly flammable. The business closed in 1868.\nParkes' material was developed later in improved form as Xylonite by his associate Daniel Spill, who brought a patent infringement lawsuit – ultimately unsuccessful – against John Wesley Hyatt, developer of celluloid in the US. In 1870, however, the judge ruled that Parkes was the true inventor, owing to his original experiments.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Samuel Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Harrison_(inventor)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Josiah Mason","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah_Mason"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Howard Parkes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Parkes"},{"link_name":"Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Chartered_Certified_Accountants"},{"link_name":"Science Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Museum_(London)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Penkridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penkridge"},{"link_name":"Wednesbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wednesbury"},{"link_name":"Wolverhampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolverhampton"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Alexander Parkes was born at Suffolk Street, Birmingham, the fourth son of James Mears Parkes and his wife Kerenhappuch Childs. Samuel Harrison, described by Sir Josiah Mason as the inventor of the split-ring (or key-ring) and widely credited with the invention of the steel pen, was his great-uncle.[6] Parkes was twice married. By his first marriage, to Jane Henshall Moore (1817–50), he had four sons and two daughters (the cricketer Howard Parkes was a grandson), and by his second marriage, to Mary Ann Roderick (1835–1919), four sons and seven daughters. The elder surviving son of his second marriage, Alexander Parkes junior, sometime President of the Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants, presented many original specimens of Parkesine to the Science Museum in 1937, the core of the museum's Parkesine collection.[7]Parkes' younger brother Henry (1824–1909), a trained chemist, who was married to Fanny Roderick (1837–97), a sister of Alexander's second wife, assisted him in many of his experiments during a collaboration lasting more than fifty years.[8]It is believed that the Parkes family descends from the Rev. Michael Parkes, Vicar of Penkridge, Staffordshire (died 1617), and had close connections with the metal-working towns of Wednesbury and Wolverhampton in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.[9]","title":"Personal and family details"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_Parkes_Blue_Plaque.jpg"},{"link_name":"Plastics Historical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastics_Historical_Society"},{"link_name":"blue plaque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_plaque"},{"link_name":"Dulwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulwich"},{"link_name":"The Birmingham Civic Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birmingham_Civic_Society"},{"link_name":"Science Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Museum,_Birmingham"},{"link_name":"Newhall Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newhall_Street"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Plastics Academy's Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plastics_Hall_of_Fame&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"West Norwood Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Norwood_Cemetery"}],"text":"Blue plaque on the old Birmingham Science MuseumParkes is remembered in several locations:The Plastics Historical Society placed a blue plaque on his home in Dulwich, London, in 2002;\nThe Birmingham Civic Society erected a blue plaque commemorating him in 2004 on the original Elkington Silver Electroplating Works (the old Science Museum), Newhall Street, Birmingham;[10]\nThere is also a plaque on the wall of the site of the Parkesine Works.[11]In September 2005, Parkes was posthumously inducted into the American Plastics Academy's Hall of Fame.[12] He is buried in West Norwood Cemetery, London, although his memorial was removed in the 1970s.","title":"Legacy"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTX2010

RTX2010

["1 Characteristics","2 History","3 Example spacecraft that use the RTX2010","4 References","5 External links"]

Microprocessor by Intersil This article is missing information about RTX2000, RTX2001A, RTX2010 without RH (rad hardening). Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (April 2023) RTX 2010General informationLaunched1988; 36 years ago (1988)Common manufacturerIntersilPerformanceMax. CPU clock rate8 MHzData width8 and 16Address width20 The RTX2010, manufactured by Intersil, is a radiation hardened stack machine microprocessor which has been used in numerous spacecraft. Characteristics Block diagram of the Harris RTX 2000 processor It is a two-stack machine, each stack 256 words deep, that supports direct execution of Forth. Subroutine calls and returns only take one processor cycle and it also has a very low and consistent interrupt latency of only four processor cycles, which lends it well to realtime applications. History In 1983, Chuck Moore implemented a processor for his programming language Forth as a gate array. As Forth can be considered a dual stack virtual machine, he made the processor, Novix N4000 (later renamed NC4016), as a dual-stack machine. In 1988, an improved processor was sold to Harris Semiconductor, who marketed it for space applications as the RTX2000. Example spacecraft that use the RTX2010 Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) NEAR/Shoemaker TIMED Rosetta's lander - Philae References ^ US Expired 5070451A, Moore, Charles H. & Murphy, Robert W., "Forth specific language microprocessor", issued 1991-12-03, assigned to Intersil  External links "HS-RTX2010RH". Intersil. Archived from the original on 2011-06-15. Retrieved 2009-02-11. Intersil's product page. "HS-RTX2010RH Data Sheet" (PDF). Intersil. March 2000. 3961.3. Rash, James. "Space-Related Applications of Forth". NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on 2011-02-04. Hand, Tom. "The Harris RTX2000 Microcontroller" (PDF). The Journal of Forth Application and Research. 6 (1): 5–13. ISSN 0738-2022. Retrieved 2013-08-12. Koopman, Philip (1989). "4.5 Architecture of the Harris RTX 2000". Stack Computers: the new wave. Ellis Horwood. ISBN 978-0138379230. Retrieved 2016-04-16. Koopman, P.; Schuldt, M. (2018) . "RTX2000 Simulator: Linux port of MSDOS original". GitHub. while loading an image of Rick VanNorman's AppForth.

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[{"image_text":"Block diagram of the Harris RTX 2000 processor","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Harrys_figura1.jpg/220px-Harrys_figura1.jpg"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voder

Voder

["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]

Electronic voice synthesizer Schematic circuit of the VODER The Bell Telephone Laboratory's Voder (abbreviation of Voice Operating Demonstrator) was the first attempt to electronically synthesize human speech by breaking it down into its acoustic components. It was invented by Homer Dudley in 1937–1938 and developed on his earlier work on the vocoder. The quality of the speech was limited; however, it demonstrated the synthesis of the human voice, which became one component of the vocoder used in voice communications for security and to save bandwidth. The Voder synthesized human speech by imitating the effects of the human vocal tract. The operator could select one of two basic sounds by using a wrist bar. A buzz tone generated by a relaxation oscillator produced the voiced vowels and nasal sounds, with the pitch controlled by a foot pedal. A hissing noise produced by a white noise tube created the sibilants (voiceless fricative sounds). These initial sounds were passed through a bank of 10 band-pass filters that were selected by keys; their outputs were combined, amplified and fed to a loudspeaker. The filters were controlled by a set of keys and a foot pedal to convert the hisses and tones into vowels, consonants, and inflections. Additional special keys were provided to make the plosive sounds such as "p" or "d", and the affricative sounds of the "j" in "jaw" and the "ch" in "cheese". This was a complex machine to operate. After months of practice, a trained operator could produce recognizable speech. Voder demonstration by Bell Labs at the 1939 New York World's Fair Performances on the Voder were featured at the 1939 New York World's Fair and in San Francisco. Twenty operators were trained by Helen Harper, particularly noted for her skill with the machine. The machine said the words "Good afternoon, radio audience." The Voder was developed from research into compression schemes for transmission of voice on copper wires and for voice encryption. In 1948, Werner Meyer-Eppler recognized the capability of the Voder machine to generate electronic music, as described in Dudley's patent. Whereas the vocoder analyzes speech, transforms it into electronically transmitted information, and recreates it, the voder generates synthesized speech by means of a console with fifteen touch-sensitive keys and a pedal. It basically consists of the "second half" of the vocoder, but with manual filter controls, and requires a highly trained operator. See also Formant References ^ Bell System Technical Journal 1940, p. 509, Fig.8 Schematic circuit of the voder ^ a b Ben Gold, Nelson Morgan, Dan Ellis, Speech and Audio Signal Processing: Processing and Perception of Speech and Music. John Wiley & Sons, 2011; ISBN 1118142918, pages 9‒13 ^ Bell Telephone Quarterly 1940, p. 65, "At the New York World's Fair", THE VODER FASCINATES THE CROWDS - "The manipulative skill of the operator's fingers makes the Voder's voice almost too good to be true" ^ Guernsey, Lisa (August 9, 2001). "The Desktop That Does Elvis". The New York Times. Retrieved January 21, 2018. At the 1939 World's Fair in New York City, AT&T Bell Laboratories, a forerunner of AT&T Labs, unveiled a speech machine called the Voder. Six women were trained to operate the contraption, which was played like a pipe organ. When the machine said, "Good afternoon, radio audience," it sounded like an alien speaking under water. ^ Diesterhöft, Sonja (2003), "Meyer-Eppler und der Vocoder", Seminars Klanganalyse und -synthese (in German), Fachgebiet Kommunikationswissenschaft, Institut für Sprache und Kommunikation, Berlin Institute of Technology, archived from the original on 2008-03-05 ^ "Wendy Carlos Vocoder Q&A". Wendy Carlos. ^ "Homer Dudley's Speech Synthesisers, "The Vocoder" (1940) & "Voder"(1939)". Electronic Musical Instrument 1870–1990. 120 Years of Electronic Music (120years.net). Bibliography Dudley, Homer (October 1940). "The Carrier Nature of Speech". Bell System Technical Journal. XIX (4): 495–515 – via Internet Archive. Speech synthesizing is here discussed in the terminology of carrier circuits. ... Williams, Thomas W. (January 1940). "At the New York World's Fair". Our Exhibits at two Fairs. Bell Telephone Quarterly. XIX (1). New York: American Telephone & Telegraph Co.: 59–71 – via Internet Archive. More than Thirteen Million Visitors Enjoyed the Bell System's Hospitality, and Learned about It and Its Services, at the New York Fair and the San Francisco Exposition US application 2121142, Homer Dudley, "System for the artificial production of vocal or other sounds", published 21 June 1938, assigned to Bell Telephone Laboratories  External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to VODER. "The Voder" – has photos and block diagrams "The Voder - Homer Dudley (Bell Labs) 1939" (audio + slide). YouTube. – Voder singing the Scottish folk song "Auld Lang Syne" at 3'00" (20 sec).

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[{"title":"Formant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Woulfe

Peter Woulfe

["1 Alchemy","2 References","3 Notes","4 External links"]

Irish chemist Peter WoulfeBorn1727Tiermaclane, Ennis, County Clare, IrelandDied1803NationalityIrishAwardsCopley Medal (1768)Scientific careerFieldsChemistry mineralogist Peter Woulfe (1727–1803) was an Anglo-Irish chemist and mineralogist. He first had the idea that wolframite might contain a previously undiscovered element (tungsten). In 1771, Woulfe reported the formation of a yellow dye when indigo was treated with nitric acid. Later it was discovered by others that he had formed picric acid, which eventually was used as the first synthetic dye, an explosive and an antiseptic treatment for burns. Woulfe is credited with inventing, around 1767, the Woulfe Bottle, an apparatus for purifying or dissolving gases, which employed a bottle with two or three necks. Alchemy Woulfe has been described as being as much an alchemist and mystic as a scientist. As recorded by John Timbs: "The last true believer in alchemy was not Dr. Price, but Peter Woulfe, the eminent chemist, and Fellow of the Royal Society, and who made experiments to show the nature of mosaic gold . He had long vainly searched for the Elixir, and attributed his repeated failures to the want of due preparation by pious and charitable acts. I understand that some of his apparatus is still extant, upon which are supplications for success and for the welfare of the adepts." References Timbs, John (1866). English Eccentrics and Eccentricities. Vol. 1. : Chatto & Windus. OCLC 500018598. "Woulfe, Peter" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. OCLC 11414779 Notes ^ Woulfe, Peter (1779). "Experiments on some mineral substances". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 69: 11–34. doi:10.1098/rstl.1779.0004. S2CID 186212561. On pages 29–34, Woulfe analyzed a sample of a mineral from Joachimsthal (now: Jáchymov, Czech Republic) (see p. 30). On p. 31, Woulfe stated that the mineral contained "a new earth", and on pp. 32 and 34, he stated that it contained "some other earth". ^ Sharon Slater (30 September 2016). "Who was Peter Woulfe - The Last Alchemist". limerickslife.com. ^ See: Woulfe, Peter (1771). "A method of dying wool and silk, of a yellow colour, with indigo; and also with several other blue and red colouring substances". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 61: 127–130. doi:10.1098/rstl.1771.0015. Hartog, Philip Joseph (1885–1900). "Woulfe, Peter". Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 63. London, England: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 64. ^ See: Woulfe, Peter (1767). "Experiments on the distillation of acids, volatile alkalies, &c. shewing how they mayt be condensed without loss, and how thereby we may avoid disagreeable and noxious fumes: in a letter from Mr. Peter Woulfe, F.R.S. to John Ellis, Esq.; F.R.S." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 57: 517–536. Bibcode:1767RSPT...57..517W. doi:10.1098/rstl.1767.0052. "Woulfe, Peter", Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, 63 : pp. 63–64. Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary 1913. ^ Timbs, John (1866). English Eccentrics and Eccentricities. Vol. 1. London, England: Richard Bentley. pp. 136–137. External links Woulfe bottles (twonecked and threenecked); The Jagiellonian University Museum at the Wayback Machine (archived March 9, 2008) vteCopley Medallists (1751–1800) John Canton (1751) John Pringle (1752) Benjamin Franklin (1753) William Lewis (1754) John Huxham (1755) Charles Cavendish (1757) John Dollond (1758) John Smeaton (1759) Benjamin Wilson (1760) John Canton (1764) William Brownrigg / Edward Delaval / Henry Cavendish (1766) John Ellis (1767) Peter Woulfe (1768) William Hewson (1769) William Hamilton (1770) Matthew Raper (1771) Joseph Priestley (1772) John Walsh (1773) Nevil Maskelyne (1775) James Cook (1776) John Mudge (1777) Charles Hutton (1778) Samuel Vince (1780) William Herschel (1781) Richard Kirwan (1782) John Goodricke / Thomas Hutchins (1783) Edward Waring (1784) William Roy (1785) John Hunter (1787) Charles Blagden (1788) William Morgan (1789) James Rennell / Jean-André Deluc (1791) Benjamin Thompson (1792) Alessandro Volta (1794) Jesse Ramsden (1795) George Atwood (1796) George Shuckburgh-Evelyn / Charles Hatchett (1798) John Hellins (1799) Edward Charles Howard (1800) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States People Ireland Other SNAC

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He first had the idea that wolframite might contain a previously undiscovered element (tungsten).[1][2]In 1771, Woulfe reported the formation of a yellow dye when indigo was treated with nitric acid.[3]Later it was discovered by others that he had formed picric acid, which eventually was used as the first synthetic dye, an explosive and an antiseptic treatment for burns.Woulfe is credited with inventing, around 1767, the Woulfe Bottle, an apparatus for purifying or dissolving gases, which employed a bottle with two or three necks.[4]","title":"Peter Woulfe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"alchemist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemist"},{"link_name":"mystic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysticism"},{"link_name":"scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist"},{"link_name":"John Timbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Timbs"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"mosaic gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic_gold"},{"link_name":"tin(IV) sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin(IV)_sulfide"}],"text":"Woulfe has been described as being as much an alchemist and mystic as a scientist. As recorded by John Timbs:[5]\"The last true believer in alchemy was not Dr. Price, but Peter Woulfe, the eminent chemist, and Fellow of the Royal Society, and who made experiments to show the nature of mosaic gold [ tin(IV) sulfide, SnS2]. […] He had long vainly searched for the Elixir, and attributed his repeated failures to the want of due preparation by pious and charitable acts. I understand that some of his apparatus is still extant, upon which are supplications for success and for the welfare of the adepts.\"","title":"Alchemy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Experiments on some mineral substances\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000054592308&view=1up&seq=25"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1098/rstl.1779.0004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1779.0004"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"186212561","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186212561"},{"link_name":"Jáchymov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1chymov"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Sharon Slater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Slater"},{"link_name":"\"Who was Peter Woulfe - The Last Alchemist\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//limerickslife.com/peter-woulfe/"},{"link_name":"self-published source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"A method of dying wool and silk, of a yellow colour, with indigo; and also with several other blue and red colouring substances\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000054603066;view=1up;seq=155"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1098/rstl.1771.0015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1771.0015"},{"link_name":"\"Woulfe, Peter\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Woulfe,_Peter_(DNB00)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Experiments on the distillation of acids, volatile alkalies, &c. shewing how they mayt be condensed without loss, and how thereby we may avoid disagreeable and noxious fumes: in a letter from Mr. Peter Woulfe, F.R.S. to John Ellis, Esq.; F.R.S.\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zenodo.org/record/1432252"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1767RSPT...57..517W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1767RSPT...57..517W"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1098/rstl.1767.0052","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1767.0052"},{"link_name":"\"Woulfe, Peter\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Woulfe,_Peter_(DNB00)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"English Eccentrics and Eccentricities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/englisheccentri00timbgoog#page/n148"}],"text":"^ Woulfe, Peter (1779). \"Experiments on some mineral substances\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 69: 11–34. doi:10.1098/rstl.1779.0004. S2CID 186212561. On pages 29–34, Woulfe analyzed a sample of a mineral from Joachimsthal (now: Jáchymov, Czech Republic) (see p. 30). On p. 31, Woulfe stated that the mineral contained \"a new earth\", and on pp. 32 and 34, he stated that it contained \"some other earth\".\n\n^ Sharon Slater (30 September 2016). \"Who was Peter Woulfe - The Last Alchemist\". limerickslife.com.[self-published source]\n\n^ See:\nWoulfe, Peter (1771). \"A method of dying wool and silk, of a yellow colour, with indigo; and also with several other blue and red colouring substances\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 61: 127–130. doi:10.1098/rstl.1771.0015.\nHartog, Philip Joseph (1885–1900). \"Woulfe, Peter\". Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 63. London, England: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 64.\n\n^ See:\nWoulfe, Peter (1767). \"Experiments on the distillation of acids, volatile alkalies, &c. shewing how they mayt be condensed without loss, and how thereby we may avoid disagreeable and noxious fumes: in a letter from Mr. Peter Woulfe, F.R.S. to John Ellis, Esq.; F.R.S.\" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 57: 517–536. Bibcode:1767RSPT...57..517W. doi:10.1098/rstl.1767.0052.\n\"Woulfe, Peter\", Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, 63 : pp. 63–64.\nWebster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary 1913.\n\n^ Timbs, John (1866). English Eccentrics and Eccentricities. Vol. 1. London, England: Richard Bentley. pp. 136–137.","title":"Notes"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_load

Structural load

["1 Types","2 Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures","2.1 Dead load","2.2 Live load","2.3 Environmental loads","2.4 Other loads","2.5 Load combinations","3 Aircraft structural loads","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Mechanical loads (forces) applied to a structure or its components A structural load or structural action is a mechanical load (more generally a force) applied to structural elements. A load causes stress, deformation, displacement or acceleration in a structure. Structural analysis, a discipline in engineering, analyzes the effects of loads on structures and structural elements. Excess load may cause structural failure, so this should be considered and controlled during the design of a structure. Particular mechanical structures—such as aircraft, satellites, rockets, space stations, ships, and submarines—are subject to their own particular structural loads and actions. Engineers often evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations, contracts, or specifications. Accepted technical standards are used for acceptance testing and inspection. Types This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In civil engineering, specified loads are the best estimate of the actual loads a structure is expected to carry. These loads come in many different forms, such as people, equipment, vehicles, wind, rain, snow, earthquakes, the building materials themselves, etc. Specified loads also known as characteristic loads in many cases. Buildings will be subject to loads from various sources. The principal ones can be classified as live loads (loads which are not always present in the structure), dead loads (loads which are permanent and immovable excepting redesign or renovation) and wind load, as described below. In some cases structures may be subject to other loads, such as those due to earthquakes or pressures from retained material. The expected maximum magnitude of each is referred to as the characteristic load. Dead loads are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time. They can be in tension or compression. The term can refer to a laboratory test method or to the normal usage of a material or structure. Live loads are usually variable or moving loads. These can have a significant dynamic element and may involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids, etc. An impact load is one whose time of application on a material is less than one-third of the natural period of vibration of that material. Cyclic loads on a structure can lead to fatigue damage, cumulative damage, or failure. These loads can be repeated loadings on a structure or can be due to vibration. Imposed loads are those associated with occupation and use of the building; their magnitude is less clearly defined and is generally related to the use of the building. Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures Structural loads are an important consideration in the design of buildings. Building codes require that structures be designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely to face during their service life, while remaining fit for use. Minimum loads or actions are specified in these building codes for types of structures, geographic locations, usage and building materials. Structural loads are split into categories by their originating cause. In terms of the actual load on a structure, there is no difference between dead or live loading, but the split occurs for use in safety calculations or ease of analysis on complex models. To meet the requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, building codes prescribe that, for structural design, loads are increased by load factors. These load factors are, roughly, a ratio of the theoretical design strength to the maximum load expected in service. They are developed to help achieve the desired level of reliability of a structure based on probabilistic studies that take into account the load's originating cause, recurrence, distribution, and static or dynamic nature. Dead load Dead load The dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time, including the weight of the structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as walls, plasterboard or carpet. The roof is also a dead load. Dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads. Building materials are not dead loads until constructed in permanent position. IS875(part 1)-1987 give unit weight of building materials, parts, components. Live load Imposed load (live load) Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or a moving load. These dynamic loads may involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids and material fatigue. Live loads, sometimes also referred to as probabilistic loads, include all the forces that are variable within the object's normal operation cycle not including construction or environmental loads. Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers, equipment and materials, and during the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters and people. Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling over the deck of the bridge. Environmental loads Live snow load Environmental loads are structural loads caused by natural forces such as wind, rain, snow, earthquake or extreme temperatures. Wind loads Snow, rain and ice loads Seismic loads Hydrostatic loads Temperature changes leading to thermal expansion cause thermal loads Ponding loads Frost heaving Lateral pressure of soil, groundwater or bulk materials Loads from fluids or floods Permafrost melting Dust loads Other loads Engineers must also be aware of other actions that may affect a structure, such as: Foundation settlement or displacement Fire Corrosion Explosion Creep or shrinkage Impact from vehicles or machinery vibration Construction loads Load combinations A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure. Building codes usually specify a variety of load combinations together with load factors (weightings) for each load type in order to ensure the safety of the structure under different maximum expected loading scenarios. For example, in designing a staircase, a dead load factor may be 1.2 times the weight of the structure, and a live load factor may be 1.6 times the maximum expected live load. These two "factored loads" are combined (added) to determine the "required strength" of the staircase. The size of the load factor is based on the probability of exceeding any specified design load. Dead loads have small load factors, such as 1.2, because weight is mostly known and accounted for, such as structural members, architectural elements and finishes, large pieces of mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) equipment, and for buildings, it's common to include a Super Imposed Dead Load (SIDL) of around 5 pounds per square foot (psf) accounting for miscellaneous weight such as bolts and other fasteners, cabling, and various fixtures or small architectural elements. Live loads, on the other hand, can be furniture, moveable equipment, or the people themselves, and may increase beyond normal or expected amounts in some situations, so a larger factor of 1.6 attempts to quantify this extra variability. Snow will also use a maximum factor of 1.6, while lateral loads (earthquakes and wind) are defined such that a 1.0 load factor is practical. Multiple loads may be added together in different ways, such as 1.2*Dead + 1.0*Live + 1.0*Earthquake + 0.2*Snow, or 1.2*Dead + 1.6(Snow, Live(roof), OR Rain) + (1.0*Live OR 0.5*Wind). Aircraft structural loads For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads. Limit loads are the maximum loads a component or structure may carry safely. Ultimate loads are the limit loads times a factor of 1.5 or the point beyond which the component or structure will fail. Gust loads are determined statistically and are provided by an agency such as the Federal Aviation Administration. Crash loads are loosely bounded by the ability of structures to survive the deceleration of a major ground impact. Other loads that may be critical are pressure loads (for pressurized, high-altitude aircraft) and ground loads. Loads on the ground can be from adverse braking or maneuvering during taxiing. Aircraft are constantly subjected to cyclic loading. These cyclic loads can cause metal fatigue. See also Hotel New World disaster – caused by omitting the dead load of the building in load calculations Influence line Probabilistic design Mechanical load Structural testing Southwell plot References ^ ASCE/SEI 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. American Society of Civil Engineers. 2006. p. 1. ISBN 0-7844-0809-2. ^ "1.5.3.1". Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design EN 1990. Bruxelles: European Committee for Standardization. 2002. ^ Avallone, E.A.; Baumeister, T. (eds.). Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 11–42. ISBN 0-07-004997-1. ^ "2.2.1(1)". Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design EN 1990. Bruxelles: European Committee for Standardization. 2002. ^ "1604.2". International Building Code. USA: International Code Council. 2000. p. 295. ISBN 1-892395-26-6. ^ "2.2.5(b)". Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design EN 1990. Bruxelles: European Committee for Standardization. 2002. ^ Rao, Singiresu S. (1992). Reliability Based Design. USA: McGraw-Hill. pp. 214–227. ISBN 0-07-051192-6. ^ 2006 International Building Code Section 1602.1. ^ EN 1990 Euro code – Basis of structural design section 4.1.1 ^ EN 1991-1-1 Euro code 1: Actions on Structures – Part 1-1: General actions – densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings section 3.2 ^ a b Bruce K. Donaldson, Analysis of Aircraft Structures: An Introduction (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 126 ^ Experimental Mechanics: Advances in Design, Testing and Analysis, Volume 1, ed. I. M. Allison (Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema Publishers, 1998), p. 379 ^ Bruce K. Donaldson, Analysis of Aircraft Structures: An Introduction (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 129 External links Luebkeman, Chris H., and Donald Petting "Lecture 17: Primary Loads". University of Oregon. 1996 Fisette, Paul, and the American Wood Council. "Understanding Loads and Using Span Tables". 1997. Archived 2015-05-06 at the Wayback Machine

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mechanical load","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_load"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"structural elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering#Structural_elements"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"stress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(physics)"},{"link_name":"deformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deformation_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"displacement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_(vector)"},{"link_name":"acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration"},{"link_name":"structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure"},{"link_name":"Structural analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_analysis"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"structural failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_failure"},{"link_name":"aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft"},{"link_name":"satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite"},{"link_name":"rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket"},{"link_name":"space stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station"},{"link_name":"ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship"},{"link_name":"submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"regulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation"},{"link_name":"contracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract"},{"link_name":"specifications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specification"},{"link_name":"technical standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_standard"},{"link_name":"acceptance testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance_testing"},{"link_name":"inspection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspection"}],"text":"A structural load or structural action is a mechanical load (more generally a force) applied to structural elements.[1][2] A load causes stress, deformation, displacement or acceleration in a structure. Structural analysis, a discipline in engineering, analyzes the effects of loads on structures and structural elements. Excess load may cause structural failure, so this should be considered and controlled during the design of a structure. Particular mechanical structures—such as aircraft, satellites, rockets, space stations, ships, and submarines—are subject to their own particular structural loads and actions.[3] Engineers often evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations, contracts, or specifications. Accepted technical standards are used for acceptance testing and inspection.","title":"Structural load"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"civil engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering"},{"link_name":"loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"live loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_load"},{"link_name":"dead loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_load"},{"link_name":"static forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_load"},{"link_name":"tension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tension_(physics)"},{"link_name":"compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physics)"},{"link_name":"moving loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_load"},{"link_name":"impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum"},{"link_name":"vibration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibration"},{"link_name":"slosh dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slosh_dynamics"},{"link_name":"fatigue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material)"},{"link_name":"vibration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibration"}],"text":"In civil engineering, specified loads are the best estimate of the actual loads a structure is expected to carry. These loads come in many different forms, such as people, equipment, vehicles, wind, rain, snow, earthquakes, the building materials themselves, etc. Specified loads also known as characteristic loads in many cases.Buildings will be subject to loads from various sources. The principal ones can be classified as live loads (loads which are not always present in the structure), dead loads (loads which are permanent and immovable excepting redesign or renovation) and wind load, as described below. In some cases structures may be subject to other loads, such as those due to earthquakes or pressures from retained material. The expected maximum magnitude of each is referred to as the characteristic load.Dead loads are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time. They can be in tension or compression. The term can refer to a laboratory test method or to the normal usage of a material or structure.Live loads are usually variable or moving loads. These can have a significant dynamic element and may involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids, etc.An impact load is one whose time of application on a material is less than one-third of the natural period of vibration of that material.Cyclic loads on a structure can lead to fatigue damage, cumulative damage, or failure. These loads can be repeated loadings on a structure or can be due to vibration.Imposed loads are those associated with occupation and use of the building; their magnitude is less clearly defined and is generally related to the use of the building.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Building codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_code"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"building materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_material"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"load factors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lrfd#Factor_Development"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"static","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_load"},{"link_name":"dynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_load"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Structural loads are an important consideration in the design of buildings. Building codes require that structures be designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely to face during their service life, while remaining fit for use.[4] Minimum loads or actions are specified in these building codes for types of structures, geographic locations, usage and building materials.[5] Structural loads are split into categories by their originating cause. In terms of the actual load on a structure, there is no difference between dead or live loading, but the split occurs for use in safety calculations or ease of analysis on complex models.To meet the requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, building codes prescribe that, for structural design, loads are increased by load factors. These load factors are, roughly, a ratio of the theoretical design strength to the maximum load expected in service. They are developed to help achieve the desired level of reliability of a structure[6] based on probabilistic studies that take into account the load's originating cause, recurrence, distribution, and static or dynamic nature.[7]","title":"Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DeadLoad.svg"},{"link_name":"plasterboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasterboard"},{"link_name":"carpet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpet"},{"link_name":"static loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_load"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reference_A-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reference_B-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reference_C-10"}],"sub_title":"Dead load","text":"Dead loadThe dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time, including the weight of the structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as walls, plasterboard or carpet. The roof is also a dead load. Dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads. Building materials are not dead loads until constructed in permanent position.[8][9][10] IS875(part 1)-1987 give unit weight of building materials, parts, components.","title":"Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IMPOSED_lOAD.jpg"},{"link_name":"moving load","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_load"},{"link_name":"dynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum"},{"link_name":"vibration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibration"},{"link_name":"slosh dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slosh_dynamics"},{"link_name":"fatigue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material)"}],"sub_title":"Live load","text":"Imposed load (live load)Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or a moving load. These dynamic loads may involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids and material fatigue.Live loads, sometimes also referred to as probabilistic loads, include all the forces that are variable within the object's normal operation cycle not including construction or environmental loads.Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers, equipment and materials, and during the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters and people.Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling over the deck of the bridge.","title":"Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SNOW_LOAD.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wind loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_engineering"},{"link_name":"Snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow#Design_of_structures_considering_snow_load"},{"link_name":"Seismic loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_loading"},{"link_name":"Hydrostatic loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic_load"},{"link_name":"Temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"thermal expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansion"},{"link_name":"thermal loads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermal_load&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ponding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponding"},{"link_name":"Frost heaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_heaving"},{"link_name":"soil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil"},{"link_name":"groundwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater"},{"link_name":"floods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood"},{"link_name":"Permafrost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrost"}],"sub_title":"Environmental loads","text":"Live snow loadEnvironmental loads are structural loads caused by natural forces such as wind, rain, snow, earthquake or extreme temperatures.Wind loads\nSnow, rain and ice loads\nSeismic loads\nHydrostatic loads\nTemperature changes leading to thermal expansion cause thermal loads\nPonding loads\nFrost heaving\nLateral pressure of soil, groundwater or bulk materials\nLoads from fluids or floods\nPermafrost melting\nDust loads","title":"Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"settlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)"},{"link_name":"Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_fire"},{"link_name":"Corrosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion"},{"link_name":"Explosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosion"},{"link_name":"Creep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creep_(deformation)"},{"link_name":"Construction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction"}],"sub_title":"Other loads","text":"Engineers must also be aware of other actions that may affect a structure, such as:Foundation settlement or displacement\nFire\nCorrosion\nExplosion\nCreep or shrinkage\nImpact from vehicles or machinery vibration\nConstruction loads","title":"Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Building codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_code"},{"link_name":"load factors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lrfd#Factor_Development"},{"link_name":"staircase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staircase"}],"sub_title":"Load combinations","text":"A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure. Building codes usually specify a variety of load combinations together with load factors (weightings) for each load type in order to ensure the safety of the structure under different maximum expected loading scenarios. For example, in designing a staircase, a dead load factor may be 1.2 times the weight of the structure, and a live load factor may be 1.6 times the maximum expected live load. These two \"factored loads\" are combined (added) to determine the \"required strength\" of the staircase.The size of the load factor is based on the probability of exceeding any specified design load. Dead loads have small load factors, such as 1.2, because weight is mostly known and accounted for, such as structural members, architectural elements and finishes, large pieces of mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) equipment, and for buildings, it's common to include a Super Imposed Dead Load (SIDL) of around 5 pounds per square foot (psf) accounting for miscellaneous weight such as bolts and other fasteners, cabling, and various fixtures or small architectural elements. Live loads, on the other hand, can be furniture, moveable equipment, or the people themselves, and may increase beyond normal or expected amounts in some situations, so a larger factor of 1.6 attempts to quantify this extra variability. Snow will also use a maximum factor of 1.6, while lateral loads (earthquakes and wind) are defined such that a 1.0 load factor is practical. Multiple loads may be added together in different ways, such as 1.2*Dead + 1.0*Live + 1.0*Earthquake + 0.2*Snow, or 1.2*Dead + 1.6(Snow, Live(roof), OR Rain) + (1.0*Live OR 0.5*Wind).","title":"Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Donaldson126-11"},{"link_name":"maximum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Donaldson126-11"},{"link_name":"statistically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"Federal Aviation Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration"},{"link_name":"deceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deceleration"},{"link_name":"ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_surface"},{"link_name":"impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/impact"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"taxiing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxiing"},{"link_name":"metal fatigue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Donaldson129-13"}],"text":"For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads.[11] Limit loads are the maximum loads a component or structure may carry safely. Ultimate loads are the limit loads times a factor of 1.5 or the point beyond which the component or structure will fail.[11] Gust loads are determined statistically and are provided by an agency such as the Federal Aviation Administration. Crash loads are loosely bounded by the ability of structures to survive the deceleration of a major ground impact.[12] Other loads that may be critical are pressure loads (for pressurized, high-altitude aircraft) and ground loads. Loads on the ground can be from adverse braking or maneuvering during taxiing. Aircraft are constantly subjected to cyclic loading. These cyclic loads can cause metal fatigue.[13]","title":"Aircraft structural loads"}]

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[{"title":"Hotel New World disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel_New_World_disaster"},{"title":"Influence line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influence_line"},{"title":"Probabilistic design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilistic_design"},{"title":"Mechanical load","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_load"},{"title":"Structural testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_testing"},{"title":"Southwell plot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwell_plot"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-City_Intangible_Cultural_Cooperation_Network

Inter-City Intangible Cultural Cooperation Network

["1 History, Missions, and Vision","1.1 History","1.2 Missions","1.3 Vision","2 ICCN Activities","3 ICCN Members","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) ICCNThe Inter-City Intangible Cultural Cooperation NetworkEstablished2004Founded atEgypt, 2008Registration no.90228Legal statusAccredited by UNESCOHeadquartersAlgemesíLocationValencian Museum of Festivities, st. Nou del Convent, 71, Algemesí, Valencia, 46680, SpainOfficial language EnglishSecretary GeneralICCN Algemesí SecretariatWebsitewww.iccnunesco.org The Inter-City Intangible Cultural Cooperation Network (ICCN) is the only international organization of local governments and cultural organizations that aim to safeguard the world’s Intangible Cultural Heritage. The ICCN has been working to explore creative and effective policies for the safeguarding of local Intangible Cultural Heritage and its inseparable relation to sustainable local development. Furthermore, we aim to make cultural peace based on mutual understanding formed through intercultural dialogue. History, Missions, and Vision History The Inter-City Intangible Cultural Cooperation Network (ICCN) was established as a platform for the world-wide collaboration of local authorities for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage as a vital component of sustainable development. The initiative for the creation of the ICCN was started at the first International Round Table of Mayors, in Gangneung City, Republic of Korea in 2004. As the following action, the participants of the 2008 Round Table of Mayors unanimously agreed to the official founding of the ICCN in Egypt. 2019 9th ICCN Thematic Workshop in Beit Sahour, Palestine Theme: “The Role of Folklore Festival in Preserving Culture and Identity” 2018 7th ICCN General Assembly in Algemesí, Spain Theme: “I want to know your heritage” 2017 8th ICCN Thematic Workshop in Beijing, China Theme: “Intangible Cultural Heritage and Children Education” 2016 6th ICCN General Assembly in Sicily, Italy Theme: “The Intangible Heritage and the Sustainable Development processes” 2015 7th ICCN Workshop in Cachtice-Kopanice, Slovakia Theme: “ICH Policies to Transmit a Community’s Identity Between Generations.” 2014 5th ICCN General Assembly/ International Women’s Forum in Isfahan, Iran Theme: “Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Process of Urbanization” 2nd ICCN WORLD INTANGIBLE CULTURAL FESTIVAL (Isfahan, Iran) 2013 6th Thematic Workshop/3rd ICCN International Youth Forum in Dubrovnik, Croatia Theme: “Youth in safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage” 2012 4th ICCN General Assembly/ 3rd ICCN International Youth Forum in Gangneung, Korea Theme: “The current status of the implementation of the UNESCO 2003 Convention at a local government level and its contribution for sustainable local development” 1st ICCN WORLD INTANGIBLE CULTURAL FESTIVAL (Gangneung, Korea) Accredited as an Advisory NGO to the Intergovernmental Committee of UNESCO (June 7) 2011 5th Thematic Workshop/2nd ICCN International Youth Forum in Gannat, France Theme: “How partnership between Local governments, NGOs, and volunteers may have positive impact on ICH safeguarding activities and local development?” 2010 3rd International Round Table of Mayors/ 1st ICCN Youth Forum in VLCNOV, Czech Republic Theme: “State/Local Government’s approach to Intangible Cultural Heritage and the Cultural Policies of countries around the world” 2009 4th Thematic Workshop in Kingston, Jamaica Theme: “Local government at the forefront of preserving tour Intangible Cultural Heritage” 2008 2nd International Round Table of Mayors in Cairo, Egypt (Official Founding of ICCN) Theme: “The Role of Women in Safeguarding of Traditional Cultures and Maintenance of Cultural Diversity” 2007 3rd Thematic Workshop in Pecs, Hungary Theme: “Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage by Building the Network” 2006 2nd Thematic Workshop in GANGNEUNG, Republic of Korea Theme: “Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage and Participation of Young People” 2005 1st Thematic Workshop in GANGNEUNG, Republic of Korea Theme: “Sustainable Development, Safeguarding the Intangible Cultural Heritage and Promoting Inter-City Network” 2004 1st International Round Table of Mayors in GANGNEUNG, Korea Missions To cooperate with local authorities/cities for equal and friendly sharing of living heritage To realize the well being of communities with local culture Vision Worldwide Living Heritage celebrated and communities empowered ICCN Activities Partnership with local authorities: Joint participation of mayor and community to ICCN activities International Conference on local cases in the field of the safeguarding ICH General Assembly (Roundtable of Mayors), Thematic Workshop ICCN World Intangible Culture Festival (1st in Gangneung, Korea, 2012/ 2nd in Isfahan, Iran, 2014) ICCN Youth Forum/ International Women’s forum Promoting dialogue and live interaction among members ICCN Members 1.Full Members: Full Members are accredited local authorities as represented by mayors or governors. The Full Member has the right to be represented at the ICCN meetings and events, initiate and promote the cooperative projects within ICCN. Current Full members: 32 Local governments in 28 States Kingston (Jamaica), Ifugao (Philippines), Gangneung (Republic of Korea), Vlcnov (Czech Republic), Gannat (France), Kalivia (Greece), Pecs (Hungary), Monreale (Italy), Levanto (Italy), Qalyubiya (Egypt), Nishabour (Iran), Shiraz (Iran), Rosh Ha’Ayin (Israel), Nevsehir (Turkey), Isfahan (Iran), The Association of Municipalities Cachtice-Kopanice (Cachtice, Vadovce, Kostolna, Hrasne, Jablonka, Priepasne, Kosariska and Podkylava/ Slovakia), Banepa (Nepal), Dubrovnik (Croatia), Beit Sahour (Palestine), Irkutsk (Russia), Bagerhat (Bangladesh), Samarkand (Uzbekistan), Galle (Sri Lanka), Algemesí (Spain), Mangshi (China), Jeongseon (Republic of Korea), Levuka (Fiji), Valletta (Malta), Valparaiso (Chile), Xochimilco (Mexico) 2.Associate Members: Associate Members are accredited NGOs, organizations of custodians, performers and other actors of intangible cultural heritage, specialized organizations for safeguarding of the cultural heritage. Associate Members may participate in the ICCN meetings and events, and support the ICCN with their specific experiences in the related field. Current Associate members: 25 institutes in 21 States Algerian Forum for the Citizenship and the Modernity (FACM, Algeria), Khmer Arts (Cambodia), Culture and Heritage Institute at Centennial College (Canada), Yiswind Institute of Multicultural Education (China), Association Nationale Cultures et Traditions (ANCT, France), Pusol Museums of School (Spain), COPPEM (Italy), Czech Ethnographical Society (Czech Republic), Artesol (Brazil), Craft Revival Trust (India), The Companion of Aria (Iran), Valencian Museum of Festivities Algemesí (Spain), Hong Kong Culture Heritage Studies and Promotion Association (China), Vietnamese Women’s Museum (Vietnam), Tropen Museum (The Netherlands), Israeli Organization of Local Authorities Culture Managers (Israel), ELEVI (Israel), Macedonian Research Society(Macedonia), Gangneung Danoje Festival Committee (Republic of Korea), Jeongseon Arirang Culture Foundation (Republic of Korea), Center for Cultural Heritage Preservation (Palestine), Dialogue Association for Culture and Creativity(Mauritania), Qatar Museums Authority(Qatar), ICH-Kuwait Committee (Kuwait), Lindjo Folklore Ensemble (Croatia) 3. Executive Board: The Executive Board is made up of 10 members (including maximum 3 associate members) and shall be elected by a majority of the ICCN Members present and voting at the General Assembly. It will perform to prepare agendas and annual actions of the ICCN and to implement other activities to administer the ICCN. Current Board members: Gangneung (Republic of Korea), Vlcnov (Czech Republic), Monreale (Italy), Isfahan (Iran), Shiraz (Iran), Xochimilco (Mexico), Algemesi (Spain), FACM (Algeria), ANCT (France) See also UNESCO Asia-Europe Foundation References External links Cultural heritage associations: UNESCO (https://en.unesco.org/) Gangneung City (http://www.gangneung.go.kr/english/ City government home page) Korean sightseeing (http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?areaCode=32,1 Archived 2012-03-05 at the Wayback Machine Gangneung-si:Official Site of Korea Tourism Org) Seonggyojang House (http://www.knsgj.net Seongyojang House)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_Computer_Corporation

Concurrent Computer Corporation

["1 Origins and initial efforts","2 Merger with MASSCOMP","3 Merger with Harris Computer Systems","4 End","5 References","6 External links"]

American computing vendor Concurrent Computer CorporationCompany typePublicTraded asNasdaq: CCURIndustryComputer systemsFounded1985; 39 years ago (1985)Fate2017, pieces acquired by Battery Ventures and Vecima NetworksHeadquartersMonmouth County, NJFort Lauderdale, FLDuluth, GAKey peopleJames K. SimsDenis R. BrownJohn StihlCorky SiegelProductsSeries 3200Series 5000Series 6000Series 8000iHawkMediaHawkRevenue$247 million (1987)Number of employees1,700 (1985)2,800 (1988)1,250 (1993)Websitewww.ccur.com Concurrent Computer Corporation was an American computer company, in existence from 1985 to 2017, that made real-time computing and parallel processing systems. Its products powered a variety of applications including process control, simulators, data acquisition, and video-on-demand. It was based in Monmouth County, New Jersey, initially, and then later in Fort Lauderdale, Florida and Duluth, Georgia. Origins and initial efforts The company was created in November 1985 when the computing division of Perkin-Elmer, the Data Systems Group, was spun off as a separate company. The computing group, which had started out as the company Interdata before Perkin-Elmer acquired it in 1974, had been profitable with sales of $259 million, but had tended to have reduced visibility within the computing industry due to being owned by a diversified parent. At first, the new company was a wholly owned subsidiary of Perkin-Elmer, but with the intentions of putting a minority ownership in the company up for a public stock offering. This was subsequently done, with Perkin-Elmer retaining an 82 percent stake in Concurrent; the remainder went on sale in February 1986 and opened at $20 per share. The stock traded on the NASDAQ exchange. Promotional ceramic mug c. late 1980s, showing the company's original logo James K. Sims, who had been general manager of the computer unit within Perkin-Elmer, became president and CEO of the new company. It had a large presence in Monmouth County, New Jersey, with some 1,700 staff making it one of the county's largest private employers. Its plant in Oceanport had 800 employees alone. By 1987, Concurrent had nine separate offices in various locations in Monmouth County. Corporate headquarters had initially been Holmdel, but during 1987 moved to Tinton Falls. Concurrent Computer Corporation had engineering offices and sometimes its headquarters in this building (seen here in 2022) in Tinton Falls, New Jersey The initial focus of Concurrent Computer Corporation was in the 32-bit superminicomputer market, with an offering that emphasized parallel processing. Their oldest product was the Series 3200, which came from its Interdata heritage and was based around a proprietary discrete component processor that supported 8 sets of registers and was built using the AMD Am2900 bit-slice chip set. The 3200 Series ran the OS/32 real-time operating system. Two newer products were the Series 5000, based on a Motorola 68020 processor, and the Series 6000, based on a Motorola 68030. In these products, the company focused on the market for high-end, rapid-response applications. Aircraft simulators were an especially important market. Many of Concurrent's customers were in the defense and aerospace industry. Accordingly, Concurrent offered a line of compilers for the Ada programming language that at the time was often mandated for such applications. The company's C3Ada product came out in 1987; it ran on OS/32 and was among the early wave of commercial products to get past the strenuous Ada Compiler Validation Capability (ACVC) validation suite. The company's languages group investigated the challenges of implementing Ada, with its built-in tasking feature, on a real-time system with multiple processors, and in how best the requirements of real-time systems could be expressed in the language. The Fortran programming language was perhaps the most popular choice for applications on the Concurrent platform. Optimizing Fortran for a shared-memory multiprocessor presented special issues regarding do loops and cache thrashing, a subject that the compiler staff at Concurrent studied extensively. By 1988, there were some 2,800 employees in the company overall, and at its peak, the Oceanport manufacturing facility would have nearly 1,000 people working at it. Revenue for 1987 was $247 million. Merger with MASSCOMP An announcement was made on August 1, 1988, that there would be a merger between Concurrent Computer Corporation and the Massachusetts Computer Corporation (MASSCOMP). Technically, MASSCOMP purchased Concurrent for $241 million and was the surviving company, even though Concurrent was more than three times the larger of the two. This "minnow-swallows-the-whale" style of merger was prevalent during the 1980s and in this case, as often happened in the era, it was largely financed by junk bonds. As part of the deal, MASSCOMP bought out Perkin-Elmer's share in Concurrent. Unusually, the merged entity kept the name Concurrent Computer Corporation and Sims remained as CEO of it. The merged company's headquarters was the one used for Concurrent in New Jersey, which was also somewhat atypical. The transaction closed on September 27, 1988. This large building in Oceanport, New Jersey, was the site of Concurrent's manufacturing facility and sometimes its headquarters (seen here in 2022); it consisted of four interconnected structures that were built during the Interdata and Perkin-Elmer years The idea behind the merger was to use MASSCOMP's lower-end offerings in the real-time space to complement Concurrent's higher-end products. In addition, MASSCOMP brought expertise in the Unix operating system, which was rapidly becoming the popular choice for these kind of system offerings. The MASSCOMP flavor of Unix was called RTU, for Real-time Unix. It was featured as the operating system on the Series 5000 and Series 6000 systems. As it happened, the merger was fraught with obstacles. The debt load imposed by the acquisition proved difficult to reduce, a problem made worse by the advent of the early 1990s recession in the United States, and there were a series of layoffs in the Monmouth County facilities. There were also severe clashes of company culture and dueling product development teams. Finally, improved offerings in the real-time space by larger competitors such as IBM and Digital Equipment Corporation proved difficult to undercut. As one industry analyst subsequently said, the merger "didn't produce anything but problems for Concurrent." In 1990 there was a change at the CEO position at Concurrent, with Sims out and Denis R. Brown in. Soon as well a turnaround expert had been brought in. Another CEO switch happened in 1993, with John Stihl taking over. The company continued to be involved in the Ada language world during the 1990s. This included being a rapporteur during the Ada 9X definition process, as well as participating in the definition of the Ada Semantic Interface Specification (ASIS). By the early 1990s, Concurrent had about 1,250 employees. It put out the Series 8000 product, which was based on the MIPS R3000 processor with RTU running on it. The company's major sales areas were in applications that included weather forecasting, air control, radar simulation, and financial trading. Merger with Harris Computer Systems Due to repayments and a debt-for-equity swap, by 1995 the company's debt load had been reduced from $200 million to under $25 million. A competitor at this point was Harris Computer Systems, a real-time computer systems enterprise recently spun off from Harris Corporation. In 1995, Harris Computer Systems, led by its chief executive E. Courtney "Corky" Siegel, looked to buy Concurrent Computer Corporation, but the discussions ended in acrimony. Negotiations resumed the following year, albeit in the opposite direction, and in June 1996, Concurrent acquired the high-performance computer business of Harris Computer Systems. However, the corporate headquarters was moved from New Jersey to Harris's location of Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Most of the rest of the New Jersey operations, which had been dwindling due to rounds of layoffs and employees leaving, soon followed. As the Asbury Park Press wrote of the Oceanport facility, "The former headquarters of Concurrent Computer Corp. a once bustling place that has been nearly emptied by corporate downsizing". In July 1997, Concurrent sold the Oceanport building, although it still leasebacked a smaller manufacturing and servicing capability within it, responsible for keeping going an older product line. In 1999, the headquarters of Concurrent was again moved, to Duluth, Georgia, in the Atlanta metropolitan area. Now CEO of Concurrent, Siegel said the relocation was for better executive access to the rest of the country and for a better talent pool; a factory remained in Pompano Beach, Florida. While Siegel wanted to emphasize the company's video-on-demand product, called MediaHawk, most of the company's $82 million in annual revenues still came from the real-time systems product line. By the early 2000s, Concurrent was continuing its focus on the video-on-demand market and was selling to companies such as AOL Time Warner and Cox Communications. It also still had a presence in the defense industry, though, with Lockheed Martin as a customer. Its real-time systems were run using RedHawk Linux , Concurrent's adaptation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux for real-time requirements. By this time, Concurrent's systems were based on the Intel/AMD processor architecture. Technologies such as these were included in Concurrent's iHawk systems product. End During 2017, the pieces of Concurrent Computer Corporation were sold off. In May 2017, the real-time systems business was acquired by the private equity firm Battery Ventures for $35 million. The resulting division was named Concurrent Real-Time, which was later acquired for $166.7 million by Brüel & Kjær, a subsidiary of Spectris plc, in July 2021. In October 2017, the video content delivery and storage business was acquired by the Canadian telecommunications firm Vecima Networks for $29 million, in a transaction that appears to have closed in very early 2018. References ^ a b c d e "Computers: Deals: Perkin-Elmer floating its computer company". The Age. November 26, 1985. p. 49 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b c d Hordt, Robert (November 14, 1985). "Perkin-Elmer frees computer unit". Asbury Park Press. pp. E11, E14 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b c d e f Fisher, Lawrence M. (August 3, 1988). "Business People: Concurrent Chief to Get Top Jobs After Merger". The New York Times. p. D4. ^ a b c d e Cavaluzzi, Joseph; Jackson, Jeanne (August 2, 1988). "Tinton Falls company announces merger plan". Asbury Park Press. pp. C8, C10 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b Alper, Alan (July 6, 1987). "Concurrent restructures, slims staff". Computerworld. p. 76. ^ a b c d e f "Ada Validated Compilers List". Lanham, Maryland: Ada Information Clearinghouse. July 1, 1992. pp. 7–8 (Section 1), 1 (Section 2). ^ a b Domitz, R. O. (October 1987). "Real-time Ada debugging". IRTAW '87: Proceedings of the first international workshop on Real-time Ada issues. pp. 18–20. doi:10.1145/36821.36795. ^ a b c d e f Ward, John T. (September 16, 1990). "CEOs change, but problems remain". Asbury Park Press. pp. B1, B2 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b Alper, Alan (April 6, 1987). "Real-time Ada bows". Computerworld. p. 13. ^ a b Burns, Alan; Eventoff, William (September–October 1991). "Asynchronism in Ada 9X". ACM SIGAda Ada Letters. XI (6): 66–68. doi:10.1145/122019.122023. S2CID 34820243. ^ Venugopal, Sesh; Eventoff, William (June 1991). "Automatic transformation of FORTRAN loops to reduce cache conflicts". ICS '91: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on Supercomputing. pp. 183–193. doi:10.1145/109025.109075. ^ a b c "Weekly Business: Region in Review: Company moving to complex". Asbury Park Press. July 13, 1997. p. B2 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b c d e f Margolis, Nell (December 10, 1990). "Can Concurrent make a comeback?". Computerworld. pp. 103, 106. ^ "Concurrent consolidation complete; factory workers needed". The Sunday Register. Shrewsbury, New Jersey. October 16, 1988. p. 7D – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b c Fazzi, Raymond (October 9, 1996). "Concurrent will sell building". Asbury Park Press. pp. C1, C3 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Russell, Channing H.; Waterman, Pamela J. (December 1987). "Variations on UNIX for parallel-processing computers". Communications of the ACM. 30 (12): 1048–1055. doi:10.1145/33447.33450. S2CID 7561881. ^ a b c d Munoz, Daniel J. (June 14, 1995). "Anatomy of a Failed Merger". NJBiz. Retrieved April 24, 2022. ^ Colket, Currie; Barnes, Gary; Blake, Steve; Cooper, Dan; Jørgensen, Jesper; Roby, Clyde; Rittersdorf, Dan; Ryben, Sergey; Strohmeier, Alfred; Thomas, Bill (January–February 1997). "Architecture of ASIS: A tool to Support Code Analysis of Complex Systems". ACM SIGAda Ada Letters. XVII (1): 35–40. doi:10.1145/249984.249991. S2CID 37147893. ^ a b "Company News: Concurrent Computer to Expand Sales Force by 10%". The New York Times. Bloomberg News. April 21, 1993. p. D4. ^ a b c Fazzi, Raymond (June 27, 1996). "Concurrent may make its move soon". Asbury Park Press. pp. C1, C6 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b Lorek, L. A. (August 24, 1999). "Concurrent Moves HQ to Atlanta". South Florida Sun-Sentinel. ^ a b Clothier, Mark (June 12, 1999). "Video-on-demand unit of Florida firm moving to Duluth". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. p. F2 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b "Technology Briefing: Hardware: Concurrent Computer Shares Plunge". The New York Times. Bloomberg News. March 19, 2003. p. C5. ^ a b Morgan, Timothy Prickett (December 1, 2009). "Concurrent unhoods RedHawk Linux 5.4". The Register. ^ "Concurrent Computer Corporation iHawk Systems Chosen By Eurocopter, an EADS company, For Training Simulators" (Press release). Bloomberg News. December 2, 2003. ^ "Brief: Concurrent Computer sells real-time business segment to Battery Ventures". Reuters. May 15, 2017. ^ Castia, Matteo (April 1, 2021). "Spectris Buys Concurrent Real-Time From Battery Ventures for $166.7 Million". The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company. Archived from the original on April 10, 2021. ^ Gavine, Adam (July 16, 2021). "Spectris completes acquisition of Concurrent Real-Time". Vehicle Dynamics International. Mark Allen Group Limited. Archived from the original on May 9, 2022. ^ "Vecima to Acquire Video Content Delivery & Storage Business from Concurrent" (Press release). GlobeNewsWire. October 16, 2017. ^ "Vecima Closes Acquisition of Concurrent" (Press release). GlobeNewsWire. January 2, 2018. External links Official website of Concurrent Computer Corporation at the Wayback Machine (archived May 19, 2005) Official website of Concurrent Real-Time – post-2017 products site "Concurrent Computer Corporation", International Directory of Company Histories, c. 2005, as hosted at Encyclopedia.com Entry at Northeast Parallel Architectures Center Archived 2022-03-31 at the Wayback Machine at Syracuse University

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Its products powered a variety of applications including process control, simulators, data acquisition, and video-on-demand. It was based in Monmouth County, New Jersey, initially, and then later in Fort Lauderdale, Florida and Duluth, Georgia.","title":"Concurrent Computer Corporation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Perkin-Elmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkin-Elmer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-age-1985-1"},{"link_name":"Interdata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdata"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-age-1985-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1985-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-age-1985-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-merge-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-aug88-4"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-aug88-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Concurrent_Computer_Corporation_mug.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1985-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-age-1985-1"},{"link_name":"Monmouth County, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monmouth_County,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1985-2"},{"link_name":"Oceanport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanport,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1985-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-locs-1987-5"},{"link_name":"Holmdel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holmdel_Township,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Tinton Falls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinton_Falls,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-locs-1987-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Front_of_former_headquarters_of_Concurrent_Computer_Corporation.jpg"},{"link_name":"32-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit_computing"},{"link_name":"superminicomputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superminicomputer"},{"link_name":"parallel processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_processing_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-age-1985-1"},{"link_name":"OS/32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/32"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adaic-list-6"},{"link_name":"Motorola 68020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68020"},{"link_name":"Motorola 68030","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68030"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adaic-list-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-merge-3"},{"link_name":"Aircraft simulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_simulator"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-irtaw-87-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1990-8"},{"link_name":"Ada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adaic-list-6"},{"link_name":"Ada Compiler Validation Capability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Compiler_Validation_Capability"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-ada-1987-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-irtaw-87-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adaletters-1991-10"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-ada-1987-9"},{"link_name":"shared-memory multiprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared-memory_multiprocessor"},{"link_name":"do loops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_loop"},{"link_name":"cache thrashing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_thrashing"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ics-91-11"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-aug88-4"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-just-about-gone-12"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-aug88-4"}],"text":"The company was created in November 1985 when the computing division of Perkin-Elmer, the Data Systems Group, was spun off as a separate company.[1] The computing group, which had started out as the company Interdata before Perkin-Elmer acquired it in 1974,[1] had been profitable with sales of $259 million, but had tended to have reduced visibility within the computing industry due to being owned by a diversified parent.[2] At first, the new company was a wholly owned subsidiary of Perkin-Elmer, but with the intentions of putting a minority ownership in the company up for a public stock offering.[1] This was subsequently done, with Perkin-Elmer retaining an 82 percent stake in Concurrent;[3] the remainder went on sale in February 1986 and opened at $20 per share.[4] The stock traded on the NASDAQ exchange.[4]Promotional ceramic mug c. late 1980s, showing the company's original logoJames K. Sims, who had been general manager of the computer unit within Perkin-Elmer,[2] became president and CEO of the new company.[1] It had a large presence in Monmouth County, New Jersey, with some 1,700 staff making it one of the county's largest private employers.[2] Its plant in Oceanport had 800 employees alone.[2]By 1987, Concurrent had nine separate offices in various locations in Monmouth County.[5] Corporate headquarters had initially been Holmdel, but during 1987 moved to Tinton Falls.[5]Concurrent Computer Corporation had engineering offices and sometimes its headquarters in this building (seen here in 2022) in Tinton Falls, New JerseyThe initial focus of Concurrent Computer Corporation was in the 32-bit superminicomputer market, with an offering that emphasized parallel processing.[1] Their oldest product was the Series 3200, which came from its Interdata heritage and was based around a proprietary discrete component processor that supported 8 sets of registers and was built using the AMD Am2900 bit-slice chip set. The 3200 Series ran the OS/32 real-time operating system.[6] Two newer products were the Series 5000, based on a Motorola 68020 processor, and the Series 6000, based on a Motorola 68030.[6] In these products, the company focused on the market for high-end, rapid-response applications.[3] Aircraft simulators were an especially important market.[7]Many of Concurrent's customers were in the defense and aerospace industry.[8] Accordingly, Concurrent offered a line of compilers for the Ada programming language that at the time was often mandated for such applications.[6] The company's C3Ada product came out in 1987; it ran on OS/32 and was among the early wave of commercial products to get past the strenuous Ada Compiler Validation Capability (ACVC) validation suite.[9] The company's languages group investigated the challenges of implementing Ada, with its built-in tasking feature, on a real-time system with multiple processors,[7] and in how best the requirements of real-time systems could be expressed in the language.[10]The Fortran programming language was perhaps the most popular choice for applications on the Concurrent platform.[9] Optimizing Fortran for a shared-memory multiprocessor presented special issues regarding do loops and cache thrashing, a subject that the compiler staff at Concurrent studied extensively.[11]By 1988, there were some 2,800 employees in the company overall,[4] and at its peak, the Oceanport manufacturing facility would have nearly 1,000 people working at it.[12] Revenue for 1987 was $247 million.[4]","title":"Origins and initial efforts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-aug88-4"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Computer Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MASSCOMP"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-1990-13"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-merge-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1990-8"},{"link_name":"junk bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-yield_debt"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1990-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-merge-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-merge-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adaic-list-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1990-8"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Former_manufacturing_facility_of_Concurrent_Computer_Corporation.jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-will-sell-15"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-merge-3"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-1990-13"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adaic-list-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-1990-13"},{"link_name":"early 1990s recession in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1990-8"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-1990-13"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-1990-13"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-njbiz-17"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-1990-8"},{"link_name":"turnaround expert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnaround_management"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-1990-13"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-njbiz-17"},{"link_name":"rapporteur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapporteur"},{"link_name":"Ada 9X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_9X"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adaletters-1991-10"},{"link_name":"Ada Semantic Interface Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Semantic_Interface_Specification"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-1993-19"},{"link_name":"MIPS R3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R3000"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adaic-list-6"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-1993-19"}],"text":"An announcement was made on August 1, 1988,[4] that there would be a merger between Concurrent Computer Corporation and the Massachusetts Computer Corporation (MASSCOMP).[13] Technically, MASSCOMP purchased Concurrent for $241 million and was the surviving company, even though Concurrent was more than three times the larger of the two.[3][8] This \"minnow-swallows-the-whale\" style of merger was prevalent during the 1980s and in this case, as often happened in the era, it was largely financed by junk bonds.[8] As part of the deal, MASSCOMP bought out Perkin-Elmer's share in Concurrent.[3] Unusually, the merged entity kept the name Concurrent Computer Corporation and Sims remained as CEO of it.[3] The merged company's headquarters was the one used for Concurrent in New Jersey,[6] which was also somewhat atypical.[8] The transaction closed on September 27, 1988.[14]This large building in Oceanport, New Jersey, was the site of Concurrent's manufacturing facility and sometimes its headquarters (seen here in 2022); it consisted of four interconnected structures that were built during the Interdata and Perkin-Elmer years[15]The idea behind the merger was to use MASSCOMP's lower-end offerings in the real-time space to complement Concurrent's higher-end products.[3] In addition, MASSCOMP brought expertise in the Unix operating system, which was rapidly becoming the popular choice for these kind of system offerings.[13] The MASSCOMP flavor of Unix was called RTU, for Real-time Unix.[16] It was featured as the operating system on the Series 5000 and Series 6000 systems.[6]As it happened, the merger was fraught with obstacles.[13] The debt load imposed by the acquisition proved difficult to reduce, a problem made worse by the advent of the early 1990s recession in the United States, and there were a series of layoffs in the Monmouth County facilities.[8] There were also severe clashes of company culture and dueling product development teams.[13] Finally, improved offerings in the real-time space by larger competitors such as IBM and Digital Equipment Corporation proved difficult to undercut.[13] As one industry analyst subsequently said, the merger \"didn't produce anything but problems for Concurrent.\"[17] In 1990 there was a change at the CEO position at Concurrent, with Sims out and Denis R. Brown in.[8] Soon as well a turnaround expert had been brought in.[13] Another CEO switch happened in 1993, with John Stihl taking over.[17]The company continued to be involved in the Ada language world during the 1990s. This included\nbeing a rapporteur during the Ada 9X definition process,[10]\nas well as participating in the definition of the Ada Semantic Interface Specification (ASIS).[18]By the early 1990s, Concurrent had about 1,250 employees.[19] It put out the Series 8000 product, which was based on the MIPS R3000 processor with RTU running on it.[6] The company's major sales areas were in applications that included weather forecasting, air control, radar simulation, and financial trading.[19]","title":"Merger with MASSCOMP"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"debt-for-equity swap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt_restructuring"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-njbiz-17"},{"link_name":"Harris Computer Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Computer_Systems"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-move-20"},{"link_name":"Harris Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sunsent-1999-21"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-njbiz-17"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-move-20"},{"link_name":"Fort Lauderdale, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Lauderdale,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-move-20"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-just-about-gone-12"},{"link_name":"Asbury Park Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-will-sell-15"},{"link_name":"leasebacked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaseback"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-just-about-gone-12"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-app-will-sell-15"},{"link_name":"Duluth, Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duluth,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Atlanta metropolitan area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sunsent-1999-21"},{"link_name":"Pompano Beach, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompano_Beach,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ajc-1999-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ajc-1999-22"},{"link_name":"video-on-demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_on_demand"},{"link_name":"AOL Time Warner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL_Time_Warner"},{"link_name":"Cox Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cox_Communications"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-2003-23"},{"link_name":"Lockheed Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-2003-23"},{"link_name":"RedHawk Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RedHawk_Linux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"jp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/RedHawk_Linux"},{"link_name":"Red Hat Enterprise Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reg-2009-24"},{"link_name":"Intel/AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reg-2009-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Due to repayments and a debt-for-equity swap, by 1995 the company's debt load had been reduced from $200 million to under $25 million.[17] A competitor at this point was Harris Computer Systems,[20] a real-time computer systems enterprise recently spun off from Harris Corporation.[21] In 1995, Harris Computer Systems, led by its chief executive E. Courtney \"Corky\" Siegel, looked to buy Concurrent Computer Corporation, but the discussions ended in acrimony.[17]Negotiations resumed the following year, albeit in the opposite direction, and in June 1996, Concurrent acquired the high-performance computer business of Harris Computer Systems.[20] However, the corporate headquarters was moved from New Jersey to Harris's location of Fort Lauderdale, Florida.[20] Most of the rest of the New Jersey operations, which had been dwindling due to rounds of layoffs and employees leaving, soon followed.[12] As the Asbury Park Press wrote of the Oceanport facility, \"The former headquarters of Concurrent Computer Corp. [is] a once bustling place that has been nearly emptied by corporate downsizing\".[15] In July 1997, Concurrent sold the Oceanport building, although it still leasebacked a smaller manufacturing and servicing capability within it,[12] responsible for keeping going an older product line.[15]In 1999, the headquarters of Concurrent was again moved, to Duluth, Georgia, in the Atlanta metropolitan area.[21] Now CEO of Concurrent, Siegel said the relocation was for better executive access to the rest of the country and for a better talent pool; a factory remained in Pompano Beach, Florida.[22] While Siegel wanted to emphasize the company's video-on-demand product, called MediaHawk, most of the company's $82 million in annual revenues still came from the real-time systems product line.[22]By the early 2000s, Concurrent was continuing its focus on the video-on-demand market and was selling to companies such as AOL Time Warner and Cox Communications.[23] It also still had a presence in the defense industry, though, with Lockheed Martin as a customer.[23] Its real-time systems were run using RedHawk Linux [jp], Concurrent's adaptation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux for real-time requirements.[24] By this time, Concurrent's systems were based on the Intel/AMD processor architecture.[24] Technologies such as these were included in Concurrent's iHawk systems product.[25]","title":"Merger with Harris Computer Systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battery Ventures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_Ventures"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Brüel & Kjær","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BCel_%26_Kj%C3%A6r"},{"link_name":"Spectris plc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectris_plc"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Vecima Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vecima_Networks"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-businessinsider-30"}],"text":"During 2017, the pieces of Concurrent Computer Corporation were sold off. In May 2017, the real-time systems business was acquired by the private equity firm Battery Ventures for $35 million.[26] The resulting division was named Concurrent Real-Time, which was later acquired for $166.7 million by Brüel & Kjær, a subsidiary of Spectris plc, in July 2021.[27][28] In October 2017, the video content delivery and storage business was acquired by the Canadian telecommunications firm Vecima Networks for $29 million,[29] in a transaction that appears to have closed in very early 2018.[30]","title":"End"}]

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[{"reference":"\"Computers: Deals: Perkin-Elmer floating its computer company\". The Age. November 26, 1985. p. 49 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/100299504/","url_text":"\"Computers: Deals: Perkin-Elmer floating its computer company\""}]},{"reference":"Hordt, Robert (November 14, 1985). \"Perkin-Elmer frees computer unit\". Asbury Park Press. pp. E11, E14 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/100299471/","url_text":"\"Perkin-Elmer frees computer unit\""}]},{"reference":"Fisher, Lawrence M. (August 3, 1988). \"Business People: Concurrent Chief to Get Top Jobs After Merger\". The New York Times. p. D4.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/03/business/business-people-concurrent-chief-to-get-top-jobs-after-merger.html","url_text":"\"Business People: Concurrent Chief to Get Top Jobs After Merger\""}]},{"reference":"Cavaluzzi, Joseph; Jackson, Jeanne (August 2, 1988). \"Tinton Falls company announces merger plan\". Asbury Park Press. pp. C8, C10 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115202026/","url_text":"\"Tinton Falls company announces merger plan\""}]},{"reference":"Alper, Alan (July 6, 1987). \"Concurrent restructures, slims staff\". Computerworld. p. 76.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fGXpro99fIsC&pg=PA76","url_text":"\"Concurrent restructures, slims staff\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ada Validated Compilers List\". Lanham, Maryland: Ada Information Clearinghouse. July 1, 1992. pp. 7–8 (Section 1), 1 (Section 2).","urls":[]},{"reference":"Domitz, R. O. (October 1987). \"Real-time Ada debugging\". IRTAW '87: Proceedings of the first international workshop on Real-time Ada issues. pp. 18–20. doi:10.1145/36821.36795.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F36821.36795","url_text":"10.1145/36821.36795"}]},{"reference":"Ward, John T. (September 16, 1990). \"CEOs change, but problems remain\". Asbury Park Press. pp. B1, B2 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/147644837","url_text":"\"CEOs change, but problems remain\""}]},{"reference":"Alper, Alan (April 6, 1987). \"Real-time Ada bows\". Computerworld. p. 13.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=POcatzu6aqoC&pg=PA13","url_text":"\"Real-time Ada bows\""}]},{"reference":"Burns, Alan; Eventoff, William (September–October 1991). \"Asynchronism in Ada 9X\". ACM SIGAda Ada Letters. XI (6): 66–68. doi:10.1145/122019.122023. S2CID 34820243.","urls":[{"url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/122019.122023","url_text":"\"Asynchronism in Ada 9X\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F122019.122023","url_text":"10.1145/122019.122023"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34820243","url_text":"34820243"}]},{"reference":"Venugopal, Sesh; Eventoff, William (June 1991). \"Automatic transformation of FORTRAN loops to reduce cache conflicts\". ICS '91: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on Supercomputing. pp. 183–193. doi:10.1145/109025.109075.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F109025.109075","url_text":"10.1145/109025.109075"}]},{"reference":"\"Weekly Business: Region in Review: Company moving to complex\". Asbury Park Press. July 13, 1997. p. B2 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/100531165/","url_text":"\"Weekly Business: Region in Review: Company moving to complex\""}]},{"reference":"Margolis, Nell (December 10, 1990). \"Can Concurrent make a comeback?\". Computerworld. pp. 103, 106.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xADOH_NYfZoC&pg=PA103","url_text":"\"Can Concurrent make a comeback?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Concurrent consolidation complete; factory workers needed\". The Sunday Register. Shrewsbury, New Jersey. October 16, 1988. p. 7D – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115209528/","url_text":"\"Concurrent consolidation complete; factory workers needed\""}]},{"reference":"Fazzi, Raymond (October 9, 1996). \"Concurrent will sell building\". Asbury Park Press. pp. C1, C3 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/102629496/asbury-park-press/","url_text":"\"Concurrent will sell building\""},{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/102629627/asbury-park-press/","url_text":"C3"}]},{"reference":"Russell, Channing H.; Waterman, Pamela J. (December 1987). \"Variations on UNIX for parallel-processing computers\". Communications of the ACM. 30 (12): 1048–1055. doi:10.1145/33447.33450. S2CID 7561881.","urls":[{"url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/33447.33450","url_text":"\"Variations on UNIX for parallel-processing computers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F33447.33450","url_text":"10.1145/33447.33450"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7561881","url_text":"7561881"}]},{"reference":"Munoz, Daniel J. (June 14, 1995). \"Anatomy of a Failed Merger\". NJBiz. Retrieved April 24, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://njbiz.com/anatomy-of-a-failed-merger/","url_text":"\"Anatomy of a Failed Merger\""}]},{"reference":"Colket, Currie; Barnes, Gary; Blake, Steve; Cooper, Dan; Jørgensen, Jesper; Roby, Clyde; Rittersdorf, Dan; Ryben, Sergey; Strohmeier, Alfred; Thomas, Bill (January–February 1997). \"Architecture of ASIS: A tool to Support Code Analysis of Complex Systems\". ACM SIGAda Ada Letters. XVII (1): 35–40. doi:10.1145/249984.249991. 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Asbury Park Press. pp. C1, C6 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/100424144/","url_text":"\"Concurrent may make its move soon\""}]},{"reference":"Lorek, L. A. (August 24, 1999). \"Concurrent Moves HQ to Atlanta\". South Florida Sun-Sentinel.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-1999-08-24-9908240186-story.html","url_text":"\"Concurrent Moves HQ to Atlanta\""}]},{"reference":"Clothier, Mark (June 12, 1999). \"Video-on-demand unit of Florida firm moving to Duluth\". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. p. F2 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/100325096/","url_text":"\"Video-on-demand unit of Florida firm moving to Duluth\""}]},{"reference":"\"Technology Briefing: Hardware: Concurrent Computer Shares Plunge\". The New York Times. Bloomberg News. March 19, 2003. p. C5.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/19/business/technology-briefing-hardware-concurrent-computer-shares-plunge.html","url_text":"\"Technology Briefing: Hardware: Concurrent Computer Shares Plunge\""}]},{"reference":"Morgan, Timothy Prickett (December 1, 2009). \"Concurrent unhoods RedHawk Linux 5.4\". The Register.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/2009/12/01/concurrent_redhawk_update/","url_text":"\"Concurrent unhoods RedHawk Linux 5.4\""}]},{"reference":"\"Concurrent Computer Corporation iHawk Systems Chosen By Eurocopter, an EADS company, For Training Simulators\" (Press release). Bloomberg News. December 2, 2003.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/press-releases/2003-12-02/concurrent-computer-corporation-ihawk-systems-chosen-by","url_text":"\"Concurrent Computer Corporation iHawk Systems Chosen By Eurocopter, an EADS company, For Training Simulators\""}]},{"reference":"\"Brief: Concurrent Computer sells real-time business segment to Battery Ventures\". Reuters. May 15, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/brief-concurrent-computer-sells-real-tim-idCNFWN1IH156","url_text":"\"Brief: Concurrent Computer sells real-time business segment to Battery Ventures\""}]},{"reference":"Castia, Matteo (April 1, 2021). \"Spectris Buys Concurrent Real-Time From Battery Ventures for $166.7 Million\". The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company. Archived from the original on April 10, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210410230840/https://www.wsj.com/articles/spectris-buys-concurrent-real-time-from-battery-ventures-for-166-7-million-11617295791","url_text":"\"Spectris Buys Concurrent Real-Time From Battery Ventures for $166.7 Million\""},{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/spectris-buys-concurrent-real-time-from-battery-ventures-for-166-7-million-11617295791","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gavine, Adam (July 16, 2021). \"Spectris completes acquisition of Concurrent Real-Time\". Vehicle Dynamics International. Mark Allen Group Limited. Archived from the original on May 9, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220509145338/https://www.vehicledynamicsinternational.com/news/industry-news/spectris-completes-acquisition-of-concurrent-real-time.html","url_text":"\"Spectris completes acquisition of Concurrent Real-Time\""},{"url":"https://www.vehicledynamicsinternational.com/news/industry-news/spectris-completes-acquisition-of-concurrent-real-time.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Vecima to Acquire Video Content Delivery & Storage Business from Concurrent\" (Press release). GlobeNewsWire. October 16, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2017/10/16/1148004/0/en/Vecima-to-Acquire-Video-Content-Delivery-Storage-Business-from-Concurrent.html","url_text":"\"Vecima to Acquire Video Content Delivery & Storage Business from Concurrent\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vecima Closes Acquisition of Concurrent\" (Press release). GlobeNewsWire. January 2, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2018/01/02/1277020/0/en/Vecima-Closes-Acquisition-of-Concurrent.html","url_text":"\"Vecima Closes Acquisition of Concurrent\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spheres_of_influence

Sphere of influence

["1 Historical remnants","2 Early United States (1820s)","3 New Imperialism era (late 1800s – early 1900s)","3.1 China","4 World War II (1939–1945)","4.1 Empire of Japan","4.2 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact","4.3 End of World War II","5 Cold War (1947–1991)","6 Contemporary Russia (1990s–present)","7 Contemporary United States (1991–present)","8 Corporations","9 List of spheres of influence","9.1 Other examples","10 See also","11 References","12 Further reading","13 External links"]

Political concept For other uses, see Sphere of influence (disambiguation). A 1912 newspaper cartoon highlighting the United States' influence in Latin America following the Monroe Doctrine A French political cartoon in 1898, China – the cake of Kings and Emperors, showing Queen Victoria of Britain, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, Marianne of France and Japanese Emperor Meiji dividing China ruled by Emperor Guangxu. "Kiao-Tchéou" and "Port-Arthur," written on slices of the cake, represent those locations in China; a stereotyped mandarin reacts with horror in the background. In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity. While there may be a formal alliance or other treaty obligations between the influenced and influencer, such formal arrangements are not necessary and the influence can often be more of an example of soft power. Similarly, a formal alliance does not necessarily mean that one country lies within another's sphere of influence. High levels of exclusivity have historically been associated with higher levels of conflict. In more extreme cases, a country within the "sphere of influence" of another may become a subsidiary of that state and serve in effect as a satellite state or de facto colony. This was the case with the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc after World War II. The system of spheres of influence by which powerful nations intervene in the affairs of others continues to the present. It is often analyzed in terms of superpowers, great powers, and/or middle powers. Sometimes portions of a single country can fall into two distinct spheres of influence. In the 19th century, the buffer states of Iran and Thailand, lying between the empires of Britain, France and Russia, were divided between the spheres of influence of those three international powers. Likewise, after World War II, Germany was divided into four occupation zones, three of which later consolidated into West Germany and the remaining one became East Germany, the former a member of NATO and the latter a member of the Warsaw Pact. Historical remnants This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Many powerful states in past centuries had subordinate tributary states, whose native dynasty acknowledged the suzerainty of the great power.Map of Africa in 1897 shows European "sphere of influence". Many areas of the world are joined by a cultural influence inherited from a previous sphere of influence, even if they are no longer under political control. Examples include Anglosphere, Arab World, Persosphere, Eurosphere, Francophonie, Françafrique, Germanosphere, Indosphere, Hispanidad, Latin Europe/Latin America, Lusophonie, Turkosphere, Sinosphere, Slavisphere, Malay world, Post-Soviet States and many others. Early United States (1820s) See also: Foreign relations of the United States, Carter Doctrine, and Monroe Doctrine Alexander Hamilton, first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, aimed for the United States to establish a sphere of influence in North America. Hamilton, writing in the Federalist Papers, harboured ambitions for the US to rise to world power status and gain the strength to expel European powers from the Americas, taking on the mantle of regional dominance among American nations, although most of the New World were European colonies during that period. This doctrine, dubbed the 'Monroe Doctrine', was formalized under President James Monroe, who asserted that the New World was to be established as a Sphere of influence, removed from European encroachment. As the U.S. emerged as a world power, few nations dared to trespass on this sphere (A notable exception occurred with the Soviet Union and the Cuban Missile Crisis.). As of 2018, Secretary of State Rex Tillerson continued to refer to the Monroe Doctrine to tout the United States as the region's preferred trade partner over other nations such as China. New Imperialism era (late 1800s – early 1900s) See also: Informal empire and New Imperialism Delimitation of British and Russian influence in Iran For Siam (Thailand), Britain and France signed an agreement in 1904 whereby the British recognised a French sphere of influence to the east of the River Menam's (Chao Phraya River) basin; in turn, the French recognised British influence over the territory to the west of the Menam basin and west of the Gulf of Thailand. Both parties disclaimed any idea of annexing Siamese territory. In the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, Britain and Russia divided Persia (Iran) into spheres of influence, with the Russians gaining recognition for influence over most of northern Iran, and Britain establishing a zone in the Southeast. China In China, during the mid 19th and 20th centuries (known in China as the "century of humiliation"), Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan held special powers over large swaths of Chinese territory based on securing "nonalienation commitments" for their "spheres of interest"; only the United States was unable to participate due to their involvement in the Spanish–American War. These spheres of influence were acquired by forcing the Qing government to sign "unequal treaties" and long-term leases. In early 1895, the French laid claim to a sphere in Southwest China. By December 1897, German Kaiser Wilhelm II declared his intent to seize territory in China, precipitating the scramble to demarcate zones of influence in China. The Germans acquired, in Shandong province, exclusive control over developmental loans, mining, and railway ownership, while Russia gained a sphere over all territory north of the Great Wall, in addition to the previous tax exemption for trade in Mongolia and Xinjiang, economic powers similar to Germany's over Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang provinces. France gained a sphere over Yunnan, as well as most of Guangxi and Guangdong provinces; Japan over Fujian province; and the British over the whole Yangtze River valley (defined as all provinces adjoining the Yangtze river as well as Henan and Zhejiang provinces), parts of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces, and part of Tibet. Only Italy's request for Zhejiang province was declined by the Chinese government. These do not include the lease and concession territories where the foreign powers had full authority. Spheres of influence in Chinese empire in early 20th century The Russian government militarily occupied their zone, imposed their law and schools, seized mining and logging privileges, settled their citizens, and even established their municipal administration on several cities, the latter without Chinese consent. The powers (and the United States) might have their own courts, post offices, commercial institutions, railroads, and gunboats in what was on paper Chinese territory. However, the foreign powers and their control in some cases could have been exaggerated; the local government persistently restricted further encroachment. The system ended after the Second World War. On September 6, 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia), asking them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China, as the United States felt threatened by other powers' much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market should the country be officially partitioned. Although treaties made after 1900 refer to this "Open Door Policy", competition among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth, continued unabated, with the US itself contradicting the policy by agreeing to recognise the Japanese sphere in the Lansing-Ishii Agreement. In 1910, the great powers, Britain, France, Germany, United States, and later, Russia and Japan, ignored the Open Door Policy to form a banking consortium, consisting of national banking groups backed by respective governments, through which all foreign loans to China were monopolised, granting the powers political influence over China and reducing economic competition between foreigners. This organisation controlled the majority of Chinese tax revenue in a "trust", utilising a small portion to bolster the rule of Chinese warlord Yuan Shikai to great effect. The renewed consortium of UK, France, Japan and the U.S. in 1920 effectively vetoed all developmental loans to China, exerting control over the Chinese government by aiming to control all railroads, ports and highways in China. The Consortium helped to contain the political and financial conflict between parties and states over the loans, while imposing foreign control on China's finances during the period of revolutionary upheaval, which the Consortium also helped to precipitate. World War II (1939–1945) Empire of Japan German and Japanese direct spheres of influence at their greatest extents in fall 1942 For another example, during the height of its existence in World War II, the Japanese Empire had quite a large sphere of influence. The Japanese government directly governed events in Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, and parts of Mainland China. The "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" could thus be quite easily drawn on a map of the Pacific Ocean as a large "bubble" surrounding the islands of Japan and the Asian and Pacific nations it controlled. Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact According to a secret protocol attached to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 (revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945), Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into Nazi and Soviet spheres of influence: In the north, Finland, Estonia, and Latvia were assigned to the Soviet sphere. Poland was to be partitioned in the event of its "political rearrangement"—the areas east of the Narev, Vistula, and San Rivers going to the Soviet Union, while Germany would occupy the west. Lithuania, adjacent to East Prussia, would be in the German sphere of influence, although a second secret protocol agreed in September 1939 assigned Lithuania to the USSR. Another clause of the treaty stipulated that Bessarabia, then part of Romania, would join the Moldovan ASSR and become the Moldovan SSR under the control of Moscow. The Soviet invasion of Bukovina on 28 June 1940 violated the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence as agreed with the Axis. The USSR continued to deny the existence of the Pact's protocols until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union when the Russian government fully acknowledged the existence and authenticity of the secret protocols. End of World War II From 1941 and the German attack on the Soviet Union, the Allied Coalition operated on the unwritten assumption that the Western Powers and the Soviet Union had each its own sphere of influence. The presumption of the US-British and Soviet unrestricted rights in their respective spheres began to cause difficulties as the Nazi-controlled territory shrank and the allied powers successively liberated other states. The wartime spheres lacked a practical definition and it had never been determined if a dominant allied power was entitled to unilateral decisions only in the area of military activity, or could also force its will regarding political, social and economic future of other states. This overly informal system backfired during the late stages of the war and afterward, when it turned out that the Soviets and the Western Allies had very different ideas concerning the administration and future development of the liberated regions and of Germany itself. Cold War (1947–1991) Greatest extent of Soviet influence, after the Cuban Revolution but before the Sino-Soviet Split During the Cold War, the Soviet sphere of influence was said to include: the Baltic states, Central Europe, some countries in Eastern Europe, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, North Korea, and—until the Sino-Soviet split and Tito–Stalin split—the People's Republic of China and the People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, among other countries at various times. Meanwhile, United States was considered to have a sphere of influence over Western Europe, Oceania, Japan, South Vietnam and South Korea, among other places. However, the level of control exerted in these spheres varied and was not absolute. For instance, France and the United Kingdom were able to act independently to invade (with Israel) the Suez Canal (they were later forced to withdraw by joint U.S. and Soviet pressure). Later, France was also able to withdraw from the military arm of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Cuba, as another example, often took positions that put it at odds with its Soviet ally, including momentary alliances with China, economic reorganizations, and providing support for insurgencies in Africa and the Americas without prior approval from the Soviet Union. With the end of the Cold War, the Eastern Bloc fell apart, effectively ending the Soviet sphere of influence. Then in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist, replaced by the Russian Federation and several other ex-Soviet Republics who became independent states. Contemporary Russia (1990s–present) See also: Russian world, Foreign relations of Russia, Potential enlargement of the European Union, Enlargement of NATO, and Major non-NATO ally European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP)   EU member states   EU enlargement agenda   Eastern Partnership ENP countries   Other ENP countries (all but Libya are UfM members)   UfM member Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States that became independent in 1991, were portrayed as part of the Russian Federation's 'sphere of influence', according to a statement by Boris Yeltsin, dated September 1994. According to Ulrich Speck, writing for Carnegie Europe, "After the breakup of the Soviet Union, the West's focus was on Russia. Western nations implicitly treated the post-Soviet countries (besides the Baltic states) as Russia's sphere of influence." In 1997, NATO and Russia signed the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security, stating the "aim of creating in Europe a common space of security and stability, without dividing lines or spheres of influence limiting the sovereignty of any state." On August 31, 2008, Russian president Dmitri Medvedev stated five principles of foreign policy, including the claim of a privileged sphere of influence that comprised "the border region, but not only". In 2009, Russia asserted that the European Union desires a sphere of influence and that the Eastern Partnership is "an attempt to extend" it. In March that year, Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt stated that the "Eastern Partnership is not about spheres of influence. The difference is that these countries themselves opted to join." Following the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, Václav Havel and other former central and eastern European leaders signed an open letter stating that Russia had "violated the core principles of the Helsinki Final Act, the Charter of Paris ... all in the name of defending a sphere of influence on its borders." In April 2014, NATO stated that, contrary to the Founding Act,Russia now appears to be attempting to recreate a sphere of influence by seizing a part of Ukraine, maintaining large numbers of forces on its borders, and demanding, as Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov recently stated, that "Ukraine cannot be part of any bloc."Criticising Russia in November 2014, German Chancellor Angela Merkel said that "old thinking about spheres of influence, which runs roughshod over international law" put the "entire European peace order into question." In January 2017, British Prime Minister Theresa May said, "We should not jeopardise the freedoms that President Reagan and Mrs Thatcher brought to Eastern Europe by accepting President Putin's claim that it is now in his sphere of influence." Contemporary United States (1991–present) See also: Foreign relations of the United States Corporations In corporate terms, the sphere of influence of a business, organization, or group can show its power and influence in the decisions of other businesses/organizations/groups. The influence shows in several ways, such as in size, frequency of visits, etc. In most cases, a company described as "bigger" has a larger sphere of influence. For example, the software company Microsoft has a large sphere of influence in the market of operating systems; any entity wishing to sell a software product may weigh up compatibility with Microsoft's products as part of a marketing plan. In another example, retailers wishing to make the most profits must ensure they open their stores in the correct location. This is also true for shopping centers that, to reap the most profits, must be able to attract customers to their vicinity. There is no defined scale measuring such spheres of influence. However, one can evaluate the spheres of influence of two shopping centers by seeing how far people are prepared to travel to each shopping center, how much time they spend in its vicinity, how often they visit, the order of goods available, etc. Corporations have significant influence on the regulations and regulators that monitor them. During the Gilded Age in the United States, corruption was rampant as business leaders spent significant amounts of money ensuring that government did not regulate their activities. Wall Street spent a record $2 billion trying to influence the 2016 United States elections. List of spheres of influence America's Backyard — areas of United States' influence in the American continent Anglosphere — English-speaking world Arabsphere — Arabic-speaking world Sinosphere — historically Chinese-influenced cultures Russian world — Russian-speaking world Eurosphere — area with European Union influence Francosphere — French-speaking world Germanosphere — German-speaking world Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere — imperial influence of the Japanese Empire Hispanosphere — Spanish-speaking world Indosphere — area with Indian linguistic and cultural influence (Greater India) Islamosphere — the Muslim world Persophere — historically Iran-influenced cultures Slavisphere — Slavic influence Soviet sphere of influence — imperial influence of the Soviet Union Other examples An 1878 British cartoon about The Great Game between the United Kingdom and Russia over influence in Central Asia For historical and current examples of significant battles over spheres of influence see: The Great Game Geostrategy in Central Asia See also Cultural area Geopolitics National interest Balance of power in international relations Right of conquest Sprachbund Unequal treaty Informal empire References ^ "Monroe Doctrine, 1823". Office of the Historian. United States Department of State. April 6, 2016. Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2016. ^ Morison, S.E. (February 1924). "The Origins of the Monroe Doctrine". Economica. doi:10.2307/2547870. JSTOR 2547870. ^ New Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (15th ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 269. ISBN 1-59339-292-3. ^ Gramer, Robbie (2 February 2018). "Tillerson Praises Monroe Doctrine, Warns Latin America of 'Imperial' Chinese Ambitions". Foreign Policy. The Slate Group. Archived from the original on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018. ^ Declaration between the United Kingdom and France concerning Siam, Madagascar, and the New Hebrides . Governments of Great Britain and the French Republic. 1904 – via Wikisource. ^ British Documents on the Origins of the War 1898–1914, Volume IV, The Anglo-Russian Rapprochement 1903-7. Edited by G.P. Gooch and H Temperley. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1929. p618-621. Appendix IV – Revised Draft of Agreement Concerning Persia, Sent to Sir A. Nicholson by Sir Edward Grey on June 6, 1907 ^ "Yale Law School: "Agreement concerning Persia" (in English)". Archived from the original on 2018-09-30. Retrieved 2018-10-04. ^ Kwang-ching Liu; John Fairbank. The Cambridge History of China Volume 11 Late Ch'ing 1800–1911 Part 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN 0-521-22029-7. ^ Kwang-ching Liu; John Fairbank. The Cambridge History of China Volume 11 Late Ch'ing 1800-1911 Part 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 274. ISBN 0-521-22029-7. ^ Jeans, Roger B. (1997). Democracy and Socialism in Republican China: The Politics of Zhang Junmai (Carsun Chang), 1906–1941. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 28. ISBN 0-8476-8707-4. ^ a b Dallin, David J. (2013). "2 The Second Drive to the Pacific, Section Port Arthur". The Rise Of Russia In Asia. Read Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4733-8257-2. ^ Paine, S. C. M. (1996). "Chinese Diplomacy in Disarray: The Treaty of Livadia". Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 162. ISBN 978-1-56324-724-8. Retrieved 22 February 2018. ^ a b c d Lo Jiu-Hwa, Upshur (2008). Encyclopedia of World History, Ackerman-Schroeder-Terry-Hwa Lo, 2008: Encyclopedia of World History Volume 7 of Encyclopedia of World History. Fact on File Publishing, Inc Bukupedia. pp. 87–88. ^ Wu Yuzhang (2001). Recollections of the Revolution of 1911: A Great Democratic Revolution of China. The Minerva Group, Inc. p. 39. ISBN 0-89875-531-X. Archived from the original on 2023-06-28. Retrieved 2020-11-21. ^ "Convention Between Great Britain and Tibet (1904)". Archived from the original on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2018-10-04. ^ Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2003). The Development of the North Manchuria Frontier, 1900–1931. Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University. p. 13. ^ Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2016). Taming China's Wilderness: Immigration, Settlement and the Shaping of the Heilongjiang Frontier, 1900–1931. Routledge. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-317-04684-4. ^ Shan, Patrick Fuliang (Fall 2006). "What was the 'Sphere of Influence'? A Study of Chinese Resistance to the Russian Empire in North Manchuria, 1900–1917". The Chinese Historical Review. 13 (2): 271–291. doi:10.1080/1547402X.2006.11827243. S2CID 152244604. ^ "Secretary of State John Hay and the Open Door in China, 1899–1900". Milestones: 1899–1913. Office of the Historian, US Department of State. Archived from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2014. ^ Sugita, Yoneyuki, "The Rise of an American Principle in China: A Reinterpretation of the First Open Door Notes toward China" in Richard J. Jensen, Jon Thares Davidann, and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the twentieth century (Greenwood, 2003) pp 3–20 online Archived 2020-01-07 at the Wayback Machine ^ Tuchman, Barbara (2001). Stillwell and the American Experience in China 1911–1945. Grove Press. p. 48. ISBN 0-8021-3852-7. ^ Werner Levi (1953). Modern China's Foreign Policy. U of Minnesota Press. pp. 123–132. ISBN 0-8166-5817-X. Archived from the original on 2023-06-28. Retrieved 2020-11-21. ^ B. J. C. McKercher (1991). Anglo-American Relations in the 1920s: The Struggle for Supremacy. Springer. p. 166. ISBN 1-349-11919-9. Archived from the original on 2023-06-28. Retrieved 2020-11-21. ^ Davis, Clarence B. (1982). "Financing Imperialism: British and American Bankers as Vectors of Imperial Expansion in China, 1908–1920". Business History Review. 56 (2): 236–264. doi:10.2307/3113978. ISSN 0007-6805. JSTOR 3113978. S2CID 154584987. ^ a b c d Text of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact Archived 2014-11-14 at the Wayback Machine, executed August 23, 1939 ^ Christie, Kenneth; Cribb, R. B. (2002). Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1599-1. ^ Brackman, Roman (2001). The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life. p. 341. ^ Etkind, Alexander; Finnin, Rory; Blacker, Uilleam; Julie Fedor; Simon Lewis; Maria Mälksoo; Matilda Mroz (2013). Remembering Katyn. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7456-6296-1. ^ a b Davies, Norman (2008-08-26). Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory. London: Penguin. pp. 172–174. ISBN 978-0-14-311409-3. ^ John M. Goshko (27 September 1994). "Yeltsin Claims Russian Sphere of Influence". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 1 March 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2022. ^ Speck, Ulrich (9 December 2014). "The EU Must Prepare for a Cold Peace With Russia". Carnegie Europe. Archived from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2015. ^ "Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security between NATO and the Russian Federation signed in Paris, France". NATO. 27 May 1997. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2016. ^ Kramer, Andrew E. (2008-09-01). "Russia Claims Its Sphere of Influence in the World". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2021-08-31. ^ a b Pop, Valentina (21 March 2009). "EU expanding its 'sphere of influence,' Russia says". EUObserver. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2015. ^ Valdas Adamkus; Martin Bútora; Emil Constantinescu; Pavol Demeš; Luboš Dobrovský; Mátyás Eörsi; István Gyarmati; Václav Havel; Rastislav Káčer; Sandra Kalniete; Karel Schwarzenberg; Michal Kováč; Ivan Krastev; Aleksander Kwaśniewski; Mart Laar; Kadri Liik; János Martonyi; Janusz Onyszkiewicz; Adam Daniel Rotfeld; Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga; Alexandr Vondra; Lech Wałęsa (15 July 2009). "An Open Letter to the Obama Administration from Central and Eastern Europe". Gazeta Wyborcza. Archived from the original on 16 August 2014. Retrieved 17 November 2015. "An Open Letter". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Radio Free Europe. 16 July 2009. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2015. ^ "Russia's accusations – setting the record straight, Fact Sheet – April 2014". NATO. 12 May 2014. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016. ^ Rettman, Andrew (17 November 2014). "Merkel: Russia cannot veto EU expansion". EUobserver. Archived from the original on 3 March 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2015. ^ "FULL TEXT: Theresa May's speech to the Republican 'Congress of Tomorrow' conference". Business Insider. 26 January 2017. Archived from the original on 27 January 2017. ^ Tindall, George Brown; Shi, David E. (2012). America: A Narrative History. Vol. 2 (Brief Ninth ed.). W. W. Norton. p. 578. ^ "Wall Street spends record $2bn on US election lobbying". Financial Times. March 8, 2017. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. ^ "Wall Street Spent $2 Billion Trying to Influence the 2016 Election". Fortune. March 8, 2017. Archived from the original on February 1, 2021. Retrieved June 13, 2020. Further reading Ferguson, Iain, and Susanna Hast. 2018. "Introduction: The Return of Spheres of Influence? " Geopolitics 23(2):277-84. doi:10.1080/14650045.2018.1461335. Hast, Susanna. 2016. Spheres of Influence in International Relations: History, Theory and Politics. Milton Park, UK: Routledge. Icenhower, Brian. 2018. "SOI: Building a Real Estate Agent's Sphere of Influence." CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Piffanelli, Luciano. 2018. "Crossing Boundaries: A Problem of Territoriality in Renaissance Italy", Viator. Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 49(3):245–275. White, Craig Howard. 1992. Sphere of Influence, Star of Empire: American Renaissance Cosmos, Vol. 1. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Madison. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spheres of influence. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sphere of influence (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_of_influence_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monroe_doctrine.jpg"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"Monroe Doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg"},{"link_name":"Queen Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Kaiser Wilhelm II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Tsar Nicholas II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar_Nicholas_II"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Marianne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marianne"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Emperor Meiji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Meiji"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Empire"},{"link_name":"Emperor Guangxu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Guangxu"},{"link_name":"Kiao-Tchéou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiautschou_Bay_Leased_Territory"},{"link_name":"Port-Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCshunkou_District"},{"link_name":"mandarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_(official)"},{"link_name":"international relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations"},{"link_name":"cultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural"},{"link_name":"economic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic"},{"link_name":"military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military"},{"link_name":"political","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political"},{"link_name":"alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance"},{"link_name":"treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_treaty"},{"link_name":"soft power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_power"},{"link_name":"satellite state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_state"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Eastern Bloc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc"},{"link_name":"superpowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpower"},{"link_name":"great powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_power"},{"link_name":"middle powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_power"},{"link_name":"buffer states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_state"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"international powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(international)"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"occupation zones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany"},{"link_name":"West Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"Warsaw Pact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact"}],"text":"For other uses, see Sphere of influence (disambiguation).A 1912 newspaper cartoon highlighting the United States' influence in Latin America following the Monroe DoctrineA French political cartoon in 1898, China – the cake of Kings and Emperors, showing Queen Victoria of Britain, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, Marianne of France and Japanese Emperor Meiji dividing China ruled by Emperor Guangxu. \"Kiao-Tchéou\" and \"Port-Arthur,\" written on slices of the cake, represent those locations in China; a stereotyped mandarin reacts with horror in the background.In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity.While there may be a formal alliance or other treaty obligations between the influenced and influencer, such formal arrangements are not necessary and the influence can often be more of an example of soft power. Similarly, a formal alliance does not necessarily mean that one country lies within another's sphere of influence. High levels of exclusivity have historically been associated with higher levels of conflict.In more extreme cases, a country within the \"sphere of influence\" of another may become a subsidiary of that state and serve in effect as a satellite state or de facto colony. This was the case with the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc after World War II. The system of spheres of influence by which powerful nations intervene in the affairs of others continues to the present. It is often analyzed in terms of superpowers, great powers, and/or middle powers.Sometimes portions of a single country can fall into two distinct spheres of influence. In the 19th century, the buffer states of Iran and Thailand, lying between the empires of Britain, France and Russia, were divided between the spheres of influence of those three international powers. Likewise, after World War II, Germany was divided into four occupation zones, three of which later consolidated into West Germany and the remaining one became East Germany, the former a member of NATO and the latter a member of the Warsaw Pact.","title":"Sphere of influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tributary states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributary_state"},{"link_name":"dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty"},{"link_name":"suzerainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty"},{"link_name":"great power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_power"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_colonial_Africa_in_1897.jpg"},{"link_name":"cultural influence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_influence"},{"link_name":"Anglosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglosphere"},{"link_name":"Arab World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_World"},{"link_name":"Persosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Iran"},{"link_name":"Eurosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurosphere"},{"link_name":"Francophonie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francophonie"},{"link_name":"Françafrique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7afrique"},{"link_name":"Germanosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_territorial_entities_where_German_is_an_official_language"},{"link_name":"Indosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_India"},{"link_name":"Hispanidad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanidad"},{"link_name":"Latin Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"Lusophonie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusophone"},{"link_name":"Turkosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Turkism"},{"link_name":"Sinosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_cultural_sphere"},{"link_name":"Slavisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavisphere"},{"link_name":"Malay world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_world"},{"link_name":"Post-Soviet States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Soviet_States"}],"text":"Many powerful states in past centuries had subordinate tributary states, whose native dynasty acknowledged the suzerainty of the great power.[citation needed]Map of Africa in 1897 shows European \"sphere[s] of influence\".Many areas of the world are joined by a cultural influence inherited from a previous sphere of influence, even if they are no longer under political control. Examples include Anglosphere, Arab World, Persosphere, Eurosphere, Francophonie, Françafrique, Germanosphere, Indosphere, Hispanidad, Latin Europe/Latin America, Lusophonie, Turkosphere, Sinosphere, Slavisphere, Malay world, Post-Soviet States and many others.","title":"Historical remnants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Foreign relations of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Carter Doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Doctrine"},{"link_name":"Monroe Doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine"},{"link_name":"Alexander Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"U.S. Secretary of the Treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Federalist Papers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_Papers"},{"link_name":"world power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_power"},{"link_name":"European powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Powers"},{"link_name":"Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas"},{"link_name":"New World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World"},{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Monroe Doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine"},{"link_name":"James Monroe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Monroe"},{"link_name":"New World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World"},{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brit1-3"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Cuban Missile Crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis"},{"link_name":"Rex Tillerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rex_Tillerson"},{"link_name":"Monroe Doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade"},{"link_name":"nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"See also: Foreign relations of the United States, Carter Doctrine, and Monroe DoctrineAlexander Hamilton, first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, aimed for the United States to establish a sphere of influence in North America.[1] Hamilton, writing in the Federalist Papers, harboured ambitions for the US to rise to world power status and gain the strength to expel European powers from the Americas, taking on the mantle of regional dominance among American nations, although most of the New World were European colonies during that period.[2]This doctrine, dubbed the 'Monroe Doctrine', was formalized under President James Monroe, who asserted that the New World was to be established as a Sphere of influence, removed from European encroachment. As the U.S. emerged as a world power, few nations dared to trespass on this sphere[3] (A notable exception occurred with the Soviet Union and the Cuban Missile Crisis.).As of 2018, Secretary of State Rex Tillerson continued to refer to the Monroe Doctrine to tout the United States as the region's preferred trade partner over other nations such as China.[4]","title":"Early United States (1820s)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Informal empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_empire"},{"link_name":"New Imperialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Imperialism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_Iran_1900-en.png"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic"},{"link_name":"Chao Phraya River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chao_Phraya_River"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Russian Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"See also: Informal empire and New ImperialismDelimitation of British and Russian influence in IranFor Siam (Thailand), Britain and France signed an agreement in 1904 whereby the British recognised a French sphere of influence to the east of the River Menam's (Chao Phraya River) basin; in turn, the French recognised British influence over the territory to the west of the Menam basin and west of the Gulf of Thailand. Both parties disclaimed any idea of annexing Siamese territory.[5]In the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, Britain and Russia divided Persia (Iran) into spheres of influence, with the Russians gaining recognition for influence over most of northern Iran, and Britain establishing a zone in the Southeast.[6][7]","title":"New Imperialism era (late 1800s – early 1900s)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"century of humiliation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_of_humiliation"},{"link_name":"Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Empire"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Spanish–American War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War"},{"link_name":"Qing government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"unequal treaties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unequal_treaty"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Southwest China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwest_China"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_II"},{"link_name":"scramble to demarcate zones of influence in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramble_for_China"},{"link_name":"Shandong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandong"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Great Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dallin-11"},{"link_name":"Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia"},{"link_name":"Xinjiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Fengtian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fengtian_Province"},{"link_name":"Jilin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilin"},{"link_name":"Heilongjiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heilongjiang"},{"link_name":"Yunnan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunnan"},{"link_name":"Guangxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangxi"},{"link_name":"Guangdong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-china-13"},{"link_name":"Fujian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-china-13"},{"link_name":"Yangtze River valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze_River_valley"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-china-13"},{"link_name":"Henan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henan"},{"link_name":"Zhejiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dallin-11"},{"link_name":"Guangdong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"},{"link_name":"Guangxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangxi"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lhasa"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Zhejiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-china-13"},{"link_name":"concession territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concession_territory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KCRC_China_spheres_of_influence.jpg"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"John Hay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hay"},{"link_name":"treaty ports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_ports"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Open Door Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Door_Policy"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Lansing-Ishii Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lansing-Ishii_Agreement"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Yuan Shikai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shikai"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"China","text":"In China, during the mid 19th and 20th centuries (known in China as the \"century of humiliation\"), Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan held special powers over large swaths of Chinese territory based on securing \"nonalienation commitments\" for their \"spheres of interest\"; only the United States was unable to participate due to their involvement in the Spanish–American War. These spheres of influence were acquired by forcing the Qing government to sign \"unequal treaties\" and long-term leases.[8]In early 1895, the French laid claim to a sphere in Southwest China.[9] By December 1897, German Kaiser Wilhelm II declared his intent to seize territory in China, precipitating the scramble to demarcate zones of influence in China. The Germans acquired, in Shandong province, exclusive control over developmental loans, mining, and railway ownership,[10] while Russia gained a sphere over all territory north of the Great Wall,[11] in addition to the previous tax exemption for trade in Mongolia and Xinjiang,[12] economic powers similar to Germany's over Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang provinces. France gained a sphere over Yunnan, as well as most of Guangxi and Guangdong provinces;[13] Japan over Fujian province;[13] and the British over the whole Yangtze River valley[13] (defined as all provinces adjoining the Yangtze river as well as Henan and Zhejiang provinces),[11] parts of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces,[14] and part of Tibet.[15] Only Italy's request for Zhejiang province was declined by the Chinese government.[13] These do not include the lease and concession territories where the foreign powers had full authority.Spheres of influence in Chinese empire in early 20th centuryThe Russian government militarily occupied their zone, imposed their law and schools, seized mining and logging privileges, settled their citizens, and even established their municipal administration on several cities,[16] the latter without Chinese consent.[17]The powers (and the United States) might have their own courts, post offices, commercial institutions, railroads, and gunboats in what was on paper Chinese territory. However, the foreign powers and their control in some cases could have been exaggerated; the local government persistently restricted further encroachment.[18] The system ended after the Second World War.On September 6, 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia), asking them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China, as the United States felt threatened by other powers' much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market should the country be officially partitioned.[19] Although treaties made after 1900 refer to this \"Open Door Policy\", competition among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth, continued unabated,[20] with the US itself contradicting the policy by agreeing to recognise the Japanese sphere in the Lansing-Ishii Agreement.[21]In 1910, the great powers, Britain, France, Germany, United States, and later, Russia and Japan, ignored the Open Door Policy to form a banking consortium, consisting of national banking groups backed by respective governments, through which all foreign loans to China were monopolised, granting the powers political influence over China and reducing economic competition between foreigners. This organisation controlled the majority of Chinese tax revenue in a \"trust\", utilising a small portion to bolster the rule of Chinese warlord Yuan Shikai to great effect. The renewed consortium of UK, France, Japan and the U.S. in 1920 effectively vetoed all developmental loans to China, exerting control over the Chinese government by aiming to control all railroads, ports and highways in China.[22][23] The Consortium helped to contain the political and financial conflict between parties and states over the loans, while imposing foreign control on China's finances during the period of revolutionary upheaval, which the Consortium also helped to precipitate.[24]","title":"New Imperialism era (late 1800s – early 1900s)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"World War II (1939–1945)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:German_and_Japanese_spheres_of_influence_at_greatest_extent_World_War_II_1942.jpg"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Japanese Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Empire"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Empire of Japan","text":"German and Japanese direct spheres of influence at their greatest extents in fall 1942For another example, during the height of its existence in World War II, the Japanese Empire had quite a large sphere of influence. The Japanese government directly governed events in Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, and parts of Mainland China. The \"Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere\" could thus be quite easily drawn on a map of the Pacific Ocean as a large \"bubble\" surrounding the islands of Japan and the Asian and Pacific nations it controlled.[citation needed]","title":"World War II (1939–1945)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact"},{"link_name":"Northern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Eastern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Nazi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Soviet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mrtext-25"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"},{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mrtext-25"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Republic_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Narev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narew"},{"link_name":"Vistula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula"},{"link_name":"San Rivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_River"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mrtext-25"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"East Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Prussia"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-christie-26"},{"link_name":"Bessarabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarabia"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Moldovan ASSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic"},{"link_name":"Moldovan SSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mrtext-25"},{"link_name":"Soviet invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina#Political_and_military_developments"},{"link_name":"Bukovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukovina"},{"link_name":"the Axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Axis"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"dissolution of the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Russian government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Russian_Federation"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact","text":"According to a secret protocol attached to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 (revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945), Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into Nazi and Soviet spheres of influence:[25]In the north, Finland, Estonia, and Latvia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.[25]\nPoland was to be partitioned in the event of its \"political rearrangement\"—the areas east of the Narev, Vistula, and San Rivers going to the Soviet Union, while Germany would occupy the west.[25]\nLithuania, adjacent to East Prussia, would be in the German sphere of influence, although a second secret protocol agreed in September 1939 assigned Lithuania to the USSR.[26]Another clause of the treaty stipulated that Bessarabia, then part of Romania, would join the Moldovan ASSR and become the Moldovan SSR under the control of Moscow.[25] The Soviet invasion of Bukovina on 28 June 1940 violated the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence as agreed with the Axis.[27] The USSR continued to deny the existence of the Pact's protocols until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union when the Russian government fully acknowledged the existence and authenticity of the secret protocols.[28]","title":"World War II (1939–1945)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"German attack on the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa"},{"link_name":"Allied Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Western Powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Powers"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies_Victory_172-174-29"},{"link_name":"Western Allies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Bloc"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies_Victory_172-174-29"}],"sub_title":"End of World War II","text":"From 1941 and the German attack on the Soviet Union, the Allied Coalition operated on the unwritten assumption that the Western Powers and the Soviet Union had each its own sphere of influence. The presumption of the US-British and Soviet unrestricted rights in their respective spheres began to cause difficulties as the Nazi-controlled territory shrank and the allied powers successively liberated other states.[29]The wartime spheres lacked a practical definition and it had never been determined if a dominant allied power was entitled to unilateral decisions only in the area of military activity, or could also force its will regarding political, social and economic future of other states. This overly informal system backfired during the late stages of the war and afterward, when it turned out that the Soviets and the Western Allies had very different ideas concerning the administration and future development of the liberated regions and of Germany itself.[29]","title":"World War II (1939–1945)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Soviet_empire_1960.png"},{"link_name":"Cuban Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Sino-Soviet Split","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Split"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"Soviet sphere of influence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Empire"},{"link_name":"Baltic states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_states"},{"link_name":"Central Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe"},{"link_name":"Eastern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Cuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba"},{"link_name":"Laos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"North Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea"},{"link_name":"Sino-Soviet split","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split"},{"link_name":"Tito–Stalin split","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Western Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"South Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"act independently to invade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Crisis"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"Suez Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canal"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"North Atlantic Treaty Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"end of the Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_the_Cold_War"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union ceased to exist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Russian Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Federation"},{"link_name":"ex-Soviet Republics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Soviet_states"}],"text":"Greatest extent of Soviet influence, after the Cuban Revolution but before the Sino-Soviet SplitDuring the Cold War, the Soviet sphere of influence was said to include: the Baltic states, Central Europe, some countries in Eastern Europe, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, North Korea, and—until the Sino-Soviet split and Tito–Stalin split—the People's Republic of China and the People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, among other countries at various times. Meanwhile, United States was considered to have a sphere of influence over Western Europe, Oceania, Japan, South Vietnam and South Korea, among other places.[citation needed]However, the level of control exerted in these spheres varied and was not absolute. For instance, France and the United Kingdom were able to act independently to invade (with Israel) the Suez Canal (they were later forced to withdraw by joint U.S. and Soviet pressure). Later, France was also able to withdraw from the military arm of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Cuba, as another example, often took positions that put it at odds with its Soviet ally, including momentary alliances with China, economic reorganizations, and providing support for insurgencies in Africa and the Americas without prior approval from the Soviet Union.[citation needed]With the end of the Cold War, the Eastern Bloc fell apart, effectively ending the Soviet sphere of influence. Then in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist, replaced by the Russian Federation and several other ex-Soviet Republics who became independent states.","title":"Cold War (1947–1991)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_world"},{"link_name":"Foreign relations of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Potential enlargement of the European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_enlargement_of_the_European_Union"},{"link_name":"Enlargement of NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlargement_of_NATO"},{"link_name":"Major non-NATO ally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_non-NATO_ally"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EU_European_Neighbourhood_Policy_states.svg"},{"link_name":"European Neighbourhood Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Neighbourhood_Policy"},{"link_name":"EU member states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union"},{"link_name":"EU enlargement agenda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_enlargement_of_the_European_Union"},{"link_name":"Eastern Partnership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Partnership"},{"link_name":"UfM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_for_the_Mediterranean"},{"link_name":"UfM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_for_the_Mediterranean"},{"link_name":"fall of the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of Independent States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States"},{"link_name":"Russian Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Federation"},{"link_name":"Boris Yeltsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Europe"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carnegie141209-31"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FoundingAct-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Eastern Partnership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Partnership"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EUO090321-34"},{"link_name":"Carl Bildt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Bildt"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EUO090321-34"},{"link_name":"Russo-Georgian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War"},{"link_name":"Václav Havel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel"},{"link_name":"Helsinki Final Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Final_Act"},{"link_name":"Charter of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GW090715-35"},{"link_name":"Sergei Lavrov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Lavrov"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NATO140512-36"},{"link_name":"Angela Merkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Merkel"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EUO141117-37"},{"link_name":"Theresa May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"See also: Russian world, Foreign relations of Russia, Potential enlargement of the European Union, Enlargement of NATO, and Major non-NATO allyEuropean Neighbourhood Policy (ENP)   EU member states   EU enlargement agenda   Eastern Partnership ENP countries   Other ENP countries (all but Libya are UfM members)   UfM memberFollowing the fall of the Soviet Union, the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States that became independent in 1991, were portrayed as part of the Russian Federation's 'sphere of influence', according to a statement by Boris Yeltsin, dated September 1994.[30]According to Ulrich Speck, writing for Carnegie Europe, \"After the breakup of the Soviet Union, the West's focus was on Russia. Western nations implicitly treated the post-Soviet countries (besides the Baltic states) as Russia's sphere of influence.\"[31]In 1997, NATO and Russia signed the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security, stating the \"aim of creating in Europe a common space of security and stability, without dividing lines or spheres of influence limiting the sovereignty of any state.\"[32]On August 31, 2008, Russian president Dmitri Medvedev stated five principles of foreign policy, including the claim of a privileged sphere of influence that comprised \"the border region, but not only\".[33] In 2009, Russia asserted that the European Union desires a sphere of influence and that the Eastern Partnership is \"an attempt to extend\" it.[34] In March that year, Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt stated that the \"Eastern Partnership is not about spheres of influence. The difference is that these countries themselves opted to join.\"[34]Following the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, Václav Havel and other former central and eastern European leaders signed an open letter stating that Russia had \"violated the core principles of the Helsinki Final Act, the Charter of Paris ... all in the name of defending a sphere of influence on its borders.\"[35] In April 2014, NATO stated that, contrary to the Founding Act,Russia now appears to be attempting to recreate a sphere of influence by seizing a part of Ukraine, maintaining large numbers of forces on its borders, and demanding, as Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov recently stated, that \"Ukraine cannot be part of any bloc.\"[36]Criticising Russia in November 2014, German Chancellor Angela Merkel said that \"old thinking about spheres of influence, which runs roughshod over international law\" put the \"entire European peace order into question.\"[37] In January 2017, British Prime Minister Theresa May said, \"We should not jeopardise the freedoms that President Reagan and Mrs Thatcher brought to Eastern Europe by accepting President Putin's claim that it is now in his sphere of influence.\"[38]","title":"Contemporary Russia (1990s–present)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Foreign relations of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States"}],"text":"See also: Foreign relations of the United States","title":"Contemporary United States (1991–present)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"large sphere of influence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embrace,_extend,_and_extinguish"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Gilded Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilded_Age"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Wall Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street"},{"link_name":"2016 United States elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_elections"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"text":"In corporate terms, the sphere of influence of a business, organization, or group can show its power and influence in the decisions of other businesses/organizations/groups. The influence shows in several ways, such as in size, frequency of visits, etc. In most cases, a company described as \"bigger\" has a larger sphere of influence.For example, the software company Microsoft has a large sphere of influence in the market of operating systems; any entity wishing to sell a software product may weigh up compatibility with Microsoft's products as part of a marketing plan.[citation needed] In another example, retailers wishing to make the most profits must ensure they open their stores in the correct location. This is also true for shopping centers that, to reap the most profits, must be able to attract customers to their vicinity.[citation needed]There is no defined scale measuring such spheres of influence. However, one can evaluate the spheres of influence of two shopping centers by seeing how far people are prepared to travel to each shopping center, how much time they spend in its vicinity, how often they visit, the order of goods available, etc.[citation needed]Corporations have significant influence on the regulations and regulators that monitor them. During the Gilded Age in the United States, corruption was rampant as business leaders spent significant amounts of money ensuring that government did not regulate their activities.[39] Wall Street spent a record $2 billion trying to influence the 2016 United States elections.[40][41]","title":"Corporations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"America's Backyard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s_Backyard"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas"},{"link_name":"Anglosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglosphere"},{"link_name":"English-speaking world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world"},{"link_name":"Arabsphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabsphere"},{"link_name":"Sinosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinosphere"},{"link_name":"Russian world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_world"},{"link_name":"Eurosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurosphere"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Francosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francosphere"},{"link_name":"Germanosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanosphere"},{"link_name":"Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere"},{"link_name":"Japanese Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Hispanosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanosphere"},{"link_name":"Indosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indosphere"},{"link_name":"Greater India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_India"},{"link_name":"Islamosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamosphere"},{"link_name":"Persophere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persophere"},{"link_name":"Slavisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavisphere"},{"link_name":"Soviet sphere of influence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_sphere_of_influence"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"}],"text":"America's Backyard — areas of United States' influence in the American continent\nAnglosphere — English-speaking world\nArabsphere — Arabic-speaking world\nSinosphere — historically Chinese-influenced cultures\nRussian world — Russian-speaking world\nEurosphere — area with European Union influence\nFrancosphere — French-speaking world\nGermanosphere — German-speaking world\nGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere — imperial influence of the Japanese Empire\nHispanosphere — Spanish-speaking world\nIndosphere — area with Indian linguistic and cultural influence (Greater India)\nIslamosphere — the Muslim world\nPersophere — historically Iran-influenced cultures\nSlavisphere — Slavic influence\nSoviet sphere of influence — imperial influence of the Soviet Union","title":"List of spheres of influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Game_cartoon_from_1878.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Great Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Game"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia"},{"link_name":"Great Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Game"},{"link_name":"Geostrategy in Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostrategy_in_Central_Asia"}],"sub_title":"Other examples","text":"An 1878 British cartoon about The Great Game between the United Kingdom and Russia over influence in Central AsiaFor historical and current examples of significant battles over spheres of influence see:The Great Game\nGeostrategy in Central Asia","title":"List of spheres of influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Introduction: The Return of Spheres of Influence? [PDF]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14650045.2018.1461335?needAccess=true"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/14650045.2018.1461335","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1461335"}],"text":"Ferguson, Iain, and Susanna Hast. 2018. \"Introduction: The Return of Spheres of Influence? [PDF]\" Geopolitics 23(2):277-84. doi:10.1080/14650045.2018.1461335.\nHast, Susanna. 2016. Spheres of Influence in International Relations: History, Theory and Politics. Milton Park, UK: Routledge.\nIcenhower, Brian. 2018. \"SOI: Building a Real Estate Agent's Sphere of Influence.\" CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.\nPiffanelli, Luciano. 2018. \"Crossing Boundaries: A Problem of Territoriality in Renaissance Italy\", Viator. Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 49(3):245–275.\nWhite, Craig Howard. 1992. Sphere of Influence, Star of Empire: American Renaissance Cosmos, Vol. 1. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Madison.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"A 1912 newspaper cartoon highlighting the United States' influence in Latin America following the Monroe Doctrine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Monroe_doctrine.jpg/220px-Monroe_doctrine.jpg"},{"image_text":"A French political cartoon in 1898, China – the cake of Kings and Emperors, showing Queen Victoria of Britain, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, Marianne of France and Japanese Emperor Meiji dividing China ruled by Emperor Guangxu. \"Kiao-Tchéou\" and \"Port-Arthur,\" written on slices of the cake, represent those locations in China; a stereotyped mandarin reacts with horror in the background.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/220px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of Africa in 1897 shows European \"sphere[s] of influence\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Map_of_colonial_Africa_in_1897.jpg/220px-Map_of_colonial_Africa_in_1897.jpg"},{"image_text":"Delimitation of British and Russian influence in Iran","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Map_Iran_1900-en.png/220px-Map_Iran_1900-en.png"},{"image_text":"Spheres of influence in Chinese empire in early 20th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/KCRC_China_spheres_of_influence.jpg/220px-KCRC_China_spheres_of_influence.jpg"},{"image_text":"German and Japanese direct spheres of influence at their greatest extents in fall 1942","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/German_and_Japanese_spheres_of_influence_at_greatest_extent_World_War_II_1942.jpg/250px-German_and_Japanese_spheres_of_influence_at_greatest_extent_World_War_II_1942.jpg"},{"image_text":"Greatest extent of Soviet influence, after the Cuban Revolution but before the Sino-Soviet Split","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/220px-Soviet_empire_1960.png"},{"image_text":"European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP)   EU member states   EU enlargement agenda   Eastern Partnership ENP countries   Other ENP countries (all but Libya are UfM members)   UfM member","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/EU_European_Neighbourhood_Policy_states.svg/220px-EU_European_Neighbourhood_Policy_states.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An 1878 British cartoon about The Great Game between the United Kingdom and Russia over influence in Central Asia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Great_Game_cartoon_from_1878.jpg/220px-Great_Game_cartoon_from_1878.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Cultural area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_area"},{"title":"Geopolitics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitics"},{"title":"National interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_interest"},{"title":"Balance of power in international relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_power_in_international_relations"},{"title":"Right of conquest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_conquest"},{"title":"Sprachbund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachbund"},{"title":"Unequal treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unequal_treaty"},{"title":"Informal empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_empire"}]

[{"reference":"\"Monroe Doctrine, 1823\". Office of the Historian. United States Department of State. April 6, 2016. Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/monroe","url_text":"\"Monroe Doctrine, 1823\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170131010117/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/monroe","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Morison, S.E. (February 1924). \"The Origins of the Monroe Doctrine\". Economica. doi:10.2307/2547870. JSTOR 2547870.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2547870","url_text":"10.2307/2547870"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2547870","url_text":"2547870"}]},{"reference":"New Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (15th ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 269. ISBN 1-59339-292-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59339-292-3","url_text":"1-59339-292-3"}]},{"reference":"Gramer, Robbie (2 February 2018). \"Tillerson Praises Monroe Doctrine, Warns Latin America of 'Imperial' Chinese Ambitions\". Foreign Policy. The Slate Group. Archived from the original on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/02/tillerson-praises-monroe-doctrine-warns-latin-america-off-imperial-chinese-ambitions-mexico-south-america-nafta-diplomacy-trump-trade-venezuela-maduro/","url_text":"\"Tillerson Praises Monroe Doctrine, Warns Latin America of 'Imperial' Chinese Ambitions\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180916084932/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/02/tillerson-praises-monroe-doctrine-warns-latin-america-off-imperial-chinese-ambitions-mexico-south-america-nafta-diplomacy-trump-trade-venezuela-maduro/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Declaration between the United Kingdom and France concerning Siam, Madagascar, and the New Hebrides . Governments of Great Britain and the French Republic. 1904 – via Wikisource.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Declaration_between_the_United_Kingdom_and_France_concerning_Siam,_Madagascar,_and_the_New_Hebrides","url_text":"Declaration between the United Kingdom and France concerning Siam, Madagascar, and the New Hebrides"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource","url_text":"Wikisource"}]},{"reference":"\"Yale Law School: \"Agreement concerning Persia\" (in English)\". Archived from the original on 2018-09-30. Retrieved 2018-10-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/angrusen.asp","url_text":"\"Yale Law School: \"Agreement concerning Persia\" (in English)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180930102122/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/angrusen.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kwang-ching Liu; John Fairbank. The Cambridge History of China Volume 11 Late Ch'ing 1800–1911 Part 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN 0-521-22029-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22029-7","url_text":"0-521-22029-7"}]},{"reference":"Kwang-ching Liu; John Fairbank. The Cambridge History of China Volume 11 Late Ch'ing 1800-1911 Part 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 274. ISBN 0-521-22029-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22029-7","url_text":"0-521-22029-7"}]},{"reference":"Jeans, Roger B. (1997). Democracy and Socialism in Republican China: The Politics of Zhang Junmai (Carsun Chang), 1906–1941. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 28. ISBN 0-8476-8707-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-8707-4","url_text":"0-8476-8707-4"}]},{"reference":"Dallin, David J. (2013). \"2 The Second Drive to the Pacific, Section Port Arthur\". The Rise Of Russia In Asia. Read Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4733-8257-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4733-8257-2","url_text":"978-1-4733-8257-2"}]},{"reference":"Paine, S. C. M. (1996). \"Chinese Diplomacy in Disarray: The Treaty of Livadia\". Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 162. ISBN 978-1-56324-724-8. 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[PDF]"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1461335","external_links_name":"10.1080/14650045.2018.1461335"},{"Link":"http://commoncensus.org/","external_links_name":"The CommonCensus Map Project"},{"Link":"http://simon31.narod.ru/article-eng.htm","external_links_name":"Russia – a counterbalancing agent to the Asia."},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12330111h","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12330111h","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565816205171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85126593","external_links_name":"United States"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_First-Class_Construction

Double First-Class Construction

["1 History","2 List of the universities and colleges","3 Re-assessment","4 See also","5 References"]

China's higher education development scheme initiated in September 2017 See also: Project 211 and Project 985Double First-Class ConstructionMap of the universities and colleges selected for the Double First-Class ConstructionFormation2015; 9 years ago (2015)Region ChinaMembership 147 universities nationwide The World First-Class Universities and First-Class Academic Disciplines Construction (世界一流大学和一流学科建设), together known as Double First-Class Construction (双一流建设), is a higher education development and sponsorship scheme of the Chinese central government, initiated in 2015. There are 147 universities and colleges selected to be part of the program. History In October 2015, the State Council of China published the "Overall Plan for Promoting the Construction of World First-Class Universities and First-Class Disciplines" (Double First-Class Construction), which made new arrangements for the development of higher education in China, replacing previous higher education projects. In June 2016, the Ministry of Education of China announced that the Project 211 and Project 985 had already been abolished and replaced by the Double First-Class Construction Initiative. In September 2017, the full list of the universities and their disciplines of the Double First-Class Construction was jointly published by the Ministry of Education of China, the Ministry of Finance of China and the National Development and Reform Commission of China. According to the list, 140 universities have been approved as 'Double First-Class Construction Universities' by the State Council of China. The Double First-Class Construction policy underlines that driving the overall development of universities by building and strengthening their faculties and departments, and ultimately develop the Double First-Class Construction Universities into world-class universities by 2050. In February 2022, the "Some Suggestions on Further Promoting the Construction of World First-Class Universities and First-Class Disciplines" were jointly published by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Finance, and the National Development and Reform Commission. In addition, with the approval of the State Council of China, the updated Phase 2 list of "Double First-Class Construction Universities" has been released. According to the Phase 2 List of the Double First-Class Construction, the previous university classifications have been abolished, and a total number of 147 universities have been included in the plan (accounted for 4.88% of 3,012 Chinese higher education institutions), after 7 universities newly adding into the list since February 2022. The purpose of the program is to "enhance the comprehensive strength and international competitiveness of China's higher education." The phase-specific objectives include that "an increasing number of Chinese universities and their disciplines join the ranks of world-class institutions, and a number of universities enter the forefront of global excellence, with a group of disciplines reaching the forefront of world-class standings by 2030," and "developing the Double First-Class Construction Universities into world-class higher education institutions through building and strengthening their faculties and departments by the mid-21st century." List of the universities and colleges See also: List of universities in China The Phase 1 list of 140 Double First-Class Construction Universities were jointly issued by Chinese Ministry of Education, Ministry of Finance, and National Development and Reform Commission without any ranking within the lists (by "school code") in 2017. In February 2022, the Ministry of Education of China announced that the classifications had been invalidated, and the universities included in the Double First-Class Construction should be referred to as Double First-Class Construction Universities. According to the updated Phase 2 list of the Double First-Class Construction (without any ranking within the list), a total of 147 universities have been approved and recognized as Double First-Class Construction Universities. Province City University Beijing (34) Beijing (34) Beijing Foreign Studies University Beijing Forestry University Beijing Institute of Technology Beijing Jiaotong University Beijing Normal University Beihang University Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing University of Chinese Medicine Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications Beijing University of Technology Capital Normal University Central Academy of Drama Central Academy of Fine Arts Central Conservatory of Music Central University of Finance and Economics China Agricultural University China Conservatory of Music China Foreign Affairs University China University of Geosciences (Beijing) China University of Petroleum (Beijing) China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing) China University of Political Science and Law Communication University of China Minzu University of China North China Electric Power University Peking Union Medical College Peking University People's Public Security University of China Renmin University of China Tsinghua University University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences University of International Business and Economics University of Science and Technology Beijing Jiangsu (16) Nanjing (13) China Pharmaceutical University Hohai University Nanjing Aeronautics and Astronautics University Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing Forestry University Nanjing Medical University * Nanjing Normal University Nanjing University Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications Nanjing University of Science and Technology Southeast University Suzhou Soochow University Wuxi Jiangnan University Xuzhou China University of Mining and Technology Shanghai (15) Shanghai (15) Donghua University East China Normal University East China University of Science and Technology Fudan University Second Military Medical University Shanghai Conservatory of Music Shanghai International Studies University Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai Ocean University ShanghaiTech University * Shanghai University Shanghai University of Finance and Economics Shanghai University of Sport Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Tongji University Guangdong (8) Guangzhou (7) Guangzhou Medical University * Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine Jinan University South China Agricultural University * South China Normal University South China University of Technology Sun Yat-sen University Shenzhen Southern University of Science and Technology * Shaanxi (8) Xi'an (7) Chang'an University Fourth Military Medical University Xi'an Jiaotong University Xidian University Shaanxi Normal University Northwest University Northwestern Polytechnical University Xianyang Northwest A&F University Sichuan (8) Chengdu (7) Chengdu University of Technology Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Sichuan University Southwest Jiaotong University Southwest Petroleum University Southwestern University of Finance and Economics University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Ya'an Sichuan Agricultural University Hubei (7) Wuhan (7) China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) Wuhan University Huazhong University of Science and Technology Wuhan University of Technology Huazhong Agricultural University Central China Normal University Zhongnan University of Economics and Law Tianjin (6) Tianjin (6) Hebei University of Technology Nankai University Tianjin Medical University Tiangong University Tianjin University Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Hunan (5) Changsha (4) Central South University Hunan Normal University Hunan University National University of Defense Technology Xiangtan Xiangtan University * Heilongjiang (4) Harbin (4) Harbin Engineering University Harbin Institute of Technology Northeast Agricultural University Northeast Forestry University Liaoning (4) Shenyang (2) Liaoning University Northeastern University Dalian (2) Dalian Maritime University Dalian University of Technology Anhui (3) Hefei (3) Anhui University Hefei University of Technology University of Science and Technology of China Jilin (3) Changchun (2) Jilin University Northeast Normal University Yanji Yanbian University Shandong (3) Qingdao (2) Ocean University of China China University of Petroleum (Huadong) Jinan Shandong University Zhejiang (3) Hangzhou (2) China Academy of Art Zhejiang University Ningbo Ningbo University Chongqing (2) Chongqing (2) Chongqing University Southwest University Fujian (2) Xiamen Xiamen University Fuzhou Fuzhou University Henan (2) Kaifeng Henan University Zhengzhou Zhengzhou University Shanxi (2) Taiyuan Shanxi University * Taiyuan University of Technology Xinjiang (2) Shihezi Shihezi University Ürümqi Xinjiang University Guizhou Guiyang Guizhou University Gansu Lanzhou Lanzhou University Hainan Haikou Hainan University Jiangxi Nanchang Nanchang University Qinghai Xining Qinghai University Yunnan Kunming Yunnan University Guangxi Nanning Guangxi University Inner Mongolia Hohhot Inner Mongolia University Ningxia Yinchuan Ningxia University Tibet Lhasa Tibet University * represent the newly added universities in the Phase 2 list of Double First-Class Construction. Re-assessment According to the 'Phase 2 List of the Double First-Class Construction Initiative' jointly published by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Finance, and the National Development and Reform Commission in February 2022, 15 universities received warnings on their Double First-Class status revocation (including Anhui University, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Central China Normal University, Guangxi University, Inner Mongolia University, Liaoning University, Ningbo University, Ningxia University, Northeast Normal University, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Tibet University, Third Military Medical University, Xinjiang University, Yanbian University, and Zhongnan University of Economics and Law). These 15 universities were required to rectify and improve their research qualities and development, and if the universities failed to pass the final assessment in 2023, they would lose their Double First-Class Construction statuses. See also China portal List of universities in China State Key Laboratories, a group of key laboratories sponsored and supervised by the central government of China Project 985, an abolished project of developing 39 leading research universities in China Project 211, an abolished program for developing China's comprehensive universities Excellence League, an alliance of leading Chinese universities with strong backgrounds in engineering References ^ Liu, Shengbo; Luo, Xiaoting; Liu, Miaomiao (2023). "Was Chinese Double-First Class Construction Policy Influential? Analysis Using Propensity Score Matching". Sustainability. 15 (8): 6378. doi:10.3390/su15086378. ISSN 2071-1050. ^ "The Double First-Class Construction Alliance established". english.pku.edu.cn. Retrieved January 13, 2024. ^ "第二轮'双一流'建设高校及建设学科名单 The second round of double first-class construction universities and construction disciplines list" (PDF). Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. Retrieved January 13, 2024. ^ "深入推进新一轮'双一流'建设 Deeply promote a new round of double first-class construction". Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved January 14, 2024. ^ a b c d "国务院关于印发统筹推进世界一流大学和一流学科建设总体方案的通知_政府信息公开专栏". www.gov.cn. Archived from the original on April 6, 2019. Retrieved December 24, 2021. ^ "教育部 财政部 国家发展改革委关于公布世界一流大学和一流学科建设高校及建设学科名单的通知 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Retrieved January 6, 2024. ^ a b "Implementation measures released for China's new world-class university policy". Archived from the original on March 17, 2020. Retrieved September 26, 2017. ^ "全国高等学校名单 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022. Retrieved December 26, 2021. ^ Li, Jian; Xue, Eryong (2021), Li, Jian; Xue, Eryong (eds.), "The Policy Analysis of Creating World-Class Universities in China", Creating World-Class Universities in China : Ideas, Policies, and Efforts, Exploring Education Policy in a Globalized World: Concepts, Contexts, and Practices, Singapore: Springer, pp. 1–33, doi:10.1007/978-981-16-6726-8_1, ISBN 978-981-16-6725-1, S2CID 240467383, archived from the original on April 17, 2022 ^ "教育部 国务院学位委员会 国家语委关于 宣布失效一批规范性文件的通知 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on March 7, 2019. Retrieved December 19, 2022. ^ ""985""211"工程将废除 教育部:年内启动"双一流"_新闻频道_中华网". news.china.com. Archived from the original on December 19, 2022. Retrieved December 19, 2022. ^ "双一流大学 (shuāngyīliú dàxué): Double top university plan". Archived from the original on September 25, 2017. Retrieved September 26, 2017. ^ a b "教育部 财政部 国家发展改革委 关于公布世界一流大学和一流学科建设高校及建设 学科名单的通知 (Notice from the Ministry of Education and other national governmental departments announcing the list of double first class universities and disciplines)" (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved September 26, 2017. ^ "教育部 财政部 国家发展改革委关于深入推进世界一流大学和一流学科建设的若干意见 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on February 14, 2022. Retrieved February 14, 2022. ^ a b 财经头条. "教育部: 双一流高校不再区分A类B类, 避免划分"三六九等"". cj.sina.com.cn. Archived from the original on February 14, 2022. Retrieved February 14, 2022. ^ "'World-class' universities list expanded - People's Daily Online". en.people.cn. Archived from the original on February 15, 2022. Retrieved February 19, 2022. ^ a b "教育部 财政部 国家发展改革委关于公布第二轮"双一流"建设高校及建设学科名单的通知 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on March 12, 2022. Retrieved February 14, 2022. ^ "China to develop 42 world-class universities". People's Daily. September 21, 2017. Archived from the original on August 12, 2020. Retrieved September 26, 2017. ^ "教育部: 逐步淡化一流大学建设高校和一流学科建设高校的身份色彩". news.cyol.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2022. Retrieved February 8, 2022. ^ "教育部2022年工作要点 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on February 8, 2022. Retrieved February 8, 2022. ^ "教育部 财政部 国家发展改革委 关于公布第二轮"双一流"建设高校及 建设学科名单的通知 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Retrieved January 26, 2023. ^ "16个首轮"双一流"建设学科被公开警示或撤销, 如何看待-光明日报-光明网". epaper.gmw.cn. Retrieved January 26, 2023. vteEducation in ChinaEducation systemHistory Imperial examination Mandarin (bureaucrat) Scholar-bureaucrats Taixue Academies of Classical Learning Chinese educators Burning of books and burying of scholars Guozijian Beijing Guozijian Hundred Schools of Thought Scouting in China Digital divide in China Challenge Cup Competition of Science Achievement in China May Fourth Movement 1952 reorganization Simplified Chinese Education inequality in China Academies Chinese Academy of Sciences Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Chinese Academy of Engineering Projects Plan 111 Project 211 Project 985 Double First-Class Construction Project Hope Thousand Talents Plan Administration Ministry of Education National Education Examinations Authority Basic Primary education Secondary education Boarding schools Private and public schools Zhongkao Vocational Vocation education Higher Gaokao National Key Disciplines College English Test National Key Universities Academic grading in China State Key Laboratories JUPAS for HKSAR students Academic ranks in China Self-Taught Higher Education Examinations Libraries Archives in China Book collecting in China National Library of China Nanjing Library Shanghai Library Specialist Medical schools Business schools Law schools Foreign-language schools Schools of Journalism and Communication Int'l cooperation Association of East Asian Research Universities Association of Pacific Rim Universities Global U8 Consortium International Alliance of Research Universities Universitas 21 Worldwide Universities Network Subject areas English education Exams Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi Putonghua Proficiency Test Zhíyè Hànyŭ Nénglì Cèshì Common Recruitment Examination Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers College English Test Quanguo Waiyu Shuiping Kaoshi Public English Test System Rankings List of universities and colleges ARWU BCUR Wu Shulian CUAA Netbig See also: Rankings of universities in China, Science and technology in China, and Types of universities and colleges in China

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Project 211","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_211"},{"link_name":"Project 985","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_985"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Australian_Department_of_Education-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-8"}],"text":"See also: Project 211 and Project 985The World First-Class Universities and First-Class Academic Disciplines Construction (世界一流大学和一流学科建设), together known as Double First-Class Construction (双一流建设),[1][2][3][4] is a higher education development and sponsorship scheme of the Chinese central government, initiated in 2015.[5][6] There are 147 universities and colleges selected to be part of the program.[7][8]","title":"Double First-Class Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Education of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(China)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Finance of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"National Development and Reform Commission of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Development_and_Reform_Commission"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China_Daily-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chinese_Department_of_Education-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-17"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-people.cn-18"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Australian_Department_of_Education-7"}],"text":"In October 2015, the State Council of China published the \"Overall Plan for Promoting the Construction of World First-Class Universities and First-Class Disciplines\" (Double First-Class Construction), which made new arrangements for the development of higher education in China, replacing previous higher education projects.[5][9]In June 2016, the Ministry of Education of China announced that the Project 211 and Project 985 had already been abolished and replaced by the Double First-Class Construction Initiative.[10][11]In September 2017, the full list of the universities and their disciplines of the Double First-Class Construction was jointly published by the Ministry of Education of China, the Ministry of Finance of China and the National Development and Reform Commission of China. According to the list, 140 universities have been approved as 'Double First-Class Construction Universities' by the State Council of China. The Double First-Class Construction policy underlines that driving the overall development of universities by building and strengthening their faculties and departments, and ultimately develop the Double First-Class Construction Universities into world-class universities by 2050.[5][12][13]In February 2022, the \"Some Suggestions on Further Promoting the Construction of World First-Class Universities and First-Class Disciplines\" were jointly published by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Finance, and the National Development and Reform Commission.[14] In addition, with the approval of the State Council of China, the updated Phase 2 list of \"Double First-Class Construction Universities\" has been released. According to the Phase 2 List of the Double First-Class Construction, the previous university classifications have been abolished, and a total number of 147 universities have been included in the plan (accounted for 4.88% of 3,012 Chinese higher education institutions), after 7 universities newly adding into the list since February 2022.[15][16][17]The purpose of the program is to \"enhance the comprehensive strength and international competitiveness of China's higher education.\" The phase-specific objectives include that \"an increasing number of Chinese universities and their disciplines join the ranks of world-class institutions, and a number of universities enter the forefront of global excellence, with a group of disciplines reaching the forefront of world-class standings by 2030,\" and \"developing the Double First-Class Construction Universities into world-class higher education institutions through building and strengthening their faculties and departments by the mid-21st century.\"[5][18][7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of universities in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_China"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chinese_Department_of_Education-13"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-15"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-17"}],"text":"See also: List of universities in ChinaThe Phase 1 list of 140 Double First-Class Construction Universities were jointly issued by Chinese Ministry of Education, Ministry of Finance, and National Development and Reform Commission without any ranking within the lists (by \"school code\") in 2017.[13] In February 2022, the Ministry of Education of China announced that the classifications had been invalidated,[15] and the universities included in the Double First-Class Construction should be referred to as Double First-Class Construction Universities.[19][20] According to the updated Phase 2 list of the Double First-Class Construction (without any ranking within the list), a total of 147 universities have been approved and recognized as Double First-Class Construction Universities.[17]* represent the newly added universities in the Phase 2 list of Double First-Class Construction.","title":"List of the universities and colleges"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anhui University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhui_University"},{"link_name":"Beijing University of Chinese Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_University_of_Chinese_Medicine"},{"link_name":"Central China Normal University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_China_Normal_University"},{"link_name":"Guangxi University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangxi_University"},{"link_name":"Inner Mongolia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Mongolia_University"},{"link_name":"Liaoning University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaoning_University"},{"link_name":"Ningbo University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningbo_University"},{"link_name":"Ningxia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningxia_University"},{"link_name":"Northeast Normal University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Normal_University"},{"link_name":"Shanghai University of Finance and Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_University_of_Finance_and_Economics"},{"link_name":"Tibet University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_University"},{"link_name":"Third Military Medical University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Medical_University"},{"link_name":"Xinjiang University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang_University"},{"link_name":"Yanbian University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanbian_University"},{"link_name":"Zhongnan University of Economics and Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongnan_University_of_Economics_and_Law"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"According to the 'Phase 2 List of the Double First-Class Construction Initiative' jointly published by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Finance, and the National Development and Reform Commission in February 2022, 15 universities received warnings on their Double First-Class status revocation (including Anhui University, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Central China Normal University, Guangxi University, Inner Mongolia University, Liaoning University, Ningbo University, Ningxia University, Northeast Normal University, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Tibet University, Third Military Medical University, Xinjiang University, Yanbian University, and Zhongnan University of Economics and Law). These 15 universities were required to rectify and improve their research qualities and development, and if the universities failed to pass the final assessment in 2023, they would lose their Double First-Class Construction statuses.[21][22]","title":"Re-assessment"}]

[]

[{"title":"China portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:China"},{"title":"List of universities in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_China"},{"title":"State Key Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Key_Laboratories"},{"title":"Project 985","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_985"},{"title":"research universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_university"},{"title":"Project 211","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_211"},{"title":"Excellence League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excellence_League"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_triple

Semantic triple

["1 Subject, predicate and object","2 Difference to relational databases","3 Limitations","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Data modeling construct A semantic triple, or RDF triple or simply triple, is the atomic data entity in the Resource Description Framework (RDF) data model. As its name indicates, a triple is a sequence of three entities that codifies a statement about semantic data in the form of subject–predicate–object expressions (e.g., "Bob is 35", or "Bob knows John"). Subject, predicate and object This format enables knowledge to be represented in a machine-readable way. Particularly, every part of an RDF triple is individually addressable via unique URIs—for example, the statement "Bob knows John" might be represented in RDF as: http://example.name#BobSmith12 http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/knows http://example.name#JohnDoe34. Given this precise representation, semantic data can be unambiguously queried and reasoned about. The basic semantic triple model.The components of a triple, such as the statement "The sky has the color blue", consist of a subject ("the sky"), a predicate ("has the color"), and an object ("blue"). This is similar to the classical notation of an entity–attribute–value model within object-oriented design, where this example would be expressed as an entity (sky), an attribute (color) and a value (blue). From this basic structure, triples can be composed into more complex models, by using triples as objects or subjects of other triples—for example, Mike → said → (triples → can be → objects). Given their particular, consistent structure, a collection of triples is often stored in purpose-built databases called triplestores. Difference to relational databases A relational database is the classical form for information storage, working with different tables, which consist of rows. The query language SQL is able to retrieve information from such a database. In contrast, RDF triple storage works with logical predicates. No tables nor rows are needed, but the information is stored in a text file. A RDF-triple storage can be converted into an SQL database and the other way around. If the knowledge is highly unstructured and dedicated tables aren't flexible enough, semantic triples are used over classic relational storage. In contrast to a traditional SQL database, an RDF triple storage isn't created with a table editor. The preferred tool is a knowledge editor, for example Protégé. Protégé looks similar to an object-oriented modeling application used for software engineering, but it's focused on natural language information. The RDF triples are aggregated into a knowledge base, which allows external parsers to run requests. Possible applications include the creation of non-player characters within video games. Limitations One concern about triple storage is its lack of database scalability. This problem is especially pertinent if millions of triples are stored and retrieved in a database. The seek time is larger than for classical SQL-based databases. A more complex issue is a knowledge model's inability to predict future states. Even if all the domain knowledge is available as logical predicates, the model fails in answering what-if questions. For example, suppose in the RDF format a room with a robot and table is described. The robot knows what the location of the table is, is aware of the distance to the table and knows also that a table is a type of furniture. Before the robot can plan its next action, it needs temporal reasoning capabilities. Thus, the knowledge model should answer hypothetical questions in advance before an action is taken. See also Named graphs and quads, an extension to semantic triples to also include a context node as a fourth element. Graph database Link relation References ^ http://www.w3.org/TR/PR-rdf-syntax/ "Resource Description Framework (RDF) Model and Syntax Specification" ^ Cuddihy, Paul and McHugh, Justin and Williams, Jenny Weisenberg and Mulwad, Varish and Aggour, Kareem S (2017). "SemTK: An Ontology-first, Open Source Semantic Toolkit for Managing and Querying Knowledge Graphs". arXiv:1710.11531 .{{cite arXiv}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Katis, Evangelos (2018). Semantic modeling of educational curriculum and syllabus (PhD). Technological Educational Institute of Crete. ^ Kluwer, Tina and Adolphs, Peter and Xu, Feiyu and Uszkoreit, Hans and Cheng, Xiwen (2010). Talking NPCs in a virtual game world. Proceedings of the ACL 2010 System Demonstrations. pp. 36–41.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Jaroslav Pokorny (2015). "Graph Databases: Their Power and Limitations" (PDF). Computer Information Systems and Industrial Management. Computer Information Systems and Industrial Management. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 9339. Springer International Publishing. pp. 58–69. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24369-6_5. ISBN 978-3-319-24368-9. ^ Claudio Gutierrez and Carlos Hurtado and Alejandro Vaisman (2007). "Introducing Time into RDF". IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering. 19 (2). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 207–218. doi:10.1109/tkde.2007.34. S2CID 9749119. External links "RDF 1.1 Primer § Triples". W3C. "Il ruolo delle triple semantiche nella SEO". vteSemantic WebBackground Databases Hypertext Internet Ontologies Semantics Semantic networks World Wide Web Sub-topics Dataspaces Hyperdata Linked data Rule-based systems Applications Semantic analytics Semantic broker Semantic computing Semantic mapper Semantic matching Semantic publishing Semantic reasoner Semantic search Semantic service-oriented architecture Semantic wiki Solid Related topics Collective intelligence Description logic Folksonomy Geotagging Information architecture Knowledge extraction Knowledge management Knowledge representation and reasoning Library 2.0 Digital library Digital humanities Metadata References Topic map Web 2.0 Web engineering Web Science Trust StandardsSyntax and supporting technologies HTTP IRI URI RDF triples RDF/XML JSON-LD Turtle TriG Notation3 N-Triples TriX (no W3C standard) RRID SPARQL XML Semantic HTML Schemas, ontologies and rules Common Logic OWL RDFS Rule Interchange Format Semantic Web Rule Language ALPS SHACL Semantic annotation eRDF GRDDL Microdata Microformats RDFa SAWSDL Facebook Platform Common vocabularies DOAP Dublin Core FOAF Schema.org SIOC SKOS Microformat vocabularies hAtom hCalendar hCard hProduct hRecipe hReview ^ XiWeb https://www.xiweb.it/

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Particularly, every part of an RDF triple is individually addressable via unique URIs—for example, the statement \"Bob knows John\" might be represented in RDF as:http://example.name#BobSmith12 http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/knows http://example.name#JohnDoe34.Given this precise representation, semantic data can be unambiguously queried and reasoned about.The basic semantic triple model.The components of a triple, such as the statement \"The sky has the color blue\", consist of a subject (\"the sky\"), a predicate (\"has the color\"), and an object (\"blue\"). 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Possible applications include the creation of non-player characters within video games.[4]","title":"Difference to relational databases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"database scalability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_scalability"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"SQL-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL"},{"link_name":"logical predicates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"what-if questions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What-if_analysis"},{"link_name":"temporal reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonsense_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"One concern about triple storage is its lack of database scalability.[5] This problem is especially pertinent if millions of triples are stored and retrieved in a database. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softphone

Softphone

["1 Applications","2 Communication protocols","3 Features","4 Requirements","5 See also","6 References"]

Software program for making telephone calls over the Internet This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Softphone" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A softphone is a software program for making telephone calls over the Internet using a general purpose computer rather than dedicated hardware. The softphone can be installed on a piece of equipment such as a desktop, mobile device, or other computer and allows the user to place and receive calls without requiring an actual telephone set. Often, a softphone is designed to behave like a traditional telephone, sometimes appearing as an image of a handset, with a display panel and buttons with which the user can interact. A softphone is usually used with a headset connected to the sound card of the PC or with a USB phone. Applications See Comparison of VoIP software Communication protocols To communicate, both end-points must support the same voice-over-IP protocol, and at least one common audio codec. Many service providers use the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) standardized by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Skype, a popular service, uses proprietary protocols, and Google Talk leveraged the Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP). Some softphones also support the Inter-Asterisk eXchange protocol (IAX), a protocol supported by the open-source software application Asterisk. Features A typical softphone has all standard telephony features (DND, Mute, DTMF, Flash, Hold, Transfer etc.) and often additional features typical for online messaging, such as user presence indication, video, wide-band audio. Softphones provide a variety of audio codecs, a typical minimum set is G.711 and G.729. Requirements To make voice calls via the Internet, a user typically requires the following: A modern PC with a microphone and speaker, or with a headset, or USB phone. Reliable high-speed Internet connectivity like digital subscriber line (DSL), or cable service. Account with an Internet telephony service provider or IP PBX provider. Mobile or landline phone. See also Auto dialer Chatcord Comparison of VoIP software Computer telephony integration H.323 List of SIP software Mobile VoIP Videotelephony VoIP phone References ^ "Citation from article entitled - Softphone initiation". S594098268.online-home.ca. Retrieved 14 October 2017. ^ "SoftPhone - Community Help Wiki". Help.ubuntu.com. Retrieved 14 October 2017. ^ "Freetring - Free calls online". freetring.com. Retrieved 22 July 2021. vteTelecommunicationsHistory Beacon Broadcasting Cable protection system Cable TV Communications satellite Computer network Data compression audio DCT image video Digital media Internet video online video platform social media streaming Drums Edholm's law Electrical telegraph Fax Heliographs Hydraulic telegraph Information Age Information revolution Internet Mass media Mobile phone Smartphone Optical telecommunication Optical telegraphy Pager Photophone Prepaid mobile phone Radio Radiotelephone Satellite communications Semaphore Phryctoria Semiconductor device MOSFET transistor Smoke signals Telecommunications history Telautograph Telegraphy Teleprinter (teletype) Telephone The Telephone Cases Television digital streaming Undersea telegraph line Videotelephony Whistled language Wireless revolution Pioneers Nasir Ahmed Edwin Howard Armstrong Mohamed M. Atalla John Logie Baird Paul Baran John Bardeen Alexander Graham Bell Emile Berliner Tim Berners-Lee Francis Blake (telephone) Jagadish Chandra Bose Charles Bourseul Walter Houser Brattain Vint Cerf Claude Chappe Yogen Dalal Daniel Davis Jr. Donald Davies Amos Dolbear Thomas Edison Lee de Forest Philo Farnsworth Reginald Fessenden Elisha Gray Oliver Heaviside Robert Hooke Erna Schneider Hoover Harold Hopkins Gardiner Greene Hubbard Internet pioneers Bob Kahn Dawon Kahng Charles K. Kao Narinder Singh Kapany Hedy Lamarr Innocenzo Manzetti Guglielmo Marconi Robert Metcalfe Antonio Meucci Samuel Morse Jun-ichi Nishizawa Charles Grafton Page Radia Perlman Alexander Stepanovich Popov Tivadar Puskás Johann Philipp Reis Claude Shannon Almon Brown Strowger Henry Sutton Charles Sumner Tainter Nikola Tesla Camille Tissot Alfred Vail Thomas A. Watson Charles Wheatstone Vladimir K. Zworykin Transmissionmedia Coaxial cable Fiber-optic communication optical fiber Free-space optical communication Molecular communication Radio waves wireless Transmission line telecommunication circuit Network topologyand switching Bandwidth Links Nodes terminal Network switching circuit packet Telephone exchange Multiplexing Space-division Frequency-division Time-division Polarization-division Orbital angular-momentum Code-division Concepts Communication protocol Computer network Data transmission Store and forward Telecommunications equipment Types of network Cellular network Ethernet ISDN LAN Mobile NGN Public Switched Telephone Radio Television Telex UUCP WAN Wireless network Notable networks ARPANET BITNET CYCLADES FidoNet Internet Internet2 JANET NPL network Toasternet Usenet Locations Africa Americas North South Antarctica Asia Europe Oceania (Global telecommunications regulation bodies) Telecommunication portal Category Outline Commons

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everyday_Health

Everyday Health

["1 History","2 Subsidiaries and acquisitions","3 References","4 External links"]

Digital media company Everyday Health, Inc.Company typeSubsidiaryFounded1 January 2002 HeadquartersNew York City, U.S.ServicesHealthcare information, media productionOwnerj2 GlobalNumber of employees520 (2013)Websiteeverydayhealth.com Everyday Health Group is a digital media company which owns websites and produces content relating to health and wellness for consumers and medical professionals. For consumers, its brands include Everyday Health, Diabetes Daily, Migraine Again, DailyOM, What to Expect, BabyCenter, and Emma’s Diary. Its brands for professionals include Health eCareers, Prime Medical, MedPage Today, and Castle Connolly. Everyday Health Group is a division of the Ziff Davis Media and internet conglomerate. History The company was founded in 2002 by entrepreneurs Benjamin Wolin and Michael Keriakos to invest in the creation of online health content for major "offline" health brands. At the time, it was known as Agora Media. It merged with Streetmail.com to become Waterfront Media. In October 2008, the company merged with Revolution Health, in a deal valued at $300 million USD. The combined company, operating under the Waterfront Media name, was projected to have $100 million USD revenue in 2009, double its 2007 revenue. In 2009, Everyday Health signed a multi-year deal with MayoClinic to add MayoClinic’s consumer site to its health properties, a partnership that has persisted for over a decade. In 2010, the company changed its name to Everyday Health. The company attempted an IPO in November 2010, which ultimately failed due to changes in “circumstances regarding the securities markets.” In December 2010, Everyday Health acquired professional website MedPage Today. By 2011, the company's network of sites had partnerships with brands and personalities such as Denise Austin and the South Beach Diet. Throughout 2011, the company began to diversify into digital media: in 2011 co-produced a self-titled TV series with Litton Entertainment for Litton's Weekend Adventure. It also hired Paul Slavin, a veteran producer from ABC News, to help operate a new studio for the company. In October 2011, YouTube announced that Everyday Health would become part of its Original Channel Initiative, which aimed to fund the production of professionally produced original web content. Everyday Health would launch Everyday Health TV through the program, featuring original health and lifestyle-related series. In 2012, the company acquired EQAL, most notable for the lonelygirl15 web series and fellow YouTube channel u look haute, for an undisclosed amount. EQAL became a separate division of the company. Additionally, Everyday Health started co-producing a television version of Recipe Rehab, one of the series featured on its YouTube channel. The series ran from October 6, 2012 through July 25, 2015. The company’s initial public offering was on March 28, 2014 on the New York Stock Exchange, under the symbol EVDY. On October 21, 2016, Ziff Davis, at that time a subsidiary of j2 Global, agreed to acquire Everyday Health. The acquisition was completed on December 8, 2016. In February 2017, it was reported that j2 Global was considering selling off the less profitable parts of Everyday Health. In 2017, DHI Group sold the job recruiting site Health eCareers to Everyday Health Group for $15 million USD. On Health eCareers, healthcare employers can post job listings on the site to connect with doctors, nurses, and other healthcare providers looking for new opportunities. In 2018, EHG acquired the medical continuing education and research company Prime Medical. In late 2018, it acquired Castle Connolly, a ratings website for healthcare facilities and providers that publishes the Top Doctor series, including annual awards for the peer-nominated “America’s Top Doctors.” It also purchased the pregnancy and parenting website BabyCenter from Johnson & Johnson. BabyCenter joined What to Expect as part of the Everyday Health Pregnancy and Parenting division. EHG became a sponsor of the health conference HLTH in 2019. In 2020, Everyday Health Group acquired the patient advocacy and community site Migraine Again, for people living with migraines and chronic headaches. The following year, Everyday Health Group acquired two more sites into its portfolio: Diabetes Daily and DailyOM. Diabetes Daily is a patient community and advocacy site, while DailyOM offers courses in holistic living and self-improvement, inspirations, and horoscopes. At the beginning of 2022, EHG acquired Emma’s Diary, a UK-based company that offers baby and parenting advice, as part of a larger purchase of the company Lifecycle Marketing Ltd. Everyday Health Group also has a marketing partnership with the medical academic journal Cureus. Everyday Health is also one of the health portals that has partnered with healthcare platform TrialReach to match patients to clinical trials. Subsidiaries and acquisitions MedPage Today, acquired in 2010 EQAL (known for lonelygirl15 web series), acquired in 2012 Health eCareers, acquired in 2017 BabyCenter, acquired in 2019 Migraine Again, acquired in 2020 DailyOM, acquired in 2020 Emma’s Diary, acquired in 2022 Castle Connolly Prime Education Diabetes Daily Migraine Again Prime Medical References ^ a b "J2 Global's Ziff Davis Completes Everyday Health Buyout". finance.yahoo.com. 8 December 2016. Retrieved 2020-01-30. ^ a b c Shanks, Adam (March 28, 2016). "Everyday Health to shut North Adams office; most employees to work from home". The Berkshire Eagle. Retrieved 2020-12-20. ^ Clifford, Stephanie (October 3, 2008). "Two Online Health Site Operators to Announce a Merger". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2010. ^ Clifford, Stephanie (2008-10-03). "Two Online Health Site Operators to Announce a Merger (Published 2008)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-12-20. ^ "MayoClinic, Everyday Health partner". MM+M - Medical Marketing and Media. 2009-09-01. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ Elstein, Aaron (March 24, 2014). "Everyday Health looks unwell". Crain's New York Business. Retrieved 2015-11-17. ^ a b "Everyday Health buys MedPage Today in play for professional space". MM+M - Medical Marketing and Media. December 14, 2010. ^ a b "Everyday Health is Out to Dominate Media via Video, Apps, and Social". Xconomy. 8 December 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2012. ^ "YouTube Announces TV Initiative With 100 Niche Channels". The Hollywood Reporter. 28 October 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2012. ^ "Everyday Health Has Bought Social Media Marketers Eqal (Price Up To $25M?)". TechCrunch. 25 September 2012. Retrieved 2020-05-19. ^ "Everyday Health Buys Lonelygirl15 Producer EQAL in Expansion to New Genres". AdAge. 24 September 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2012. ^ "EVERYDAY HEALTH, INC. (EVDY) IPO". NASDAQ.com. Retrieved 2015-11-17. ^ Hay, Timothy (2014-03-28). "Everyday Health Closes Down on Day One, But CEO Upbeat". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2015-11-17. ^ Inc, Everyday Health. "Everyday Health Enters into Agreement to Be Acquired by j2 Global, Inc.'s Ziff Davis for $10.50 per Share in Cash". www.prnewswire.com (Press release). Retrieved 2020-01-30. {{cite press release}}: |last= has generic name (help) ^ Lau, Virginia (2017-02-10). "J2 Global considers divesting parts of Everyday Health". MM&M - Medical Marketing and Media. Retrieved 2020-12-20. ^ a b "Making the Cut: Chicago's Top Surgeons". Chicago Magazine. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ "Everyday Health SEC Filing Data". www.sec.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ "Healthcare Job Posting Sites". Betterteam. Retrieved 2023-02-13. ^ a b "2021 Top Doctors in Hawai'i". Honolulu Magazine. 2021-06-30. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ "Everyday Health Group acquires 'Top Doctors' creator Castle Connolly Medical". www.beckersasc.com. 16 January 2019. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ "Top Doctors 2022". Palm Springs Life. 23 June 2022. Retrieved 2023-05-12. ^ a b "SEC Filing Data". www.sec.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ "Pregnancy apps have become a battleground of vaccine misinformation". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ "JPMA Announces This Year's Most Innovative Baby Products during the Virtual 2021 Innovation Awards". aNb Media, Inc. 2021-12-14. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ Moore, Cortney (2022-12-01). "Top baby names of 2022 trend toward cowboys, nature and 'coastal granny': report". Fox News. Retrieved 2023-05-12. ^ "Everyday Health Group". HLTH. 2019-04-30. Retrieved 2023-05-12. ^ a b "Everyday Health and Migraine Again Have Joined to Better Serve One of the Most Prevalent, Disabling, and Undertreated Chronic Illnesses in the World". Everyday Health Group. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ a b "Diabetes Daily joins Everyday Health to scale one of the most vibrant online communities serving people with diabetes". Everyday Health Group. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ a b "Everyday Health Group Pregnancy & Parenting Expands Global Reach with Acquisition of Emma's Diary". www.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2022-12-05. ^ "Cureus | Partnerships". www.cureus.com. Retrieved 2023-05-12. ^ O'Hear, Steve (2015-02-05). "TrialReach Raises $13.5M Series B To Match Patients To Clinical Trials". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2023-05-12. ^ "Top Doctors 2022: Search for the Best Physicians in 68 Specialties in Columbus". Columbus Monthly. Retrieved 2023-02-13. ^ Biller, Steven (2022-06-23). "Top Doctors 2022 Identifies Coachella Valley's Best Physicians". Palm Springs Life. Retrieved 2023-02-13. External links Official website Everyday Health at IMDb vteZiff DavisCurrent properties Computer Shopper Downdetector Everyday Health BabyCenter DailyOM MedPage Today ExtremeTech Geek.com IGN AskMen GameTrailers Humble Bundle Lifehacker Mashable PCMag Offers.com Speedtest.net Toolbox.com Former propertiesDiscontinued 1Up.com Computer Gaming World Fantastic GameNOW Games for Windows GMR Official PlayStation Magazine PC/Computing PCWeek (magazine) Popular Electronics TeamXbox ZDTV UGO Networks Vault Network Yahoo! Internet Life Sold Amazing Stories Car and Driver Electronic Gaming Monthly eWeek RottenTomatoes ZDNet People Vivek R. Shah

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Everyday Health Group is a division of the Ziff Davis Media and internet conglomerate.[1]","title":"Everyday Health"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Revolution Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution_Health_Group"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"IPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"MedPage Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MedPage_Today"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-7"},{"link_name":"Denise Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denise_Austin"},{"link_name":"South Beach Diet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Beach_Diet"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-xcom-eh-8"},{"link_name":"Litton Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litton_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Litton's Weekend Adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litton%27s_Weekend_Adventure"},{"link_name":"ABC News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_News"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-xcom-eh-8"},{"link_name":"YouTube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"Original Channel Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_Original_Channel_Initiative"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-youtube-niche-9"},{"link_name":"EQAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EQAL"},{"link_name":"lonelygirl15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonelygirl15"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Recipe Rehab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recipe_Rehab"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eqal-acquired-11"},{"link_name":"initial public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"New York Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Ziff Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff_Davis"},{"link_name":"j2 Global","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J2_Global"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"BabyCenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BabyCenter"},{"link_name":"Johnson & Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_%26_Johnson"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-27"},{"link_name":"DailyOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DailyOM"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-28"},{"link_name":"DailyOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DailyOM"},{"link_name":"self-improvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-help"},{"link_name":"horoscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope"},{"link_name":"Emma’s Diary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%27s_Diary"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"The company was founded in 2002 by entrepreneurs Benjamin Wolin and Michael Keriakos to invest in the creation of online health content for major \"offline\" health brands. At the time, it was known as Agora Media.[2] It merged with Streetmail.com to become Waterfront Media.[2]In October 2008, the company merged with Revolution Health, in a deal valued at $300 million USD.[3] The combined company, operating under the Waterfront Media name, was projected to have $100 million USD revenue in 2009, double its 2007 revenue.[4]In 2009, Everyday Health signed a multi-year deal with MayoClinic to add MayoClinic’s consumer site to its health properties, a partnership that has persisted for over a decade.[5]In 2010, the company changed its name to Everyday Health.[2] The company attempted an IPO in November 2010, which ultimately failed due to changes in “circumstances regarding the securities markets.”[6] In December 2010, Everyday Health acquired professional website MedPage Today.[7]By 2011, the company's network of sites had partnerships with brands and personalities such as Denise Austin and the South Beach Diet.[8]Throughout 2011, the company began to diversify into digital media: in 2011 co-produced a self-titled TV series with Litton Entertainment for Litton's Weekend Adventure. It also hired Paul Slavin, a veteran producer from ABC News, to help operate a new studio for the company.[8] In October 2011, YouTube announced that Everyday Health would become part of its Original Channel Initiative, which aimed to fund the production of professionally produced original web content. Everyday Health would launch Everyday Health TV through the program, featuring original health and lifestyle-related series.[9]In 2012, the company acquired EQAL, most notable for the lonelygirl15 web series and fellow YouTube channel u look haute, for an undisclosed amount.[10] EQAL became a separate division of the company. Additionally, Everyday Health started co-producing a television version of Recipe Rehab, one of the series featured on its YouTube channel. The series ran from October 6, 2012 through July 25, 2015.[11]The company’s initial public offering was on March 28, 2014 on the New York Stock Exchange, under the symbol EVDY.[12][13] On October 21, 2016, Ziff Davis, at that time a subsidiary of j2 Global, agreed to acquire Everyday Health.[14] The acquisition was completed on December 8, 2016.[1]In February 2017, it was reported that j2 Global was considering selling off the less profitable parts of Everyday Health.[15]In 2017, DHI Group sold the job recruiting site Health eCareers to Everyday Health Group for $15 million USD.[16][17] On Health eCareers, healthcare employers can post job listings on the site to connect with doctors, nurses, and other healthcare providers looking for new opportunities.[18]In 2018, EHG acquired the medical continuing education and research company Prime Medical. In late 2018, it acquired Castle Connolly, a ratings website for healthcare facilities and providers that publishes the Top Doctor series, including annual awards for the peer-nominated “America’s Top Doctors.”[19][20][21] It also purchased the pregnancy and parenting website BabyCenter from Johnson & Johnson.[22][23] BabyCenter joined What to Expect as part of the Everyday Health Pregnancy and Parenting division.[24][25]EHG became a sponsor of the health conference HLTH in 2019.[26]In 2020, Everyday Health Group acquired the patient advocacy and community site Migraine Again, for people living with migraines and chronic headaches.[27]The following year, Everyday Health Group acquired two more sites into its portfolio: Diabetes Daily and DailyOM.[28] Diabetes Daily is a patient community and advocacy site, while DailyOM offers courses in holistic living and self-improvement, inspirations, and horoscopes.At the beginning of 2022, EHG acquired Emma’s Diary, a UK-based company that offers baby and parenting advice, as part of a larger purchase of the company Lifecycle Marketing Ltd.[29]Everyday Health Group also has a marketing partnership with the medical academic journal Cureus.[30] Everyday Health is also one of the health portals that has partnered with healthcare platform TrialReach to match patients to clinical trials.[31]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MedPage Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MedPage_Today"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-7"},{"link_name":"EQAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EQAL"},{"link_name":"lonelygirl15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonelygirl15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-16"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"BabyCenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BabyCenter"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-22"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-27"},{"link_name":"DailyOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DailyOM"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-28"},{"link_name":"Emma’s Diary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%27s_Diary"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-29"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-19"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"MedPage Today, acquired in 2010[7]\nEQAL (known for lonelygirl15 web series), acquired in 2012\nHealth eCareers, acquired in 2017[16][32]\nBabyCenter, acquired in 2019 [22]\nMigraine Again, acquired in 2020[27]\nDailyOM, acquired in 2020[28]\nEmma’s Diary, acquired in 2022[29]\nCastle Connolly[19]\nPrime Education[33]\nDiabetes Daily\nMigraine Again\nPrime Medical","title":"Subsidiaries and acquisitions"}]

[]

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Retrieved May 22, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/03/business/03deal.html?_r=2&oref=slogin","url_text":"\"Two Online Health Site Operators to Announce a Merger\""}]},{"reference":"Clifford, Stephanie (2008-10-03). \"Two Online Health Site Operators to Announce a Merger (Published 2008)\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-12-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/03/business/03deal.html","url_text":"\"Two Online Health Site Operators to Announce a Merger (Published 2008)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"\"MayoClinic, Everyday Health partner\". MM+M - Medical Marketing and Media. 2009-09-01. Retrieved 2022-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mmm-online.com/home/channel/digital/mayoclinic-everyday-health-partner/","url_text":"\"MayoClinic, Everyday Health partner\""}]},{"reference":"Elstein, Aaron (March 24, 2014). \"Everyday Health looks unwell\". Crain's New York Business. Retrieved 2015-11-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.crainsnewyork.com/article/20140324/BLOGS02/303239985/everyday-health-looks-unwell","url_text":"\"Everyday Health looks unwell\""}]},{"reference":"\"Everyday Health buys MedPage Today in play for professional space\". MM+M - Medical Marketing and Media. December 14, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mmm-online.com/home/channel/everyday-health-buys-medpage-today-in-play-for-professional-space/","url_text":"\"Everyday Health buys MedPage Today in play for professional space\""}]},{"reference":"\"Everyday Health is Out to Dominate Media via Video, Apps, and Social\". Xconomy. 8 December 2011. 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Retrieved 2023-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.columbusmonthly.com/story/lifestyle/features/2022/08/30/top-doctors-2022-best-columbus-ohio-physicians-medical-specialists/65464777007/","url_text":"\"Top Doctors 2022: Search for the Best Physicians in 68 Specialties in Columbus\""}]},{"reference":"Biller, Steven (2022-06-23). \"Top Doctors 2022 Identifies Coachella Valley's Best Physicians\". Palm Springs Life. Retrieved 2023-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmspringslife.com/top-doctors-2022/","url_text":"\"Top Doctors 2022 Identifies Coachella Valley's Best Physicians\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy_Submarine_Museum

Royal Navy Submarine Museum

["1 History","2 Submarines and other submersibles","3 Historic and Modern Galleries","4 Other nearby historic naval exhibits","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Coordinates: 50°47′17″N 1°07′10″W / 50.788°N 1.1195°W / 50.788; -1.1195 View of the Royal Navy Submarine Museum The Royal Navy Submarine Museum at Gosport is a maritime museum tracing the international history of submarine development from the age of Alexander the Great to the present day, and particularly the history of the Royal Navy Submarine Service from the navy's first submarine, Holland 1, to the nuclear-powered Vanguard-class submarines. The museum is located close to the former shore establishment HMS Dolphin, the home of the Royal Navy Submarine Service from 1904 until 1999. History HMS Alliance The museum's collection originated as the Submarine Branch Collection in 1963, housed above St Ambrose Church in HMS Dolphin. Few were aware of the existence of the museum, and those that were had limited access to the collection due to security considerations. The museum was officially recognised by the Ministry of Defence in 1967, along with the Fleet Air Arm Museum and the Royal Marines Museum. The museum's first full-time curator was appointed the following year. The museum was officially registered as a charity in 1970, and has undergone significant development. In 1978 the museum was moved outside HMS Dolphin, allowing full public access. It was at this time that the Royal Navy's training and static display submarine, HMS Alliance was donated to the museum. £410,000 was raised to pay for the submarine to be lifted out of the water and put in place at the museum. Midget submarine X24 on display The new museum complex opened in August 1981 with HMS Alliance as the principal exhibit. Over the years since, more submarines and submarine memorabilia have been added to the collection. In 1983 the museum gained a new display building and members of the public were allowed into HMS Alliance. In 2001 the museum opened a climate-controlled building that houses Holland 1. Visitors to the museum can tour HMS Alliance with a submariner guide, explore the interactive science gallery, step on board the Royal Navy's first submarine Holland I (built in 1901), or wander around the museum exhibits. Submarines and other submersibles Full-size model of the Turtle submarine Part of one of the museum's galleries. This building has since closed to the public. These submarines may be viewed on site HMS Alliance, a post-war Amphion-class hunter-killer submarine, now raised out of the water on stilts Holland 1 – the Royal Navy's first submarine X24 – the only X-craft to see service in the Second World War and survive in an intact condition. Biber (No.105) – German World War II midget submarine. It was restored to working condition by apprentices from Fleet Support Limited on a sandwich course in 2003 under the guidance of Ian Clark. The restoration featured on Channel 4's salvage squad. LR3 – a deep-sea survey and rescue submersible. Maiale – An Italian human torpedo JIM suit – atmospheric diving suit Cutlet – an early ROV Turtle – a replica of the first submarine ever used in combat Historic and Modern Galleries Entitled "From Pirate to Peacekeeper", these include: A large collection of submarines and torpedoes the periscopes of HMS Conqueror of Falklands War fame through which one can see Portsmouth Harbour Remembrance Corner, which commemorates those who devoted their lives to the Submarine Service Submariners' medals, including the Victoria Cross of Edward Courtney Boyle Children's activities Control Room trainer - Submarine command simulation Other nearby historic naval exhibits Portsmouth Historic Dockyard with its historic ships and the National Museum of the Royal Navy, Portsmouth Explosion! Museum of Naval Firepower See also Submarine Force Library and Museum (United States) Naval Undersea Museum (United States) References ^ a b c Whitman, Edward C (2003). "Royal Navy Submarine Museum Preserving a Notable Collection of Artifacts and War Stories". Undersea Warfare (19). U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2011. ^ Tait, Simon (1989). Palaces of Discovery The Changing World of Britain's Museums. Quiller Press. pp. 130–132. ISBN 1870948009. ^ "Submarine Sandwich Course for Portsmouth Apprentices". maritime journal. Mercator Media Ltd. 1 December 2003. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 26 January 2009. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Royal Navy Submarine Museum. Official website vteNational Museum of the Royal Navy National Museum of the Royal Navy, Portsmouth Royal Marines Museum Royal Navy Submarine Museum Fleet Air Arm Museum Explosion Museum of Naval Firepower HMS Victory National Museum of the Royal Navy, Hartlepool (HMS Trincomalee) HMS Caroline (1914) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Israel United States Czech Republic Other IdRef 50°47′17″N 1°07′10″W / 50.788°N 1.1195°W / 50.788; -1.1195

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_Navy_Submarine_Museum_Cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gosport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosport"},{"link_name":"maritime museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_museum"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"Alexander the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy Submarine Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy_Submarine_Service"},{"link_name":"Holland 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_1"},{"link_name":"Vanguard-class submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard-class_submarine"},{"link_name":"shore establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shore_establishment"},{"link_name":"HMS Dolphin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Dolphin_shore-establishment"}],"text":"View of the Royal Navy Submarine MuseumThe Royal Navy Submarine Museum at Gosport is a maritime museum tracing the international history of submarine development from the age of Alexander the Great to the present day, and particularly the history of the Royal Navy Submarine Service from the navy's first submarine, Holland 1, to the nuclear-powered Vanguard-class submarines. The museum is located close to the former shore establishment HMS Dolphin, the home of the Royal Navy Submarine Service from 1904 until 1999.","title":"Royal Navy Submarine Museum"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Alliance_-_geograph.org.uk_-_593452.jpg"},{"link_name":"HMS Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Alliance_(P417)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitman2003-1"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Fleet Air Arm Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm_Museum"},{"link_name":"Royal Marines Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Marines_Museum"},{"link_name":"HMS Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Alliance_(P417)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tait-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:X24_view_from_side.jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitman2003-1"},{"link_name":"Holland 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Holland_1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitman2003-1"}],"text":"HMS AllianceThe museum's collection originated as the Submarine Branch Collection in 1963, housed above St Ambrose Church in HMS Dolphin.[1] Few were aware of the existence of the museum, and those that were had limited access to the collection due to security considerations. The museum was officially recognised by the Ministry of Defence in 1967, along with the Fleet Air Arm Museum and the Royal Marines Museum. The museum's first full-time curator was appointed the following year.The museum was officially registered as a charity in 1970, and has undergone significant development. In 1978 the museum was moved outside HMS Dolphin, allowing full public access. It was at this time that the Royal Navy's training and static display submarine, HMS Alliance was donated to the museum. £410,000 was raised to pay for the submarine to be lifted out of the water and put in place at the museum.[2]Midget submarine X24 on displayThe new museum complex opened in August 1981 with HMS Alliance as the principal exhibit. Over the years since, more submarines and submarine memorabilia have been added to the collection. In 1983 the museum gained a new display building and members of the public were allowed into HMS Alliance.[1] In 2001 the museum opened a climate-controlled building that houses Holland 1.[1]\nVisitors to the museum can tour HMS Alliance with a submariner guide, explore the interactive science gallery, step on board the Royal Navy's first submarine Holland I (built in 1901), or wander around the museum exhibits.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turtle_model_at_the_Royal_navy_submarine_museum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RNSM_hall_of_weapons.JPG"},{"link_name":"HMS Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Alliance_(P417)"},{"link_name":"Amphion-class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphion-class_submarine"},{"link_name":"hunter-killer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_submarine"},{"link_name":"Holland 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Holland_1"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"X-craft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-craft"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Biber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biber_(submarine)"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"midget submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midget_submarine"},{"link_name":"Fleet Support Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_Support_Limited"},{"link_name":"sandwich course","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandwich_course"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mj-3"},{"link_name":"deep-sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_sea"},{"link_name":"submersible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submersible"},{"link_name":"human torpedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_torpedo"},{"link_name":"JIM suit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JIM_suit"},{"link_name":"Turtle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Turtle"}],"text":"Full-size model of the Turtle submarinePart of one of the museum's galleries. This building has since closed to the public.These submarines may be viewed on siteHMS Alliance, a post-war Amphion-class hunter-killer submarine, now raised out of the water on stilts\nHolland 1 – the Royal Navy's first submarine\nX24 – the only X-craft to see service in the Second World War and survive in an intact condition.\nBiber (No.105) – German World War II midget submarine. It was restored to working condition by apprentices from Fleet Support Limited on a sandwich course in 2003 under the guidance of Ian Clark. The restoration featured on Channel 4's salvage squad.[3]\nLR3 – a deep-sea survey and rescue submersible.\nMaiale – An Italian human torpedo\nJIM suit – atmospheric diving suit\nCutlet – an early ROV\nTurtle – a replica of the first submarine ever used in combat","title":"Submarines and other submersibles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"torpedoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"HMS Conqueror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Conqueror_(S48)"},{"link_name":"Falklands War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War"},{"link_name":"Portsmouth Harbour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portsmouth_Harbour"},{"link_name":"Submarine Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Naval_Submarine_Service"},{"link_name":"Victoria Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Cross"},{"link_name":"Edward Courtney Boyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Courtney_Boyle"}],"text":"Entitled \"From Pirate to Peacekeeper\", these include:A large collection of submarines and torpedoes\nthe periscopes of HMS Conqueror of Falklands War fame through which one can see Portsmouth Harbour\nRemembrance Corner, which commemorates those who devoted their lives to the Submarine Service\nSubmariners' medals, including the Victoria Cross of Edward Courtney Boyle\nChildren's activities\nControl Room trainer - Submarine command simulation","title":"Historic and Modern Galleries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Portsmouth Historic Dockyard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portsmouth_Historic_Dockyard"},{"link_name":"National Museum of the Royal Navy, Portsmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_Royal_Navy,_Portsmouth"},{"link_name":"Explosion! Museum of Naval Firepower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosion!_Museum_of_Naval_Firepower"}],"text":"Portsmouth Historic Dockyard with its historic ships and the National Museum of the Royal Navy, Portsmouth\nExplosion! Museum of Naval Firepower","title":"Other nearby historic naval exhibits"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roothaan_equations

Roothaan equations

["1 See also","2 References"]

The Roothaan equations are a representation of the Hartree–Fock equation in a non orthonormal basis set which can be of Gaussian-type or Slater-type. It applies to closed-shell molecules or atoms where all molecular orbitals or atomic orbitals, respectively, are doubly occupied. This is generally called Restricted Hartree–Fock theory. The method was developed independently by Clemens C. J. Roothaan and George G. Hall in 1951, and is thus sometimes called the Roothaan-Hall equations. The Roothaan equations can be written in a form resembling generalized eigenvalue problem, although they are not a standard eigenvalue problem because they are nonlinear: F C = S C ϵ {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} \mathbf {C} =\mathbf {S} \mathbf {C} \mathbf {\epsilon } } where F is the Fock matrix (which depends on the coefficients C due to electron-electron interactions), C is a matrix of coefficients, S is the overlap matrix of the basis functions, and ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } is the (diagonal, by convention) matrix of orbital energies. In the case of an orthonormalised basis set the overlap matrix, S, reduces to the identity matrix. These equations are essentially a special case of a Galerkin method applied to the Hartree–Fock equation using a particular basis set. In contrast to the Hartree–Fock equations - which are integro-differential equations - the Roothaan–Hall equations have a matrix-form. Therefore, they can be solved using standard techniques. See also Hartree–Fock method References ^ Frank Jensen, Introduction to Computational Chemistry, John Wiley and Sons, 1999, pp. 65–69, ISBN 0-471-98085-4 ^ Roothaan, C. C. J. (1951). "New Developments in Molecular Orbital Theory". Reviews of Modern Physics. 23 (2): 69–89. Bibcode:1951RvMP...23...69R. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.23.69. ^ Hall, G. G. (1951). "The Molecular Orbital Theory of Chemical Valency. VIII. A Method of Calculating Ionization Potentials". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 205 (1083): 541–552. Bibcode:1951RSPSA.205..541H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1951.0048. S2CID 94393143. This quantum chemistry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

[{"title":"Hartree–Fock method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartree%E2%80%93Fock_method"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_expectations

Rational expectations

["1 History","2 Theory","3 Mathematical derivation","4 Implications","5 Criticism","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 External links"]

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Prescott Peter Diamond William Nordhaus Joseph Stiglitz Thomas J. Sargent Paul Krugman N. Gregory Mankiw See also Macroeconomic model Publications in macroeconomics Economics Applied Microeconomics Political economy Mathematical economics Money portal Business portalvteRational expectations is an economic theory that seeks to infer the macroeconomic consequences of individuals' decisions based on all available knowledge. It assumes that individuals actions are based on the best available economic theory and information, and concludes that government policies cannot succeed by assuming widespread systematic error by individuals. History The concept of rational expectations was first introduced by John F. Muth in his paper "Rational Expectations and the Theory of Price Movements" published in 1961. Robert Lucas and Thomas Sargent further developed the theory in the 1970s and 1980s which became seminal works on the topic and were widely used in microeconomics. Significant Findings Muth’s work introduces the concept of rational expectations and discusses its implications for economic theory. He argues that individuals are rational and use all available information to make unbiased, informed predictions about the future. This means that individuals do not make systematic errors in their predictions and that their predictions are not biased by past errors. Muth’s paper also discusses the implication of rational expectations for economic theory. One key implication is that government policies, such as changes in monetary or fiscal policy may not be as effective if individuals’ expectations are not considered. For example, if individuals expect inflation to increase, they may anticipate that the central bank will raise interest rates to combat inflation, which could lead to higher borrowing costs and slower economic growth. Similarly, if individuals expect a recession, they may reduce their spending and investment, which could lead to a self-fulling prophecy. Lucas’ paper “Expectations and the Neutrality of Money” expands on Muth's work and sheds light on the relationship between rational expectations and the monetary policy. The paper argues that when individuals hold rational expectations, changes in the money supply do not have real effects on the economy and the neutrality of money holds. Lucas presents a theoretical model that incorporates rational expectations into an analysis of the effects of changes in the money supply. The model suggests that individuals adjust their expectations in response to changes in the money supply, which eliminates the effect on real variables such as output and employment. He argues that a stable monetary policy that is consistent with individuals' rational expectations will be more effective in promoting economic stability than attempts to manipulate the money supply. In 1973, Thomas J Sargent published the article “Rational Expectations, the Real Rate of Interest, and the Natural Rate of Unemployment” which was an important contribution to the development and application of the concept of rational expectations in economic theory and policy. By assuming individuals are forward-looking and rational, Sargent argues that rational expectations can help explain fluctuations in key economic variables such as the real interest rate and the natural rate of employment. He also suggests that the concept of the natural rate of unemployment can be used to help policymakers set macroeconomic policy. This concept suggests that there is a trade-off between unemployment and inflation in the short run, but in the long run, the economy will return to the natural rate of unemployment, which is determined by structural factors such as the skills of the labour force and the efficiency of the labour market. Sargent argues that policymakers should take this concept into account when setting macroeconomic policy, as policies that try to push unemployment below the natural rate will only lead to higher inflation in the long run. Theory The key idea of rational expectations is that individuals make decisions based on all available information, including their own expectations about future events. This implies that individuals are rational and use all available information to make decisions. Another important idea is that individuals adjust their expectations in response to new information. In this way, individuals are assumed to be forward-looking and able to adapt to changing circumstances. They will learn from past trends and experiences to make their best guess of the future. It is assumed that an individual's predicted outcome do not differ systematically from the market equilibrium given that they do not make systematic errors when predicting the future. In an economic model, this is typically modelled by assuming that the expected value of a variable is equal to the expected value predicted by the model. For example, suppose that P is the equilibrium price in a simple market, determined by supply and demand. The theory of rational expectations implies that the actual price will only deviate from the expectation if there is an 'information shock' caused by information unforeseeable at the time expectations were formed. In other words, ex ante the price is anticipated to equal its rational expectation: P = P ∗ + ϵ {\displaystyle P=P^{*}+\epsilon } E [ P ] = P ∗ {\displaystyle E=P^{*}} where P ∗ {\displaystyle P^{*}} is the rational expectation and ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } is the random error term, which has an expected value of zero, and is independent of P ∗ {\displaystyle P^{*}} . Mathematical derivation If rational expectations are applied to the Phillips curve analysis, the distinction between long and short term will be completely negated, that is, there is no Phillips curve, and there is no substitute relationship between inflation rate and unemployment rate that can be utilized. The mathematical derivation is as follows: Rational expectation is consistent with objective mathematical expectation: E P ˙ t = P ˙ t + ε t {\displaystyle E{\dot {P}}_{t}={\dot {P}}_{t}+\varepsilon _{t}} Mathematical derivation (1) Assuming that the actual process is known, the rate of inflation depends on previous monetary changes and changes in short-term variables such as X (for example, oil prices): (1) P ˙ = q M ˙ t − 1 + z X ˙ t − 1 + ε t {\displaystyle {\dot {P}}=q{\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\dot {X}}_{t-1}+\varepsilon _{t}} (2) E P ˙ t = q M ˙ t − 1 + z X ˙ t − 1 {\displaystyle E{\dot {P}}_{t}=q{\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\dot {X}}_{t-1}} (3) P ˙ t = α − β u t + γ E t − 1 ( P ˙ t ) {\displaystyle {\dot {P}}_{t}=\alpha -\beta u_{t}+\gamma E_{t-1}({\dot {P}}_{t})} , γ = 1 {\displaystyle \gamma =1} (4) α − β u t + q M ˙ t − 1 + z X ˙ t − 1 = q M ˙ t − 1 + z X ˙ t − 1 + ε t {\displaystyle \alpha -\beta u_{t}+q{\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\dot {X}}_{t-1}=q{\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\dot {X}}_{t-1}+\varepsilon _{t}} (5) u t = α − ϵ t β {\displaystyle u_{t}={\frac {\alpha -\epsilon _{t}}{\beta }}} Thus, even in the short run, there is no substitute relationship between inflation and unemployment. Random shocks, which are completely unpredictable, are the only reason why the unemployment rate deviates from the natural rate. Mathematical derivation (2) Even if the actual rate of inflation is dependent on current monetary changes, the public can make rational expectations as long as they know how monetary policy is being decided: (1) P ˙ t = q M ˙ t + z X ˙ t − 1 + ε t {\displaystyle {\dot {P}}_{t}=q{\dot {M}}_{t}+z{\dot {X}}_{t-1}+\varepsilon _{t}} (2) M ˙ t = g M ˙ t − 1 + μ t {\displaystyle {\dot {M}}_{t}=g{\dot {M}}_{t-1}+\mu _{t}} (3) P ˙ t = q g M ˙ t − 1 + z X ˙ t − 1 + q μ t + ε t {\displaystyle {\dot {P}}_{t}=qg{\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\dot {X}}_{t-1}+q\mu _{t}+\varepsilon _{t}} (4) E P ˙ = q g M ˙ t − 1 + z X ˙ t − 1 {\displaystyle E{\dot {P}}=qg{\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\dot {X}}_{t-1}} (5) u t = α − q μ t − ε t β {\displaystyle u_{t}={\frac {\alpha -q\mu _{t}-\varepsilon _{t}}{\beta }}} The conclusion is essentially the same: random shocks that are completely unpredictable are the only thing that can cause the unemployment rate to deviate from the natural rate. Implications Rational expectations theories were developed in response to perceived flaws in theories based on adaptive expectations. Under adaptive expectations, expectations of the future value of an economic variable are based on past values. For example, it assumes that individuals predict inflation by looking at historical inflation data. Under adaptive expectations, if the economy suffers from a prolonged period of rising inflation, people are assumed to always underestimate inflation. Many economists suggested that it was an unrealistic and irrational assumption, as they believe that rational individuals will learn from past experiences and trends and adjust their predictions accordingly. The rational expectations hypothesis has been used to support conclusions about economic policymaking. An example is the policy ineffectiveness proposition developed by Thomas Sargent and Neil Wallace. If the Federal Reserve attempts to lower unemployment through expansionary monetary policy, economic agents will anticipate the effects of the change of policy and raise their expectations of future inflation accordingly. This will counteract the expansionary effect of the increased money supply, suggesting that the government can only increase the inflation rate but not employment. If agents do not form rational expectations or if prices are not completely flexible, discretional and completely anticipated, economic policy actions can trigger real changes. Criticism While the rational expectations theory has been widely influential in macroeconomic analysis, it has also been subject to criticism: Unrealistic assumptions: The theory assumes that individuals have perfect information and can process it without error. This is unlikely to be the case, due to limited information available and human error. Limited empirical support: While there is some evidence that individuals do incorporate expectations into their decision-making, it is unclear whether they do so in the way predicted by the rational expectations theory. Misspecification of models: The rational expectations theory assumes that individuals have a common understanding of the model used to make predictions. However, if the model is misspecified, this can lead to incorrect predictions. Inability to explain certain phenomena: The theory is also criticised for its inability to explain certain phenomena, such as bubbles and crashes in financial markets. Lack of attention to distributional effects: Critics argue that the rational expectations theory focuses too much on aggregate outcomes and does not pay enough attention to the distributional effects of economic policies. See also Adaptive expectations Behavioral economics Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium Factors of production Game theory Homo economicus Market price Lucas aggregate supply function Lucas critique Lucas island model Optimism Optimism bias Perfectionism Rationality The Peter principle Notes ^ a b "Rational Expectations". Corporate Finance Institute. Retrieved 2023-04-25. ^ Muth, John.F (1961). "Rational expectations and the theory of price movements". ^ Lucas, R.E (1970). "Expectations and the Neutrality of Money" (PDF). ^ Sargent, T.J (1973). "Rational Expectations, the Real Rate of Interest, and the Natural Rate of Unemployment" (PDF). ^ Galbács, Peter (2015). The Theory of New Classical Macroeconomics. A Positive Critique. Contributions to Economics. Heidelberg/New York/Dordrecht/London: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17578-2. ISBN 978-3-319-17578-2. ^ a b c Mankiw, N.G (2006). "The Macroeconomist as Scientist and Engineer". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 20 (4): 29–46. doi:10.1257/jep.20.4.29. ^ Romer, David (2000). "Keynesian Macroeconomics without the LM Curve". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 14 (2): 149–170. doi:10.1257/jep.14.2.149. ^ Shiller, R.J (1980). "Do stock prices move too much to be justified by subsequent changes in dividends?" (PDF). References Hanish C. Lodhia (2005) "The Irrationality of Rational Expectations – An Exploration into Economic Fallacy". 1st Edition, Warwick University Press, UK. Maarten C. W. Janssen (1993) "Microfoundations: A Critical Inquiry". Routledge. John F. Muth (1961) "Rational Expectations and the Theory of Price Movements" reprinted in The new classical macroeconomics. Volume 1. (1992): 3–23 (International Library of Critical Writings in Economics, vol. 19. Aldershot, UK: Elgar.) Thomas J. Sargent (1987). "Rational expectations," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 76–79. N.E. Savin (1987). "Rational expectations: econometric implications," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 79–85. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Rational expectations. Sargent, Thomas J. (2008). "Rational Expectations". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. 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Muth in his paper \"Rational Expectations and the Theory of Price Movements\" published in 1961. Robert Lucas and Thomas Sargent further developed the theory in the 1970s and 1980s which became seminal works on the topic and were widely used in microeconomics.[1]Significant FindingsMuth’s work introduces the concept of rational expectations and discusses its implications for economic theory. He argues that individuals are rational and use all available information to make unbiased, informed predictions about the future. This means that individuals do not make systematic errors in their predictions and that their predictions are not biased by past errors. Muth’s paper also discusses the implication of rational expectations for economic theory. One key implication is that government policies, such as changes in monetary or fiscal policy may not be as effective if individuals’ expectations are not considered. For example, if individuals expect inflation to increase, they may anticipate that the central bank will raise interest rates to combat inflation, which could lead to higher borrowing costs and slower economic growth. Similarly, if individuals expect a recession, they may reduce their spending and investment, which could lead to a self-fulling prophecy.[2]Lucas’ paper “Expectations and the Neutrality of Money” expands on Muth's work and sheds light on the relationship between rational expectations and the monetary policy. The paper argues that when individuals hold rational expectations, changes in the money supply do not have real effects on the economy and the neutrality of money holds. Lucas presents a theoretical model that incorporates rational expectations into an analysis of the effects of changes in the money supply. The model suggests that individuals adjust their expectations in response to changes in the money supply, which eliminates the effect on real variables such as output and employment. He argues that a stable monetary policy that is consistent with individuals' rational expectations will be more effective in promoting economic stability than attempts to manipulate the money supply.[3]In 1973, Thomas J Sargent published the article “Rational Expectations, the Real Rate of Interest, and the Natural Rate of Unemployment” which was an important contribution to the development and application of the concept of rational expectations in economic theory and policy. By assuming individuals are forward-looking and rational, Sargent argues that rational expectations can help explain fluctuations in key economic variables such as the real interest rate and the natural rate of employment. He also suggests that the concept of the natural rate of unemployment can be used to help policymakers set macroeconomic policy. This concept suggests that there is a trade-off between unemployment and inflation in the short run, but in the long run, the economy will return to the natural rate of unemployment, which is determined by structural factors such as the skills of the labour force and the efficiency of the labour market. Sargent argues that policymakers should take this concept into account when setting macroeconomic policy, as policies that try to push unemployment below the natural rate will only lead to higher inflation in the long run.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"ex ante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_ante"}],"text":"The key idea of rational expectations is that individuals make decisions based on all available information, including their own expectations about future events. This implies that individuals are rational and use all available information to make decisions. Another important idea is that individuals adjust their expectations in response to new information. In this way, individuals are assumed to be forward-looking and able to adapt to changing circumstances. They will learn from past trends and experiences to make their best guess of the future.[1]It is assumed that an individual's predicted outcome do not differ systematically from the market equilibrium given that they do not make systematic errors when predicting the future.In an economic model, this is typically modelled by assuming that the expected value of a variable is equal to the expected value predicted by the model. For example, suppose that P is the equilibrium price in a simple market, determined by supply and demand. The theory of rational expectations implies that the actual price will only deviate from the expectation if there is an 'information shock' caused by information unforeseeable at the time expectations were formed. In other words, ex ante the price is anticipated to equal its rational expectation:P\n =\n \n P\n \n ∗\n \n \n +\n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P=P^{*}+\\epsilon }\n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n E\n [\n P\n ]\n =\n \n P\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E[P]=P^{*}}where \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle P^{*}}\n \n is the rational expectation and \n \n \n \n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon }\n \n is the random error term, which has an expected value of zero, and is independent of \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle P^{*}}\n \n.","title":"Theory"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"If rational expectations are applied to the Phillips curve analysis, the distinction between long and short term will be completely negated, that is, there is no Phillips curve, and there is no substitute relationship between inflation rate and unemployment rate that can be utilized.The mathematical derivation is as follows:Rational expectation is consistent with objective mathematical expectation:E\n \n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n +\n \n ε\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E{\\dot {P}}_{t}={\\dot {P}}_{t}+\\varepsilon _{t}}Mathematical derivation (1)Assuming that the actual process is known, the rate of inflation depends on previous monetary changes and changes in short-term variables such as X (for example, oil prices):(1) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n q\n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n z\n \n \n \n \n X\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n \n ε\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {P}}=q{\\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\\dot {X}}_{t-1}+\\varepsilon _{t}}(2) \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n =\n q\n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n z\n \n \n \n \n X\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E{\\dot {P}}_{t}=q{\\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\\dot {X}}_{t-1}}(3) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n =\n α\n −\n β\n \n u\n \n t\n \n \n +\n γ\n \n E\n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {P}}_{t}=\\alpha -\\beta u_{t}+\\gamma E_{t-1}({\\dot {P}}_{t})}\n \n , \n \n \n \n γ\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gamma =1}(4) \n \n \n \n α\n −\n β\n \n u\n \n t\n \n \n +\n q\n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n z\n \n \n \n \n X\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n q\n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n z\n \n \n \n \n X\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n \n ε\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha -\\beta u_{t}+q{\\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\\dot {X}}_{t-1}=q{\\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\\dot {X}}_{t-1}+\\varepsilon _{t}}(5) \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n t\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n α\n −\n \n ϵ\n \n t\n \n \n \n β\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{t}={\\frac {\\alpha -\\epsilon _{t}}{\\beta }}}Thus, even in the short run, there is no substitute relationship between inflation and unemployment. Random shocks, which are completely unpredictable, are the only reason why the unemployment rate deviates from the natural rate.Mathematical derivation (2)Even if the actual rate of inflation is dependent on current monetary changes, the public can make rational expectations as long as they know how monetary policy is being decided:(1) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n =\n q\n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n +\n z\n \n \n \n \n X\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n \n ε\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {P}}_{t}=q{\\dot {M}}_{t}+z{\\dot {X}}_{t-1}+\\varepsilon _{t}}(2) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n =\n g\n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n \n μ\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {M}}_{t}=g{\\dot {M}}_{t-1}+\\mu _{t}}(3) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n =\n q\n g\n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n z\n \n \n \n \n X\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n q\n \n μ\n \n t\n \n \n +\n \n ε\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {P}}_{t}=qg{\\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\\dot {X}}_{t-1}+q\\mu _{t}+\\varepsilon _{t}}(4) \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n \n P\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n q\n g\n \n \n \n \n M\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n z\n \n \n \n \n X\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E{\\dot {P}}=qg{\\dot {M}}_{t-1}+z{\\dot {X}}_{t-1}}(5) \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n t\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n α\n −\n q\n \n μ\n \n t\n \n \n −\n \n ε\n \n t\n \n \n \n β\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{t}={\\frac {\\alpha -q\\mu _{t}-\\varepsilon _{t}}{\\beta }}}The conclusion is essentially the same: random shocks that are completely unpredictable are the only thing that can cause the unemployment rate to deviate from the natural rate.","title":"Mathematical derivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"adaptive expectations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_expectations"},{"link_name":"policy ineffectiveness proposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_ineffectiveness_proposition"},{"link_name":"Thomas Sargent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Sargent"},{"link_name":"Neil Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Wallace"},{"link_name":"monetary policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_policy"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Rational expectations theories were developed in response to perceived flaws in theories based on adaptive expectations. Under adaptive expectations, expectations of the future value of an economic variable are based on past values. For example, it assumes that individuals predict inflation by looking at historical inflation data. Under adaptive expectations, if the economy suffers from a prolonged period of rising inflation, people are assumed to always underestimate inflation. Many economists suggested that it was an unrealistic and irrational assumption, as they believe that rational individuals will learn from past experiences and trends and adjust their predictions accordingly.The rational expectations hypothesis has been used to support conclusions about economic policymaking. An example is the policy ineffectiveness proposition developed by Thomas Sargent and Neil Wallace. If the Federal Reserve attempts to lower unemployment through expansionary monetary policy, economic agents will anticipate the effects of the change of policy and raise their expectations of future inflation accordingly. This will counteract the expansionary effect of the increased money supply, suggesting that the government can only increase the inflation rate but not employment.If agents do not form rational expectations or if prices are not completely flexible, discretional and completely anticipated, economic policy actions can trigger real changes.[5]","title":"Implications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"}],"text":"While the rational expectations theory has been widely influential in macroeconomic analysis, it has also been subject to criticism:Unrealistic assumptions: The theory assumes that individuals have perfect information and can process it without error. This is unlikely to be the case, due to limited information available and human error.[6]Limited empirical support: While there is some evidence that individuals do incorporate expectations into their decision-making, it is unclear whether they do so in the way predicted by the rational expectations theory.[6]Misspecification of models: The rational expectations theory assumes that individuals have a common understanding of the model used to make predictions. However, if the model is misspecified, this can lead to incorrect predictions.[7]Inability to explain certain phenomena: The theory is also criticised for its inability to explain certain phenomena, such as bubbles and crashes in financial markets.[8]Lack of attention to distributional effects: Critics argue that the rational expectations theory focuses too much on aggregate outcomes and does not pay enough attention to the distributional effects of economic policies.[6]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"Rational Expectations\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/rational-expectations/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Rational expectations and the theory of price movements\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=948a6261d8fc75496416ddf463fdb46cd171da32"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Expectations and the Neutrality of Money\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.economia.unam.mx/biblioteca/Pdf/T-III-BG-%20Expectations%20and%20the%20Neutrality.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Rational Expectations, the Real Rate of Interest, and the Natural Rate of Unemployment\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/1973/06/1973b_bpea_sargent_fand_goldfeld.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-3-319-17578-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-17578-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-319-17578-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-17578-2"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_6-2"},{"link_name":"\"The Macroeconomist as Scientist and Engineer\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdf/10.1257%2Fjep.20.4.29"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1257/jep.20.4.29","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.20.4.29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Keynesian Macroeconomics without the LM Curve\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdf/10.1257/jep.14.2.149"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1257/jep.14.2.149","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.14.2.149"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Do stock prices move too much to be justified by subsequent changes in dividends?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w0456/w0456.pdf"}],"text":"^ a b \"Rational Expectations\". Corporate Finance Institute. Retrieved 2023-04-25.\n\n^ Muth, John.F (1961). \"Rational expectations and the theory of price movements\".\n\n^ Lucas, R.E (1970). \"Expectations and the Neutrality of Money\" (PDF).\n\n^ Sargent, T.J (1973). \"Rational Expectations, the Real Rate of Interest, and the Natural Rate of Unemployment\" (PDF).\n\n^ Galbács, Peter (2015). The Theory of New Classical Macroeconomics. A Positive Critique. Contributions to Economics. Heidelberg/New York/Dordrecht/London: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17578-2. ISBN 978-3-319-17578-2.\n\n^ a b c Mankiw, N.G (2006). \"The Macroeconomist as Scientist and Engineer\". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 20 (4): 29–46. doi:10.1257/jep.20.4.29.\n\n^ Romer, David (2000). \"Keynesian Macroeconomics without the LM Curve\". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 14 (2): 149–170. doi:10.1257/jep.14.2.149.\n\n^ Shiller, R.J (1980). \"Do stock prices move too much to be justified by subsequent changes in dividends?\" (PDF).","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"title":"Adaptive expectations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_expectations"},{"title":"Behavioral economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_economics"},{"title":"Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_stochastic_general_equilibrium"},{"title":"Factors of production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factors_of_production"},{"title":"Game theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory"},{"title":"Homo economicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_economicus"},{"title":"Market price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_price"},{"title":"Lucas aggregate supply function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_aggregate_supply_function"},{"title":"Lucas critique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_critique"},{"title":"Lucas island model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_island_model"},{"title":"Optimism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism"},{"title":"Optimism bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias"},{"title":"Perfectionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfectionism_(psychology)"},{"title":"Rationality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationality"},{"title":"The Peter principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_principle"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WPRB

WPRB

["1 History","2 Broadcast signal","3 Translators","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Coordinates: 40°16′58.4″N 74°41′9.6″W / 40.282889°N 74.686000°W / 40.282889; -74.686000 (WPRB)Radio station at Princeton University WPRBPrinceton, New JerseyUnited StatesBroadcast areaCentral Jersey, South Jersey, PhiladelphiaFrequency103.3 MHz (HD Radio)ProgrammingFormatFreeformSubchannelsHD2: Radio Mirchi (music of India)HD3: 95.1 WOLD (oldies)OwnershipOwnerPrinceton Broadcasting Service, Inc.HistoryFirst air dateDecember 6, 1940; 83 years ago (1940-12-06) (campus AM broadcast)November 10, 1955; 68 years ago (1955-11-10) (FM broadcast)Call sign meaningPrinceton Broadcasting Service (owner)Technical informationLicensing authorityFCCFacility ID53567ClassBERP14,000 watts (analog)550 watts (digital)HAAT222 meters (728 ft)Transmitter coordinates40°16′58.4″N 74°41′9.6″W / 40.282889°N 74.686000°W / 40.282889; -74.686000 (WPRB)Translator(s)HD3: 95.1 W236CT (Edison)HD3: 107.9 W300CZ (Ewansville)LinksPublic license information Public fileLMSWebcastListen liveWebsitewww.wprb.comHD3: woldradio.com WPRB (103.3 MHz) is an FM radio station licensed to Princeton, New Jersey, and owned by Princeton Broadcasting Service, Inc. It broadcasts a freeform radio format, including shoegaze, slowcore, noise music, harsh noise wall, plunderphonics, illbient, jazz, electronic, folk, reggae, ska, metal, world, soul, rap, blues, and rock. While the station is non-profit, it is licensed as a commercial radio station. It is funded primarily by listener contributions, raised especially during WPRB's annual spring 10-day Membership Drive. It also derives funding through community underwriting contracts with local businesses. Almost all on-air staff and management are Princeton University alumni and students. WPRB's slogan is "New Jersey's Only Radio Station". The transmitter tower is shared with WKXW "New Jersey 101.5". It is located in Lawrence Township northeast of Trenton. WPRB has an effective radiated power (ERP) of 14,000 watts. It broadcasts using HD Radio technology. The HD2 digital subchannel carries Indian programming and Oldies are heard on its HD3 subchannel. History WPRB traces its origins to a campus AM station, WPRU, that launched December 6, 1940. WPRU was founded by H. Grant Theis, a Princeton University student at the time. It often is cited as the oldest commercially licensed campus radio station in the United States. In 1955, WPRU got its FM license. It signed on as WPRB, the first college station on the FM dial in the United States, after the WPRU call sign was found to be already in use by a ship. It is considered a pioneer in FM stereo broadcasting, transmitting a stereo signal beginning in 1964. WPRB has broadcast on three different FM frequencies in its history: it first was heard on 103.9 MHz; in 1959, it moved to 103.5 MHz; and it moved to its current frequency of 103.3 MHz in 1962. During the 1960s and 1970s, it joined with other Ivy League universities to form the "Ivy Network", sharing some programming and resources. It later was an affiliate of the ABC FM Network. In 1986, Spin Magazine named WPRB the best commercial college station in the country. After decades of operation under an advertising-supported business model, in 2006 WPRB switched to a listener-supported model (although it remains a commercially licensed station). In 2009, WPRB went on to acquire a Princeton student magazine, the Nassau Weekly. Nassau Weekly was founded in 1979 by Princeton students including David Remnick, who later became the editor of The New Yorker. One of its disc jockeys, Jon Solomon, has hosted a 24-hour+ Christmas music radiothon every year but one since 1988. WPRB was the first commercial radio station in the United States to play Lil Nas X's "Old Town Road" when it debuted on John Weingart's long-running program "Music You Can't Hear on the Radio". Broadcast signal WPRB is a full class B signal. Its service contour covers most of Central Jersey and portions of the Philadelphia and New York City radio markets. WPRB is short-spaced to two other class B stations: WKTU 103.5 KTU (licensed to Lake Success, New York) and WARM-FM Warm 103.3 (licensed to York, Pennsylvania). Since WPRB dates back to the early days of FM broadcasting (before current rules had been adopted) it is grandfathered on its current frequency and power level. WPRB and WKTU operate on first adjacent channels and the distance between the two stations' transmitters is only 49 miles as determined by Federal Communications Commission rules. The minimum distance between two Class B stations operating on first adjacent channels according to current FCC rules is 105 miles. WPRB and WARM-FM operate on the same channel and the distance between the two stations' transmitters is only 103 miles. The minimum distance between two Class B stations operating on the same channel according to current rules is 150 miles. Translators Call sign Frequency City of license FID ERP (W) Class Transmitter coordinates FCC info Notes W236CT 95.1 FM Edison, New Jersey 138032 250 D 40°31′45.5″N 74°23′32.2″W / 40.529306°N 74.392278°W / 40.529306; -74.392278 (W236CT) LMS Relays WPRB-HD3 W300CZ 107.9 FM Ewansville, New Jersey 141281 100 D 40°24′15″N 74°25′0″W / 40.40417°N 74.41667°W / 40.40417; -74.41667 (W300CZ) LMS Relays WPRB-HD3 See also List of community radio stations in the United States References ^ a b Crum, Dana (July 14, 2005). "In focus: WPRB radio station". Princeton University. Retrieved July 25, 2020. ^ "Facility Technical Data for WPRB". Licensing and Management System. Federal Communications Commission. ^ "FCC 335-FM Digital Notification ". fcc.gov. Federal Communications Commission. November 4, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2018. ^ "About WPRB". wprb.com. Retrieved May 12, 2016. ^ "FM Query Results for WKXW". fcc.gov. Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved May 12, 2016. ^ a b W. Raymond Ollwerther (March 18, 2009). "WPRB acquires Nassau Weekly". Princeton Alumni Weekly. 109 (10): 11. ^ Broadcasting Yearbook 1956 page 205 ^ Broadcasting Yearbook 1961-1962 page B-105 ^ Broadcasting Yearbook 1962 page B-115 ^ Broadcasting Yearbook 1977 page C-134 ^ Waits, Jennifer (May 25, 2016). "Radio Station Field Trip #100 - WPRB at Princeton University". Radio Survivor. Retrieved June 13, 2021. ^ Waits, Jennifer (December 20, 2018). "WPRB DJ Jon Solomon Celebrates 30 Years of Christmas Marathons". Radio Survivor. Retrieved July 26, 2020. ^ "54 dBu Service Contour for WPRB, 103.3 MHz, Princeton, NJ". fcc.gov. Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved January 11, 2017. ^ a b "Reference points and distance computations. 47 CFR § 73.208". Retrieved August 22, 2021. ^ a b "Minimum distance separation between stations. 47 CFR § 73.207 (b)(1)" (PDF). Retrieved May 12, 2016. External links Official website WPRB in the FCC FM station database WPRB in Nielsen Audio's FM station database W236CT in the FCC FM station database W236CT at FCCdata.org W300CZ in the FCC FM station database W300CZ at FCCdata.org vteRadio stations in Trenton, New Jersey and Mercer CountyBy AM frequency 640 920 1040 1260 1300 1350 1680 By FM frequency 88.1 89.1 89.7 91.3 94.5 101.5 103.3 107.7 Translators 96.9 98.5 104.1 107.9 Digital radioby frequency & subchannel 89.1-1 89.1-2 89.1-3 97.5-1 97.5-2 101.5-1 101.5-2 103.3-1 103.3-2 103.3-3 By call sign W245CC W253DG W281BI W300CZ WCHR WDVR WFJS WHWH WIMG WKXW HD2 WNJE WNJT-FM WPEN HD2 WPRB HD2 HD3 WPST WRRC WTSR WTTM WWFM HD2 HD3 WWJZ Nearby regions Allentown-Bethlehem Atlantic City-Cape May Middlesex-Somerset-Union Monmouth-Ocean New York City Philadelphia Vineland-Millville-Bridgeton See also List of radio stations in New Jersey vteNew Jersey college radio stations WBJB (Brookdale Community College) WDBK (Camden County College) WFDU (Fairleigh Dickinson University) WGLS (Rowan University) WKNJ (Kean University) WLFR (Stockton University) WMCX (Monmouth University) WMSC (Montclair State University) WPRB (Princeton University) WPSC (William Paterson University of NJ) WRPR (Ramapo College of NJ) WRRC (Rider University) WRSU (Rutgers University) WSOU (Seton Hall University) WTSR (The College of New Jersey) WVPH (Piscataway High School / Rutgers University) WXPJ (University of Pennsylvania) See also adult contemporary classic hits college country news/talk NPR oldies religious rock sports top 40 urban other radio stations in New Jersey vtePrinceton University History Trustees AcademicsSchools anddepartments Department of Economics Mathematics Physics Psychology Graduate School School of Architecture School of Engineering and Applied Science School of Public and International Affairs Centers andinstitutes Bendheim Center for Finance Center for Information Technology Policy Julis-Rabinowitz Center for Public Policy and Finance James Madison Program Liechtenstein Institute on Self-Determination Princeton Neuroscience Institute Princeton Institute for International and Regional Studies Office of Population Research Laboratories Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Eating clubs Eating clubs Cannon Club Cap and Gown Club Charter Club Cloister Inn Colonial Club Cottage Club Ivy Club Quadrangle Club Terrace Club Tiger Inn Tower Club former: Campus Club Campus Alexander Hall Art Museum Chapel Cleveland Tower Frist Campus Center Joseph Henry House Maclean House Lake Carnegie Library McCarter Theatre Nassau Hall Princeton Branch (The Dinky) Tiger Transit Prospect House Putnam Collection of Sculpture Residential Colleges Butler Forbes Mathey Rockefeller Whitman New College West Yeh Graduate future: Hobson former: First The Hedgehog and the Fox Walter Lowrie House Washington Road Elm Allée Princetoniana Lists of people American Whig-Clisophic Society Nobel laureates Presidents Evelyn College for Women FitzRandolph Gate Newman Day "Old Nassau" Reunions Jane Eliza Procter Fellowship former: Princeton Club of New York Princeton Law School Presidents Dickinson Burr Edwards Davies Finley Witherspoon Smith Green Carnahan Maclean McCosh Patton Wilson Hibben Dodds Goheen Bowen Shapiro Tilghman Eisgruber Acting presidents Cowell Green Blair Lindsley Stewart Duffield Publications The Daily Princetonian The Princeton Tory The Nassau Weekly The Princeton Progressive Princeton Alumni Weekly Princeton Tiger Magazine Princeton University Press Organizations AlumniCorps American Whig-Cliosophic Society Footnotes Orchestra Glee Club Katzenjammers Nassoons Theatre Intime Tigertones Triangle Club Two Dickinson Street Co-op WPRB AthleticsSports Ivy League Big Three Princeton Tigers Baseball Basketball Men's Women's Football Ice Hockey Men's Women's Lacrosse Men's Women's Rugby Men's soccer Men's squash Facilities Hobey Baker Rink Bill Clarke Field Class of 1952 Stadium Dillon Gymnasium Jadwin Gymnasium Powers Field at Princeton Stadium Roberts Stadium Shea Rowing Center former: University Field Palmer Stadium Rivalries 1869 New Jersey vs. Rutgers football game 1922 Princeton vs. Chicago football game Rutgers–Princeton Cannon War Spirit The First Game "Princeton Cannon Song" Princeton University Band Winged football helmet Category Commons

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MHz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHz"},{"link_name":"FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"radio station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_station"},{"link_name":"Princeton, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"freeform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeform_(radio_format)"},{"link_name":"radio format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_format"},{"link_name":"shoegaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoegaze"},{"link_name":"slowcore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slowcore"},{"link_name":"noise music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_music"},{"link_name":"harsh noise wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsh_noise_wall"},{"link_name":"plunderphonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plunderphonics"},{"link_name":"illbient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illbient"},{"link_name":"jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz"},{"link_name":"electronic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_music"},{"link_name":"folk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music"},{"link_name":"reggae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggae"},{"link_name":"ska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ska"},{"link_name":"metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_music"},{"link_name":"world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_music"},{"link_name":"soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_music"},{"link_name":"rap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rap"},{"link_name":"blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"commercial radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_radio"},{"link_name":"Membership Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundraiser"},{"link_name":"underwriting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwriting_spot"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"},{"link_name":"tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_masts_and_towers"},{"link_name":"WKXW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WKXW"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Township,_Mercer_County,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Trenton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenton,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"effective radiated power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_radiated_power"},{"link_name":"HD Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_Radio"},{"link_name":"digital subchannel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_subchannel"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_India"},{"link_name":"Oldies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldies"}],"text":"Radio station at Princeton UniversityWPRB (103.3 MHz) is an FM radio station licensed to Princeton, New Jersey, and owned by Princeton Broadcasting Service, Inc. It broadcasts a freeform radio format, including shoegaze, slowcore, noise music, harsh noise wall, plunderphonics, illbient, jazz, electronic, folk, reggae, ska, metal, world, soul, rap, blues, and rock.[4] While the station is non-profit, it is licensed as a commercial radio station. It is funded primarily by listener contributions, raised especially during WPRB's annual spring 10-day Membership Drive. It also derives funding through community underwriting contracts with local businesses. Almost all on-air staff and management are Princeton University alumni and students. WPRB's slogan is \"New Jersey's Only Radio Station\".The transmitter tower is shared with WKXW \"New Jersey 101.5\".[5] It is located in Lawrence Township northeast of Trenton. WPRB has an effective radiated power (ERP) of 14,000 watts. It broadcasts using HD Radio technology. The HD2 digital subchannel carries Indian programming and Oldies are heard on its HD3 subchannel.","title":"WPRB"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PAW2009-6"},{"link_name":"signed on","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign-on"},{"link_name":"call sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_sign"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InFocus-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Ivy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy_League"},{"link_name":"affiliate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_affiliate"},{"link_name":"ABC FM Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_News_Radio"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Spin Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Nassau Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nassau_Weekly"},{"link_name":"David Remnick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Remnick"},{"link_name":"The New Yorker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PAW2009-6"},{"link_name":"Jon Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Solomon"},{"link_name":"radiothon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiothon"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Lil Nas X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Nas_X"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"WPRB traces its origins to a campus AM station, WPRU, that launched December 6, 1940. WPRU was founded by H. Grant Theis, a Princeton University student at the time. It often is cited as the oldest commercially licensed campus radio station in the United States.[6] In 1955, WPRU got its FM license. It signed on as WPRB, the first college station on the FM dial in the United States, after the WPRU call sign was found to be already in use by a ship.[1] It is considered a pioneer in FM stereo broadcasting, transmitting a stereo signal beginning in 1964.WPRB has broadcast on three different FM frequencies in its history: it first was heard on 103.9 MHz;[7] in 1959, it moved to 103.5 MHz;[8] and it moved to its current frequency of 103.3 MHz in 1962.[9] During the 1960s and 1970s, it joined with other Ivy League universities to form the \"Ivy Network\", sharing some programming and resources. It later was an affiliate of the ABC FM Network.[10]In 1986, Spin Magazine named WPRB the best commercial college station in the country.[11]After decades of operation under an advertising-supported business model, in 2006 WPRB switched to a listener-supported model (although it remains a commercially licensed station). In 2009, WPRB went on to acquire a Princeton student magazine, the Nassau Weekly. Nassau Weekly was founded in 1979 by Princeton students including David Remnick, who later became the editor of The New Yorker.[6]One of its disc jockeys, Jon Solomon, has hosted a 24-hour+ Christmas music radiothon every year but one since 1988.[12]WPRB was the first commercial radio station in the United States to play Lil Nas X's \"Old Town Road\" when it debuted on John Weingart's long-running program \"Music You Can't Hear on the Radio\".[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"class B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_North_American_broadcast_station_classes#Station_class_description"},{"link_name":"Central Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia#Radio_and_television"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_in_New_York_City#Radio"},{"link_name":"radio markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_market"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"WKTU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WKTU"},{"link_name":"Lake Success, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Success,_New_York"},{"link_name":"WARM-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WARM-FM"},{"link_name":"York, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"grandfathered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandfathered"},{"link_name":"Federal Communications Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FCCdist-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FCCsep-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FCCdist-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FCCsep-15"}],"text":"WPRB is a full class B signal. Its service contour covers most of Central Jersey and portions of the Philadelphia and New York City radio markets.[13]WPRB is short-spaced to two other class B stations: WKTU 103.5 KTU (licensed to Lake Success, New York) and WARM-FM Warm 103.3 (licensed to York, Pennsylvania). Since WPRB dates back to the early days of FM broadcasting (before current rules had been adopted) it is grandfathered on its current frequency and power level.WPRB and WKTU operate on first adjacent channels and the distance between the two stations' transmitters is only 49 miles as determined by Federal Communications Commission rules.[14] The minimum distance between two Class B stations operating on first adjacent channels according to current FCC rules is 105 miles.[15]WPRB and WARM-FM operate on the same channel and the distance between the two stations' transmitters is only 103 miles.[14] The minimum distance between two Class B stations operating on the same channel according to current rules is 150 miles.[15]","title":"Broadcast signal"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Translators"}]

[]

[{"title":"List of community radio stations in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_community_radio_stations_in_the_United_States"}]

[{"reference":"Crum, Dana (July 14, 2005). \"In focus: WPRB radio station\". Princeton University. Retrieved July 25, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.princeton.edu/news/2005/07/14/focus-wprb-radio-station","url_text":"\"In focus: WPRB radio station\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University","url_text":"Princeton University"}]},{"reference":"\"Facility Technical Data for WPRB\". Licensing and Management System. Federal Communications Commission.","urls":[{"url":"https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/public/tv/publicFacilityTechDetails.html?facilityId=53567","url_text":"\"Facility Technical Data for WPRB\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission","url_text":"Federal Communications Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"FCC 335-FM Digital Notification [WPRB]\". fcc.gov. Federal Communications Commission. November 4, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi-bin/ws.exe/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/prefill_and_display.pl?Application_id=1456796&Service=FD&Form_id=335&Facility_id=53567","url_text":"\"FCC 335-FM Digital Notification [WPRB]\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission","url_text":"Federal Communications Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"About WPRB\". wprb.com. Retrieved May 12, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://wprb.com/about/about-wprb/","url_text":"\"About WPRB\""}]},{"reference":"\"FM Query Results for WKXW\". fcc.gov. Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved May 12, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://transition.fcc.gov/fcc-bin/fmq?call=WKXW","url_text":"\"FM Query Results for WKXW\""}]},{"reference":"W. Raymond Ollwerther (March 18, 2009). \"WPRB acquires Nassau Weekly\". Princeton Alumni Weekly. 109 (10): 11.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_Alumni_Weekly","url_text":"Princeton Alumni Weekly"}]},{"reference":"Waits, Jennifer (May 25, 2016). \"Radio Station Field Trip #100 - WPRB at Princeton University\". Radio Survivor. Retrieved June 13, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.radiosurvivor.com/2016/05/25/radio-station-field-trip-100/","url_text":"\"Radio Station Field Trip #100 - WPRB at Princeton University\""}]},{"reference":"Waits, Jennifer (December 20, 2018). \"WPRB DJ Jon Solomon Celebrates 30 Years of Christmas Marathons\". Radio Survivor. Retrieved July 26, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.radiosurvivor.com/2018/12/20/wprb-dj-jon-solomon-celebrates-30-years-of-christmas-marathons/","url_text":"\"WPRB DJ Jon Solomon Celebrates 30 Years of Christmas Marathons\""}]},{"reference":"\"54 dBu Service Contour for WPRB, 103.3 MHz, Princeton, NJ\". fcc.gov. Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved January 11, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fcc.gov/media/radio/map-display#appid=1171263&call=WPRB&freq=103.3&contour=54&city=PRINCETON&state=NJ&fileno=BLH-20070221AAV&.map","url_text":"\"54 dBu Service Contour for WPRB, 103.3 MHz, Princeton, NJ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission","url_text":"Federal Communications Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"Reference points and distance computations. 47 CFR § 73.208\". Retrieved August 22, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=f3c56971693dd1afdad89a680fece345&mc=true&r=SECTION&n=se47.4.73_1208","url_text":"\"Reference points and distance computations. 47 CFR § 73.208\""}]},{"reference":"\"Minimum distance separation between stations. 47 CFR § 73.207 (b)(1)\" (PDF). Retrieved May 12, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2012-title47-vol4/pdf/CFR-2012-title47-vol4-sec73-207.pdf","url_text":"\"Minimum distance separation between stations. 47 CFR § 73.207 (b)(1)\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girjesh_Govil

Girjesh Govil

["1 Biography","2 Legacy","3 Awards and honors","4 Selected bibliography","4.1 Books","4.2 Articles","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References"]

Indian molecular biophysicist (1940–2021) Girjesh GovilBorn(1940-09-25)25 September 1940Uttar Pradesh, IndiaDied12 October 2021(2021-10-12) (aged 81)United StatesNationalityIndianAlma materLucknow UniversityAllahabad UniversityBhabha Atomic Research CentreTata Institute of Fundamental ResearchUniversity of MumbaiNational Physical LaboratoryNational Research CouncilKnown forStudies on semi-empirical quantum chemical theoriesAwards1978 Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar PrizeFICCI AwardGoyal AwardP. C. Ray Memorial AwardN. R. Dhar AwardJ. C. Ghosh Memorial AwardISCA Lifetime Achievement AwardICS Lifetime Achievement AwardScientific careerFieldsMolecular biophysicsInstitutionsNational Institutes of HealthKobe UniversityTata Institute of Fundamental Research Girjesh Govil (25 September 1940 – 12 October 2021) was an Indian molecular biophysicist and a Raja Ramanna professor at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. He was known for his researches on semi-empirical quantum chemical theories. He was an elected fellow of The World Academy of Sciences, and all the three major Indian science academies viz. the National Academy of Sciences, India, Indian National Science Academy and the Indian Academy of Sciences. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research, awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, one of the highest Indian science awards, in 1978, for his contributions to chemical sciences. Biography Girjesh Govil, born to Mangalsen - Dharamdevi couple on 25 September 1940 at Khurja, a town in Bulandshahr district of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, known for traditional ceramics products, did his graduate studies in chemistry at Lucknow University in 1956 and completed his master's degree at Allahabad University in 1958. His career started at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1959 but after a short while, he joined Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and while serving the institute, he did his doctoral studies simultaneously to secure a PhD from Mumbai University in 1963. Subsequently, he went abroad and did his post-doctoral studies at National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) and National Research Council. Returning to Tata Institute of Fundamental Research as a senior professor, he served as an INSA Golden Jubilee Research Professor there. In between, he had short stints at NRC, National Institutes of Health and Kobe University as a visiting scientist. Govil was married to Anuradha Mithal and the couple has a son, Anurag and two daughters, Shalini and Shivani. He lived in Mumbai. Legacy Govil got attracted to the then new field of nuclear magnetic resonance towards the beginning of his research career and most of his activities were focused on it. Working on the conformational aspects of biological molecules such as peptides, nucleotides, saccharides and lipids, he developed applications of semi-empirical quantum chemical theories and elucidated the structure of nucleotides using conformational energy maps and rotational energy states. His calculations of non-bonded and hydrogen-bonded interactions of biomolecules are reported to have been precise and he also made contributions on stacking and base pairing in ordered nucleic acids, lipid structures in biomembranes and their structural flexibility and transport properties. His researches are documented in over 250 articles published in peer-reviewed journals and five books which included NMR in Biological Systems: From Molecules to Human and NMR; he also contributed chapters to India in the World of Physics: Then and Now, authored by Asoke Nath Mitra and Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, edited by Das Gupta. Govil has guided several doctoral scholars in their researches and has served as a TWAS professor at Kathmandu University. He has presided over the International Council for NMR in Biological Systems, the Indian Biophysical Society, the Indian Chemical Society and has served as the vice president of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics. He has been associated with the Indian National Science Academy as the secretary of its council from 1989 to 1991 and as an additional member in 2002. Awards and honors The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research awarded Govil the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, one of the highest Indian science awards, in 1978. A Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Centenary Visiting Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy and a Raja Ramanna fellow at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, he has received several other awards and the list includes FICCI Award, Goyal Award, and the Lifetime Achievement Awards of the Indian Science Congress Association and the Indian Chemical Society. Besides being an elected fellow of The World Academy of Sciences, he was also an elected fellow of Indian National Science Academy, Indian Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences, India. Selected bibliography Books Girjesh Govil; Ramakrishna V. Hosur (1981). NMR. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-10769-1. K.V.R. Chary; Girjesh Govil (8 April 2008). NMR in Biological Systems: From Molecules to Human. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-6679-5. Asoke Nath Mitra (author), Girjesh Govil (contributor) (2009). India in the World of Physics: Then and Now. Pearson Education India. pp. 289–. ISBN 978-81-317-1579-6. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help) Das Gupta (editor), Girjesh Govil (contributor) (2011). Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, c.1784-1947: Project of History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Volume XV, Part 4. Pearson Longman. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-81-317-5375-0. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help) Articles Girjesh Govil (March 2007). "Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in India: A Historical Sketch". eMagRes. doi:10.1002/9780470034590.emrhp0067. E. Neu; M. C. Michailov; U. Welscher; J. Foltinova; Viktor Foltin; Dugble Martin; Erich Gornik; Girjesh Govil; S. Gupta; M. Sharma-Kaune; S. Kuznetsov; Dieter G. Weiss (June 2015). "On education and research in neurology Part I: necessity of regular implication of physiology". European Journal of Neurology. 22: 489. doi:10.1111/ene.12808. E. Neu; M. C. Michailov; U. Welscher; G. Werner; A. Werner-Srivastava; Girjesh Govil; S. Gupta; M. Sharma-Kaune; S. Kuznetsov; G. -R. Stainov; Dieter G. Weiss (June 2015). "On education and research in neurology Part II: regular congress reports on example of physiology". European Journal of Neurology. 22: 490. doi:10.1111/ene.12808. Ragini Sinha, Girjesh Govil (July 2016). "NMR studies of model biological membranes and whole cellls". Journal- Indian Chemical Society. 93 (7): 689–692. See also Asoke Nath Mitra Quantum chemistry India portalChemistry portal Notes ^ Please see Selected bibliography section References ^ a b "Raja Ramanna fellow" (PDF). CBS Raipur. 2016. ^ "Brief Profile of the Awardee". Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize. 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ a b "TWAS fellow". The World Academy of Sciences. 2016. ^ a b "NASI Fellows". National Academy of Sciences, India. 2016. Archived from the original on 21 October 2014. ^ a b c d e f "Indian fellow". Indian National Science Academy. 2016. ^ a b c "Fellow profile". Indian Academy of Sciences. 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ "View Bhatnagar Awardees". Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize. 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ "Handbook of Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize Winners" (PDF). Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. 1999. p. 34. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 October 2016. ^ "Girjesh Govil on ResearchGate". 2016. ^ K.V.R. Chary; Girjesh Govil (8 April 2008). NMR in Biological Systems: From Molecules to Human. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-6679-5. ^ Girjesh Govil; Ramakrishna V. Hosur (1981). NMR. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-10769-1. ^ Asoke Nath Mitra (2009). India in the World of Physics: Then and Now. Pearson Education India. pp. 289–. ISBN 978-81-317-1579-6. ^ Das Gupta (2011). Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, c.1784-1947: Project of History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Volume XV, Part 4. Pearson Longman. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-81-317-5375-0. ^ "Indian Biophysical Society". Indian Biophysical Society. 2016. ^ "Chemical Sciences". Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. 2016. Archived from the original on 12 September 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2016. vteRecipients of Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology in Chemical Science1960s Tuticorin Raghavachari Govindachari (1960) Asima Chatterjee (1961) S. C. Bhattacharyya (1962) B. D. Tilak (1963) Sukh Dev (1964) Sadhan Basu & R. C. Mehrotra (1965) Nanduri Atchuta Ramaiah (1966) Mushi Santappa (1967) C. N. R. Rao (1968) A. C. Jain (1969) 1970s P. T. Narasimhan (1970) M. M. Dhar (1971) S. V. Kessar (1972) A. P. B. Sinha (1972) M. V. George (1973) H. B. Mathur (1973) U. R. Ghatak (1974) K. Nagarajan (1974) D. S. Bhakuni (1975) Animesh Chakravorty (1975) Devadas Devaprabhakara (1976) Mihir Chowdhury (1977) S. Ranganathan (1977) Girjesh Govil (1978) Goverdhan Mehta (1978) 1980s D. Balasubramanian (1981) B. M. Deb (1981) C. L. Khetrapal (1982) G. S. R. Subba Rao (1982) Samaresh Mitra (1983) Naba Kishore Ray (1983) Paramasivam Natarajan (1984) K. J. Rao (1984) P. Balaram (1986) Debashis Mukherjee (1987) Kaushal Kishore (1988) Srinivasan Chandrasekaran (1989) M. K. Chaudhuri (1989) 1990s B. M. Choudary (1990) N. Sathyamurthy (1990) Biman Bagchi (1991) J. S. Yadav (1991) Sumit Bhaduri (1992) Suryanarayanasastry Ramasesha (1992) S. R. Gadre (1993) T. Ramasami (1993) E. D. Jemmis (1994) D. D. Sarma (1994) Jayaraman Chandrasekhar (1995) K. L. Sebastian (1995) Narayanan Chandrakumar (1996) Mariappan Periasamy (1996) Kankan Bhattacharyya (1997) Adusumilli Srikrishna (1997) A. R. Chakravarty (1998) K. N. Ganesh (1998) Ganesh Prasad Pandey (1999) Deb Shankar Ray (1999) 2000s Sourav Pal (2000) Pradeep Mathur (2000) Uday Maitra (2001) T. K. Chandrashekar (2001) Murali Sastry (2002) T. K. Chakraborty (2002) Santanu Bhattacharya (2003) S. Ramakrishnan (2005) Srinivasan Sampath (2006) K. George Thomas (2006) Amalendu Chandra (2007) A. Ajayghosh (2007) Thalappil Pradeep (2008) Jarugu Narasimha Moorthy (2008) Charusita Chakravarty (2009) Narayanaswamy Jayaraman(2009) 2010s Swapan Kumar Pati (2010) Sandeep Verma (2010) Balasubramanian Sundaram (2011) Garikapati Narahari Sastry (2011) Gangadhar J. Sanjayan (2012) Govindasamy Mugesh (2012) Yamuna Krishnan (2013) Kavirayani Ramakrishna Prasad (2014) Souvik Maiti (2014) Pradyut Ghosh (2015) D. Srinivasa Reddy (2015) Partha Sarathi Mukherjee (2016) G. Naresh Patwari (2017) Swadhin Kumar Mandal (2018) Rahul Banerjee (2018) Tapas Kumar Maji (2019) 2020s Subi Jacob George (2020) Jyotirmayee Dash (2020) Kanishka Biswas (2021) T Govindaraju (2021) Akkattu T. Biju (2022) Debabrata Maiti (2022) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Israel United States Netherlands Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tata Institute of Fundamental Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Institute_of_Fundamental_Research"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raja_Ramanna_fellow-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brief_Profile_of_the_Awardee-2"},{"link_name":"The World Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TWAS_fellow-3"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Sciences, India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences,_India"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASI_Fellows-4"},{"link_name":"Indian National Science Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Science_Academy"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indian_fellow-5"},{"link_name":"Indian Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fellow_profile-6"},{"link_name":"Council of Scientific and Industrial Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research"},{"link_name":"Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanti_Swarup_Bhatnagar_Prize_for_Science_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-View_Bhatnagar_Awardees-7"}],"text":"Girjesh Govil (25 September 1940 – 12 October 2021) was an Indian molecular biophysicist and a Raja Ramanna professor at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.[1] He was known for his researches on semi-empirical quantum chemical theories.[2] He was an elected fellow of The World Academy of Sciences,[3] and all the three major Indian science academies viz. the National Academy of Sciences, India,[4] Indian National Science Academy[5] and the Indian Academy of Sciences.[6] The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research, awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, one of the highest Indian science awards, in 1978, for his contributions to chemical sciences.[7]","title":"Girjesh Govil"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Khurja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khurja"},{"link_name":"Bulandshahr district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulandshahr_district"},{"link_name":"Uttar Pradesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh"},{"link_name":"Lucknow University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucknow_University"},{"link_name":"Allahabad University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahabad_University"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indian_fellow-5"},{"link_name":"Bhabha Atomic Research Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centre"},{"link_name":"Tata Institute of Fundamental Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Institute_of_Fundamental_Research"},{"link_name":"Mumbai University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai_University"},{"link_name":"National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"National Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Research_Council_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"INSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Science_Academy"},{"link_name":"National Institutes of Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health"},{"link_name":"Kobe University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe_University"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indian_fellow-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fellow_profile-6"}],"text":"Girjesh Govil, born to Mangalsen - Dharamdevi couple on 25 September 1940 at Khurja, a town in Bulandshahr district of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, known for traditional ceramics products, did his graduate studies in chemistry at Lucknow University in 1956 and completed his master's degree at Allahabad University in 1958.[5] His career started at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1959 but after a short while, he joined Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and while serving the institute, he did his doctoral studies simultaneously to secure a PhD from Mumbai University in 1963. Subsequently, he went abroad and did his post-doctoral studies at National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) and National Research Council. Returning to Tata Institute of Fundamental Research as a senior professor, he served as an INSA Golden Jubilee Research Professor there. In between, he had short stints at NRC, National Institutes of Health and Kobe University as a visiting scientist.[5]Govil was married to Anuradha Mithal and the couple has a son, Anurag and two daughters, Shalini and Shivani. He lived in Mumbai.[6]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nuclear magnetic resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indian_fellow-5"},{"link_name":"peptides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptides"},{"link_name":"nucleotides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotides"},{"link_name":"saccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharides"},{"link_name":"lipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipids"},{"link_name":"quantum chemical theories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistry"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Handbook_of_Shanti_Swarup_Bhatnagar_Prize_Winners-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Girjesh_Govil_on_ResearchGate-9"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CharyGovil2008-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GovilHosur1981-12"},{"link_name":"Asoke Nath Mitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asoke_Nath_Mitra"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mitra2009-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gupta2011-14"},{"link_name":"Kathmandu University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathmandu_University"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indian_fellow-5"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indian_Biophysical_Society-15"},{"link_name":"Indian Chemical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Chemical_Society"},{"link_name":"International Union of Pure and Applied Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Physics"},{"link_name":"Indian National Science Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Science_Academy"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indian_fellow-5"}],"text":"Govil got attracted to the then new field of nuclear magnetic resonance towards the beginning of his research career and most of his activities were focused on it.[5] Working on the conformational aspects of biological molecules such as peptides, nucleotides, saccharides and lipids, he developed applications of semi-empirical quantum chemical theories and elucidated the structure of nucleotides using conformational energy maps and rotational energy states.[8] His calculations of non-bonded and hydrogen-bonded interactions of biomolecules are reported to have been precise and he also made contributions on stacking and base pairing in ordered nucleic acids, lipid structures in biomembranes and their structural flexibility and transport properties. His researches are documented in over 250 articles published in peer-reviewed journals[9][note 1] and five books which included NMR in Biological Systems: From Molecules to Human[10] and NMR;[11] he also contributed chapters to India in the World of Physics: Then and Now, authored by Asoke Nath Mitra[12] and Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, edited by Das Gupta.[13]Govil has guided several doctoral scholars in their researches and has served as a TWAS professor at Kathmandu University.[5] He has presided over the International Council for NMR in Biological Systems, the Indian Biophysical Society,[14] the Indian Chemical Society and has served as the vice president of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics. He has been associated with the Indian National Science Academy as the secretary of its council from 1989 to 1991 and as an additional member in 2002.[5]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Council of Scientific and Industrial Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research"},{"link_name":"Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanti_Swarup_Bhatnagar_Prize"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chemical_Sciences-16"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raja_Ramanna_fellow-1"},{"link_name":"The World Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TWAS_fellow-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fellow_profile-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASI_Fellows-4"}],"text":"The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research awarded Govil the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, one of the highest Indian science awards, in 1978.[15] A Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Centenary Visiting Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy and a Raja Ramanna fellow at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,[1] he has received several other awards and the list includes FICCI Award, Goyal Award, and the Lifetime Achievement Awards of the Indian Science Congress Association and the Indian Chemical Society. Besides being an elected fellow of The World Academy of Sciences,[3] he was also an elected fellow of Indian National Science Academy, Indian Academy of Sciences[6] and the National Academy of Sciences, India.[4]","title":"Awards and honors"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Selected bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-387-10769-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-10769-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4020-6679-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6679-5"},{"link_name":"India in the World of Physics: Then and Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=hRLPM6s7hWAC&pg=PA289"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-81-317-1579-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1579-6"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-81-317-5375-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-5375-0"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"Girjesh Govil; Ramakrishna V. Hosur (1981). NMR. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-10769-1.\nK.V.R. Chary; Girjesh Govil (8 April 2008). NMR in Biological Systems: From Molecules to Human. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-6679-5.\nAsoke Nath Mitra (author), Girjesh Govil (contributor) (2009). India in the World of Physics: Then and Now. Pearson Education India. pp. 289–. ISBN 978-81-317-1579-6. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)\nDas Gupta (editor), Girjesh Govil (contributor) (2011). Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, c.1784-1947: Project of History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Volume XV, Part 4. Pearson Longman. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-81-317-5375-0. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)","title":"Selected bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1002/9780470034590.emrhp0067","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470034590.emrhp0067"},{"link_name":"\"On education and research in neurology Part I: necessity of regular implication of physiology\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111%2Fene.12808"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1111/ene.12808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111%2Fene.12808"},{"link_name":"\"On education and research in neurology Part II: regular congress reports on example of physiology\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111%2Fene.12808"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1111/ene.12808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111%2Fene.12808"}],"sub_title":"Articles","text":"Girjesh Govil (March 2007). \"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in India: A Historical Sketch\". eMagRes. doi:10.1002/9780470034590.emrhp0067.\nE. Neu; M. C. Michailov; U. Welscher; J. Foltinova; Viktor Foltin; Dugble Martin; Erich Gornik; Girjesh Govil; S. Gupta; M. Sharma-Kaune; S. Kuznetsov; Dieter G. Weiss (June 2015). \"On education and research in neurology Part I: necessity of regular implication of physiology\". European Journal of Neurology. 22: 489. doi:10.1111/ene.12808.\nE. Neu; M. C. Michailov; U. Welscher; G. Werner; A. Werner-Srivastava; Girjesh Govil; S. Gupta; M. Sharma-Kaune; S. Kuznetsov; G. -R. Stainov; Dieter G. Weiss (June 2015). \"On education and research in neurology Part II: regular congress reports on example of physiology\". European Journal of Neurology. 22: 490. doi:10.1111/ene.12808.\nRagini Sinha, Girjesh Govil (July 2016). \"NMR studies of model biological membranes and whole cellls\". Journal- Indian Chemical Society. 93 (7): 689–692.","title":"Selected bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"}],"text":"^ Please see Selected bibliography section","title":"Notes"}]

[]

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[{"reference":"Girjesh Govil; Ramakrishna V. Hosur (1981). NMR. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-10769-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-10769-1","url_text":"978-0-387-10769-1"}]},{"reference":"K.V.R. Chary; Girjesh Govil (8 April 2008). NMR in Biological Systems: From Molecules to Human. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-6679-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6679-5","url_text":"978-1-4020-6679-5"}]},{"reference":"Asoke Nath Mitra (author), Girjesh Govil (contributor) (2009). India in the World of Physics: Then and Now. Pearson Education India. pp. 289–. ISBN 978-81-317-1579-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hRLPM6s7hWAC&pg=PA289","url_text":"India in the World of Physics: Then and Now"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1579-6","url_text":"978-81-317-1579-6"}]},{"reference":"Das Gupta (editor), Girjesh Govil (contributor) (2011). Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, c.1784-1947: Project of History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Volume XV, Part 4. Pearson Longman. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-81-317-5375-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-5375-0","url_text":"978-81-317-5375-0"}]},{"reference":"Girjesh Govil (March 2007). \"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in India: A Historical Sketch\". eMagRes. doi:10.1002/9780470034590.emrhp0067.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470034590.emrhp0067","url_text":"10.1002/9780470034590.emrhp0067"}]},{"reference":"E. Neu; M. C. Michailov; U. Welscher; J. Foltinova; Viktor Foltin; Dugble Martin; Erich Gornik; Girjesh Govil; S. Gupta; M. Sharma-Kaune; S. Kuznetsov; Dieter G. Weiss (June 2015). \"On education and research in neurology Part I: necessity of regular implication of physiology\". European Journal of Neurology. 22: 489. doi:10.1111/ene.12808.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fene.12808","url_text":"\"On education and research in neurology Part I: necessity of regular implication of physiology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fene.12808","url_text":"10.1111/ene.12808"}]},{"reference":"E. Neu; M. C. Michailov; U. Welscher; G. Werner; A. Werner-Srivastava; Girjesh Govil; S. Gupta; M. Sharma-Kaune; S. Kuznetsov; G. -R. Stainov; Dieter G. Weiss (June 2015). \"On education and research in neurology Part II: regular congress reports on example of physiology\". European Journal of Neurology. 22: 490. doi:10.1111/ene.12808.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fene.12808","url_text":"\"On education and research in neurology Part II: regular congress reports on example of physiology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fene.12808","url_text":"10.1111/ene.12808"}]},{"reference":"Ragini Sinha, Girjesh Govil (July 2016). \"NMR studies of model biological membranes and whole cellls\". Journal- Indian Chemical Society. 93 (7): 689–692.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Raja Ramanna fellow\" (PDF). CBS Raipur. 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://cbsraipur.ac.in/AdminCBS/Upload_Data/Resume/govil.pdf","url_text":"\"Raja Ramanna fellow\""}]},{"reference":"\"Brief Profile of the Awardee\". Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize. 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/Detail.aspx?AID=469","url_text":"\"Brief Profile of the Awardee\""}]},{"reference":"\"TWAS fellow\". The World Academy of Sciences. 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://twas.org/member/govil-girjesh","url_text":"\"TWAS fellow\""}]},{"reference":"\"NASI Fellows\". National Academy of Sciences, India. 2016. Archived from the original on 21 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141021102942/http://www.nasi.org.in/fellows.asp?RsFilter=G","url_text":"\"NASI Fellows\""},{"url":"http://www.nasi.org.in/fellows.asp?RsFilter=G","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Indian fellow\". Indian National Science Academy. 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=N83-0290","url_text":"\"Indian fellow\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fellow profile\". Indian Academy of Sciences. 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ias.ac.in/describe/fellow/Govil,_Prof._Girjesh","url_text":"\"Fellow profile\""}]},{"reference":"\"View Bhatnagar Awardees\". Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize. 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/AwardeeList.aspx","url_text":"\"View Bhatnagar Awardees\""}]},{"reference":"\"Handbook of Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize Winners\" (PDF). Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. 1999. p. 34. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043957/http://www.csirhrdg.res.in/ssb.pdf","url_text":"\"Handbook of Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize Winners\""},{"url":"http://www.csirhrdg.res.in/ssb.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Girjesh Govil on ResearchGate\". 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Girjesh_Govil","url_text":"\"Girjesh Govil on ResearchGate\""}]},{"reference":"K.V.R. Chary; Girjesh Govil (8 April 2008). NMR in Biological Systems: From Molecules to Human. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-6679-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VPSjZ1tha4EC","url_text":"NMR in Biological Systems: From Molecules to Human"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6679-5","url_text":"978-1-4020-6679-5"}]},{"reference":"Girjesh Govil; Ramakrishna V. Hosur (1981). NMR. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-10769-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=abvfrQEACAAJ","url_text":"NMR"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-10769-1","url_text":"978-0-387-10769-1"}]},{"reference":"Asoke Nath Mitra (2009). India in the World of Physics: Then and Now. Pearson Education India. pp. 289–. ISBN 978-81-317-1579-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hRLPM6s7hWAC&pg=PA289","url_text":"India in the World of Physics: Then and Now"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1579-6","url_text":"978-81-317-1579-6"}]},{"reference":"Das Gupta (2011). Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, c.1784-1947: Project of History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Volume XV, Part 4. Pearson Longman. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-81-317-5375-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Pks7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PR63","url_text":"Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, c.1784-1947: Project of History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Volume XV, Part 4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-5375-0","url_text":"978-81-317-5375-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Indian Biophysical Society\". Indian Biophysical Society. 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://indianbiophysicalsociety.org/home.html","url_text":"\"Indian Biophysical Society\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chemical Sciences\". Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. 2016. Archived from the original on 12 September 2012. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_as_a_Service

Software as a service

["1 Cloud computing","2 History","3 Revenue models","4 Adoption","5 Development","5.1 Architecture","6 Legal issues","7 References","8 Sources","9 Further reading"]

Hosted software accessed by subscription "SaaS" redirects here. Not to be confused with Security as a service. Software as a service (SaaS /sæs/) is a form of cloud computing in which the provider offers the use of application software to a client and manages all the physical and software resources used by the application. The distinguishing feature of SaaS compared to other software delivery models is that it separates "the possession and ownership of software from its use". SaaS began around the turn of the twenty-first century and became the main form of software application deployment by 2023. SaaS is usually accessed via a web application. Unlike most self-hosted software products, only one version of the software exists and only one operating system and configuration is supported. SaaS products typically run on top of rented infrastructure as a service (IaaS) or platform as a service (PaaS) systems including hardware and sometimes operating systems and middleware to accommodate rapid increases in usage while providing the instant and continuous availability that customers expect. SaaS customers are provided with the abstraction of limitless computing resources, while economy of scale drives down the cost. There are no specific software development practices that distinguish SaaS from other application development, although often there is a focus on frequent testing and releases. SaaS architectures are typically multi-tenant; although usually they achieve superior efficiency by sharing at least some resources between clients, it is not uncommon to offer a completely siloed environment for an additional fee. Common SaaS revenue models include freemium, subscription, and usage-based fees. Unlike traditional software, rarely is it possible to buy a perpetual license for a certain version of the software. Cloud computing Main article: Cloud computing Comparison of on-premise, IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) is the most basic form of cloud computing, where infrastructure resources—such as physical computers—are not owned by the user but instead leased from a cloud provider. As a result, infrastructure resources can be increased rapidly, instead of waiting weeks for computers to ship and set up. IaaS requires time and expertise to make use of the infrastructure in the form of operating systems and applications. Platform as a service (PaaS) includes the operating system and middleware, but not the applications. SaaS providers typically use PaaS or IaaS services to run their applications. Without IaaS, it would be extremely difficult to make an SaaS product scalable for a variable number of users while providing the instant and continual availability that customers expect. Most end users consume only the SaaS product and do not have to worry about the technical complexity of the physical hardware and operating system. Because cloud resources can be accessed without any human interactions, SaaS customers are provided with the abstraction of limitless computing resources, while economy of scale drives down the cost. Another key feature of cloud computing is that software updates can be rolled out and made available to all customers nearly instantaneously. In 2019, SaaS was estimated to make up the plurality, 43 percent, of the cloud computing market while IaaS and PaaS combined account for approximately 25 percent. History In the 1960s, multitasking was invented, enabling mainframe computers to serve multiple users simultaneously. Over the next decade, timesharing became the main business model for computing, and cluster computing enabled multiple computers to work together. Cloud computing emerged in the late 1990s with companies like Amazon (1994), Salesforce (1999), and Concur (1993) offering Internet-based applications on a pay-per-use basis. All of these focused on a single product to seize a high market share. Beginning with Gmail in 2004, email services were some of the first SaaS products to be mass-marketed to consumers. The market for SaaS grew rapidly throughout the early twenty-first century. Initially viewed as a technological innovation, SaaS has come to be perceived more as a business model. By 2023, SaaS had become the primary method that companies deliver applications. Popular consumer SaaS products include all social media websites, email services like Gmail and its associated Google Docs Editors, Skype, Dropbox, and entertainment products like Netflix and Spotify. Enterprise SaaS products include Salesforce's customer relationship management (CRM) software, SAP Cloud Platform, and Oracle Cloud Enterprise Resource Planning. Revenue models Some SaaS providers offer free services to consumers that are funded by means such as advertising, affiliate marketing, or selling consumer data. One of the most popular models for Internet start-ups and mobile apps is freemium, where the company charges for continued use or a higher level of service. Even if the user never upgrades to the paid version, it helps the company capture a higher market share and displace customers from a rival. However, the company's hosting cost increases with the number of users, regardless of whether it is successful at enticing them to use the paid version. Another common model is where the free version only provides demonstration (crippleware). Online marketplaces may charge a fee on transactions to cover the SaaS provider costs. It used to be more common for SaaS products to be offered for a one-time cost, but this model is declining in popularity. A few SaaS products have open source code, called open SaaS. This model can provide advantages such as reduced deployment cost, less vendor commitment, and more portable applications. The most common SaaS revenue models involve subscription and pay for usage. For customers, the advantages include reduced upfront cost, increased flexibility, and lower overall cost compared to traditional software with perpetual software licenses. In some cases, the steep one-time cost demanded by sellers of traditional software were out of the reach of smaller businesses, but pay-per-use SaaS models makes the software affordable. Usage may be charged based on the number of users, transactions, amount of storage spaced used, or other metrics. Many buyers prefer pay-per-usage because they believe that they are relatively light users of the software, and the seller benefits by reaching occasional users who would otherwise not buy the software. However, it can cause revenue uncertainty for the seller and increases the overhead for billing. The subscription model of SaaS offers a continuing and renewable revenue stream to the provider, although vulnerable to cancellation. If a significant number are cancelled, the viability of the business can be placed in jeopardy. The ease of canceling a subscription and switching to a competitor leave customers with the leverage to get concessions from the seller. While recurring revenues can help the business and attract investors, the need for customer service skills in convincing the customer to renew their subscription is a challenge for providers switching to subscription from other revenue models. Adoption SaaS products are typically accessed via a web browser as a publicly available web application. This means that customers can access the application anywhere from any device without needing to install or update it. SaaS providers often try to minimize the difficulty of signing up for the product. Many capitalize on the service-oriented structure to respond to customer feedback and evolve their product quickly to meet demands. This can enable customers to believe in the continued improvement of the product and help the SaaS provider get customers from an established traditional software company that likely can offer a deeper feature set. Although on-premises software is often less secure than SaaS alternatives, security and privacy are among the main reasons cited by companies that do not adopt SaaS products. SaaS companies have to protect their publicly available offerings from abuse, including denial-of-service attacks and hacking. They often use technologies such as access control, authentication, and encryption to protect data confidentiality. Nevertheless, not all companies trust SaaS providers to keep sensitive data secured. The vendor is responsible for software updates, including security patches, and for protecting the customers' data. SaaS systems inherently have a greater latency than software run on-premises due to the time for network packets to be delivered to the cloud facility. This can be prohibitive for some uses, such as time-sensitive industrial processes or warehousing. The rise of SaaS products is one factor leading many companies switched from budgeting for IT as a capital expenditure to an operating expenditure. The process of migration to SaaS and supporting it can also be a significant cost that must be accounted for. Development A SaaS architecture. All customers are running the same version of the software on the same platform. A challenge for SaaS providers is that demand is not known in advance. Their system must have enough slack to be able to handle all users without turning any away, but without paying for too many resources that will be unnecessary. If resources are static, they are guaranteed to be wasted during non-peak time. Sometimes cheaper off-peak rates are offered to balance the load and reduce waste. The expectation for continuous service is so high that outages in SaaS software are often reported in the news. There are not specific software development practices that differentiate SaaS from other application development. SaaS products are often released early and often to take advantage of the flexibility of the SaaS delivery model. Agile software development is commonly used to support this release schedule. Many SaaS developers use test-driven development, or otherwise emphasize frequent software testing, because of the need to ensure availability of their service and rapid deployment. Domain-driven design, in which business goals drive development, is popular because SaaS products must sell themselves to the customer by being useful. SaaS developers do not know in advance which devices customers will try to access the product from—such as a desktop computer, tablet, or smartphone—and supporting a wide range of devices is often an important concern for the front-end development team. Progressive web applications allow some functionality to be available even if the device is offline. SaaS applications predominantly offer integration protocols and application programming interfaces (APIs) that operate over a wide area network. Architecture SaaS architecture varies significantly from product to product. Nevertheless, most SaaS providers offer a multi-tenant architecture. With this model, a single version of the application, with a single configuration (hardware, network, operating system), is used for all customers ("tenants"). This means that the company does not need to support multiple versions and configurations. The architectural shift from each customer running their own version of the software on their own hardware affects many aspects of the application's design and security features. In a multi-tenant architecture, many resources can be used by different tenants or shared between multiple tenants. Application and control planes of a SaaS product The structure of a typical SaaS application can be separated into application and control planes. SaaS products differ in how these planes are separated, which might be closely integrated or loosely coupled in an event- or message-driven model. The control plane is in charge of directing the system and covers functionality such as tenant onboarding, billing, and metrics, as well as the system used by the SaaS provider to configure, manage, and operate the service. Many SaaS products are offered at different levels of service for different prices, called tiering. This can also affect the architecture for both planes, although it is commonly placed in the control plane. Unlike the application plane, the services in the control plane are not designed for multitenancy. An example architecture where some services are shared, while others are allocated on a per-tenant basis. The application plane—which varies a great deal depending on the nature of the product—implements the core functionality of the SaaS product. Key design issues include separating different tenants so they cannot view or change other tenants' data or resources. Except for the simplest SaaS applications, some microservices and other resources are allocated on a per-tenant basis, rather than shared between all tenants. Routing functionality is necessary to direct tenant requests to the appropriate services. Example SaaS deployment architecture that offers complete siloing on a premium tier and mixed microservice deployment to other tenants. Some SaaS products do not share any resources between tenants—called siloing. Although this negates many of the efficiency benefits of SaaS, it makes it easier to migrate legacy software to SaaS and is sometimes offered as a premium offering at a higher price. Pooling all resources might make it possible to achieve higher efficiency, but an outage affects all customers so availability must be prioritized to a greater extent. Many systems use a combination of both approaches, pooling some resources and siloing others. Other companies group multiple tenants into pods and share resources between them. Legal issues In the United States, constitutional search warrant laws do not protect all forms of SaaS dynamically stored data. The result is that governments may be able to request data from SaaS providers without the owner's consent. Certain open-source licenses such as GPL-2.0 do not explicitly grant rights permitting distribution as a SaaS product in Germany. References ^ Panker, Jon; Lewis, Mark; Fahey, Evan; Vasquez, Melvin Jafet (August 2007). "How do you pronounce IT?". TechTarget. Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2012. ^ Golding 2024, p. 14. ^ a b c d Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 2. ^ Rosati & Lynn 2020, p. 22. ^ a b Rosati & Lynn 2020, p. 23. ^ Ibrahim et al. 2023, p. 258. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 17. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, pp. 17–18. ^ a b Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 19. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 33. ^ a b Rosati & Lynn 2020, p. 20. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, pp. 23, 31. ^ Watt 2023, p. 8. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, pp. 24, 32. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 35. ^ a b c d Watt 2023, p. 4. ^ Watt 2023, pp. 4, 8. ^ a b Clohessy et al. 2020, p. 40. ^ Watt 2023, p. 9. ^ a b c d Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 48. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, pp. 61–63. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, pp. 63–64. ^ Bhandari & Gupta 2019, p. 21. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, pp. 48, 57. ^ Clohessy et al. 2020, pp. 40–41. ^ a b Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 57. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, pp. 57–58. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 11. ^ a b Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 66. ^ a b Garbis & Chapman 2021, p. 185. ^ a b Kinnunen 2022, pp. 123–124. ^ Golding 2024, p. 18. ^ Golding 2024, p. 20. ^ Watt 2023, p. 15. ^ Watt 2023, pp. 6, 16. ^ a b c Ibrahim et al. 2023, pp. 264, 266, 268. ^ Garbis & Chapman 2021, p. 186. ^ Kinnunen 2022, pp. 137, 139. ^ Tallon et al. 2020, p. 2. ^ Kinnunen 2022, p. 124. ^ Golding 2024, p. 25. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 36. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 37. ^ Dempsey & Kelliher 2018, p. 39. ^ Watt 2023, p. 11. ^ Watt 2023, p. 16. ^ Younas et al. 2018, p. 142. ^ Watt 2023, pp. 11–12, 16. ^ Watt 2023, p. 12. ^ Watt 2023, pp. 13–14. ^ Watt 2023, p. 13. ^ Manvi & Shyam 2021, p. 105. ^ Golding 2024, p. 47. ^ a b Golding 2024, pp. 25–26. ^ Golding 2024, p. 26. ^ a b Golding 2024, p. 27. ^ Golding 2024, p. 44. ^ Golding 2024, p. 40. ^ a b Golding 2024, p. 28. ^ a b Golding 2024, p. 38. ^ Golding 2024, pp. 36–37. ^ Golding 2024, p. 37. ^ Golding 2024, p. 76. ^ Golding 2024, p. 55. ^ Golding 2024, pp. 55, 74–75. ^ Golding 2024, p. 69. ^ Golding 2024, p. 70. ^ Golding 2024, pp. 75–76. ^ Golding 2024, p. 78. ^ Arthur, Charles (2010-12-14). "Google's ChromeOS means losing control of the data, warns GNU founder Richard Stallman". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 2014-02-28. Retrieved 2012-02-16. ^ Adhikari, Richard (2010-12-15). "Why Richard Stallman Takes No Shine to Chrome". Linux Insider. Archived from the original on 2021-01-23. Retrieved 2015-03-24. ^ Ballhausen 2014, p. 61. Sources Ballhausen, Miriam (2014). "OpenSaaS: Using Free and Open Source Software as Software-as-a-Service". International Free and Open Source Software Law Review. 6: 61–68. ISSN 2666-8106. Bhandari, Guru Prasad; Gupta, Ratneshwer (2019). "An Overview of Cloud and Edge Computing Architecture and Its Current Issues and Challenges". Advancing Consumer-Centric Fog Computing Architectures. IGI Global. pp. 1–37. ISBN 978-1-5225-7149-0. Dempsey, David; Kelliher, Felicity (2018). Industry Trends in Cloud Computing: Alternative Business-to-Business Revenue Models. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-87693-1. Garbis, Jason; Chapman, Jerry W. (2021). Zero Trust Security: An Enterprise Guide. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-6703-5. Golding, Tod (2024). Building Multi-Tenant SaaS Architectures. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-0981-4061-8. Ibrahim, Ahmed Mamdouh Abdelfatah; Abdullah, Norris Syed; Bahari, Mahadi (2023). Software as a Service Challenges: A Systematic Literature Review. Springer International Publishing. pp. 257–272. ISBN 978-3-031-18344-7. Kinnunen, Juha (2022). ERP as Software-as-a-Service: Factors Depicting Large Enterprises Cloud Adoption. Springer International Publishing. pp. 123–142. ISBN 978-3-030-99191-3. Lynn, Theo; Mooney, John G.; Rosati, Pierangelo; Fox, Grace (2020). Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-43198-3. Tallon, Paul P.; Mooney, John G.; Duddek, Marvin (2020). "Measuring the Business Value of IT". Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–17. ISBN 978-3-030-43198-3. Rosati, Pierangelo; Lynn, Theo (2020). "Measuring the Business Value of Infrastructure Migration to the Cloud". Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer International Publishing. pp. 19–37. ISBN 978-3-030-43198-3. Clohessy, Trevor; Acton, Thomas; Morgan, Lorraine (2020). "The SaaS Payoff: Measuring the Business Value of Provisioning Software-as-a-Service Technologies". Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer International Publishing. pp. 39–55. ISBN 978-3-030-43198-3. Manvi, Sunilkumar; Shyam, Gopal (2021). Cloud Computing: Concepts and Technologies. CRC Press. p. 105. ISBN 9781000337952. Watt, Andy (2023). Building Modern SaaS Applications with C# And . NET: Build, Deploy, and Maintain Professional SaaS Applications. Packt. ISBN 978-1-80461-087-9. Younas, Muhammad; Jawawi, Dayang N. A.; Ghani, Imran; Fries, Terrence; Kazmi, Rafaqut (2018). "Agile development in the cloud computing environment: A systematic review". Information and Software Technology. 103: 142–158. doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2018.06.014. ISSN 0950-5849. Further reading Fox, Armando; Patterson, David A. (2020). Engineering Software As a Service: An Agile Approach Using Cloud Computing. Pogo Press. ISBN 978-1-7352338-0-2. vteSoftware distributionLicenses Beerware Floating licensing Free and open-source Free Open source Freely redistributable License-free Proprietary Public domain Source-available Compensation models Adware Commercial software Retail software Crippleware Crowdfunding Freemium Freeware Pay what you want Careware Donationware Open-core model Postcardware Shareware Nagware Trialware Delivery methods Digital distribution File sharing On-premises Pre-installed Product bundling Retail software Sneakernet Software as a service Deceptive and/or illicit Unwanted software bundling Malware Spyware Trojan horse Worm Ransomware Scareware Shovelware Vaporware list Software release life cycle Abandonware End-of-life Long-term support Software maintenance Software maintainer Software publisher Copy protection Digital rights management Software protection dongle License manager Product activation Product key Software copyright Software license server Software patent Torrent poisoning vteCloud computingBusiness models Content as a service Data as a service Desktop as a service Function as a service Infrastructure as a service Integration platform as a service Backend as a service Network as a service Platform as a service Security as a service Software as a service Technologies Cloud database Cloud-native computing Cloud storage Cloud storage gateways Data centers Dew computing Distributed file system for cloud Hardware virtualization Internet Mobile cloud computing Native cloud application Networking Personal cloud Security Serverless computing Structured storage Virtual appliance Web APIs Virtual private cloud Applications Box Dropbox Google Workspace Drive HP Cloud (closed) IBM Cloud Microsoft Office 365 OneDrive Nextcloud Oracle Cloud Owncloud Rackspace Salesforce Seafile Workday Zoho Platforms Alibaba Cloud Amazon Web Services AppScale Box CloudBolt Cloud Foundry Cocaine (PaaS) Creatio Engine Yard Helion GE Predix Google App Engine GreenQloud Heroku IBM Cloud Inktank Jelastic Microsoft Azure MindSphere Netlify Oracle Cloud OutSystems openQRM OpenShift PythonAnywhere RightScale Scalr Force.com SAP Cloud Platform Splunk Vercel vCloud Air WaveMaker Infrastructure Alibaba Cloud Amazon Web Services Abiquo Enterprise Edition CloudStack Citrix Cloud Deft DigitalOcean EMC Atmos Eucalyptus Fujitsu Google Cloud Platform GreenButton GreenQloud IBM Cloud iland Joyent Linode Lunacloud Microsoft Azure Mirantis Netlify Nimbula Nimbus OpenIO OpenNebula OpenStack Oracle Cloud OrionVM Rackspace Cloud Safe Swiss Cloud Zadara libvirt libguestfs OVirt Virtual Machine Manager Wakame-vdc Vercel Virtual Private Cloud OnDemand Category Commons

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Not to be confused with Security as a service.Software as a service (SaaS /sæs/[1]) is a form of cloud computing in which the provider offers the use of application software to a client and manages all the physical and software resources used by the application.[2] The distinguishing feature of SaaS compared to other software delivery models is that it separates \"the possession and ownership of software from its use\".[3] SaaS began around the turn of the twenty-first century and became the main form of software application deployment by 2023.SaaS is usually accessed via a web application. Unlike most self-hosted software products, only one version of the software exists and only one operating system and configuration is supported. SaaS products typically run on top of rented infrastructure as a service (IaaS) or platform as a service (PaaS) systems including hardware and sometimes operating systems and middleware to accommodate rapid increases in usage while providing the instant and continuous availability that customers expect. SaaS customers are provided with the abstraction of limitless computing resources, while economy of scale drives down the cost.There are no specific software development practices that distinguish SaaS from other application development, although often there is a focus on frequent testing and releases. SaaS architectures are typically multi-tenant; although usually they achieve superior efficiency by sharing at least some resources between clients, it is not uncommon to offer a completely siloed environment for an additional fee. Common SaaS revenue models include freemium, subscription, and usage-based fees. Unlike traditional software, rarely is it possible to buy a perpetual license for a certain version of the software.","title":"Software as a service"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comparison_of_on-premise,_IaaS,_PaaS,_and_SaaS.png"},{"link_name":"Infrastructure as a service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_as_a_service"},{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosatiLynn202022-4"},{"link_name":"Platform as a service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_as_a_service"},{"link_name":"middleware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middleware"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosatiLynn202023-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbrahim_''et_al.''2023258-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosatiLynn202023-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201817-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201817%E2%80%9318-8"},{"link_name":"economy of scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_scale"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201819-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201833-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosatiLynn202020-11"}],"text":"Comparison of on-premise, IaaS, PaaS, and SaaSInfrastructure as a service (IaaS) is the most basic form of cloud computing, where infrastructure resources—such as physical computers—are not owned by the user but instead leased from a cloud provider. As a result, infrastructure resources can be increased rapidly, instead of waiting weeks for computers to ship and set up. IaaS requires time and expertise to make use of the infrastructure in the form of operating systems and applications.[4] Platform as a service (PaaS) includes the operating system and middleware, but not the applications.[5][6] SaaS providers typically use PaaS or IaaS services to run their applications.[5]Without IaaS, it would be extremely difficult to make an SaaS product scalable for a variable number of users while providing the instant and continual availability that customers expect.[7] Most end users consume only the SaaS product and do not have to worry about the technical complexity of the physical hardware and operating system.[8] Because cloud resources can be accessed without any human interactions, SaaS customers are provided with the abstraction of limitless computing resources, while economy of scale drives down the cost.[9] Another key feature of cloud computing is that software updates can be rolled out and made available to all customers nearly instantaneously.[10] In 2019, SaaS was estimated to make up the plurality, 43 percent, of the cloud computing market while IaaS and PaaS combined account for approximately 25 percent.[11]","title":"Cloud computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multitasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking"},{"link_name":"mainframe computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer"},{"link_name":"timesharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timesharing"},{"link_name":"cluster computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_computing"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201819-9"},{"link_name":"Amazon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company)"},{"link_name":"Salesforce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesforce"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"market share","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_share"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201823,_31-12"},{"link_name":"Gmail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gmail"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20238-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201824,_32-14"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosatiLynn202020-11"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201835-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20234-16"},{"link_name":"social media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media"},{"link_name":"Gmail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gmail"},{"link_name":"Google Docs Editors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Docs_Editors"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20234,_8-17"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"Dropbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropbox"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClohessy_''et_al.''202040-18"},{"link_name":"Netflix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflix"},{"link_name":"Spotify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotify"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20239-19"},{"link_name":"Salesforce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesforce"},{"link_name":"customer relationship management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_relationship_management"},{"link_name":"SAP Cloud Platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_Cloud_Platform"},{"link_name":"Oracle Cloud Enterprise Resource Planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Cloud_Enterprise_Resource_Planning"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClohessy_''et_al.''202040-18"}],"text":"In the 1960s, multitasking was invented, enabling mainframe computers to serve multiple users simultaneously. Over the next decade, timesharing became the main business model for computing, and cluster computing enabled multiple computers to work together.[9] Cloud computing emerged in the late 1990s with companies like Amazon (1994), Salesforce (1999), and Concur (1993) offering Internet-based applications on a pay-per-use basis. All of these focused on a single product to seize a high market share.[12] Beginning with Gmail in 2004, email services were some of the first SaaS products to be mass-marketed to consumers.[13] The market for SaaS grew rapidly throughout the early twenty-first century.[14][11] Initially viewed as a technological innovation, SaaS has come to be perceived more as a business model.[15] By 2023, SaaS had become the primary method that companies deliver applications.[16]Popular consumer SaaS products include all social media websites, email services like Gmail and its associated Google Docs Editors,[17] Skype, Dropbox,[18] and entertainment products like Netflix and Spotify.[19] Enterprise SaaS products include Salesforce's customer relationship management (CRM) software, SAP Cloud Platform, and Oracle Cloud Enterprise Resource Planning.[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"advertising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising"},{"link_name":"affiliate marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affiliate_marketing"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201848-20"},{"link_name":"freemium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemium"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201861%E2%80%9363-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201863%E2%80%9364-22"},{"link_name":"crippleware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crippleware"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201848-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201848-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201848-20"},{"link_name":"open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source"},{"link_name":"portable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portability_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhandariGupta201921-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201848,_57-24"},{"link_name":"software licenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_license"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClohessy_''et_al.''202040%E2%80%9341-25"},{"link_name":"smaller businesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher20182-3"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201857-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201857-26"},{"link_name":"billing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_billing"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201857%E2%80%9358-27"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher20182-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher20182-3"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201811-28"},{"link_name":"customer service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_service"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201866-29"}],"text":"Some SaaS providers offer free services to consumers that are funded by means such as advertising, affiliate marketing, or selling consumer data.[20] One of the most popular models for Internet start-ups and mobile apps is freemium, where the company charges for continued use or a higher level of service. Even if the user never upgrades to the paid version, it helps the company capture a higher market share and displace customers from a rival.[21] However, the company's hosting cost increases with the number of users, regardless of whether it is successful at enticing them to use the paid version.[22] Another common model is where the free version only provides demonstration (crippleware). Online marketplaces may charge a fee on transactions to cover the SaaS provider costs.[20] It used to be more common for SaaS products to be offered for a one-time cost, but this model is declining in popularity.[20] A few[20] SaaS products have open source code, called open SaaS. This model can provide advantages such as reduced deployment cost, less vendor commitment, and more portable applications.[23]The most common SaaS revenue models involve subscription and pay for usage.[24] For customers, the advantages include reduced upfront cost, increased flexibility, and lower overall cost compared to traditional software with perpetual software licenses.[25] In some cases, the steep one-time cost demanded by sellers of traditional software were out of the reach of smaller businesses, but pay-per-use SaaS models makes the software affordable.[3] Usage may be charged based on the number of users, transactions, amount of storage spaced used, or other metrics.[26] Many buyers prefer pay-per-usage because they believe that they are relatively light users of the software, and the seller benefits by reaching occasional users who would otherwise not buy the software.[26] However, it can cause revenue uncertainty for the seller and increases the overhead for billing.[27]The subscription model of SaaS offers a continuing and renewable revenue stream to the provider, although vulnerable to cancellation.[3] If a significant number are cancelled, the viability of the business can be placed in jeopardy.[3] The ease of canceling a subscription and switching to a competitor leave customers with the leverage to get concessions from the seller.[28] While recurring revenues can help the business and attract investors, the need for customer service skills in convincing the customer to renew their subscription is a challenge for providers switching to subscription from other revenue models.[29]","title":"Revenue models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"web browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser"},{"link_name":"web application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_application"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarbisChapman2021185-30"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20234-16"},{"link_name":"install","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installation_(computer_programs)"},{"link_name":"update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_update"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20234-16"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinnunen2022123%E2%80%93124-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202418-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202420-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt202315-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20236,_16-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbrahim_''et_al.''2023264,_266,_268-36"},{"link_name":"denial-of-service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial-of-service"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarbisChapman2021186-37"},{"link_name":"access control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control"},{"link_name":"authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authentication"},{"link_name":"encryption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encryption"},{"link_name":"data confidentiality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_confidentiality"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbrahim_''et_al.''2023264,_266,_268-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbrahim_''et_al.''2023264,_266,_268-36"},{"link_name":"software updates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_update"},{"link_name":"security patches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_patch"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinnunen2022123%E2%80%93124-31"},{"link_name":"latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latency_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinnunen2022137,_139-38"},{"link_name":"IT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT"},{"link_name":"capital expenditure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_expenditure"},{"link_name":"operating expenditure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_expenditure"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallon_''et_al.''20202-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinnunen2022124-40"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201866-29"}],"text":"SaaS products are typically accessed via a web browser as a publicly available web application.[30][16] This means that customers can access the application anywhere from any device without needing to install or update it.[16][31] SaaS providers often try to minimize the difficulty of signing up for the product.[32] Many capitalize on the service-oriented structure to respond to customer feedback and evolve their product quickly to meet demands. This can enable customers to believe in the continued improvement of the product and help the SaaS provider get customers from an established traditional software company that likely can offer a deeper feature set.[33][34]Although on-premises software is often less secure than SaaS alternatives,[35] security and privacy are among the main reasons cited by companies that do not adopt SaaS products.[36] SaaS companies have to protect their publicly available offerings from abuse, including denial-of-service attacks and hacking.[37] They often use technologies such as access control, authentication, and encryption to protect data confidentiality.[36] Nevertheless, not all companies trust SaaS providers to keep sensitive data secured.[36] The vendor is responsible for software updates, including security patches, and for protecting the customers' data.[31] SaaS systems inherently have a greater latency than software run on-premises due to the time for network packets to be delivered to the cloud facility. This can be prohibitive for some uses, such as time-sensitive industrial processes or warehousing.[38]The rise of SaaS products is one factor leading many companies switched from budgeting for IT as a capital expenditure to an operating expenditure.[39] The process of migration to SaaS and supporting it can also be a significant cost that must be accounted for.[40][29]","title":"Adoption"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SaaS_architecture.jpg"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202425-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201836-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201837-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempseyKelliher201839-44"},{"link_name":"software development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt202311-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt202316-46"},{"link_name":"Agile software development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_software_development"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounas_''et_al.''2018142-47"},{"link_name":"test-driven development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-driven_development"},{"link_name":"software testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_testing"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt202311%E2%80%9312,_16-48"},{"link_name":"Domain-driven design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain-driven_design"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt202312-49"},{"link_name":"front-end development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front-end_web_development"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt202313%E2%80%9314-50"},{"link_name":"Progressive web applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_web_application"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt202313-51"},{"link_name":"application programming interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"},{"link_name":"wide area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManviShyam2021105-52"}],"text":"A SaaS architecture. All customers are running the same version of the software on the same platform.[41]A challenge for SaaS providers is that demand is not known in advance. Their system must have enough slack to be able to handle all users without turning any away, but without paying for too many resources that will be unnecessary. If resources are static, they are guaranteed to be wasted during non-peak time.[42] Sometimes cheaper off-peak rates are offered to balance the load and reduce waste.[43] The expectation for continuous service is so high that outages in SaaS software are often reported in the news.[44]There are not specific software development practices that differentiate SaaS from other application development.[45] SaaS products are often released early and often to take advantage of the flexibility of the SaaS delivery model.[46] Agile software development is commonly used to support this release schedule.[47] Many SaaS developers use test-driven development, or otherwise emphasize frequent software testing, because of the need to ensure availability of their service and rapid deployment.[48] Domain-driven design, in which business goals drive development, is popular because SaaS products must sell themselves to the customer by being useful.[49] SaaS developers do not know in advance which devices customers will try to access the product from—such as a desktop computer, tablet, or smartphone—and supporting a wide range of devices is often an important concern for the front-end development team.[50] Progressive web applications allow some functionality to be available even if the device is offline.[51]SaaS applications predominantly offer integration protocols and application programming interfaces (APIs) that operate over a wide area network.[52]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202447-53"},{"link_name":"multi-tenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitenancy"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarbisChapman2021185-30"},{"link_name":"version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_versioning"},{"link_name":"configuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_configuration"},{"link_name":"hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202425%E2%80%9326-54"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20234-16"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202425%E2%80%9326-54"},{"link_name":"resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_resource"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202426-55"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Application_and_control_planes_of_a_SaaS_product.png"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202427-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202444-57"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202427-56"},{"link_name":"tiering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiering&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202440-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202428-59"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tenant_routing_for_SaaS_example.png"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202438-60"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202428-59"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202436%E2%80%9337-61"},{"link_name":"microservices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microservices"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202437-62"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202438-60"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Example_SaaS_deployment_architecture.png"},{"link_name":"microservice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microservice"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202476-63"},{"link_name":"legacy software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legacy_software"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202455-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202455,_74%E2%80%9375-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202469-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202470-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202475%E2%80%9376-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolding202478-69"}],"sub_title":"Architecture","text":"SaaS architecture varies significantly from product to product.[53] Nevertheless, most SaaS providers offer a multi-tenant architecture.[30] With this model, a single version of the application, with a single configuration (hardware, network, operating system), is used for all customers (\"tenants\").[54] This means that the company does not need to support multiple versions and configurations.[16] The architectural shift from each customer running their own version of the software on their own hardware affects many aspects of the application's design and security features.[54] In a multi-tenant architecture, many resources can be used by different tenants or shared between multiple tenants.[55]Application and control planes of a SaaS productThe structure of a typical SaaS application can be separated into application and control planes.[56] SaaS products differ in how these planes are separated, which might be closely integrated or loosely coupled in an event- or message-driven model.[57] The control plane is in charge of directing the system and covers functionality such as tenant onboarding, billing, and metrics, as well as the system used by the SaaS provider to configure, manage, and operate the service.[56] Many SaaS products are offered at different levels of service for different prices, called tiering. This can also affect the architecture for both planes, although it is commonly placed in the control plane.[58] Unlike the application plane, the services in the control plane are not designed for multitenancy.[59]An example architecture where some services are shared, while others are allocated on a per-tenant basis.[60]The application plane—which varies a great deal depending on the nature of the product—implements the core functionality of the SaaS product.[59] Key design issues include separating different tenants so they cannot view or change other tenants' data or resources.[61] Except for the simplest SaaS applications, some microservices and other resources are allocated on a per-tenant basis, rather than shared between all tenants.[62] Routing functionality is necessary to direct tenant requests to the appropriate services.[60]Example SaaS deployment architecture that offers complete siloing on a premium tier and mixed microservice deployment to other tenants.[63]Some SaaS products do not share any resources between tenants—called siloing. Although this negates many of the efficiency benefits of SaaS, it makes it easier to migrate legacy software to SaaS[64] and is sometimes offered as a premium offering at a higher price.[65] Pooling all resources might make it possible to achieve higher efficiency,[66] but an outage affects all customers so availability must be prioritized to a greater extent.[67] Many systems use a combination of both approaches, pooling some resources and siloing others.[68] Other companies group multiple tenants into pods and share resources between them.[69]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"search warrant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_warrant"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"open-source licenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_license"},{"link_name":"GPL-2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallhausen201461-72"}],"text":"In the United States, constitutional search warrant laws do not protect all forms of SaaS dynamically stored data. The result is that governments may be able to request data from SaaS providers without the owner's consent.[70][71]Certain open-source licenses such as GPL-2.0 do not explicitly grant rights permitting distribution as a SaaS product in Germany.[72]","title":"Legal issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"OpenSaaS: Using Free and Open Source Software as Software-as-a-Service\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jolts.world/index.php/jolts/article/view/103"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2666-8106","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/2666-8106"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-5225-7149-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5225-7149-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-319-87693-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-87693-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4842-6703-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-6703-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-0981-4061-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-0981-4061-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-031-18344-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-18344-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-030-99191-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-99191-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-030-43198-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-43198-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-030-43198-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-43198-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-030-43198-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-43198-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-030-43198-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-43198-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781000337952","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000337952"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-80461-087-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80461-087-9"},{"link_name":"\"Agile development in the cloud computing environment: A systematic review\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950584918301319"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/j.infsof.2018.06.014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2018.06.014"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0950-5849","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0950-5849"}],"text":"Ballhausen, Miriam (2014). \"OpenSaaS: Using Free and Open Source Software as Software-as-a-Service\". International Free and Open Source Software Law Review. 6: 61–68. ISSN 2666-8106.\nBhandari, Guru Prasad; Gupta, Ratneshwer (2019). \"An Overview of Cloud and Edge Computing Architecture and Its Current Issues and Challenges\". Advancing Consumer-Centric Fog Computing Architectures. IGI Global. pp. 1–37. ISBN 978-1-5225-7149-0.\nDempsey, David; Kelliher, Felicity (2018). Industry Trends in Cloud Computing: Alternative Business-to-Business Revenue Models. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-87693-1.\nGarbis, Jason; Chapman, Jerry W. (2021). Zero Trust Security: An Enterprise Guide. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-6703-5.\nGolding, Tod (2024). Building Multi-Tenant SaaS Architectures. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-0981-4061-8.\nIbrahim, Ahmed Mamdouh Abdelfatah; Abdullah, Norris Syed; Bahari, Mahadi (2023). Software as a Service Challenges: A Systematic Literature Review. Springer International Publishing. pp. 257–272. ISBN 978-3-031-18344-7.\nKinnunen, Juha (2022). ERP as Software-as-a-Service: Factors Depicting Large Enterprises Cloud Adoption. Springer International Publishing. pp. 123–142. ISBN 978-3-030-99191-3.\nLynn, Theo; Mooney, John G.; Rosati, Pierangelo; Fox, Grace (2020). Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-43198-3.\nTallon, Paul P.; Mooney, John G.; Duddek, Marvin (2020). \"Measuring the Business Value of IT\". Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–17. ISBN 978-3-030-43198-3.\nRosati, Pierangelo; Lynn, Theo (2020). \"Measuring the Business Value of Infrastructure Migration to the Cloud\". Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer International Publishing. pp. 19–37. ISBN 978-3-030-43198-3.\nClohessy, Trevor; Acton, Thomas; Morgan, Lorraine (2020). \"The SaaS Payoff: Measuring the Business Value of Provisioning Software-as-a-Service Technologies\". Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer International Publishing. pp. 39–55. ISBN 978-3-030-43198-3.\nManvi, Sunilkumar; Shyam, Gopal (2021). Cloud Computing: Concepts and Technologies. CRC Press. p. 105. ISBN 9781000337952.\nWatt, Andy (2023). Building Modern SaaS Applications with C# And . NET: Build, Deploy, and Maintain Professional SaaS Applications. Packt. ISBN 978-1-80461-087-9.\nYounas, Muhammad; Jawawi, Dayang N. A.; Ghani, Imran; Fries, Terrence; Kazmi, Rafaqut (2018). \"Agile development in the cloud computing environment: A systematic review\". Information and Software Technology. 103: 142–158. doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2018.06.014. 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(2020). Engineering Software As a Service: An Agile Approach Using Cloud Computing. Pogo Press. ISBN 978-1-7352338-0-2.vteSoftware distributionLicenses\nBeerware\nFloating licensing\nFree and open-source\nFree\nOpen source\nFreely redistributable\nLicense-free\nProprietary\nPublic domain\nSource-available\nCompensation models\nAdware\nCommercial software\nRetail software\nCrippleware\nCrowdfunding\nFreemium\nFreeware\nPay what you want\nCareware\nDonationware\nOpen-core model\nPostcardware\nShareware\nNagware\nTrialware\nDelivery methods\nDigital distribution\nFile sharing\nOn-premises\nPre-installed\nProduct bundling\nRetail software\nSneakernet\nSoftware as a service\nDeceptive and/or illicit\nUnwanted software bundling\nMalware\nSpyware\nTrojan horse\nWorm\nRansomware\nScareware\nShovelware\nVaporware\nlist\nSoftware release life cycle\nAbandonware\nEnd-of-life\nLong-term support\nSoftware maintenance\nSoftware maintainer\nSoftware publisher\nCopy protection\nDigital rights management\nSoftware protection dongle\nLicense manager\nProduct activation\nProduct key\nSoftware copyright\nSoftware license server\nSoftware patent\nTorrent poisoningvteCloud computingBusiness models\nContent as a service\nData as a service\nDesktop as a service\nFunction as a service\nInfrastructure as a service\nIntegration platform as a service\nBackend as a service\nNetwork as a service\nPlatform as a service\nSecurity as a service\nSoftware as a service\nTechnologies\nCloud database\nCloud-native computing\nCloud storage\nCloud storage gateways\nData centers\nDew computing\nDistributed file system for cloud\nHardware virtualization\nInternet\nMobile cloud computing\nNative cloud application\nNetworking\nPersonal cloud\nSecurity\nServerless computing\nStructured storage\nVirtual appliance\nWeb APIs\nVirtual private cloud\nApplications\nBox\nDropbox\nGoogle\nWorkspace\nDrive\nHP Cloud (closed)\nIBM Cloud\nMicrosoft\nOffice 365\nOneDrive\nNextcloud\nOracle Cloud\nOwncloud\nRackspace\nSalesforce\nSeafile\nWorkday\nZoho\nPlatforms\nAlibaba Cloud\nAmazon Web Services\nAppScale\nBox\nCloudBolt\nCloud Foundry\nCocaine (PaaS)\nCreatio\nEngine Yard\nHelion\nGE Predix\nGoogle App Engine\nGreenQloud\nHeroku\nIBM Cloud\nInktank\nJelastic\nMicrosoft Azure\nMindSphere\nNetlify\nOracle Cloud\nOutSystems\nopenQRM\nOpenShift\nPythonAnywhere\nRightScale\nScalr\nForce.com\nSAP Cloud Platform\nSplunk\nVercel\nvCloud Air\nWaveMaker\nInfrastructure\nAlibaba Cloud\nAmazon Web Services\nAbiquo Enterprise Edition\nCloudStack\nCitrix Cloud\nDeft\nDigitalOcean\nEMC Atmos\nEucalyptus\nFujitsu\nGoogle Cloud Platform\nGreenButton\nGreenQloud\nIBM Cloud\niland\nJoyent\nLinode\nLunacloud\nMicrosoft Azure\nMirantis\nNetlify\nNimbula\nNimbus\nOpenIO\nOpenNebula\nOpenStack\nOracle Cloud\nOrionVM\nRackspace Cloud\nSafe Swiss Cloud\nZadara\nlibvirt\nlibguestfs\nOVirt\nVirtual Machine Manager\nWakame-vdc\nVercel\nVirtual Private Cloud OnDemand\n\n Category\n Commons","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Comparison of on-premise, IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Comparison_of_on-premise%2C_IaaS%2C_PaaS%2C_and_SaaS.png/530px-Comparison_of_on-premise%2C_IaaS%2C_PaaS%2C_and_SaaS.png"},{"image_text":"A SaaS architecture. All customers are running the same version of the software on the same platform.[41]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/SaaS_architecture.jpg/220px-SaaS_architecture.jpg"},{"image_text":"Application and control planes of a SaaS product","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Application_and_control_planes_of_a_SaaS_product.png/440px-Application_and_control_planes_of_a_SaaS_product.png"},{"image_text":"An example architecture where some services are shared, while others are allocated on a per-tenant basis.[60]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Tenant_routing_for_SaaS_example.png/440px-Tenant_routing_for_SaaS_example.png"},{"image_text":"Example SaaS deployment architecture that offers complete siloing on a premium tier and mixed microservice deployment to other tenants.[63]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Example_SaaS_deployment_architecture.png/440px-Example_SaaS_deployment_architecture.png"}]

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Retrieved 2012-02-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2010/dec/14/chrome-os-richard-stallman-warning","url_text":"\"Google's ChromeOS means losing control of the data, warns GNU founder Richard Stallman\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom","url_text":"UK"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140228133145/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2010/dec/14/chrome-os-richard-stallman-warning","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Adhikari, Richard (2010-12-15). \"Why Richard Stallman Takes No Shine to Chrome\". Linux Insider. Archived from the original on 2021-01-23. Retrieved 2015-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210123151909/http://www.technewsworld.com/story/Why-Richard-Stallman-Takes-No-Shine-to-Chrome-71469.html","url_text":"\"Why Richard Stallman Takes No Shine to Chrome\""},{"url":"http://www.technewsworld.com/story/Why-Richard-Stallman-Takes-No-Shine-to-Chrome-71469.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ballhausen, Miriam (2014). \"OpenSaaS: Using Free and Open Source Software as Software-as-a-Service\". International Free and Open Source Software Law Review. 6: 61–68. 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Software as a Service Challenges: A Systematic Literature Review. Springer International Publishing. pp. 257–272. ISBN 978-3-031-18344-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-18344-7","url_text":"978-3-031-18344-7"}]},{"reference":"Kinnunen, Juha (2022). ERP as Software-as-a-Service: Factors Depicting Large Enterprises Cloud Adoption. Springer International Publishing. pp. 123–142. ISBN 978-3-030-99191-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-99191-3","url_text":"978-3-030-99191-3"}]},{"reference":"Lynn, Theo; Mooney, John G.; Rosati, Pierangelo; Fox, Grace (2020). Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing. Springer Nature. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fax

Internet fax

["1 Purpose","2 Traditional fax","2.1 Internet fax","2.2 IP fax and IP address relay","3 Computer-based faxing","4 Mobile-based faxing","5 Internet fax servers and gateways","6 Fax using VoIP","7 Fax using email","8 See also","9 References"]

"e-fax" redirects here. For other uses, see Efax (disambiguation). Internet fax, e-fax, or online fax is the use of the internet and internet protocols to send a fax (facsimile), rather than using a standard telephone connection and a fax machine. A distinguishing feature of Internet fax, compared to other Internet communications such as email, is the ability to exchange fax messages with traditional telephone-based fax machines. Purpose Fax has no technical advantage over other means of sending information over the Internet, using technologies such as email, scanner, and graphics file formats; however, it is extremely simple to use: put the documents to be faxed in a hopper, dial a phone number, and press a button. Fax continues to be used over the telephone network at locations without computer and Internet facilities; and sometimes a fax of a document with a person's handwritten signature is a requirement for legal reasons. Faxes can be sent from electronic devices, often referred to as online faxing which allows faxes to be sent and received without the need for a physical fax machine. Online faxing is still popular as it allows the user to send and receive documents using a secure line without the worry of being hacked, as online faxing services use end-to-end encryption to protect the documents from being hacked. Fax machines have transformed into fax apps or web sites offering fax server services, but the function is still very much a viable part of business transactions. Traditional fax The traditional method for sending faxes over phone lines (PSTN) Fax machine → Phone line → Fax machine A fax machine is an electronic instrument composed of a scanner, a modem, and a printer. It transmits data in the form of pulses via a telephone line to a recipient, usually another fax machine, which then transforms these pulses into images, and prints them on paper. The traditional method requires a phone line, and only one fax can be sent or received at a time. The phone connection must not be a packet-based system in which delays can occur—a VoIP connection will not work well without special precautions (T.38-compliant equipment at both ends). Internet fax Internet fax achieves a dramatic reduction in communication costs especially when long faxes are frequently exchanged with overseas or distant offices. Since there is no telephone connection charge when sending a fax over the Internet, the cost of sending faxes is covered entirely by the fixed line Internet connection fee. The recipient can either use a fax machine or an internet fax service to receive faxes sent via the internet fax method. Hardcopy is converted to TIFF or PDF data and attached to an e-mail in MIME format. Then, taking advantage of a connection to the office LAN, data is sent via TCP/IP directly to any Internet Fax on the intranet or Internet. Because they make use of TCP/IP, Internet Faxes do not incur long-distance transmission costs and reception is verifiable. IP fax and IP address relay IP fax is frequently confused with Internet fax, though IP fax transmits data over an office intranet from a networked multi-functional device to the IP address of another. Taking advantage of an established LAN/WAN infrastructure, IP fax reduces or eliminates costly connection and transmission fees. T.38 is a commonly used and recommended transmission standard for IP fax. Also, IP fax does not require a dedicated server or make use of the office mail server. IP Address Relay forwards to a multi-functional device for relaying to a local G3 fax machine. Computer-based faxing As modems came into wider use with personal computers, the computer was used to send faxes directly. Instead of first printing a hard copy to be then sent via fax machine, a document could now be printed directly to the software fax, then sent via the computer's modem. Receiving faxes was accomplished similarly. Computer → Phone line → Fax machine Fax machine → Phone line → Computer A disadvantage of receiving faxes through the computer is that the computer has to be turned on and running the fax software to receive any faxes. It also means that the document is no longer readable by computer applications, unless optical character recognition methods are used to read the fax image. Note: This method is distinct from Internet faxing as the information is sent directly over the telephone network, not over the Internet. This helps to communicate from remote places to the fax machine's location. Mobile-based faxing In this method, smartphones are used to send and receive fax without the need to have any landline phone or any extra hardware. There are several fax applications (for both Android and iOS) that handle the mobile-based faxing. Users must install an app on their smartphones or smartwatches and have an active subscription to an online fax service provider. The phone's camera is used as a scanner to scan documents or the user uploads documents to the service from the device which the service sends as a fax. Some providers also offer the option to get a dedicated fax number and receive faxes on this number. Internet fax servers and gateways The Internet has enabled the development of several other methods of sending and receiving a fax. The more common method is an extension of computer-based faxing, and involves using a fax server/gateway to the Internet to convert documents between faxes and emails. The process is often referred to as "fax to mail" or "mail to fax". This technology offers the advantage of dispensing with the machine as well as the additional telephone line, and because of this, has started to replace the traditional fax machine. Reception: Fax machine → Phone line → Fax gateway → email message (over Internet) → computer email account A fax is sent via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to the fax server, which receives the fax and converts it into PDF or TIFF format, according to the instructions of the user. The processed file is then transmitted to the Web server, which sends it as an email containing the fax as an attached file, and sometimes sends a message reporting delivery to a mobile phone. Sending: Computer → Internet → fax gateway → phone line → fax machine The user connects to the supplier Web site, specifies the receiving fax number, and uploads the document to send. The document is usually converted to PDF or TIFF format and sent by the Web server to the fax server, which then transmits it to the receiving fax machine via the telephone network. The sender usually receives confirmation that transmission was successful, either in the web interface or by email. An Internet fax service allows faxes to be sent from a computer via an Internet connection, thanks to a Web interface usually available on the supplier's Web site. This technology has many advantages: No fax machine - no maintenance, no paper, toner expenditure, possible repairs, etc. Mobility - All actions are done on the Web interface; the service is thus available from any computer connected to Internet, everywhere in the world. Confidentiality - The faxes are sent to the recipient's email account, which may be more private than a fax machine used by several people. No installation of software or hardware required - the Web interface is used. No need for a telephone line for fax use. Several faxes can be sent or received simultaneously, and faxes can be received while the computer is switched off. Early email-to-fax services such as The Phone Company and Digital Chicken were developed in the mid-1990s. However after the development of open source IP PBX systems, it became common to set up fully software-based email to fax or Web to fax gateways. like Asterisk (PBX) and ICTFax. Fax using VoIP See also: T.38 Making phone calls over the Internet (Voice over Internet Protocol, or VoIP) has become increasingly popular. Compressing fax signals is different from compressing voice signals, so a new standard (T.38) has been created for this. Using a (sending) VoIP adapter and (receiving) gateway which are both T.38 compliant, most fax machines can be plugged into the VoIP adapter in the same way as to a regular phone line. Not all fax equipment claiming T.38 compliance works reliably. In particular communicating with older fax machines is problematic. Fax machine → VoIP adapter → VoIP gateway → Phone line → Fax machine (or vice versa) As with regular faxes, only one fax can be sent or received at a time. Fax using email See also: T.37 While the needs of computer-to-fax communications are well covered, the simplicity of quickly faxing a handwritten document combined with the advantages of email are not. "iFax" (T.37) was designed for fax machines to directly communicate via email. Faxes are sent as email attachments in a TIFF-F format. iFax machine → email message (over Internet) → computer email account iFax machine → email message (over Internet) → iFax machine (using email address) A new fax machine (supporting iFax/T.37) is required, as well as a known email address for the sending and receiving machines. This has limited the standard's use, though a system for looking up a fax's email address based on its phone number is under development. To work with existing fax machines, all iFax machines support standard faxing (requiring a regular phone line). Alternatively, an iFax can be used in conjunction with a fax gateway. iFax machine → email message (over Internet) → Fax gateway → Phone line → traditional Fax machine (or vice versa) See also Fax Fax server Registered fax References ^ "It's 2015. Why are people still using fax? - Crosby Fax". Crosby Fax. 2015-04-07. Retrieved 2016-11-09. ^ Gonzalez, Deborah (2014-01-01), Gonzalez, Deborah (ed.), "Chapter 1 - Decision to Travel vs. Digital Alternatives", Online Security for the Business Traveler, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 1–17, ISBN 978-0-12-800069-4, retrieved 2023-06-19 ^ "Best Online Fax Service? Top 6 Internet Faxing Services (March 2018)". TheTechReviewer.com. 2018-02-07. Archived from the original on 2020-07-13. Retrieved 2018-03-18. ^ "Online Fax Guide & Internet Fax Reviews". Fax Authority. Archived from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2012. ^ "Asterisk for Fax". 25 September 2005. Archived from the original on 2017-08-30. Retrieved 2017-08-30. ^ "Faxing over IP networks". Soft-Switch.org. Archived from the original on 14 July 2008. Retrieved 9 October 2014.

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A distinguishing feature of Internet fax, compared to other Internet communications such as email, is the ability to exchange fax messages with traditional telephone-based fax machines.","title":"Internet fax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"scanner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scanner"},{"link_name":"graphics file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_file"},{"link_name":"hopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chute_(gravity)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature"},{"link_name":"end-to-end encryption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-to-end_encryption"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Fax has no technical advantage over other means of sending information over the Internet, using technologies such as email, scanner, and graphics file formats; however, it is extremely simple to use: put the documents to be faxed in a hopper, dial a phone number, and press a button.[1] Fax continues to be used over the telephone network at locations without computer and Internet facilities; and sometimes a fax of a document with a person's handwritten signature is a requirement for legal reasons. Faxes can be sent from electronic devices, often referred to as online faxing which allows faxes to be sent and received without the need for a physical fax machine. Online faxing is still popular as it allows the user to send and receive documents using a secure line without the worry of being hacked, as online faxing services use end-to-end encryption to protect the documents from being hacked. Fax machines have transformed into fax apps or web sites offering fax server services, but the function is still very much a viable part of business transactions.[2]","title":"Purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phone lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_line"},{"link_name":"PSTN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSTN"},{"link_name":"VoIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP"},{"link_name":"T.38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.38"}],"text":"The traditional method for sending faxes over phone lines (PSTN)Fax machine → Phone line → Fax machineA fax machine is an electronic instrument composed of a scanner, a modem, and a printer. It transmits data in the form of pulses via a telephone line to a recipient, usually another fax machine, which then transforms these pulses into images, and prints them on paper.The traditional method requires a phone line, and only one fax can be sent or received at a time. The phone connection must not be a packet-based system in which delays can occur—a VoIP connection will not work well without special precautions (T.38-compliant equipment at both ends).","title":"Traditional fax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"TIFF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIFF"},{"link_name":"PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF"},{"link_name":"e-mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail"},{"link_name":"MIME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIME"},{"link_name":"TCP/IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP"}],"sub_title":"Internet fax","text":"Internet fax achieves a dramatic reduction in communication costs especially when long faxes are frequently exchanged with overseas or distant offices.[3]Since there is no telephone connection charge when sending a fax over the Internet, the cost of sending faxes is covered entirely by the fixed line Internet connection fee. The recipient can either use a fax machine or an internet fax service to receive faxes sent via the internet fax method.Hardcopy is converted to TIFF or PDF data and attached to an e-mail in MIME format. Then, taking advantage of a connection to the office LAN, data is sent via TCP/IP directly to any Internet Fax on the intranet or Internet. Because they make use of TCP/IP, Internet Faxes do not incur long-distance transmission costs and reception is verifiable.","title":"Traditional fax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"intranet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intranet"},{"link_name":"IP address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"},{"link_name":"LAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network"},{"link_name":"WAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network"},{"link_name":"T.38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.38"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"IP fax and IP address relay","text":"IP fax is frequently confused with Internet fax, though IP fax transmits data over an office intranet from a networked multi-functional device to the IP address of another. Taking advantage of an established LAN/WAN infrastructure, IP fax reduces or eliminates costly connection and transmission fees. T.38 is a commonly used and recommended transmission standard for IP fax.[4]Also, IP fax does not require a dedicated server or make use of the office mail server. IP Address Relay forwards to a multi-functional device for relaying to a local G3 fax machine.","title":"Traditional fax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"optical character recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_character_recognition"}],"text":"As modems came into wider use with personal computers, the computer was used to send faxes directly. Instead of first printing a hard copy to be then sent via fax machine, a document could now be printed directly to the software fax, then sent via the computer's modem. Receiving faxes was accomplished similarly.Computer → Phone line → Fax machine\nFax machine → Phone line → ComputerA disadvantage of receiving faxes through the computer is that the computer has to be turned on and running the fax software to receive any faxes. It also means that the document is no longer readable by computer applications, unless optical character recognition methods are used to read the fax image.\nNote: This method is distinct from Internet faxing as the information is sent directly over the telephone network, not over the Internet.\nThis helps to communicate from remote places to the fax machine's location.","title":"Computer-based faxing"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In this method, smartphones are used to send and receive fax without the need to have any landline phone or any extra hardware. There are several fax applications (for both Android and iOS) that handle the mobile-based faxing.Users must install an app on their smartphones or smartwatches and have an active subscription to an online fax service provider. The phone's camera is used as a scanner to scan documents or the user uploads documents to the service from the device which the service sends as a fax. Some providers also offer the option to get a dedicated fax number and receive faxes on this number.","title":"Mobile-based faxing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fax server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax_server#Public_fax_servers_(%22Internet_faxing%22)"},{"link_name":"documents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documents"},{"link_name":"fax server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax_server"},{"link_name":"PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF"},{"link_name":"TIFF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIFF"},{"link_name":"Web server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"Web server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"fax server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax_server"},{"link_name":"Web site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website"},{"link_name":"Digital Chicken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Chicken"},{"link_name":"IP PBX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_PBX"},{"link_name":"Asterisk (PBX)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterisk_(PBX)"},{"link_name":"ICTFax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ICTFax&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The Internet has enabled the development of several other methods of sending and receiving a fax. The more common method is an extension of computer-based faxing, and involves using a fax server/gateway to the Internet to convert documents between faxes and emails. The process is often referred to as \"fax to mail\" or \"mail to fax\".\nThis technology offers the advantage of dispensing with the machine as well as the additional telephone line, and because of this, has started to replace the traditional fax machine.Reception:Fax machine → Phone line → Fax gateway → email message (over Internet) → computer email accountA fax is sent via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to the fax server, which receives the fax and converts it into PDF or TIFF format, according to the instructions of the user. The processed file is then transmitted to the Web server, which sends it as an email containing the fax as an attached file, and sometimes sends a message reporting delivery to a mobile phone.Sending:Computer → Internet → fax gateway → phone line → fax machineThe user connects to the supplier Web site, specifies the receiving fax number, and uploads the document to send. The document is usually converted to PDF or TIFF format and sent by the Web server to the fax server, which then transmits it to the receiving fax machine via the telephone network. The sender usually receives confirmation that transmission was successful, either in the web interface or by email.An Internet fax service allows faxes to be sent from a computer via an Internet connection, thanks to a Web interface usually available on the supplier's Web site. This technology has many advantages:No fax machine - no maintenance, no paper, toner expenditure, possible repairs, etc.\nMobility - All actions are done on the Web interface; the service is thus available from any computer connected to Internet, everywhere in the world.\nConfidentiality - The faxes are sent to the recipient's email account, which may be more private than a fax machine used by several people.\nNo installation of software or hardware required - the Web interface is used.\nNo need for a telephone line for fax use.\nSeveral faxes can be sent or received simultaneously, and faxes can be received while the computer is switched off.Early email-to-fax services such as The Phone Company and Digital Chicken were developed in the mid-1990s. However after the development of open source IP PBX systems, it became common to set up fully software-based email to fax or Web to fax gateways. like Asterisk (PBX) and ICTFax.[5]","title":"Internet fax servers and gateways"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"T.38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.38"},{"link_name":"VoIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP"},{"link_name":"T.38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.38"},{"link_name":"T.38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.38"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"See also: T.38Making phone calls over the Internet (Voice over Internet Protocol, or VoIP) has become increasingly popular. Compressing fax signals is different from compressing voice signals, so a new standard (T.38) has been created for this. Using a (sending) VoIP adapter and (receiving) gateway which are both T.38 compliant, most fax machines can be plugged into the VoIP adapter in the same way as to a regular phone line. Not all fax equipment claiming T.38 compliance works reliably. In particular communicating with older fax machines is problematic.[6]Fax machine → VoIP adapter → VoIP gateway → Phone line → Fax machine (or vice versa)As with regular faxes, only one fax can be sent or received at a time.","title":"Fax using VoIP"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"T.37","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.37"},{"link_name":"T.37","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.37"},{"link_name":"email attachments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_attachment"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"See also: T.37While the needs of computer-to-fax communications are well covered, the simplicity of quickly faxing a handwritten document combined with the advantages of email are not.\"iFax\" (T.37) was designed for fax machines to directly communicate via email. Faxes are sent as email attachments in a TIFF-F format.iFax machine → email message (over Internet) → computer email account\niFax machine → email message (over Internet) → iFax machine (using email address)A new fax machine (supporting iFax/T.37) is required, as well as a known email address for the sending and receiving machines. This has limited the standard's use, though a system for looking up a fax's email address based on its phone number is under development.[citation needed]To work with existing fax machines, all iFax machines support standard faxing (requiring a regular phone line). Alternatively, an iFax can be used in conjunction with a fax gateway.iFax machine → email message (over Internet) → Fax gateway → Phone line → traditional Fax machine (or vice versa)","title":"Fax using email"}]

[]

[{"title":"Fax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax"},{"title":"Fax server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax_server"},{"title":"Registered fax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registered_fax"}]

[{"reference":"\"It's 2015. Why are people still using fax? - Crosby Fax\". Crosby Fax. 2015-04-07. Retrieved 2016-11-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.crosbyfax.com/blog/2015/04/07/its-2015-why-are-people-still-using-fax/","url_text":"\"It's 2015. Why are people still using fax? - Crosby Fax\""}]},{"reference":"Gonzalez, Deborah (2014-01-01), Gonzalez, Deborah (ed.), \"Chapter 1 - Decision to Travel vs. Digital Alternatives\", Online Security for the Business Traveler, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 1–17, ISBN 978-0-12-800069-4, retrieved 2023-06-19","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012800069400001X","url_text":"\"Chapter 1 - Decision to Travel vs. Digital Alternatives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-800069-4","url_text":"978-0-12-800069-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Best Online Fax Service? Top 6 Internet Faxing Services (March 2018)\". TheTechReviewer.com. 2018-02-07. Archived from the original on 2020-07-13. Retrieved 2018-03-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://thetechreviewer.com/tech-tips/best-online-fax-service/","url_text":"\"Best Online Fax Service? Top 6 Internet Faxing Services (March 2018)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200713080238/https://thetechreviewer.com/tech-tips/best-online-fax-service/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Online Fax Guide & Internet Fax Reviews\". Fax Authority. Archived from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://faxauthority.com/online-fax/","url_text":"\"Online Fax Guide & Internet Fax Reviews\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120826073520/http://faxauthority.com/online-fax/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Asterisk for Fax\". 25 September 2005. Archived from the original on 2017-08-30. Retrieved 2017-08-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.voip-info.org/wiki/view/Asterisk+fax","url_text":"\"Asterisk for Fax\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170830150836/https://www.voip-info.org/wiki/view/Asterisk+fax","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Faxing over IP networks\". Soft-Switch.org. Archived from the original on 14 July 2008. Retrieved 9 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soft-switch.org/foip.html","url_text":"\"Faxing over IP networks\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080714025543/http://www.soft-switch.org/foip.html","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Jackson_(software)

Charlie Jackson (software)

["1 Business life","1.1 Startups","1.2 Investments","1.3 Other Businesses","2 Early life and education","3 Sports","4 References","5 External links"]

American computer software entrepreneur Charlie Jackson is an American computer software entrepreneur who founded Silicon Beach Software in 1984 and co-founded FutureWave Software in 1993. FutureWave created the first version of what is now Adobe Flash. He was an early investor in Wired magazine, Outpost.com, Streamload and Angelic Pictures. Jackson is currently founder/CEO of Silicon Beach Software, which develops and publishes application software for Windows 10. Business life Startups Jackson founded Silicon Beach Software in 1984. The company developed and published Macintosh software. It was best known for its graphics editors SuperPaint, Digital Darkroom and the multimedia authoring application SuperCard. Silicon Beach was acquired by Aldus Corporation in 1990. That year he was named Entrepreneur of the Year in San Diego for High Tech. In 1984, Jackson also founded the San Diego Macintosh User Group. Jackson co-founded FutureWave Software with Jonathan Gay in 1993. FutureWave developed and published FutureSplash Animator. Macromedia acquired FutureWave in 1996 and renamed the product Flash 1.0, which in turn became Adobe Flash when Macromedia was acquired by Adobe Systems. Since late 2009, Jackson has been a mentor for San Diego sessions of the Founder Institute. In 2015, using the name Silicon Beach Software again, he founded a company to develop graphics software for Windows 10. The company's first product is SaviDraw. Investments Although no longer an active seed investor, Jackson made some notable investments in the 1990s. In 1993, he and Nicholas Negroponte were the two seed investors in Wired magazine. In 1994, Jackson loaned Wired Ventures the money that allowed the company to start up HotWired, the first commercial web magazine. Jackson was the seed investor in Outpost.com, an early online reseller of computer equipment. Outpost.com gained some notoriety for its TV ads in which gerbils were shot out of a cannon and wolves attacked a high school marching band. Jackson was the first investor in Angelic Pictures, Inc. Jackson was the first investor in Streamload, an online media storage and retrieval company that was subsequently renamed Nirvanix and he was the first investor in Pacific Coast Software, publisher of WebCatalog, an e-commerce package. Other Businesses Jackson is a principal in Angelic Pictures, Inc., a movie production company. He has been an executive producer of Angelic's movies, The Month of August, Hole in One: American Pie Plays Golf, Beach Bar, Music High, La Migra, Fearless and Space Samurai: Oasis. Jackson founded Silicon Beach Software in 2015. It is a developer/publisher of multimedia software for Windows 10. Jackson owned two small businesses in San Diego, CA. Epic Volleyball Club was a junior volleyball organization which trained approximately 400 athletes annually. VolleyHut.com was an online reseller of volleyball equipment. In 2000, VolleyHut challenged Amazon.com on its use of patents. Both businesses were shut down after pandemic lockdowns. Early life and education Jackson (born 1948) grew up in Imperial Beach, California. As a teenager, he also spent three years in Istanbul, Turkey, where he earned a B.E.P.C. degree from a French school. Jackson graduated from Mar Vista High School in Imperial Beach in 1967, and was later inducted into the inaugural class of the Sweetwater Union High School District Hall of Fame in 2001. He earned a BA degree in Near Eastern Studies from UCLA in 1972, a master's degree in linguistics from San Diego State in 1978 and a C.Phil. in linguistics from UCSD in 1980. Jackson was an active duty Marine Corps officer from 1972 to 1976 and Reserve officer from 1976 to 1989. Sports Jackson's sporting background is varied and extensive. While in Istanbul, he won the county youth championship in pole vault. In high school, he competed in cross country and track and field. At UCLA, Jackson was a letter winner in soccer and lightweight rowing. His senior year he was co-captain of the lightweight rowing team. In the Marine Corps, Jackson became a competitive rifle and pistol shooter, earning the Marine Corps' highest award for rifle shooting, the Distinguished badge. In 1978, he was the High Marine at the National Championships for Service Rifle, held at Camp Perry, Ohio. In the '90s, Jackson returned to competitive shooting. In 1993 and 1994, he earned a spot on the US National Team in Rapid Fire Pistol and competed internationally. In 1996, his three-man team won the U.S. National Championship in Rapid Fire Pistol. In 1994, Jackson attended the World Masters Games in Brisbane, Australia, where over 24,000 athletes competed for World Championship titles in their respective age groups. In the 45 - 49 age group, Jackson won Gold medals in Rapid Fire Pistol and 4-man Beach Volleyball and a Silver medal in 2-man Beach Volleyball. From 1997 to 2000, Jackson served on the board of USA Volleyball, chairing the Olympic Beach Volleyball Committee. Jackson was a member of the 2000 U.S. Olympic Team in the capacity of Assistant Team Leader, Beach Volleyball. In 2000 and 2001, Jackson owned and operated Beach Volleyball America (BVA), a U.S. professional beach volleyball tour. From 1999 to 2021, Jackson owned and operated Epic Volleyball Club, a junior club in the San Diego area. References ^ MACROMEDIA FLASH BACK, Digital Archaeology ^ Grandmasters of Flash: An Interview with the Creators of Flash, Cold Hard Flash ^ Founder Institute Mentors in San Diego ^ Wolf, Gary. Wired-A Romance. Random House, 2003, p. 51. ^ Mary A.C. Fallon (July 31, 2008). "Streamload/MediaMax/TheLinkup death spiral dogs Nirvanix". DEMO.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2008. ^ Smith, James A. (August 21, 1991). "Sailing at Southwestern". The Star-News. p. 11. Retrieved October 20, 2023 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Mallgren, Laura (November 2, 2001). "Sweetwater district names 16 graduates to first hall of fame". The Star-News. p. 1. Retrieved October 19, 2023 – via Newspapers.com. ^ United States Shooting Team 1994 Media Guide. p. 45, 132. External links Silicon Beach Software (current) The Computer Chronicles: TV Coverage of MacWorld Boston 1988 including Silicon Beach Software's Charlie Jackson San Diego Macintosh User Group Wired.com Angelic Pictures Charlie Jackson at IMDb Founder Institute

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Silicon Beach Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Beach_Software"},{"link_name":"FutureWave Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FutureWave_Software"},{"link_name":"Adobe Flash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Flash"},{"link_name":"Wired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Outpost.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outpost.com"},{"link_name":"Streamload","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamload"}],"text":"Charlie Jackson is an American computer software entrepreneur who founded Silicon Beach Software in 1984 and co-founded FutureWave Software in 1993. FutureWave created the first version of what is now Adobe Flash. He was an early investor in Wired magazine, Outpost.com, Streamload and Angelic Pictures. Jackson is currently founder/CEO of Silicon Beach Software, which develops and publishes application software for Windows 10.","title":"Charlie Jackson (software)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Business life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Silicon Beach Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Beach_Software"},{"link_name":"SuperPaint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperPaint_(Macintosh)"},{"link_name":"Digital Darkroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Darkroom"},{"link_name":"SuperCard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperCard"},{"link_name":"Aldus Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldus_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060614150043/http://eoyhof.ey.com/"},{"link_name":"Macintosh User Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh_User_Group"},{"link_name":"FutureWave Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FutureWave_Software"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Gay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Gay"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mfb-1"},{"link_name":"FutureSplash Animator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FutureSplash_Animator"},{"link_name":"Macromedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromedia"},{"link_name":"Adobe Flash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Flash"},{"link_name":"Adobe Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Systems"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hs-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Startups","text":"Jackson founded Silicon Beach Software in 1984. The company developed and published Macintosh software. It was best known for its graphics editors SuperPaint, Digital Darkroom and the multimedia authoring application SuperCard. Silicon Beach was acquired by Aldus Corporation in 1990. That year he was named Entrepreneur of the Year in San Diego for High Tech.[1]In 1984, Jackson also founded the San Diego Macintosh User Group.Jackson co-founded FutureWave Software with Jonathan Gay in 1993.[1] FutureWave developed and published FutureSplash Animator. Macromedia acquired FutureWave in 1996 and renamed the product Flash 1.0, which in turn became Adobe Flash when Macromedia was acquired by Adobe Systems.[2]Since late 2009, Jackson has been a mentor for San Diego sessions of the Founder Institute.[3]In 2015, using the name Silicon Beach Software again, he founded a company to develop graphics software for Windows 10. The company's first product is SaviDraw.","title":"Business life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nicholas Negroponte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Negroponte"},{"link_name":"Wired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"HotWired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HotWired"},{"link_name":"Outpost.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outpost.com"},{"link_name":"gerbils were shot out of a cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJlIBSzofM4"},{"link_name":"wolves attacked a high school marching band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=9cmT8M_67ow"},{"link_name":"Streamload","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamload"},{"link_name":"Nirvanix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvanix"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dogs-5"}],"sub_title":"Investments","text":"Although no longer an active seed investor, Jackson made some notable investments in the 1990s. In 1993, he and Nicholas Negroponte were the two seed investors in Wired magazine.[4] In 1994, Jackson loaned Wired Ventures the money that allowed the company to start up HotWired, the first commercial web magazine.Jackson was the seed investor in Outpost.com, an early online reseller of computer equipment. Outpost.com gained some notoriety for its TV ads in which gerbils were shot out of a cannon and wolves attacked a high school marching band.Jackson was the first investor in Angelic Pictures, Inc.Jackson was the first investor in Streamload, an online media storage and retrieval company that was subsequently renamed Nirvanix and he was the first investor in Pacific Coast Software, publisher of WebCatalog, an e-commerce package.[5]","title":"Business life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.spoke.com/people/charlie-jackson-3e1429c09e597c1003c245e5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.s-beach.com/"},{"link_name":"VolleyHut.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VolleyHut.com"},{"link_name":"Amazon.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon.com#Controversies"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.linuxjournal.com/node/5231"}],"sub_title":"Other Businesses","text":"Jackson is a principal in Angelic Pictures, Inc., a movie production company. He has been an executive producer of Angelic's movies, The Month of August, Hole in One: American Pie Plays Golf, Beach Bar, Music High, La Migra, Fearless and Space Samurai: Oasis.[2]Jackson founded Silicon Beach Software in 2015. It is a developer/publisher of multimedia software for Windows 10.[3]Jackson owned two small businesses in San Diego, CA. Epic Volleyball Club was a junior volleyball organization which trained approximately 400 athletes annually. VolleyHut.com was an online reseller of volleyball equipment. In 2000, VolleyHut challenged Amazon.com on its use of patents.[4] Both businesses were shut down after pandemic lockdowns.","title":"Business life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Imperial Beach, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Beach,_California"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"Mar Vista High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar_Vista_High_School"},{"link_name":"Sweetwater Union High School District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweetwater_Union_High_School_District"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"UCLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"San Diego State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_State"},{"link_name":"UCSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCSD"},{"link_name":"Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"}],"text":"Jackson (born 1948) grew up in Imperial Beach, California. As a teenager, he also spent three years in Istanbul, Turkey, where he earned a B.E.P.C. degree from a French school. Jackson graduated from Mar Vista High School in Imperial Beach in 1967, and was later inducted into the inaugural class of the Sweetwater Union High School District Hall of Fame in 2001.[6][7] He earned a BA degree in Near Eastern Studies from UCLA in 1972, a master's degree in linguistics from San Diego State in 1978 and a C.Phil. in linguistics from UCSD in 1980.Jackson was an active duty Marine Corps officer from 1972 to 1976 and Reserve officer from 1976 to 1989.","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UCLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Bruins"},{"link_name":"soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soccer"},{"link_name":"lightweight rowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_rowing"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.geol.ucsb.edu/faculty/sylvester/Legendary_Soccer_Coach/Teams.html"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20150615023153/http://www.marinedsa.com/marinedsa_008.htm"},{"link_name":"Camp Perry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Perry"},{"link_name":"Rapid Fire Pistol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_Fire_Pistol"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"World Masters Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Masters_Games"},{"link_name":"Beach Volleyball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach_Volleyball"},{"link_name":"USA Volleyball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Volleyball"},{"link_name":"Beach Volleyball America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beach_Volleyball_America&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//articles.sun-sentinel.com/2001-03-01/sports/0103010161_1_beach-volleyball-america-fivb-world-tour-usa-volleyball"}],"text":"Jackson's sporting background is varied and extensive. While in Istanbul, he won the county youth championship in pole vault. In high school, he competed in cross country and track and field.At UCLA, Jackson was a letter winner in soccer and lightweight rowing.[5] His senior year he was co-captain of the lightweight rowing team.In the Marine Corps, Jackson became a competitive rifle and pistol shooter, earning the Marine Corps' highest award for rifle shooting, the Distinguished badge.[6] In 1978, he was the High Marine at the National Championships for Service Rifle, held at Camp Perry, Ohio.In the '90s, Jackson returned to competitive shooting. In 1993 and 1994, he earned a spot on the US National Team in Rapid Fire Pistol and competed internationally.[8] In 1996, his three-man team won the U.S. National Championship in Rapid Fire Pistol.In 1994, Jackson attended the World Masters Games in Brisbane, Australia, where over 24,000 athletes competed for World Championship titles in their respective age groups. In the 45 - 49 age group, Jackson won Gold medals in Rapid Fire Pistol and 4-man Beach Volleyball and a Silver medal in 2-man Beach Volleyball.From 1997 to 2000, Jackson served on the board of USA Volleyball, chairing the Olympic Beach Volleyball Committee. Jackson was a member of the 2000 U.S. Olympic Team in the capacity of Assistant Team Leader, Beach Volleyball.In 2000 and 2001, Jackson owned and operated Beach Volleyball America (BVA), a U.S. professional beach volleyball tour.[7]From 1999 to 2021, Jackson owned and operated Epic Volleyball Club, a junior club in the San Diego area.","title":"Sports"}]

[]

[{"reference":"Mary A.C. Fallon (July 31, 2008). \"Streamload/MediaMax/TheLinkup death spiral dogs Nirvanix\". DEMO.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080815062824/http://www.demo.com/community/?q=node%2F160512","url_text":"\"Streamload/MediaMax/TheLinkup death spiral dogs Nirvanix\""},{"url":"http://www.demo.com/community/?q=node/160512","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Smith, James A. (August 21, 1991). \"Sailing at Southwestern\". The Star-News. p. 11. Retrieved October 20, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://newspapers.com/image/132858921/?clipping_id=133772021","url_text":"\"Sailing at Southwestern\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Star-News_(Chula_Vista,_California)","url_text":"The Star-News"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"Mallgren, Laura (November 2, 2001). \"Sweetwater district names 16 graduates to first hall of fame\". The Star-News. p. 1. Retrieved October 19, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://newspapers.com/image/132669013/?clipping_id=133749508","url_text":"\"Sweetwater district names 16 graduates to first hall of fame\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Star-News_(Chula_Vista,_California)","url_text":"The Star-News"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta_XML_Binding

Jakarta XML Binding

["1 Usage","2 Default data type bindings","3 Versions","4 See also","5 References","6 External links","6.1 Articles"]

Java EE software framework Jakarta XML BindingRepositorygithub.com/eclipse-ee4j/jaxb-ri Written inJavaWebsiteprojects.eclipse.org/projects/ee4j.jaxb-impl Jakarta XML Binding (JAXB; formerly Java Architecture for XML Binding) is a software framework that allows Java EE developers to map Java classes to XML representations. JAXB provides two main features: the ability to marshal Java objects into XML and the inverse, i.e. to unmarshal XML back into Java objects. In other words, JAXB allows storing and retrieving data in memory in any XML format, without the need to implement a specific set of XML loading and saving routines for the program's class structure. It is similar to xsd.exe and XmlSerializer in the .NET Framework. JAXB is particularly useful when the specification is complex and changing. In such a case, regularly changing the XML Schema definitions to keep them synchronised with the Java definitions can be time-consuming and error-prone. JAXB is one of the APIs in the Java EE platform (formerly Java EE), part of the Java Web Services Development Pack (JWSDP), and one of the foundations for WSIT. It was also part of the Java SE platform (in version Java SE 6–10). As of Java SE 11, JAXB was removed. For details, see JEP 320. JAXB 1.0 was released in 2003, having been developed under the Java Community Process as JSR 31. In 2006 JAXB 2.0 was released under JSR 222 and Maintenance Release 2 released in December 2009. Reference implementations for these specifications were available under the CDDL open source license at java.net. Usage The tool "xjc" can be used to convert XML Schema and other schema file types (as of Java 1.6, RELAX NG, XML DTD, and WSDL are supported experimentally) to class representations. Classes are marked up using annotations from javax.xml.bind.annotation.* namespace, for example, @XmlRootElement and @XmlElement. XML list sequences are represented by attributes of type java.util.List. Marshallers and Unmarshallers are created through an instance of JAXBContext. In addition, JAXB includes a "schemagen" tool that can essentially perform the inverse of "xjc", creating an XML Schema from a set of annotated classes. Default data type bindings The table below lists the mappings of XML Schema (XSD) data types to Java data types in JAXB. XML Schema Type Java Data Type xsd:string java.lang.String xsd:integer java.math.BigInteger xsd:positiveInteger java.math.BigInteger xsd:int int xsd:long long xsd:short short xsd:decimal java.math.BigDecimal xsd:float float xsd:double double xsd:boolean boolean xsd:byte byte xsd:QName javax.xml.namespace.QName xsd:dateTime javax.xml.datatype.XMLGregorianCalendar xsd:base64Binary byte xsd:hexBinary byte xsd:unsignedInt long xsd:unsignedShort int xsd:unsignedByte short xsd:unsignedLong java.math.BigDecimal xsd:time javax.xml.datatype.XMLGregorianCalendar xsd:date javax.xml.datatype.XMLGregorianCalendar xsd:g javax.xml.datatype.XMLGregorianCalendar xsd:anySimpleType java.lang.Object xsd:anySimpleType java.lang.String xsd:duration javax.xml.datatype.Duration xsd:NOTATION javax.xml.namespace.QName Versions Java SE 9: JAXB 2.3.0 (in module java.xml.bind; this module is marked as deprecated ) Java SE 8: JAXB 2.2.8 Java SE 7: JAXB 2.2.3 (JSR 222, maintenance release 2) Java SE 6: JAXB 2.0 (JSR 222) See also XML data binding JiBX XMLBeans – a similar and complementary technology to JAXB from Apache Software Foundation TopLink – an object to relational and object to XML mapper from Oracle that supports JAXB 1.0 EclipseLink MOXy – open source implementation of JAXB and object XML mapping services under the Eclipse Foundation Liquid XML Studio – Commercial tool for XML data binding code generation References ^ "JSRs: Java Specification Requests. JSR 31: XML Data Binding Specification". Retrieved 2011-02-15. ^ "JSRs: Java Specification Requests. JSR 222: Java Architecture for XML Binding (JAXB) 2.0". Retrieved 2011-02-15. ^ "xjc - Java Architecture for XML Binding". Retrieved 2011-02-15. ^ "Using JAXB Data Binding: Standard Data Type Mapping". ^ for xsd:element of this type ^ for xsd:attribute of this type ^ "Which JAXB RI is included in which JDK?". ^ "Deprecated module java.xml.bind". ^ "Jaxb 2.2.8 (JDK 8)". Retrieved 2015-03-01. ^ "Java SE 7: Java XML Technology Enhancements". Retrieved 2012-03-21. ^ "Java SE 6: Features and Enhancements". Retrieved 2012-03-21. External links Official website Reference Implementation on Project GlassFish Previous JAXB home page Original JAXB home page Archived 2005-07-09 at the Wayback Machine A JAXB Tutorial by Wolfgang Laun JSR 222 (JAXB 2.0) JSR 31 (JAXB 1.0) The Java EE 5 Tutorial - Binding between XML Schema and Java Classes JAXB chapter of the Java EE 5 Tutorial JAXB Wizard Archived 2012-05-31 at the Wayback Machine JAXB Tutorials Articles JAXB 2.0 offers improved XML binding in Java XML and Java technologies: Data binding, Part 2: Performance vteJakarta EE specificationsWeb app Servlet Pages Expression Language JSTL Faces Facelets WebSocket Enterprise app Dependency injection Bean Validation Enterprise Beans JPA JMS JTA Mail JCA Annotations Web services JAX-RS JAX-WS SOAP with Attachments Web Services Metadata JAXM Other JAXB JAF Removed JAXR JAX-RPC Management Related JAXP JDBC JMX Streaming API for XML

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XML list sequences are represented by attributes of type java.util.List. 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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_object

Free object

["1 Definition","2 Examples","2.1 General case","3 Free universal algebras","4 Free functor","4.1 Existence","4.2 General case","5 List of free objects","6 See also","7 Notes","8 External links"]

Left adjoint to a forgetful functor to sets In mathematics, the idea of a free object is one of the basic concepts of abstract algebra. Informally, a free object over a set A can be thought of as being a "generic" algebraic structure over A: the only equations that hold between elements of the free object are those that follow from the defining axioms of the algebraic structure. Examples include free groups, tensor algebras, or free lattices. The concept is a part of universal algebra, in the sense that it relates to all types of algebraic structure (with finitary operations). It also has a formulation in terms of category theory, although this is in yet more abstract terms. Definition Free objects are the direct generalization to categories of the notion of basis in a vector space. A linear function u : E1 → E2 between vector spaces is entirely determined by its values on a basis of the vector space E1. The following definition translates this to any category. A concrete category is a category that is equipped with a faithful functor to Set, the category of sets. Let C be a concrete category with a faithful functor U : C → Set. Let X be a set (that is, an object in Set), which will be the basis of the free object to be defined. A free object on X is a pair consisting of an object A {\displaystyle A} in C and an injection i : X → U ( A ) {\displaystyle i:X\to U(A)} (called the canonical injection), that satisfies the following universal property: For any object B in C and any map between sets g : X → U ( B ) {\displaystyle g:X\to U(B)} , there exists a unique morphism f : A → B {\displaystyle f:A\to B} in C such that g = U ( f ) ∘ i {\displaystyle g=U(f)\circ i} . That is, the following diagram commutes: x If free objects exist in C, the universal property implies every map between two sets induces a unique morphism between the free objects built on them, and this defines a functor F : S e t → C {\displaystyle F:\mathbf {Set} \to \mathbf {C} } . It follows that, if free objects exist in C, the functor F, called the free functor is a left adjoint to the faithful functor U; that is, there is a bijection Hom S e t ⁡ ( X , U ( B ) ) ≅ Hom C ⁡ ( F ( X ) , B ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Hom} _{\mathbf {Set} }(X,U(B))\cong \operatorname {Hom} _{\mathbf {C} }(F(X),B).} Examples The creation of free objects proceeds in two steps. For algebras that conform to the associative law, the first step is to consider the collection of all possible words formed from an alphabet. Then one imposes a set of equivalence relations upon the words, where the relations are the defining relations of the algebraic object at hand. The free object then consists of the set of equivalence classes. Consider, for example, the construction of the free group in two generators. One starts with an alphabet consisting of the five letters { e , a , b , a − 1 , b − 1 } {\displaystyle \{e,a,b,a^{-1},b^{-1}\}} . In the first step, there is not yet any assigned meaning to the "letters" a − 1 {\displaystyle a^{-1}} or b − 1 {\displaystyle b^{-1}} ; these will be given later, in the second step. Thus, one could equally well start with the alphabet in five letters that is S = { a , b , c , d , e } {\displaystyle S=\{a,b,c,d,e\}} . In this example, the set of all words or strings W ( S ) {\displaystyle W(S)} will include strings such as aebecede and abdc, and so on, of arbitrary finite length, with the letters arranged in every possible order. In the next step, one imposes a set of equivalence relations. The equivalence relations for a group are that of multiplication by the identity, g e = e g = g {\displaystyle ge=eg=g} , and the multiplication of inverses: g g − 1 = g − 1 g = e {\displaystyle gg^{-1}=g^{-1}g=e} . Applying these relations to the strings above, one obtains a e b e c e d e = a b a − 1 b − 1 , {\displaystyle aebecede=aba^{-1}b^{-1},} where it was understood that c {\displaystyle c} is a stand-in for a − 1 {\displaystyle a^{-1}} , and d {\displaystyle d} is a stand-in for b − 1 {\displaystyle b^{-1}} , while e {\displaystyle e} is the identity element. Similarly, one has a b d c = a b b − 1 a − 1 = e . {\displaystyle abdc=abb^{-1}a^{-1}=e.} Denoting the equivalence relation or congruence by ∼ {\displaystyle \sim } , the free object is then the collection of equivalence classes of words. Thus, in this example, the free group in two generators is the quotient F 2 = W ( S ) / ∼ . {\displaystyle F_{2}=W(S)/\sim .} This is often written as F 2 = W ( S ) / E {\displaystyle F_{2}=W(S)/E} where W ( S ) = { a 1 a 2 … a n | a k ∈ S ; n ∈ N } {\displaystyle W(S)=\{a_{1}a_{2}\ldots a_{n}\,\vert \;a_{k}\in S\,;\,n\in \mathbb {N} \}} is the set of all words, and E = { a 1 a 2 … a n | e = a 1 a 2 … a n ; a k ∈ S ; n ∈ N } {\displaystyle E=\{a_{1}a_{2}\ldots a_{n}\,\vert \;e=a_{1}a_{2}\ldots a_{n}\,;\,a_{k}\in S\,;\,n\in \mathbb {N} \}} is the equivalence class of the identity, after the relations defining a group are imposed. A simpler example are the free monoids. The free monoid on a set X, is the monoid of all finite strings using X as alphabet, with operation concatenation of strings. The identity is the empty string. In essence, the free monoid is simply the set of all words, with no equivalence relations imposed. This example is developed further in the article on the Kleene star. General case In the general case, the algebraic relations need not be associative, in which case the starting point is not the set of all words, but rather, strings punctuated with parentheses, which are used to indicate the non-associative groupings of letters. Such a string may equivalently be represented by a binary tree or a free magma; the leaves of the tree are the letters from the alphabet. The algebraic relations may then be general arities or finitary relations on the leaves of the tree. Rather than starting with the collection of all possible parenthesized strings, it can be more convenient to start with the Herbrand universe. Properly describing or enumerating the contents of a free object can be easy or difficult, depending on the particular algebraic object in question. For example, the free group in two generators is easily described. By contrast, little or nothing is known about the structure of free Heyting algebras in more than one generator. The problem of determining if two different strings belong to the same equivalence class is known as the word problem. As the examples suggest, free objects look like constructions from syntax; one may reverse that to some extent by saying that major uses of syntax can be explained and characterised as free objects, in a way that makes apparently heavy 'punctuation' explicable (and more memorable). Free universal algebras Main article: Term algebra This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) Let S {\displaystyle S} be any set, and let A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } be an algebraic structure of type ρ {\displaystyle \rho } generated by S {\displaystyle S} . Let the underlying set of this algebraic structure A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } , sometimes called its universe, be A {\displaystyle A} , and let ψ : S → A {\displaystyle \psi \colon S\to A} be a function. We say that ( A , ψ ) {\displaystyle (A,\psi )} (or informally just A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } ) is a free algebra (of type ρ {\displaystyle \rho } ) on the set S {\displaystyle S} of free generators if, for every algebra B {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } of type ρ {\displaystyle \rho } and every function τ : S → B {\displaystyle \tau \colon S\to B} , where B {\displaystyle B} is a universe of B {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } , there exists a unique homomorphism σ : A → B {\displaystyle \sigma \colon A\to B} such that σ ∘ ψ = τ . {\displaystyle \sigma \circ \psi =\tau .} Free functor The most general setting for a free object is in category theory, where one defines a functor, the free functor, that is the left adjoint to the forgetful functor. Consider a category C of algebraic structures; the objects can be thought of as sets plus operations, obeying some laws. This category has a functor, U : C → S e t {\displaystyle U:\mathbf {C} \to \mathbf {Set} } , the forgetful functor, which maps objects and functions in C to Set, the category of sets. The forgetful functor is very simple: it just ignores all of the operations. The free functor F, when it exists, is the left adjoint to U. That is, F : S e t → C {\displaystyle F:\mathbf {Set} \to \mathbf {C} } takes sets X in Set to their corresponding free objects F(X) in the category C. The set X can be thought of as the set of "generators" of the free object F(X). For the free functor to be a left adjoint, one must also have a Set-morphism η X : X → U ( F ( X ) ) {\displaystyle \eta _{X}:X\to U(F(X))\,\!} . More explicitly, F is, up to isomorphisms in C, characterized by the following universal property: Whenever B is an algebra in C, and g : X → U ( B ) {\displaystyle g:X\to U(B)} is a function (a morphism in the category of sets), then there is a unique C-morphism f : F ( X ) → B {\displaystyle f:F(X)\to B} such that g = U ( f ) ∘ η X {\displaystyle g=U(f)\circ \eta _{X}} . Concretely, this sends a set into the free object on that set; it is the "inclusion of a basis". Abusing notation, X → F ( X ) {\displaystyle X\to F(X)} (this abuses notation because X is a set, while F(X) is an algebra; correctly, it is X → U ( F ( X ) ) {\displaystyle X\to U(F(X))} ). The natural transformation η : id S e t → U F {\displaystyle \eta :\operatorname {id} _{\mathbf {Set} }\to UF} is called the unit; together with the counit ε : F U → id C {\displaystyle \varepsilon :FU\to \operatorname {id} _{\mathbf {C} }} , one may construct a T-algebra, and so a monad. The cofree functor is the right adjoint to the forgetful functor. Existence There are general existence theorems that apply; the most basic of them guarantees that Whenever C is a variety, then for every set X there is a free object F(X) in C. Here, a variety is a synonym for a finitary algebraic category, thus implying that the set of relations are finitary, and algebraic because it is monadic over Set. General case Other types of forgetfulness also give rise to objects quite like free objects, in that they are left adjoint to a forgetful functor, not necessarily to sets. For example, the tensor algebra construction on a vector space is the left adjoint to the functor on associative algebras that ignores the algebra structure. It is therefore often also called a free algebra. Likewise the symmetric algebra and exterior algebra are free symmetric and anti-symmetric algebras on a vector space. List of free objects See also: Category:Free algebraic structures Specific kinds of free objects include: free algebra free associative algebra free commutative algebra free category free strict monoidal category free group free abelian group free partially commutative group free Kleene algebra free lattice free Boolean algebra free distributive lattice free Heyting algebra free modular lattice free Lie algebra free magma free module, and in particular, vector space free monoid free commutative monoid free partially commutative monoid free ring free semigroup free semiring free commutative semiring free theory term algebra discrete space See also Generating set Notes ^ Peter T. Johnstone, Stone Spaces, (1982) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-23893-5. (A treatment of the one-generator free Heyting algebra is given in chapter 1, section 4.11) External links In nLab: free functor, free object, vector space

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A free object on X is a pair consisting of an object \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n in C and an injection \n \n \n \n i\n :\n X\n →\n U\n (\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i:X\\to U(A)}\n \n (called the canonical injection), that satisfies the following universal property:For any object B in C and any map between sets \n \n \n \n g\n :\n X\n →\n U\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g:X\\to U(B)}\n \n, there exists a unique morphism \n \n \n \n f\n :\n A\n →\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:A\\to B}\n \n in C such that \n \n \n \n g\n =\n U\n (\n f\n )\n ∘\n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g=U(f)\\circ i}\n \n. That is, the following diagram commutes:xIf free objects exist in C, the universal property implies every map between two sets induces a unique morphism between the free objects built on them, and this defines a functor \n \n \n \n F\n :\n \n S\n e\n t\n \n →\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle F:\\mathbf {Set} \\to \\mathbf {C} }\n \n. 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For algebras that conform to the associative law, the first step is to consider the collection of all possible words formed from an alphabet. Then one imposes a set of equivalence relations upon the words, where the relations are the defining relations of the algebraic object at hand. The free object then consists of the set of equivalence classes.Consider, for example, the construction of the free group in two generators. One starts with an alphabet consisting of the five letters \n \n \n \n {\n e\n ,\n a\n ,\n b\n ,\n \n a\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n b\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{e,a,b,a^{-1},b^{-1}\\}}\n \n. In the first step, there is not yet any assigned meaning to the \"letters\" \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a^{-1}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n b\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle b^{-1}}\n \n; these will be given later, in the second step. Thus, one could equally well start with the alphabet in five letters that is \n \n \n \n S\n =\n {\n a\n ,\n b\n ,\n c\n ,\n d\n ,\n e\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S=\\{a,b,c,d,e\\}}\n \n. In this example, the set of all words or strings \n \n \n \n W\n (\n S\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W(S)}\n \n will include strings such as aebecede and abdc, and so on, of arbitrary finite length, with the letters arranged in every possible order.In the next step, one imposes a set of equivalence relations. The equivalence relations for a group are that of multiplication by the identity, \n \n \n \n g\n e\n =\n e\n g\n =\n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ge=eg=g}\n \n, and the multiplication of inverses: \n \n \n \n g\n \n g\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n g\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n g\n =\n e\n \n \n {\\displaystyle gg^{-1}=g^{-1}g=e}\n \n. Applying these relations to the strings above, one obtainsa\n e\n b\n e\n c\n e\n d\n e\n =\n a\n b\n \n a\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n b\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle aebecede=aba^{-1}b^{-1},}where it was understood that \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n is a stand-in for \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a^{-1}}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d}\n \n is a stand-in for \n \n \n \n \n b\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle b^{-1}}\n \n, while \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e}\n \n is the identity element. Similarly, one hasa\n b\n d\n c\n =\n a\n b\n \n b\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n a\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n e\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle abdc=abb^{-1}a^{-1}=e.}Denoting the equivalence relation or congruence by \n \n \n \n ∼\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sim }\n \n, the free object is then the collection of equivalence classes of words. Thus, in this example, the free group in two generators is the quotientF\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n W\n (\n S\n )\n \n /\n \n ∼\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F_{2}=W(S)/\\sim .}This is often written as \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n W\n (\n S\n )\n \n /\n \n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F_{2}=W(S)/E}\n \n where \n \n \n \n W\n (\n S\n )\n =\n {\n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n …\n \n a\n \n n\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n a\n \n k\n \n \n ∈\n S\n \n ;\n \n n\n ∈\n \n N\n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W(S)=\\{a_{1}a_{2}\\ldots a_{n}\\,\\vert \\;a_{k}\\in S\\,;\\,n\\in \\mathbb {N} \\}}\n \n is the set of all words, and \n \n \n \n E\n =\n {\n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n …\n \n a\n \n n\n \n \n \n |\n \n e\n =\n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n …\n \n a\n \n n\n \n \n \n ;\n \n \n a\n \n k\n \n \n ∈\n S\n \n ;\n \n n\n ∈\n \n N\n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E=\\{a_{1}a_{2}\\ldots a_{n}\\,\\vert \\;e=a_{1}a_{2}\\ldots a_{n}\\,;\\,a_{k}\\in S\\,;\\,n\\in \\mathbb {N} \\}}\n \n is the equivalence class of the identity, after the relations defining a group are imposed.A simpler example are the free monoids. The free monoid on a set X, is the monoid of all finite strings using X as alphabet, with operation concatenation of strings. The identity is the empty string. In essence, the free monoid is simply the set of all words, with no equivalence relations imposed. This example is developed further in the article on the Kleene star.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"binary tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_tree"},{"link_name":"free magma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_magma"},{"link_name":"arities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity"},{"link_name":"finitary relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finitary_relation"},{"link_name":"Herbrand universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbrand_universe"},{"link_name":"free Heyting algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"word problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_problem_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"syntax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"sub_title":"General case","text":"In the general case, the algebraic relations need not be associative, in which case the starting point is not the set of all words, but rather, strings punctuated with parentheses, which are used to indicate the non-associative groupings of letters. Such a string may equivalently be represented by a binary tree or a free magma; the leaves of the tree are the letters from the alphabet.The algebraic relations may then be general arities or finitary relations on the leaves of the tree. Rather than starting with the collection of all possible parenthesized strings, it can be more convenient to start with the Herbrand universe. Properly describing or enumerating the contents of a free object can be easy or difficult, depending on the particular algebraic object in question. For example, the free group in two generators is easily described. By contrast, little or nothing is known about the structure of free Heyting algebras in more than one generator.[1] The problem of determining if two different strings belong to the same equivalence class is known as the word problem.As the examples suggest, free objects look like constructions from syntax; one may reverse that to some extent by saying that major uses of syntax can be explained and characterised as free objects, in a way that makes apparently heavy 'punctuation' explicable (and more memorable).[clarification needed]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"algebraic structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_structure"}],"text":"Let \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n be any set, and let \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n be an algebraic structure of type \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n generated by \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n. Let the underlying set of this algebraic structure \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n, sometimes called its universe, be \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n, and let \n \n \n \n ψ\n :\n S\n →\n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi \\colon S\\to A}\n \n be a function. We say that \n \n \n \n (\n A\n ,\n ψ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (A,\\psi )}\n \n (or informally just \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n) is a free algebra (of type \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n) on the set \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n of free generators if, for every algebra \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {B} }\n \n of type \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n and every function \n \n \n \n τ\n :\n S\n →\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\tau \\colon S\\to B}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n is a universe of \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {B} }\n \n, there exists a unique homomorphism \n \n \n \n σ\n :\n A\n →\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma \\colon A\\to B}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n σ\n ∘\n ψ\n =\n τ\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma \\circ \\psi =\\tau .}","title":"Free universal algebras"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"functor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functor"},{"link_name":"left adjoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_adjoint"},{"link_name":"forgetful functor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetful_functor"},{"link_name":"algebraic structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_structure"},{"link_name":"forgetful functor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetful_functor"},{"link_name":"category of sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_sets"},{"link_name":"universal property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_property"},{"link_name":"natural transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_transformation"},{"link_name":"unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"counit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counit"},{"link_name":"T-algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-algebra"},{"link_name":"monad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monad_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"right adjoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_adjoint"}],"text":"The most general setting for a free object is in category theory, where one defines a functor, the free functor, that is the left adjoint to the forgetful functor.Consider a category C of algebraic structures; the objects can be thought of as sets plus operations, obeying some laws. This category has a functor, \n \n \n \n U\n :\n \n C\n \n →\n \n S\n e\n t\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle U:\\mathbf {C} \\to \\mathbf {Set} }\n \n, the forgetful functor, which maps objects and functions in C to Set, the category of sets. The forgetful functor is very simple: it just ignores all of the operations.The free functor F, when it exists, is the left adjoint to U. That is, \n \n \n \n F\n :\n \n S\n e\n t\n \n →\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle F:\\mathbf {Set} \\to \\mathbf {C} }\n \n takes sets X in Set to their corresponding free objects F(X) in the category C. The set X can be thought of as the set of \"generators\" of the free object F(X).For the free functor to be a left adjoint, one must also have a Set-morphism \n \n \n \n \n η\n \n X\n \n \n :\n X\n →\n U\n (\n F\n (\n X\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\eta _{X}:X\\to U(F(X))\\,\\!}\n \n. More explicitly, F is, up to isomorphisms in C, characterized by the following universal property:Whenever B is an algebra in C, and \n \n \n \n g\n :\n X\n →\n U\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g:X\\to U(B)}\n \n is a function (a morphism in the category of sets), then there is a unique C-morphism \n \n \n \n f\n :\n F\n (\n X\n )\n →\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:F(X)\\to B}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n g\n =\n U\n (\n f\n )\n ∘\n \n η\n \n X\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle g=U(f)\\circ \\eta _{X}}\n \n.Concretely, this sends a set into the free object on that set; it is the \"inclusion of a basis\". Abusing notation, \n \n \n \n X\n →\n F\n (\n X\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X\\to F(X)}\n \n (this abuses notation because X is a set, while F(X) is an algebra; correctly, it is \n \n \n \n X\n →\n U\n (\n F\n (\n X\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X\\to U(F(X))}\n \n).The natural transformation \n \n \n \n η\n :\n \n id\n \n \n S\n e\n t\n \n \n \n →\n U\n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\eta :\\operatorname {id} _{\\mathbf {Set} }\\to UF}\n \n is called the unit; together with the counit \n \n \n \n ε\n :\n F\n U\n →\n \n id\n \n \n C\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon :FU\\to \\operatorname {id} _{\\mathbf {C} }}\n \n, one may construct a T-algebra, and so a monad.The cofree functor is the right adjoint to the forgetful functor.","title":"Free functor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(universal_algebra)"},{"link_name":"finitary algebraic category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finitary_algebraic_category"},{"link_name":"finitary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finitary_relation"},{"link_name":"monadic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monad_(category_theory)"}],"sub_title":"Existence","text":"There are general existence theorems that apply; the most basic of them guarantees thatWhenever C is a variety, then for every set X there is a free object F(X) in C.Here, a variety is a synonym for a finitary algebraic category, thus implying that the set of relations are finitary, and algebraic because it is monadic over Set.","title":"Free functor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tensor algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_algebra"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"associative algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_algebra"},{"link_name":"free algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_algebra"},{"link_name":"symmetric algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_algebra"},{"link_name":"exterior algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior_algebra"}],"sub_title":"General case","text":"Other types of forgetfulness also give rise to objects quite like free objects, in that they are left adjoint to a forgetful functor, not necessarily to sets.For example, the tensor algebra construction on a vector space is the left adjoint to the functor on associative algebras that ignores the algebra structure. It is therefore often also called a free algebra. Likewise the symmetric algebra and exterior algebra are free symmetric and anti-symmetric algebras on a vector space.","title":"Free functor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Free algebraic structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Free_algebraic_structures"},{"link_name":"free algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_algebra"},{"link_name":"free associative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_associative_algebra"},{"link_name":"free commutative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_commutative_algebra"},{"link_name":"free category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_category"},{"link_name":"free strict monoidal category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_strict_monoidal_category"},{"link_name":"free group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_group"},{"link_name":"free abelian group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_abelian_group"},{"link_name":"free partially commutative group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_partially_commutative_group"},{"link_name":"free Kleene algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleene_algebra#Examples"},{"link_name":"free lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_lattice"},{"link_name":"free Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Boolean_algebra"},{"link_name":"free distributive lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_lattice#Free_distributive_lattices"},{"link_name":"free Heyting algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"modular lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_lattice"},{"link_name":"free Lie algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Lie_algebra"},{"link_name":"free magma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_magma"},{"link_name":"free module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_module"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"free monoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_monoid"},{"link_name":"free commutative monoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_monoid#The_free_commutative_monoid"},{"link_name":"free partially commutative monoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_partially_commutative_monoid"},{"link_name":"free ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_ring"},{"link_name":"free semigroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_semigroup"},{"link_name":"free semiring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_semiring&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"free commutative semiring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiring#Examples"},{"link_name":"free theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_theory"},{"link_name":"term algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_algebra"},{"link_name":"discrete space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_space"}],"text":"See also: Category:Free algebraic structuresSpecific kinds of free objects include:free algebra\nfree associative algebra\nfree commutative algebra\nfree category\nfree strict monoidal category\nfree group\nfree abelian group\nfree partially commutative group\nfree Kleene algebra\nfree lattice\nfree Boolean algebra\nfree distributive lattice\nfree Heyting algebra\nfree modular lattice\nfree Lie algebra\nfree magma\nfree module, and in particular, vector space\nfree monoid\nfree commutative monoid\nfree partially commutative monoid\nfree ring\nfree semigroup\nfree semiring\nfree commutative semiring\nfree theory\nterm algebra\ndiscrete space","title":"List of free objects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-23893-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23893-5"}],"text":"^ Peter T. Johnstone, Stone Spaces, (1982) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-23893-5. (A treatment of the one-generator free Heyting algebra is given in chapter 1, section 4.11)","title":"Notes"}]

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting_gas

Lifting gas

["1 Gases used for lifting","1.1 Hot air","1.2 Hydrogen","1.3 Helium","1.4 Coal gas","1.5 Ammonia","1.6 Methane","1.7 Combinations","2 Gases theoretically suitable for lifting","2.1 Water vapour","2.2 Hydrogen fluoride","2.3 Acetylene","2.4 Hydrogen cyanide","2.5 Neon","2.6 Nitrogen","2.7 Ethylene","2.8 Diborane","2.9 Vacuum","2.10 Aerogel","3 Hydrogen versus helium","4 High-altitude ballooning","5 Submerged balloons","6 Balloons on other celestial bodies","7 Solids","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]

Gas used to create buoyancy in a balloon or aerostat This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Lifting gas" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A lifting gas or lighter-than-air gas is a gas that has a density lower than normal atmospheric gases and rises above them as a result, making it useful in lifting lighter-than-air aircraft. Only certain lighter than air gases are suitable as lifting gases. Dry air has a density of about 1.29 g/L (gram per liter) at standard conditions for temperature and pressure (STP) and an average molecular mass of 28.97 g/mol, and so lighter-than-air gases have a density lower than this. Gases used for lifting Hot air Heated atmospheric air is frequently used in recreational ballooning. According to the ideal gas law, an amount of gas (and also a mixture of gases such as air) expands as it is heated. As a result, a certain volume of gas has a lower density as the temperature is higher. The temperature of the hot air in the envelope will vary depending upon the ambient temperature, but the maximum continuous operating temperature for most balloons is 250 °F (121 °C). Hydrogen Hydrogen, being the lightest existing gas (7% the density of air, 0.08988 g/L at STP), seems to be the most appropriate gas for lifting. It can be easily produced in large quantities, for example with the water-gas shift reaction or electrolysis, but hydrogen has several disadvantages: Hydrogen is extremely flammable. Some countries have banned the use of hydrogen as a lift gas for commercial vehicles but it is allowed for recreational free ballooning in the United States, United Kingdom and Germany. The Hindenburg disaster is frequently cited as an example of the safety risks posed by hydrogen. The extremely high cost of helium (compared to hydrogen) has led researchers to re-investigate the safety issues of using hydrogen as a lift gas, especially for vehicles not carrying passengers and being deployed away from populated areas. With good engineering and good handling practices, the risks can be significantly reduced. Because the diatomic hydrogen molecule is very small, it can easily diffuse through many materials such as latex, so that the balloon will deflate quickly. This is one reason that many hydrogen or helium filled balloons are constructed out of Mylar/BoPET. Helium Helium is the second lightest gas (0.1786 g/L at STP). For that reason, it is an attractive gas for lifting as well. A major advantage is that this gas is noncombustible. But the use of helium has some disadvantages, too: The diffusion issue shared with hydrogen (though, as helium's molecular radius (138 pm) is smaller, it diffuses through more materials than hydrogen). Helium is expensive. Although abundant in the universe, helium is very scarce on Earth. The only commercially viable reserves are a few natural gas wells, mostly in the US, that trapped it from the slow alpha decay of radioactive materials within Earth. By human standards, helium is a non-renewable resource that cannot be practically manufactured from other materials. When released into the atmosphere, e.g., when a helium-filled balloon leaks or bursts, helium eventually escapes into space and is lost. Coal gas In the past, coal gas, a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and other gases, was also used in balloons. It was widely available and cheap. Disadvantages include a higher density (reducing lift), its flammability and the high toxicity of the carbon monoxide content. Ammonia Ammonia has been used as a lifting gas in balloons, but while inexpensive, it is relatively heavy (density 0.769 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 17.03 g/mol), poisonous, an irritant, and can damage some metals and plastics. Methane Methane (density 0.716 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 16.04 g/mol), the main component of natural gas, is sometimes used as a lift gas when hydrogen and helium are not available. It has the advantage of not leaking through balloon walls as rapidly as the smaller molecules of hydrogen and helium. Many lighter-than-air balloons are made of aluminized plastic that limits such leakage; hydrogen and helium leak rapidly through latex balloons. However, methane is highly flammable and like hydrogen is not appropriate for use in passenger-carrying airships. It is also relatively dense and a potent greenhouse gas. Combinations It is also possible to combine some of the above solutions. A well-known example is the Rozière balloon which combines a core of helium with an outer shell of hot air. Gases theoretically suitable for lifting Water vapour The gaseous state of water is lighter than air (density 0.804 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 18.015 g/mol) due to water's low molar mass when compared with typical atmospheric gases such as nitrogen gas (N2). It is non-flammable and much cheaper than helium. The concept of using steam for lifting is therefore already 200 years old. The biggest challenge has always been to make a material that can resist it. In 2003, a university team in Berlin, Germany, has successfully made a 150 °C steam lifted balloon. However, such a design is generally impractical due to high boiling point and condensation. Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen fluoride is lighter than air and could theoretically be used as a lifting gas. However, it is extremely corrosive, highly toxic, expensive, is heavier than other lifting gases, and has a low boiling point of 19.5 °C. Its use would therefore be impractical. Acetylene Acetylene is 10% lighter than air and could be used as a lifting gas. Its extreme flammability and low lifting power make it an unattractive choice. Hydrogen cyanide Hydrogen cyanide, which is 7% lighter than air, is technically capable of being used as a lifting gas at temperatures above its boiling point of 25.6 °C. Its extreme toxicity, low buoyancy, and low boiling point have precluded such a use. Neon Neon is lighter than air (density 0.900 g/L at STP, average atomic mass 20.17 g/mol) and could lift a balloon. Like helium, it is non-flammable. However, it is rare on Earth and expensive, and is among the heavier lifting gases. Nitrogen Pure nitrogen has the advantage that it is inert and abundantly available, because it is the major component of air. However, because nitrogen is only 3% lighter than air, it is not a good choice for a lifting gas. Ethylene Ethylene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon that's 3% less dense than air. Unlike nitrogen however, ethylene is highly flammable and far more expensive, rendering use as a lifting gas highly impractical. Diborane Diborane is slightly lighter than molecular nitrogen with a molecular mass of 27.7. Being pyrophoric it is however a major safety hazard, on a scale even greater than that of hydrogen. Vacuum Main article: Vacuum airship The de Lana-Terzi's vacuum airship (1670) Theoretically, an aerostatic vehicle could be made to use a vacuum or partial vacuum. As early as 1670, over a century before the first manned hot-air balloon flight, the Italian monk Francesco Lana de Terzi envisioned a ship with four vacuum spheres. In a theoretically perfect situation with weightless spheres, a "vacuum balloon" would have 7% more net lifting force than a hydrogen-filled balloon, and 16% more net lifting force than a helium-filled one. However, because the walls of the balloon must be able to remain rigid without imploding, the balloon is impractical to construct with any known material. Despite that, sometimes there is discussion on the topic. Aerogel While not a gas, it is possible to synthesize an ultralight aerogel with a density less than air, the lightest recorded so far reaching a density approximately 1/6th that of air. Aerogels don't float in ambient conditions, however, because air fills the pores of an aerogel's microstructure, so the apparent density of the aerogel is the sum of the densities of the aerogel material and the air contained within. In 2021, a group of researchers successfully levitated a series of carbon aerogels by heating them with a halogen lamp, which had the effect of lowering the density of the air trapped in the porous microstructure of the aerogel, allowing the aerogel to float. Hydrogen versus helium Hydrogen and helium are the most commonly used lift gases. Although helium is twice as heavy as (diatomic) hydrogen, they are both significantly lighter than air. The lifting power in air of hydrogen and helium can be calculated using the theory of buoyancy as follows: Thus helium is almost twice as dense as hydrogen. However, buoyancy depends upon the difference of the densities (ρgas) − (ρair) rather than upon their ratios. Thus the difference in buoyancies is about 8%, as seen from the buoyancy equation: FB = (ρair - ρgas) × g × V Where FB = Buoyant force (in Newton); g = gravitational acceleration = 9.8066 m/s2 = 9.8066 N/kg; V = volume (in m3). Therefore, the amount of mass that can be lifted by hydrogen in air at sea level, equal to the density difference between hydrogen and air, is: (1.292 - 0.090) kg/m3 = 1.202 kg/m3 and the buoyant force for one m3 of hydrogen in air at sea level is: 1 m3 × 1.202 kg/m3 × 9.8 N/kg= 11.8 N Therefore, the amount of mass that can be lifted by helium in air at sea level is: (1.292 - 0.178) kg/m3 = 1.114 kg/m3 and the buoyant force for one m3 of helium in air at sea level is: 1 m3 × 1.114 kg/m3 × 9.8 N/kg= 10.9 N Thus hydrogen's additional buoyancy compared to helium is: 11.8 / 10.9 ≈ 1.08, or approximately 8.0% This calculation is at sea level at 0 °C. For higher altitudes, or higher temperatures, the amount of lift will decrease proportionally to the air density, but the ratio of the lifting capability of hydrogen to that of helium will remain the same. This calculation does not include the mass of the envelope need to hold the lifting gas. High-altitude ballooning MAXIS: a balloon that has been able to reach a height of 36 km At higher altitudes, the air pressure is lower and therefore the pressure inside the balloon is also lower. This means that while the mass of lifting gas and mass of displaced air for a given lift are the same as at lower altitude, the volume of the balloon is much greater at higher altitudes. A balloon that is designed to lift to extreme heights (stratosphere), must be able to expand enormously in order to displace the required amount of air. That is why such balloons seem almost empty at launch, as can be seen in the photo. A different approach for high altitude ballooning, especially used for long duration flights is the superpressure balloon. A superpressure balloon maintains a higher pressure inside the balloon than the external (ambient) pressure. Submerged balloons Because of the enormous density difference between water and gases (water is about 1,000 times denser than most gases), the lifting power of underwater gases is very strong. The type of gas used is largely inconsequential because the relative differences between gases is negligible in relation to the density of water. However, some gases can liquefy under high pressure, leading to an abrupt loss of buoyancy. A submerged balloon that rises will expand or even explode because of the strong pressure reduction, unless gas is able to escape continuously during the ascent or the balloon is strong enough to withstand the change in pressure. Divers use lifting bags (upside down bags) that they fill with air to lift heavy items like cannons and even whole ships during underwater archaeology and shipwreck salvaging. The air is either supplied from diving cylinders or pumped through a hose from the diver's ship on the surface. Submarines use ballast tanks and trim tanks with air to regulate their buoyancy, essentially making them underwater "airships". Bathyscaphes are a type of deep-sea submersibles that use gasoline as the "lifting gas". Balloons on other celestial bodies A balloon can only have buoyancy if there is a medium that has a higher average density than the balloon itself. Balloons cannot work on the Moon because it has almost no atmosphere. Mars has a very thin atmosphere – the pressure is only 1⁄160 of earth atmospheric pressure – so a huge balloon would be needed even for a tiny lifting effect. Overcoming the weight of such a balloon would be difficult, but several proposals to explore Mars with balloons have been made. Venus has a CO2 atmosphere. Because CO2 is about 50% denser than Earth air, ordinary Earth air could be a lifting gas on Venus. This has led to proposals for a human habitat that would float in the atmosphere of Venus at an altitude where both the pressure and the temperature are Earth-like. In 1985, the Soviet Vega program deployed two helium balloons in Venus's atmosphere at an altitude of 54 km (34 mi). Titan, Saturn's largest moon, has a dense, very cold atmosphere of mostly nitrogen that is appropriate for ballooning. A use of aerobots on Titan was proposed. The Titan Saturn System Mission proposal included a balloon to circumnavigate Titan. Solids In 2002, aerogel held the Guinness World Record for the least dense (lightest) solid. Aerogel is mostly air because its structure is like that of a highly vacuous sponge. The lightness and low density is due primarily to the large proportion of air within the solid and not the silicon construction materials. Taking advantage of this, SEAgel, in the same family as aerogel but made from agar, can be filled with helium gas to create a solid which floats when placed in an open top container filled with a dense gas. See also Aerostat Airship Balloon (aircraft) Buoyancy Buoyancy compensator (aviation) Cloud Nine (tensegrity sphere) Heavier than air Hot air balloon Vacuum airship/Vacuum balloon References ^ "Air - Molecular Weight". www.engineeringtoolbox.com. Retrieved 2018-01-16. ^ Balloon Flying Handbook (No. FAA-H-8083-11A). Washington, D.C.: Federal Aviation Administration. 2008. pp. 3-9–3-10. ^ Bonnici, Maurizio; Tacchini, Alessandro; Vucinic, Dean (2014). "Long Permanence High Altitude Airships: The Opportunity of Hydrogen". European Transport Research Review. 6 (3): 253–266. Bibcode:2014ETRR....6..253B. doi:10.1007/s12544-013-0123-z. ISSN 1866-8887. S2CID 255617917. ^ Schultheiß, Daniel (2007). Permeation Barrier for Lightweight Liquid Hydrogen Tanks (Thesis). OPUS Augsburg, Universit¨at Augsburg. p. 30. ^ "Balloon flight - Historical development". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-08-17. ^ Speight, James G. (2000). "Fuels, Synthetic, Gaseous Fuels". Kirk‐Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0701190519160509.a01. ISBN 9780471484943. ^ Terry, Herbert (14 July 1881). "Coal-Gas Poisoning". The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. 105 (2): 29–32. doi:10.1056/NEJM188107141050202. ^ "Timothy S. Cole - Honored in 1995". Colorado Aviation Historical Society. Retrieved 17 August 2021. ^ "HeiDAS UH – Ein Heissdampfaerostat mit ultra-heiss-performance" (PDF). Aeroix.de. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-03. Retrieved 2012-10-21. ^ Tom D. Crouch (2009). Lighter Than Air ^ Sean A. Barton (21 October 2009). "Stability Analysis of an Inflatable Vacuum Chamber". Journal of Applied Mechanics. 75 (4): 041010. arXiv:physics/0610222. Bibcode:2008JAM....75d1010B. doi:10.1115/1.2912742. S2CID 118896629. ^ Sun, Haiyan; Xu, Zhen; Gao, Chao (2013-02-18). "Multifunctional, Ultra-Flyweight, Synergistically Assembled Carbon Aerogels". Advanced Materials. 25 (18). Wiley: 2554–2560. Bibcode:2013AdM....25.2554S. doi:10.1002/adma.201204576. ISSN 0935-9648. PMID 23418099. S2CID 205248394. ^ Yanagi, Reo; Takemoto, Ren; Ono, Kenta; Ueno, Tomonaga (2021-06-14). "Light-induced levitation of ultralight carbon aerogels via temperature control". Scientific Reports. 11 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 12413. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91918-5. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8203743. PMID 34127746. ^ "Is There an Atmosphere on the Moon?". 7 June 2013. ^ "Exploring Mars With Balloons". Spacedaily.com. Retrieved 2012-10-21. ^ Stenger, Richard (May 9, 2002). "NASA's 'frozen smoke' named lightest solid". edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 2018-01-16. ^ Administrator, NASA Content (2015-04-15). "Aerogels: Thinner, Lighter, Stronger". NASA. Retrieved 2018-01-16. ^ Grommo (2008-06-20), SEAgel Aerogel lighter than air solid. Not a UFO, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 2018-01-16 External links Lighter-than-air - An overview Airship Association

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"standard conditions for temperature and pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure"},{"link_name":"g/mol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"A lifting gas or lighter-than-air gas is a gas that has a density lower than normal atmospheric gases and rises above them as a result, making it useful in lifting lighter-than-air aircraft. Only certain lighter than air gases are suitable as lifting gases. Dry air has a density of about 1.29 g/L (gram per liter) at standard conditions for temperature and pressure (STP) and an average molecular mass of 28.97 g/mol,[1] and so lighter-than-air gases have a density lower than this.","title":"Lifting gas"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Gases used for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"recreational ballooning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_air_balloon"},{"link_name":"ideal gas law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gas_law"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Hot air","text":"Heated atmospheric air is frequently used in recreational ballooning. According to the ideal gas law, an amount of gas (and also a mixture of gases such as air) expands as it is heated. As a result, a certain volume of gas has a lower density as the temperature is higher. The temperature of the hot air in the envelope will vary depending upon the ambient temperature, but the maximum continuous operating temperature for most balloons is 250 °F (121 °C).[2]","title":"Gases used for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"water-gas shift reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-gas_shift_reaction"},{"link_name":"electrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis"},{"link_name":"Hindenburg disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindenburg_disaster"},{"link_name":"safety risks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_safety"},{"link_name":"diatomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomic_molecule"},{"link_name":"diffuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_diffusion"},{"link_name":"Mylar/BoPET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BoPET"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Hydrogen","text":"Hydrogen, being the lightest existing gas (7% the density of air, 0.08988 g/L at STP), seems to be the most appropriate gas for lifting. It can be easily produced in large quantities, for example with the water-gas shift reaction or electrolysis, but hydrogen has several disadvantages:Hydrogen is extremely flammable. Some countries have banned the use of hydrogen as a lift gas for commercial vehicles but it is allowed for recreational free ballooning in the United States, United Kingdom and Germany. The Hindenburg disaster is frequently cited as an example of the safety risks posed by hydrogen. The extremely high cost of helium (compared to hydrogen) has led researchers to re-investigate the safety issues of using hydrogen as a lift gas, especially for vehicles not carrying passengers and being deployed away from populated areas. With good engineering and good handling practices, the risks can be significantly reduced.\nBecause the diatomic hydrogen molecule is very small, it can easily diffuse through many materials such as latex, so that the balloon will deflate quickly. This is one reason that many hydrogen or helium filled balloons are constructed out of Mylar/BoPET.[3]","title":"Gases used for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"alpha decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay"},{"link_name":"non-renewable resource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-renewable_resource"}],"sub_title":"Helium","text":"Helium is the second lightest gas (0.1786 g/L at STP). For that reason, it is an attractive gas for lifting as well.A major advantage is that this gas is noncombustible. But the use of helium has some disadvantages, too:The diffusion issue shared with hydrogen (though, as helium's molecular radius (138 pm) is smaller, it diffuses through more materials than hydrogen[4]).\nHelium is expensive.\nAlthough abundant in the universe, helium is very scarce on Earth. The only commercially viable reserves are a few natural gas wells, mostly in the US, that trapped it from the slow alpha decay of radioactive materials within Earth. By human standards, helium is a non-renewable resource that cannot be practically manufactured from other materials. When released into the atmosphere, e.g., when a helium-filled balloon leaks or bursts, helium eventually escapes into space and is lost.","title":"Gases used for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"coal gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_gas"},{"link_name":"carbon monoxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Coal gas","text":"In the past, coal gas, a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and other gases, was also used in balloons.[5][better source needed] It was widely available and cheap.\nDisadvantages include a higher density (reducing lift), its flammability[6] and the high toxicity[7] of the carbon monoxide content.","title":"Gases used for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ammonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Ammonia","text":"Ammonia has been used as a lifting gas in balloons,[8] but while inexpensive, it is relatively heavy (density 0.769 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 17.03 g/mol), poisonous, an irritant, and can damage some metals and plastics.","title":"Gases used for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Methane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane"},{"link_name":"natural gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"greenhouse gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas"}],"sub_title":"Methane","text":"Methane (density 0.716 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 16.04 g/mol), the main component of natural gas, is sometimes used as a lift gas when hydrogen and helium are not available.[citation needed] It has the advantage of not leaking through balloon walls as rapidly as the smaller molecules of hydrogen and helium. Many lighter-than-air balloons are made of aluminized plastic that limits such leakage; hydrogen and helium leak rapidly through latex balloons. However, methane is highly flammable and like hydrogen is not appropriate for use in passenger-carrying airships. It is also relatively dense and a potent greenhouse gas.","title":"Gases used for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rozière balloon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozi%C3%A8re_balloon"}],"sub_title":"Combinations","text":"It is also possible to combine some of the above solutions. A well-known example is the Rozière balloon which combines a core of helium with an outer shell of hot air.","title":"Gases used for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gaseous state of water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam"},{"link_name":"molar mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Water vapour","text":"The gaseous state of water is lighter than air (density 0.804 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 18.015 g/mol) due to water's low molar mass when compared with typical atmospheric gases such as nitrogen gas (N2). It is non-flammable and much cheaper than helium. The concept of using steam for lifting is therefore already 200 years old. The biggest challenge has always been to make a material that can resist it. In 2003, a university team in Berlin, Germany, has successfully made a 150 °C steam lifted balloon.[9] However, such a design is generally impractical due to high boiling point and condensation.","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hydrogen fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride"}],"sub_title":"Hydrogen fluoride","text":"Hydrogen fluoride is lighter than air and could theoretically be used as a lifting gas. However, it is extremely corrosive, highly toxic, expensive, is heavier than other lifting gases, and has a low boiling point of 19.5 °C. Its use would therefore be impractical.","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Acetylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene"}],"sub_title":"Acetylene","text":"Acetylene is 10% lighter than air and could be used as a lifting gas. Its extreme flammability and low lifting power make it an unattractive choice.","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hydrogen cyanide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide"}],"sub_title":"Hydrogen cyanide","text":"Hydrogen cyanide, which is 7% lighter than air, is technically capable of being used as a lifting gas at temperatures above its boiling point of 25.6 °C. Its extreme toxicity, low buoyancy, and low boiling point have precluded such a use.","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon"}],"sub_title":"Neon","text":"Neon is lighter than air (density 0.900 g/L at STP, average atomic mass 20.17 g/mol) and could lift a balloon. Like helium, it is non-flammable. However, it is rare on Earth and expensive, and is among the heavier lifting gases.","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nitrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen"},{"link_name":"inert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inert_gas"}],"sub_title":"Nitrogen","text":"Pure nitrogen has the advantage that it is inert and abundantly available, because it is the major component of air. However, because nitrogen is only 3% lighter than air, it is not a good choice for a lifting gas.","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ethylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene"}],"sub_title":"Ethylene","text":"Ethylene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon that's 3% less dense than air. Unlike nitrogen however, ethylene is highly flammable and far more expensive, rendering use as a lifting gas highly impractical.","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Diborane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diborane"},{"link_name":"pyrophoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrophoricity"}],"sub_title":"Diborane","text":"Diborane is slightly lighter than molecular nitrogen with a molecular mass of 27.7. Being pyrophoric it is however a major safety hazard, on a scale even greater than that of hydrogen.","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lana_airship.jpg"},{"link_name":"de Lana-Terzi's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Lana_de_Terzi"},{"link_name":"vacuum airship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_airship"},{"link_name":"vacuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Francesco Lana de Terzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Lana_de_Terzi"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Vacuum","text":"The de Lana-Terzi's vacuum airship (1670)Theoretically, an aerostatic vehicle could be made to use a vacuum or partial vacuum. As early as 1670, over a century before the first manned hot-air balloon flight,[10] the Italian monk Francesco Lana de Terzi envisioned a ship with four vacuum spheres.In a theoretically perfect situation with weightless spheres, a \"vacuum balloon\" would have 7% more net lifting force than a hydrogen-filled balloon, and 16% more net lifting force than a helium-filled one. However, because the walls of the balloon must be able to remain rigid without imploding, the balloon is impractical to construct with any known material. Despite that, sometimes there is discussion on the topic.[11]","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"aerogel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sun_Xu_Gao_2013_pp._2554%E2%80%932560-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yanagi_Takemoto_Ono_Ueno_2021_p.-13"}],"sub_title":"Aerogel","text":"While not a gas, it is possible to synthesize an ultralight aerogel with a density less than air, the lightest recorded so far reaching a density approximately 1/6th that of air.[12] Aerogels don't float in ambient conditions, however, because air fills the pores of an aerogel's microstructure, so the apparent density of the aerogel is the sum of the densities of the aerogel material and the air contained within. In 2021, a group of researchers successfully levitated a series of carbon aerogels by heating them with a halogen lamp, which had the effect of lowering the density of the air trapped in the porous microstructure of the aerogel, allowing the aerogel to float.[13]","title":"Gases theoretically suitable for lifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"buoyancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy"},{"link_name":"Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)"},{"link_name":"gravitational acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration"}],"text":"Hydrogen and helium are the most commonly used lift gases. Although helium is twice as heavy as (diatomic) hydrogen, they are both significantly lighter than air.The lifting power in air of hydrogen and helium can be calculated using the theory of buoyancy as follows:Thus helium is almost twice as dense as hydrogen. However, buoyancy depends upon the difference of the densities (ρgas) − (ρair) rather than upon their ratios. Thus the difference in buoyancies is about 8%, as seen from the buoyancy equation:FB = (ρair - ρgas) × g × VWhere FB = Buoyant force (in Newton); g = gravitational acceleration = 9.8066 m/s2 = 9.8066 N/kg; V = volume (in m3).\nTherefore, the amount of mass that can be lifted by hydrogen in air at sea level, equal to the density difference between hydrogen and air, is:(1.292 - 0.090) kg/m3 = 1.202 kg/m3and the buoyant force for one m3 of hydrogen in air at sea level is:1 m3 × 1.202 kg/m3 × 9.8 N/kg= 11.8 NTherefore, the amount of mass that can be lifted by helium in air at sea level is:(1.292 - 0.178) kg/m3 = 1.114 kg/m3and the buoyant force for one m3 of helium in air at sea level is:1 m3 × 1.114 kg/m3 × 9.8 N/kg= 10.9 NThus hydrogen's additional buoyancy compared to helium is:11.8 / 10.9 ≈ 1.08, or approximately 8.0%This calculation is at sea level at 0 °C. For higher altitudes, or higher temperatures, the amount of lift will decrease proportionally to the air density, but the ratio of the lifting capability of hydrogen to that of helium will remain the same. This calculation does not include the mass of the envelope need to hold the lifting gas.","title":"Hydrogen versus helium"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maxislaunch.jpg"},{"link_name":"balloon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon"},{"link_name":"stratosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere"},{"link_name":"superpressure balloon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpressure_balloon"}],"text":"MAXIS: a balloon that has been able to reach a height of 36 kmAt higher altitudes, the air pressure is lower and therefore the pressure inside the balloon is also lower. This means that while the mass of lifting gas and mass of displaced air for a given lift are the same as at lower altitude, the volume of the balloon is much greater at higher altitudes.A balloon that is designed to lift to extreme heights (stratosphere), must be able to expand enormously in order to displace the required amount of air. That is why such balloons seem almost empty at launch, as can be seen in the photo.A different approach for high altitude ballooning, especially used for long duration flights is the superpressure balloon. A superpressure balloon maintains a higher pressure inside the balloon than the external (ambient) pressure.","title":"High-altitude ballooning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Divers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwater_diving"},{"link_name":"lifting bags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting_bag"},{"link_name":"underwater archaeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwater_archaeology"},{"link_name":"shipwreck salvaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_salvage"},{"link_name":"diving cylinders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_cylinder"},{"link_name":"Submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine#Buoyancy_and_trim"},{"link_name":"buoyancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy"},{"link_name":"airships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airship"},{"link_name":"Bathyscaphes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathyscaphe"}],"text":"Because of the enormous density difference between water and gases (water is about 1,000 times denser than most gases), the lifting power of underwater gases is very strong. The type of gas used is largely inconsequential because the relative differences between gases is negligible in relation to the density of water. However, some gases can liquefy under high pressure, leading to an abrupt loss of buoyancy.A submerged balloon that rises will expand or even explode because of the strong pressure reduction, unless gas is able to escape continuously during the ascent or the balloon is strong enough to withstand the change in pressure.Divers use lifting bags (upside down bags) that they fill with air to lift heavy items like cannons and even whole ships during underwater archaeology and shipwreck salvaging. The air is either supplied from diving cylinders or pumped through a hose from the diver's ship on the surface.Submarines use ballast tanks and trim tanks with air to regulate their buoyancy, essentially making them underwater \"airships\". Bathyscaphes are a type of deep-sea submersibles that use gasoline as the \"lifting gas\".","title":"Submerged balloons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Venus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus"},{"link_name":"proposals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_city_(science_fiction)#Venus"},{"link_name":"Vega program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_program#Balloon"},{"link_name":"Titan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(moon)"},{"link_name":"Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn"},{"link_name":"aerobots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobot"},{"link_name":"proposed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobot#Titan"},{"link_name":"Titan Saturn System Mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_Saturn_System_Mission"}],"text":"A balloon can only have buoyancy if there is a medium that has a higher average density than the balloon itself.Balloons cannot work on the Moon because it has almost no atmosphere.[14]\nMars has a very thin atmosphere – the pressure is only 1⁄160 of earth atmospheric pressure – so a huge balloon would be needed even for a tiny lifting effect. Overcoming the weight of such a balloon would be difficult, but several proposals to explore Mars with balloons have been made.[15]\nVenus has a CO2 atmosphere. Because CO2 is about 50% denser than Earth air, ordinary Earth air could be a lifting gas on Venus. This has led to proposals for a human habitat that would float in the atmosphere of Venus at an altitude where both the pressure and the temperature are Earth-like. In 1985, the Soviet Vega program deployed two helium balloons in Venus's atmosphere at an altitude of 54 km (34 mi).\nTitan, Saturn's largest moon, has a dense, very cold atmosphere of mostly nitrogen that is appropriate for ballooning. A use of aerobots on Titan was proposed. The Titan Saturn System Mission proposal included a balloon to circumnavigate Titan.","title":"Balloons on other celestial bodies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"aerogel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel"},{"link_name":"Guinness World Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_World_Record"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"sponge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge"},{"link_name":"density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"SEAgel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEAgel"},{"link_name":"agar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agar"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Discovery_Channel-18"}],"text":"In 2002, aerogel held the Guinness World Record for the least dense (lightest) solid.[16] Aerogel is mostly air because its structure is like that of a highly vacuous sponge. The lightness and low density is due primarily to the large proportion of air within the solid and not the silicon construction materials.[17] Taking advantage of this, SEAgel, in the same family as aerogel but made from agar, can be filled with helium gas to create a solid which floats when placed in an open top container filled with a dense gas.[18]","title":"Solids"}]

[{"image_text":"The de Lana-Terzi's vacuum airship (1670)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Lana_airship.jpg/220px-Lana_airship.jpg"},{"image_text":"MAXIS: a balloon that has been able to reach a height of 36 km","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maxislaunch.jpg/220px-Maxislaunch.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Aerostat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerostat"},{"title":"Airship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airship"},{"title":"Balloon (aircraft)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)"},{"title":"Buoyancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy"},{"title":"Buoyancy compensator (aviation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy_compensator_(aviation)"},{"title":"Cloud Nine (tensegrity sphere)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_Nine_(tensegrity_sphere)"},{"title":"Heavier than air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavier_than_air"},{"title":"Hot air balloon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_air_balloon"},{"title":"Vacuum airship/Vacuum balloon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_airship"}]

[{"reference":"\"Air - Molecular Weight\". www.engineeringtoolbox.com. Retrieved 2018-01-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/molecular-mass-air-d_679.html","url_text":"\"Air - Molecular Weight\""}]},{"reference":"Balloon Flying Handbook (No. FAA-H-8083-11A). Washington, D.C.: Federal Aviation Administration. 2008. pp. 3-9–3-10.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bonnici, Maurizio; Tacchini, Alessandro; Vucinic, Dean (2014). \"Long Permanence High Altitude Airships: The Opportunity of Hydrogen\". European Transport Research Review. 6 (3): 253–266. Bibcode:2014ETRR....6..253B. doi:10.1007/s12544-013-0123-z. ISSN 1866-8887. S2CID 255617917.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12544-013-0123-z","url_text":"\"Long Permanence High Altitude Airships: The Opportunity of Hydrogen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ETRR....6..253B","url_text":"2014ETRR....6..253B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12544-013-0123-z","url_text":"10.1007/s12544-013-0123-z"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1866-8887","url_text":"1866-8887"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255617917","url_text":"255617917"}]},{"reference":"Schultheiß, Daniel (2007). Permeation Barrier for Lightweight Liquid Hydrogen Tanks (Thesis). OPUS Augsburg, Universit¨at Augsburg. p. 30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/21071375","url_text":"Permeation Barrier for Lightweight Liquid Hydrogen Tanks"}]},{"reference":"\"Balloon flight - Historical development\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-08-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/technology/balloon-flight","url_text":"\"Balloon flight - Historical development\""}]},{"reference":"Speight, James G. (2000). \"Fuels, Synthetic, Gaseous Fuels\". Kirk‐Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0701190519160509.a01. ISBN 9780471484943.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F0471238961.0701190519160509.a01","url_text":"10.1002/0471238961.0701190519160509.a01"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471484943","url_text":"9780471484943"}]},{"reference":"Terry, Herbert (14 July 1881). \"Coal-Gas Poisoning\". The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. 105 (2): 29–32. doi:10.1056/NEJM188107141050202.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM188107141050202","url_text":"\"Coal-Gas Poisoning\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM188107141050202","url_text":"10.1056/NEJM188107141050202"}]},{"reference":"\"Timothy S. Cole - Honored in 1995\". Colorado Aviation Historical Society. Retrieved 17 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.coloradoaviationhistoricalsociety.org/bio_popup.asp?id=2693","url_text":"\"Timothy S. Cole - Honored in 1995\""}]},{"reference":"\"HeiDAS UH – Ein Heissdampfaerostat mit ultra-heiss-performance\" (PDF). Aeroix.de. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-03. Retrieved 2012-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110903091949/http://www.aeroix.de/fileadmin/user_upload/aeroix/redakteure/Dokumente_HeiDAS/HeiDAS_DGLRKongress2005.pdf","url_text":"\"HeiDAS UH – Ein Heissdampfaerostat mit ultra-heiss-performance\""},{"url":"http://www.aeroix.de/fileadmin/user_upload/aeroix/redakteure/Dokumente_HeiDAS/HeiDAS_DGLRKongress2005.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sean A. Barton (21 October 2009). \"Stability Analysis of an Inflatable Vacuum Chamber\". Journal of Applied Mechanics. 75 (4): 041010. arXiv:physics/0610222. Bibcode:2008JAM....75d1010B. doi:10.1115/1.2912742. S2CID 118896629.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0610222","url_text":"physics/0610222"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JAM....75d1010B","url_text":"2008JAM....75d1010B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1115%2F1.2912742","url_text":"10.1115/1.2912742"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118896629","url_text":"118896629"}]},{"reference":"Sun, Haiyan; Xu, Zhen; Gao, Chao (2013-02-18). \"Multifunctional, Ultra-Flyweight, Synergistically Assembled Carbon Aerogels\". Advanced Materials. 25 (18). Wiley: 2554–2560. Bibcode:2013AdM....25.2554S. doi:10.1002/adma.201204576. ISSN 0935-9648. PMID 23418099. S2CID 205248394.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AdM....25.2554S","url_text":"2013AdM....25.2554S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fadma.201204576","url_text":"10.1002/adma.201204576"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0935-9648","url_text":"0935-9648"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23418099","url_text":"23418099"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205248394","url_text":"205248394"}]},{"reference":"Yanagi, Reo; Takemoto, Ren; Ono, Kenta; Ueno, Tomonaga (2021-06-14). \"Light-induced levitation of ultralight carbon aerogels via temperature control\". Scientific Reports. 11 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 12413. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91918-5. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8203743. PMID 34127746.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8203743","url_text":"\"Light-induced levitation of ultralight carbon aerogels via temperature control\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-021-91918-5","url_text":"10.1038/s41598-021-91918-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322","url_text":"2045-2322"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8203743","url_text":"8203743"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34127746","url_text":"34127746"}]},{"reference":"\"Is There an Atmosphere on the Moon?\". 7 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LADEE/news/lunar-atmosphere.html","url_text":"\"Is There an Atmosphere on the Moon?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Exploring Mars With Balloons\". Spacedaily.com. Retrieved 2012-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.spacedaily.com/news/mars-balloon-04a.html","url_text":"\"Exploring Mars With Balloons\""}]},{"reference":"Stenger, Richard (May 9, 2002). \"NASA's 'frozen smoke' named lightest solid\". edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 2018-01-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://edition.cnn.com/2002/TECH/space/05/09/record.gel/index.html","url_text":"\"NASA's 'frozen smoke' named lightest solid\""}]},{"reference":"Administrator, NASA Content (2015-04-15). \"Aerogels: Thinner, Lighter, Stronger\". NASA. Retrieved 2018-01-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/features/aerogels.html","url_text":"\"Aerogels: Thinner, Lighter, Stronger\""}]},{"reference":"Grommo (2008-06-20), SEAgel Aerogel lighter than air solid. Not a UFO, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 2018-01-16","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoCAxS4vqwQ","url_text":"SEAgel Aerogel lighter than air solid. Not a UFO"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/HoCAxS4vqwQ","url_text":"archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yggdrasil_Linux/GNU/X

Yggdrasil Linux/GNU/X

["1 History and releases","2 Yggdrasil Computing, Incorporated","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Linux distribution Linux distribution Linux/GNU/X Plug-and-Play LinuxOS familyLinux (Unix-like)Working stateObsoleteSource modelOpen sourceInitial releaseDecember 8, 1992; 31 years ago (1992-12-08)PlatformsIA-32Kernel typeLinux kernelUserlandGNUDefaultuser interfaceFVWMLicenseGNU GPL Yggdrasil Linux/GNU/X, or LGX (pronounced igg-drah-sill), is an early Linux distribution developed by Yggdrasil Computing, Incorporated, a company founded by Adam J. Richter in Berkeley, California. Yggdrasil was the first company to create a live CD Linux distribution. Yggdrasil Linux described itself as a "Plug-and-Play" Linux distribution, automatically configuring itself for the hardware. Yggdrasil is the World Tree of Norse mythology. The name was chosen because Yggdrasil took disparate pieces of software and assembled them into a complete product. Yggdrasil's company motto was "Free Software For The Rest of Us". Yggdrasil is compliant with the Unix Filesystem Hierarchy Standard. History and releases CD-ROM of the LGX Yggdrasil Linux distribution release "Fall 1993" Yggdrasil announced their ‘bootable Linux/GNU/X-based UNIX(R) clone for PC compatibles’ on 25 November 1992 and made the first release on 8 December 1992. This alpha release contained the 0.98.1 version of the Linux kernel, the v11r5 version of the X Window System supporting up to 1024x768 with 256 colours, various GNU utilities such as their C/C++ compiler, the GNU Debugger, bison, flex, and make, TeX, groff, Ghostscript, the elvis and Emacs editors, and various other software. Yggdrasil's alpha release required a 386 computer with 8 MB RAM and 100 MB hard disk. The alpha release was missing some of the source code of some of the packages, such as elvis. A beta release was made on 18 February 1993. The beta's cost was US$60. LGX's beta release in 1993 contained the 0.99.5 version of the Linux kernel, along with other software from GNU and X. By 22 August 1993, the Yggdrasil company had sold over 3100 copies of the LGX beta distribution. The production release version carried a pricetag of US$99. However, Yggdrasil was offered for free to any developer whose software was included with the CD distribution. According to an email from the company's founder the marginal cost of each subscription was $35.70. Early Yggdrasil releases were also available from stores selling CD-ROM software. Yggdrasil Computing, Incorporated Adam J. Richter started the Yggdrasil company together with Bill Selmeier. Richter spoke to Michael Tiemann about setting up a business, but was not interested in joining forces with Cygnus. Richter was a member of League for Programming Freedom. Richter was using only a 200 MB hard disk when building the alpha release of LGX, which prevented him from practically being able to include the source code of some of the packages contained in the CDROM. Yggdrasil Incorporated published some of the early Linux compilation books, such as The Linux Bible: The GNU Testament (ISBN 978-1883601201), and contributed significantly to file system and X Window System functionality of Linux in the early days of their operation. The company moved to San Jose, California in 1996. In 1996, Yggdrasil Incorporated released the Winter 1996 edition of Linux Internet Archives; six CDs of Linux software from Tsx-11 and Sunsite, the GNU archive on prep.ai.mit.edu, the X11R6 archives including the free contributed X11R6 software from ftp.x.org, the Internet RFC standards, and a total of nine non-Yggdrasil Linux distributions. The company remained active until at least year 2000, when it released the Linux Open Source DVD, but its website was taken offline afterwards and the company has not released anything since. The company's last corporate filing was in January 2004. The California Secretary of State lists it as suspended. The company once made an offer to donate 60% of the Yggdrasil CDROM sales revenues to the Computer Systems Research Group, but founder Adam J. Richter later indicated that the company would lose too much money and changed the offer accordingly, while still maintaining donations to CSRG. The company also had volume discount plans. See also Free and open-source software portal Arena, a web browser once developed by Yggdrasil Computing MCC Interim Linux References ^ a b c d Salus, Peter H (1 November 2005). "The Daemon, the GNU and the Penguin, by Dr. Peter H. Salus - Ch. 20". Groklaw. Archived from the original on 2018-07-17. Retrieved 2007-10-11. ^ a b Richter, Adam J (17 April 1996). "Yggdrasil Debian replacement CD's have arrived". debian-user mailing list. Debian.org. Retrieved 2007-10-11. ^ Linux SIG - Yggdrasil's Plug and Play Linux ^ a b "THE YGGDRASIL LINUX/GNU/X OPERATING SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION BETA CDROM". Order form. Yggdrasil Computing, Incorporated. 18 February 1993. Retrieved 2007-10-11. ^ a b Richter, Adam J (24 November 1992). "ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha release Linux/GNU/X unix clone on CDROM for PCs". linux-activists (Mailing list). ^ a b c Richter, Adam J (25 November 1992). "Re: ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha release Linux/GNU/X unix clone on CDROM for PCs". linux-activists (Mailing list). ^ a b c DistroWatch.com: Put the fun back into computing. Use Linux, BSD ^ Richter, Adam J (22 August 1993). "Re: Linux CD-ROMs in general --> Yggdrasil in particular". linux-activists (Mailing list). ^ Richter, Adam J (17 March 1993). "Re: Linux Foundation". linux-activists (Mailing list). ^ Richter, Adam J (30 November 1992). "Re: ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha Linux/GNU/X && Windows/NT SDK/DDK". linux-activists (Mailing list). ^ Archaeology ^ "Linux Internet Archives". New Products. Linux Journal. 1 May 1996. Retrieved 2007-10-11. ^ a b "Yggdasil Computing, Incorporated". California Secretary of State. Retrieved July 21, 2015. ^ *BSD News Article 1861 ^ Richter, Adam J (1992-12-01). "Frequently Asked Questions on Linux/GNU/X OS CDROM from Yggdrasil". linux-activists (Mailing list). External links Yggrasil Linux/GNU/X operating system distribution from 1995 (images) ibiblio's mirror of 1996's release of Yggrasil Linux/GNU/X operating system distribution (docs) DistroWatch on Yggdrasil Yggdrasil CD images in iso format at pd.spuddy.org vteLinux distributionsAndroid /e/ Android-x86 CalyxOS Celadon ColorOS DivestOS EMUI Fire OS GrapheneOS LineageOS MIUI One UI Paranoid Android PixelExperience Replicant Resurrection Remix OS OmniROM Arch ArchBang ArchLabs Artix BlackArch EndeavourOS Frugalware Garuda Hyperbola GNU LinHES Manjaro Parabola GNU SteamOS (3.0 onwards) SystemRescue DebianUbuntu Official: Edubuntu Kubuntu Lubuntu Ubuntu Budgie Ubuntu Cinnamon Ubuntu Kylin Ubuntu MATE Ubuntu Studio Ubuntu Unity Xubuntu Derivatives: BackBox Bodhi Linux elementary OS Emmabuntüs KDE neon Freespire Linux Lite Linux Mint LXLE Linux Nova OS Peppermint OS Pop! 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linux distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_distribution"},{"link_name":"Yggdrasil Computing, Incorporated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yggdrasil_Computing,_Incorporated"},{"link_name":"Berkeley, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley,_California"},{"link_name":"live CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_CD"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-groklaw-1"},{"link_name":"Plug-and-Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_and_play"},{"link_name":"Yggdrasil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yggdrasil"},{"link_name":"Norse mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_mythology"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sanjose-2"},{"link_name":"Filesystem Hierarchy Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesystem_Hierarchy_Standard"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-review-3"}],"text":"Linux distributionYggdrasil Linux/GNU/X, or LGX (pronounced igg-drah-sill), is an early Linux distribution developed by Yggdrasil Computing, Incorporated, a company founded by Adam J. Richter in Berkeley, California.Yggdrasil was the first company to create a live CD Linux distribution.[1] Yggdrasil Linux described itself as a \"Plug-and-Play\" Linux distribution, automatically configuring itself for the hardware.Yggdrasil is the World Tree of Norse mythology. The name was chosen because Yggdrasil took disparate pieces of software and assembled them into a complete product. Yggdrasil's company motto was \"Free Software For The Rest of Us\".[2]Yggdrasil is compliant with the Unix Filesystem Hierarchy Standard.[3]","title":"Yggdrasil Linux/GNU/X"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lgx_yggdrasil_fall_1993.jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96ibiblio-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-announce-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-groklaw-1"},{"link_name":"Linux kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel"},{"link_name":"X Window System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System"},{"link_name":"their C/C++ compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection"},{"link_name":"GNU Debugger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Debugger"},{"link_name":"bison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Bison"},{"link_name":"flex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flex_(lexical_analyser_generator)"},{"link_name":"make","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_(software)"},{"link_name":"TeX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TeX"},{"link_name":"groff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groff_(software)"},{"link_name":"Ghostscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostscript"},{"link_name":"elvis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_(text_editor)"},{"link_name":"Emacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emacs"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-announce-5"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-announce2-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96ibiblio-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-distrowatch-7"},{"link_name":"US$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US$"},{"link_name":"GNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-distrowatch-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usenet-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-groklaw-1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-offer-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cost-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-store-11"}],"text":"CD-ROM of the LGX Yggdrasil Linux distribution release \"Fall 1993\"Yggdrasil announced their ‘bootable Linux/GNU/X-based UNIX(R) clone for PC compatibles’[4] on 25 November 1992[5] and made the first release on 8 December 1992.[1]\nThis alpha release contained the 0.98.1 version of the Linux kernel, the v11r5 version of the X Window System supporting up to 1024x768 with 256 colours, various GNU utilities such as their C/C++ compiler, the GNU Debugger, bison, flex, and make, TeX, groff, Ghostscript, the elvis and Emacs editors, and various other software. Yggdrasil's alpha release required a 386 computer with 8 MB RAM and 100 MB hard disk.[5] The alpha release was missing some of the source code of some of the packages, such as elvis.[6]A beta release was made on 18 February 1993.[4][7] The beta's cost was US$60. LGX's beta release in 1993 contained the 0.99.5 version of the Linux kernel, along with other software from GNU and X.[7] By 22 August 1993, the Yggdrasil company had sold over 3100 copies of the LGX beta distribution.[8]The production release version carried a pricetag of US$99.[1] However, Yggdrasil was offered for free to any developer whose software was included with the CD distribution.[9] According to an email from the company's founder the marginal cost of each subscription was $35.70.[10]Early Yggdrasil releases were also available from stores selling CD-ROM software.[11]","title":"History and releases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Tiemann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Tiemann"},{"link_name":"Cygnus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_Solutions"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-groklaw-1"},{"link_name":"League for Programming Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_for_Programming_Freedom"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-announce2-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-announce2-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1883601201","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1883601201"},{"link_name":"San Jose, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sanjose-2"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-distrowatch-7"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CalSOS-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CalSOS-13"},{"link_name":"Computer Systems Research Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Systems_Research_Group"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-csrg-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-discounts-15"}],"text":"Adam J. Richter started the Yggdrasil company together with Bill Selmeier. Richter spoke to Michael Tiemann about setting up a business, but was not interested in joining forces with Cygnus.[1]Richter was a member of League for Programming Freedom.[6] Richter was using only a 200 MB hard disk when building the alpha release of LGX, which prevented him from practically being able to include the source code of some of the packages contained in the CDROM.[6]Yggdrasil Incorporated published some of the early Linux compilation books, such as The Linux Bible: The GNU Testament (ISBN 978-1883601201), and contributed significantly to file system and X Window System functionality of Linux in the early days of their operation.The company moved to San Jose, California in 1996.[2] In 1996, Yggdrasil Incorporated released the Winter 1996 edition of Linux Internet Archives; six CDs of Linux software from Tsx-11 and Sunsite, the GNU archive on prep.ai.mit.edu, the X11R6 archives including the free contributed X11R6 software from ftp.x.org, the Internet RFC standards, and a total of nine non-Yggdrasil Linux distributions.[12]The company remained active until at least year 2000, when it released the Linux Open Source DVD, but its website was taken offline afterwards and the company has not released anything since.[7]The company's last corporate filing was in January 2004.[13] The California Secretary of State lists it as suspended.[13]The company once made an offer to donate 60% of the Yggdrasil CDROM sales revenues to the Computer Systems Research Group, but founder Adam J. Richter later indicated that the company would lose too much money and changed the offer accordingly, while still maintaining donations to CSRG.[14]The company also had volume discount plans.[15]","title":"Yggdrasil Computing, Incorporated"}]

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[{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arena_(web_browser)"},{"title":"MCC Interim Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCC_Interim_Linux"}]

[{"reference":"Salus, Peter H (1 November 2005). \"The Daemon, the GNU and the Penguin, by Dr. Peter H. Salus - Ch. 20\". Groklaw. Archived from the original on 2018-07-17. Retrieved 2007-10-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180717184057/www.groklaw.net/articlebasic.php?story=20051031235811490","url_text":"\"The Daemon, the GNU and the Penguin, by Dr. Peter H. Salus - Ch. 20\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groklaw","url_text":"Groklaw"},{"url":"http://www.groklaw.net/articlebasic.php?story=20051031235811490","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Richter, Adam J (17 April 1996). \"Yggdrasil Debian replacement CD's have arrived\". debian-user mailing list. Debian.org. Retrieved 2007-10-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://lists.debian.org/debian-user/1996/04/msg00816.html","url_text":"\"Yggdrasil Debian replacement CD's have arrived\""}]},{"reference":"\"THE YGGDRASIL LINUX/GNU/X OPERATING SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION BETA CDROM\". Order form. Yggdrasil Computing, Incorporated. 18 February 1993. Retrieved 2007-10-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/historic-linux/ftp-archives/sunsite.unc.edu/Sep-29-1996/docs/distributions/yggdrasil/announcement","url_text":"\"THE YGGDRASIL LINUX/GNU/X OPERATING SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION BETA CDROM\""}]},{"reference":"Richter, Adam J (24 November 1992). \"ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha release Linux/GNU/X unix clone on CDROM for PCs\". linux-activists (Mailing list).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kclug.org/old_archives/linux-activists/1992/nov/3/0493.shtml","url_text":"\"ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha release Linux/GNU/X unix clone on CDROM for PCs\""}]},{"reference":"Richter, Adam J (25 November 1992). \"Re: ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha release Linux/GNU/X unix clone on CDROM for PCs\". linux-activists (Mailing list).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kclug.org/old_archives/linux-activists/1992/nov/3/0559.shtml","url_text":"\"Re: ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha release Linux/GNU/X unix clone on CDROM for PCs\""}]},{"reference":"Richter, Adam J (22 August 1993). \"Re: Linux CD-ROMs in general --> Yggdrasil in particular\". linux-activists (Mailing list).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kclug.org/old_archives/linux-activists/1993/aug/3/0072.shtml","url_text":"\"Re: Linux CD-ROMs in general --> Yggdrasil in particular\""}]},{"reference":"Richter, Adam J (17 March 1993). \"Re: Linux Foundation\". linux-activists (Mailing list).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kclug.org/old_archives/linux-activists/1993/mar/2/0519.shtml","url_text":"\"Re: Linux Foundation\""}]},{"reference":"Richter, Adam J (30 November 1992). \"Re: ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha Linux/GNU/X && Windows/NT SDK/DDK\". linux-activists (Mailing list).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kclug.org/old_archives/linux-activists/1992/nov/4/0261.shtml","url_text":"\"Re: ANNOUNCEMENT: Alpha Linux/GNU/X && Windows/NT SDK/DDK\""}]},{"reference":"\"Linux Internet Archives\". New Products. Linux Journal. 1 May 1996. Retrieved 2007-10-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/111","url_text":"\"Linux Internet Archives\""}]},{"reference":"\"Yggdasil Computing, Incorporated\". California Secretary of State. Retrieved July 21, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://businessfilings.sos.ca.gov/frmDetail.asp?CorpID=01824239","url_text":"\"Yggdasil Computing, Incorporated\""}]},{"reference":"Richter, Adam J (1992-12-01). \"Frequently Asked Questions on Linux/GNU/X OS CDROM from Yggdrasil\". linux-activists (Mailing list).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kclug.org/old_archives/linux-activists/1992/dec/0/0044.shtml","url_text":"\"Frequently Asked Questions on Linux/GNU/X OS CDROM from Yggdrasil\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lensic_Theater

Lensic Theater

["1 Early years","2 Decline and restoration","3 Details","4 References","5 External links"]

Coordinates: 35°41′16.5″N 105°56′28″W / 35.687917°N 105.94111°W / 35.687917; -105.94111Performing arts center in Santa Fe, New Mexico Lensic TheaterThe exterior of the pseudo-Moorish, Spanish Renaissance Lensic Theater in Santa Fe, New Mexico.Address211 West San Francisco StreetSanta Fe, New MexicoUnited StatesCoordinates35°41′16.5″N 105°56′28″W / 35.687917°N 105.94111°W / 35.687917; -105.94111Capacity821Current useperforming arts centerConstructionOpenedJune 24, 1931Rebuilt1999–2001ArchitectBoller BrothersWebsitewww.lensic.org The Lensic Theater, located at 211 West San Francisco Street in Santa Fe, New Mexico, is an 821-seat theater designed by Boller Brothers of Kansas City, well-known movie-theater and vaudeville-house architects who designed almost one hundred theaters throughout the West and mid-West, including the KiMo Theater in Albuquerque. The pseudo-Moorish, Spanish Renaissance Lensic was built by Nathan Salmon and E. John Greer and opened on 24 June 1931. Its name derives from the initials of Greer's six grandchildren. The Lensic was completely restored and renovated between 1999 and 2001, and provides Santa Fe and Northern New Mexico with a modern venue for the performing arts. Early years The Lensic was a centerpiece of Santa Fe movie and vaudeville entertainment from the 1930s through the 1960s and was graced by regular appearances by well-known stars, including Rita Hayworth, Roy Rogers, Judy Garland, Errol Flynn, Ronald Reagan, and Yehudi Menuhin. Decline and restoration Like many classic theaters in the US, the Lensic did not escape decline and deterioration from decades of use. By the end of the 1990s, The Lensic was operated and managed by United Artists film company. Its small stage size and outdated projection equipment meant that it couldn't be competitive as a multi-use venue, and thus it was used sporadically for live performance. From about 1998-1999, a non-profit group came together to raise money and restore The Lensic as a Performing Arts Center. In December 2000, the National Trust for Historic Preservation recognized the Lensic as an official project of Save America's Treasures. In April 2001, the restoration and renovation of the Lensic was completed. A primary goal of the renovation was to provide a superior performance venue for music and dramatic productions. The rear wall was removed to increase the depth of the stage house, and the installation of advanced lighting and sound systems allowed the restored Lensic to meet that goal. The unique architectural and ornamental details were painstakingly restored. The total cost of the renovation was approximately $9 million. Today the Lensic is the major performance venue in Santa Fe and is used by the Santa Fe Chamber Music Festival, the Santa Fe Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, the Santa Fe Desert Chorale, the Santa Fe Short Story Festival, the Aspen Santa Fe Ballet and Performance Santa Fe (which sponsors a variety of music, dance, and theater events). In addition, it functions as the location for ballet and lectures, for touring companies, and is still the venue for the screening of classic films on an occasional basis. Details Stage Dimensions Height: 22 ft (6.7 m) Width: 40 ft (12 m) Depth: up to 40 ft (12 m) Seating Capacity Orchestra level: 504 (max) Balcony level: 317 References ^ "Cinema Treasures: Lensic Performing Arts Center". Cinematreasures.org. ^ "National Trust for Historic Preservation: The Lensic Performing Arts Center". preservationnation.org. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lensic Theater. Official website The Life of The Lensic National Trust for Historic Preservation Boller Brothers Theaters Authority control databases: Geographic MusicBrainz place

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Santa Fe, New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Boller Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boller_Brothers"},{"link_name":"KiMo Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KiMo_Theater"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Performing arts center in Santa Fe, New MexicoThe Lensic Theater, located at 211 West San Francisco Street in Santa Fe, New Mexico, is an 821-seat theater designed by Boller Brothers of Kansas City, well-known movie-theater and vaudeville-house architects who designed almost one hundred theaters throughout the West and mid-West, including the KiMo Theater in Albuquerque. The pseudo-Moorish, Spanish Renaissance Lensic was built by Nathan Salmon and E. John Greer and opened on 24 June 1931. Its name derives from the initials of Greer's six grandchildren.The Lensic was completely restored and renovated between 1999 and 2001, and provides Santa Fe and Northern New Mexico with a modern venue for the performing arts.[1]","title":"Lensic Theater"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rita Hayworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita_Hayworth"},{"link_name":"Roy Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Rogers"},{"link_name":"Judy Garland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Garland"},{"link_name":"Errol Flynn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errol_Flynn"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"Yehudi Menuhin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehudi_Menuhin"}],"text":"The Lensic was a centerpiece of Santa Fe movie and vaudeville entertainment from the 1930s through the 1960s and was graced by regular appearances by well-known stars, including Rita Hayworth, Roy Rogers, Judy Garland, Errol Flynn, Ronald Reagan, and Yehudi Menuhin.","title":"Early years"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Trust for Historic Preservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Trust_for_Historic_Preservation"},{"link_name":"Save America's Treasures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_America%27s_Treasures"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe Chamber Music Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Chamber_Music_Festival"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe Symphony Orchestra and Chorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Symphony_Orchestra_and_Chorus"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe Desert Chorale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Desert_Chorale"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe Short Story Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa_Fe_Short_Story_Festival&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Aspen Santa Fe Ballet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.aspensantafeballet.com"},{"link_name":"Performance Santa Fe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//performancesantafe.org"}],"text":"Like many classic theaters in the US, the Lensic did not escape decline and deterioration from decades of use. By the end of the 1990s, The Lensic was operated and managed by United Artists film company. Its small stage size and outdated projection equipment meant that it couldn't be competitive as a multi-use venue, and thus it was used sporadically for live performance. From about 1998-1999, a non-profit group came together to raise money and restore The Lensic as a Performing Arts Center. In December 2000, the National Trust for Historic Preservation recognized the Lensic as an official project of Save America's Treasures.[2] In April 2001, the restoration and renovation of the Lensic was completed.A primary goal of the renovation was to provide a superior performance venue for music and dramatic productions. The rear wall was removed to increase the depth of the stage house, and the installation of advanced lighting and sound systems allowed the restored Lensic to meet that goal. The unique architectural and ornamental details were painstakingly restored. The total cost of the renovation was approximately $9 million.Today the Lensic is the major performance venue in Santa Fe and is used by the Santa Fe Chamber Music Festival, the Santa Fe Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, the Santa Fe Desert Chorale, the Santa Fe Short Story Festival, the Aspen Santa Fe Ballet and Performance Santa Fe (which sponsors a variety of music, dance, and theater events). In addition, it functions as the location for ballet and lectures, for touring companies, and is still the venue for the screening of classic films on an occasional basis.","title":"Decline and restoration"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Stage Dimensions\nHeight: 22 ft (6.7 m)\nWidth: 40 ft (12 m)\nDepth: up to 40 ft (12 m)\nSeating Capacity\nOrchestra level: 504 (max)\nBalcony level: 317","title":"Details"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice_system

List of national legal systems

["1 Civil law","2 Common law","3 Religious law","4 Pluralistic systems","4.1 Civil law and canon law","4.2 Civil law and common law","4.3 Civil law and sharia law","4.4 Common law and sharia law","5 By geography","6 See also","7 References","8 Sources","9 External links"]

System for interpreting and enforcing the laws Legal systems of the world The contemporary national legal systems are generally based on one of four basic systems: civil law, common law, customary law, religious law or combinations of these. However, the legal system of each country is shaped by its unique history and so incorporates individual variations. The science that studies law at the level of legal systems is called comparative law. Both civil (also known as Roman) and common law systems can be considered the most widespread in the world: civil law because it is the most widespread by landmass and by population overall, and common law because it is employed by the greatest number of people compared to any single civil law system. Civil law Main article: Civil law (legal system) Shamash (the Babylonian sun god) hands King Hammurabi a code of law. The source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature, to amend a code. While the concept of codification dates back to the Code of Hammurabi in Babylon ca. 1790 BC, civil law systems derive from the Roman Empire and, more particularly, the Corpus Juris Civilis issued by the Emperor Justinian ca. AD 529. This was an extensive reform of the law in the Byzantine Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was also partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law and Islamic law. Civil law today, in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges. Only legislative enactments (rather than legal precedents, as in common law) are considered legally binding. Scholars of comparative law and economists promoting the legal origins theory usually subdivide civil law into distinct groups: French civil law: in France, the Benelux countries, Italy, Romania, Spain and former colonies of those countries, mainly in Latin America, Africa and the Middle East; German civil law: in Germany, Austria, Russia, Switzerland, Estonia, Latvia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo*, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia, Greece, Portugal and its former colonies, Turkey, and East Asian countries including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan (Republic of China); Scandinavian civil law: in Northern Europe such as Denmark, Norway, Finland, Iceland and Sweden. As historically integrated into the Scandinavian cultural sphere, Finland and Iceland also inherited the system, although especially Iceland has its own legal roots. Scandinavian or Nordic civil law exhibit least similar treats with other civil law systems and is sometimes considered a legal system in its own right, despite reception from mainly German civil law. However, some of these legal systems are often and more correctly said to be of hybrid nature: Napoleonic to Germanistic influence (Italian civil law) The Italian civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865, introducing germanistic elements due to the geopolitical alliances of the time. The Italian approach has been imitated by other countries including Portugal (1966), the Netherlands (1992), Lithuania (2000), Brazil (2002) and Argentina (2014). Most of them have innovations introduced by the Italian legislation, including the unification of the civil and commercial codes. Germanistic to Napoleonic influence (Swiss civil law) The Swiss civil code is considered mainly influenced by the German civil code and partly influenced by the French civil code. The civil code of the Republic of Turkey is a slightly modified version of the Swiss code, adopted in 1926 during Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's presidency as part of the government's progressive reforms and secularization. A comprehensive list of countries that base their legal system on a codified civil law follows: Country Description Albania Based on Napoleonic civil law. Angola Based on Portuguese civil law. Argentina The Spanish legal tradition had a great influence on the Civil Code of Argentina, basically a work of the Argentine jurist Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield, who dedicated five years of his life to this task. The Civil Code came into effect on 1 January 1871. Beyond the influence of the Spanish legal tradition, the Argentinian Civil Code was also inspired by the Draft of the Brazilian Civil Code, the Draft of the Spanish Civil Code of 1851, the Napoleonic code and the Chilean Civil Code. The sources of this Civil Code also include various theoretical legal works, mainly of the great French jurists of the 19th century. It was the first Civil Law that consciously adopted as its cornerstone the distinction between i. rights from obligations and ii. real property rights, thus distancing itself from the French model. The Argentinian Civil Code was also in effect in Paraguay, as per a Paraguayan law of 1880, until the new Civil Code went into force in 1987. In Argentina, this 1871 Civil Code remained in force until August 2015, when it was replaced by the new Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación. During the second half of the 20th century, the German legal theory became increasingly influential in Argentina. Andorra Courts apply the customary laws of Andorra, supplemented with Roman law and customary Catalan law. Armenia Based on Napoleonic Civil law and traditional Armenian law. Aruba Based on Dutch civil law Austria Based on Roman and Germanic Civil law. The Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (ABGB) of 1811. The ABGB is influenced both by Roman and Austrian law traditions. Comparable to the Napoleonic code, it is based on the ideals of freedom and equality before the law. Azerbaijan Based on German, French, Russian, and traditional Azerbaijani Law Belarus Based on Germanic Civil law (administrative, criminal codes) Belgium The Napoleonic Code is still in use, although it is heavily modified (especially concerning family law) Benin Based on Napoleonic Civil law. Bolivia Influenced by the Napoleonic Code Bosnia and Herzegovina Influenced by Austrian law. The Swiss civil law (Zivilgesetzbuch) was a model for the Law on Obligations of 1978. Brazil Based on German, Italian, French and Portuguese law. However, in 2004 the Federal Constitution was amended to grant the Supreme Federal Court authority to issue binding precedents (súmulas vinculantes) to settle controversies involving constitutional law – a mechanism that echoes the stare decisis principle typically found in common law systems. Bulgaria Civil Law system influenced by Germanic and Roman law systems Burkina Faso Based on the French civil law Burundi Based on the French civil law Chad Based on the French civil law People's Republic of China Based on Germanic Civil law and France Civil law, also with influences from the Soviet Socialist law from Soviet Union Republic of the Congo Based on the Napoleonic Civil law. Democratic Republic of the Congo Based on Belgian civil law Cambodia Cape Verde Based on Portuguese civil law Central African Republic Based on the French civil law system Chile Based on the Chilean Civil Law inspired by the Napoleonic Civil Law. The Spanish legal tradition exercised an especially great influence on the civil code of Chile. On its turn, the Chilean civil code influenced to a large degree the drafting of the civil codes of other Latin-American states. For instance, the codes of Ecuador (1861) and Colombia (1873) constituted faithful reproductions of the Chilean code, but for very few exceptions. The compiler of the Civil Code of Chile, Venezuelan Andrés Bello, worked for its completion for almost 30 years, using elements, of the Spanish law on the one hand, and of other Western laws, especially of the French one, on the other. It is noted that he consulted and used all of the codes that had been issued till then, starting from the era of Justinian. The Civil Code came into effect on 1 January 1857. The influence of the Napoleonic code and the Law of Castile of the Spanish colonial period (especially the Siete Partidas), is great; it is observed however that e.g. in many provisions of property or contract law, the solutions of the French code civil were put aside in favor of pure Roman law or Castilian law. Colombia Based on the Chilean Civil Law. Civil code introduced in 1873. Nearly faithful reproduction of the Chilean civil code Costa Rica Based on the Napoleonic Civil Law. First Civil Code (a part of the General Code or Carrillo Code) came into effect in 1841; its text was inspired by the South Peruvian Civil Code of Marshal Andres de Santa Cruz. The present Civil Code went into effect 1 January 1888 and was influenced by the Napoleonic Code and the Spanish Civil Code of 1889 (from its 1851 draft version). Croatia Based on the Germanic Civil Law. The Croatian Law system is largely influenced by German and Austrian law systems. It is significantly influenced by the Civil Code of the Austrian Empire from 1811, known in Croatia as "General Civil Law" ("Opći građanski zakon"). OGZ was in force from 1853 to 1946. After the World War II, Croatia becomes a member of the Yugoslav Federation which enacted in 1946 the "Law on immediate voiding of regulations passed before April 6, 1941, and during the enemy occupation" ("Zakon o nevaženju pravnih proposal donesenih prije 6. travnja 1941. i za vrijeme neprijateljske okupacije"). By this law, OGZ was declared invalid as a whole, but the implementation of some of its legal rules was approved. During the post-War era, the Croatian legal system become influenced by elements of the socialist law. Croatian civil law was pushed aside, and it took norms of public law and legal regulation of the social ownership. After Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991, the previous legal system was used as a base for writing new laws. "The Law on Obligations" ("Zakon o obveznim odnosima") was enacted in 2005. Today, Croatia as a European Union member state implements elements of the EU acquis into its legal system. Cuba Influenced by Spanish and American law with large elements of Communist legal theory. Curaçao Based on Dutch Civil Law. Czech Republic Based on Germanic civil law. Descended from the Civil Code of the Austrian Empire (1811), influenced by German (1939–45) and Soviet (1947/68–89) legal codes during occupation periods, substantially reformed to remove Soviet influence and elements of socialist law after the Velvet Revolution (1989). The new Civil Code of the Czech Republic was introduced in 2014, reestablishing the norms of the ABGB, an reintroducing terms and concepts from it. Denmark Based on North Germanic law. Scandinavian-North Germanic civil law. Dominican Republic Based on the Napoleonic Code Ecuador Based on the Chilean civil law. Civil code introduced in 1861. El Salvador Based on law. Estonia Based on German civil law. Finland Based on Nordic law. France Based on Napoleonic code (code civil of 1804) Egypt Based on Napoleonic civil law and Islamic law. Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Based on the French civil law system Guinea Based on French civil law system, customary law, and decree Guinea-Bissau Based on Portuguese civil law Georgia Germany Based on Germanic civil law. The Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch of 1900 ("BGB"). The BGB is influenced both by Roman and German law traditions. Greece Based on Germanic civil law. The Greek civil code of 1946, highly influenced by traditional Roman law and the German civil code of 1900 (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch); the Greek civil code replaced the Byzantine–Roman civil law in effect in Greece since its independence (Νομική Διάταξη της Ανατολικής Χέρσου Ελλάδος, Legal Provision of Eastern Mainland Greece, November 1821: 'Οι Κοινωνικοί Νόμοι των Αειμνήστων Χριστιανών Αυτοκρατόρων της Ελλάδος μόνοι ισχύουσι κατά το παρόν εις την Ανατολικήν Χέρσον Ελλάδα', 'The Social Laws of the Dear Departed Christian Emperors of Greece alone are in effect at present in Eastern Mainland Greece') Guatemala Based on Napoleonic civil law. Guatemala has had three Civil Codes: the first one from 1877, a new one introduced in 1933, and the one currently in force, which was passed in 1963. This Civil Code has suffered some reforms throughout the years, as well as a few derogations relating to areas that have subsequently been regulated by newer laws, such as the Code of Commerce and the Law of the National Registry of Persons. In general, it follows the tradition of the Roman-French system of civil codification. Regarding the theory of 'sources of law' in the Guatemalan legal system, the 'Ley del Organismo Judicial' recognizes 'the law' as the main legal source (in the sense of legislative texts), although it also establishes 'jurisprudence' as a complementary source. Although jurisprudence technically refers to judicial decisions in general, in practice it tends to be confused and identified with the concept of 'legal doctrine', which is a qualified series of identical resolutions in similar cases pronounced by higher courts (the Constitutional Court acting as a 'Tribunal de Amparo', and the Supreme Court acting as a 'Tribunal de Casación') whose theses become binding for lower courts. Haiti Based on Napoleonic civil law. Honduras Hungary Based on Germanic, codified Roman law with elements from Napoleonic civil law. Iceland Based on North Germanic law. Germanic traditional laws and influenced by Medieval Norwegian and Danish laws. India (former French and Portuguese colonies) Based on Portuguese civil law (Goa, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu), and French civil law (Puducherry). Vedic Hindu legal traditions also influenced the legal system in India. Italy Based on Germanic civil law, with elements of the Napoleonic civil code; civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865 Ivory Coast Based on French civil law system Japan Based on Germanic civil law. Japanese civil code of 1895. Latvia Based on Napoleonic and German civil law, as it was historically before the Soviet occupation. While general principles of law are prerequisites in making and interpreting the law, case law is also regularly applied to present legal arguments in courts and explain the application of law in similar cases. Civil law largely modeled after the Napoleonic code mixed with strong elements of German civil law. Criminal law retains Russian and German legal traditions, while criminal procedure law has been fully modeled after practice accepted in Western Europe. The civil law of Latvia enacted in 1937. Lebanon Based on Napoleonic civil law. Lithuania Modeled after Dutch civil law Louisiana( U.S.) Law in the state of Louisiana is based on French and Spanish civil law. Federal courts and 49 states use the legal system based on English common law (see below), which has diverged somewhat since the mid-nineteenth century in that they look to each other's cases for guidance on issues of the first impression and rarely look at contemporary cases on the same issue in the UK or the Commonwealth. Luxembourg Based on Napoleonic civil law. Macau (P.R.China) Principally based on Portuguese civil law, also influenced by PRC law. Mexico Based on Napoleonic civil law."The origins of Mexico's legal system are both ancient and classical, based on the Roman and French legal systems, and the Mexican system shares more in common with other legal systems throughout the world (especially those in Latin America and most of continental Europe) ..." Mongolia Based on Germanic civil law. Montenegro Based on Napoleonic and German civil law. First: the General Property Code for the Principality of Montenegro of 1888, written by Valtazar Bogišić. Present: the Law on Obligations of 2008. Mozambique Based on Portuguese civil law Netherlands Based on Napoleonic code with German law influence Nepal Based on Civil Code, however, the principle of stare decisis is widely practised. The legal system of Nepal has been influenced by British Legal System Norway Scandinavian-North Germanic civil law, based on North Germanic law. King Magnus VI the Lawmender unified the regional laws into a single code of law for the whole kingdom in 1274. This was replaced by Christian V's Norwegian Code of 1687. Panama Paraguay The Paraguayan Civil Code in force since 1987 is largely influenced by the Napoleonic Code and the Argentinian Code Peru Based on civil law system. accepts compulsory International Court of Justice ICJ jurisdiction with despotic and corrupting reservations. Poland The Polish Civil Code in force since 1965 Portugal Influenced by the Napoleonic Code and later by the German civil law Taiwan (Republic of China) Influenced by German Civil Code and Japanese Six Codes. Enacted in 1931. Romania Civil Code came into force in 2011. Based on the Civil Code of Quebec, but also influenced by the Napoleonic Code and other French-inspired codes (such as those of Italy, Spain and Switzerland) Russia Civil Law system descendant from Roman Law through Byzantine tradition. Heavily influenced by German and Dutch norms in the 1700s. Socialism-style modifications from 1920s on, and Continental European Civil Law influences since the 1990s. Rwanda Mixture of Belgian civil law and English common law São Tomé e Príncipe Based on Portuguese civil law Serbia First: the Civil Code of Principality of Serbia of 1844, written by Jovan Hadžić, was influenced by the Austrian Civil Code (Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch). Present: The Swiss civil law (Zivilgesetzbuch) was a model for the Law on Obligations of 1978. Slovakia Descended from the Civil Code of the Austrian Empire (1811), influenced by German (1939–45) and Soviet (1947/68–89) legal codes during occupation periods, substantially reformed to remove Soviet influence and elements of socialist law after the Velvet Revolution (1989). Slovenia A Civil Law system influenced mostly by Germanic and Austro-Hungarian law systems South Korea Based on the German civil law system. Also largely influenced by Japanese civil law which itself modeled after the German one. Korean Civil Code was introduced 1958 and fully enacted by 1960. Spain Influenced by the Napoleonic Code, it also has some elements of Spain's legal tradition, starting with the Siete Partidas, major legislative achievement from the Middle Ages. That body of law remained more or less unchanged until the 19th century when the first civil codes were drafted, merging both the Napoleonic style with the Castilian traditions. Suriname Based on Dutch civil law Sweden Scandinavian-North Germanic civil law. Like all Scandinavian legal systems, it is distinguished by its traditional character and for the fact that it did not adopt elements of Roman law. It assimilated very few elements of foreign laws whatsoever. The Napoleonic Code had no influence in the codification of law in Scandinavia. The historical basis of the law of Sweden, just as for all Nordic countries, is North Germanic law. Codification of the law started in Sweden during the 18th century, preceding the codifications of most other European countries. However, neither Sweden nor any other Nordic state created a civil code of the kind of the Code Civil or the BGB. Switzerland The Swiss Civil Code of 1908 and 1912 (obligations; fifth book) Syria Based on Napoleonic civil law. Timor-Leste Based on Portuguese civil law Turkey Modeled after the Swiss civil law (Zivilgesetzbuch) of 1907. Ukraine Based on German civil law and was accepted in 2004. Uruguay The basis for its public law is the 1967 Constitution, amended in 1989, 1994, 1996, and 2004. There is a clear separation of functions between the three administrative powers. Private relationships are governed by the Uruguayan Civil Code. Uzbekistan Represents an evolution of Soviet civil law. The overwhelmingly strong impact of the Communist legal theory is traceable. Vietnam Based on Communist legal theory, influenced by French civil law. Venezuela Based on Napoleonic civil law. Spanish legal traditions also influenced the civil law system in Venezuela. Common law Main article: Common law King John of England signs Magna Carta. Common law and equity are systems of law whose sources are the decisions in cases by judges. In addition, every system will have a legislature that passes new laws and statutes. The relationships between statutes and judicial decisions can be complex. In some jurisdictions, such statutes may overrule judicial decisions or codify the topic covered by several contradictory or ambiguous decisions. In some jurisdictions, judicial decisions may decide whether the jurisdiction's constitution allowed a particular statute or statutory provision to be made or what meaning is contained within the statutory provisions. The common law developed in England, influenced by Anglo-Saxon law and to a much lesser extent by the Norman conquest of England, which introduced legal concepts from Norman law, which, in turn, had its origins in Salic law. Common law was later inherited by the Commonwealth of Nations, and almost every former colony of the British Empire has adopted it (Malta being an exception). The doctrine of stare decisis, also known as case law or precedent by courts, is the major difference to codified civil law systems. Common law is practiced in Canada (excluding Quebec), Australia, New Zealand, most of the United Kingdom (England, Wales, and Northern Ireland), South Africa, Ireland, India (excluding Goa and Puducherry), Pakistan, Hong Kong, the United States (on state and territorial levels excluding Louisiana and Puerto Rico), Bangladesh, and many other places. Several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system; For example, Nigeria operates largely on a common law system in the southern states and at the federal level, but also incorporates religious law in the northern states. In the European Union, the Court of Justice takes an approach mixing civil law (based on the treaties) with an attachment to the importance of case law. One of the most fundamental documents to shape common law is the English Magna Carta, which placed limits on the power of the English Kings. It served as a kind of medieval bill of rights for the aristocracy and the judiciary who developed the law. Country Description American Samoa Based on law of the United States. Antigua and Barbuda Based on English common law. Australia Based on English common law. Bahamas Based on English common law. Bangladesh Based on English common law, with the Muslim family law heavily based on Islamic law (Sharia). Barbados Based on English common law. Belize Based on English common law. Bhutan Based on English common law, with an Indian influence. Religious law influences personal law. British Virgin Islands Based on English common law. Canada Based on English common law, except in Quebec, where a civil law system based on French law prevails in most matters of a civil nature, such as obligations (contract and delict), property law, family law, and private matters. Federal statutes take into account the juridical nature of Canada and use both common law and civil law terms where appropriate. Cayman Islands Based on English common law. Cyprus Based on English common law, as inherited from British colonization, with civil law influences, particularly in criminal law. Dominica Based on English common law. England and Wales( UK) Primarily common law, with early Roman and some modern continental European influences. Fiji Based on English common law. Gibraltar Based on English common law. Ghana Based on English common law. Grenada Based on English common law. Hong Kong (P.R.China) Principally based on English common law, also influenced by PRC law. India Based on English common law, except intermingled laws in Goa, DNHDD and Puducherry. Vedic Hindu legal traditions also influenced the legal system in India. Ireland Based on Irish law before 1922, which was itself based on English common law. Israel Based on English common law, arising from the period of the British Mandate (which includes laws arising from previous Ottoman rule), also incorporating civil law and fragments of Halakha and Sharia for family law cases Jamaica Based on English common law. Kiribati Based on English common law. Liberia Based on Anglo-American and customary law Marshall Islands Based on law of the United States. Myanmar Based on English common law. Nauru Based on English common law. Nepal Based on English common law. New Zealand Based on English common law. Northern Ireland( UK) Based on Irish law before 1921, in turn, based on English common law. Palau Based on law of the United States. Pakistan Based on English common law, with some provisions of Islamic law. Papua New Guinea Based on English common law and customary laws of its more than 750 different cultural and language groups. Saint Kitts and Nevis Based on English common law. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Based on English common law. Singapore Based on English common law, but Muslims are subject to the Administration of Muslim Law Act, which gives the Sharia Court jurisdiction over Muslim personal law, e.g., marriage, inheritance and divorce. Tonga Based on English common law. Trinidad and Tobago Based on English common law. Tuvalu Based on English common law. Uganda Based on English common law. United States Federal courts and 49 states use the legal system based on English common law, which has diverged somewhat since the mid-nineteenth century in that they look to each other's cases for guidance on issues of the first impression and rarely if ever, look at contemporary cases on the same issue in the UK or the Commonwealth. Louisiana is based on French and Spanish civil law, and Puerto Rico is based on Spanish civil law. Religious law Main article: Religious law Religious law refers to the notion of a religious system or document being used as a legal source, though the methodology used varies. For example, the use of Judaism and halakha for public law has a static and unalterable quality, precluding amendment through legislative acts of government or development through judicial precedent; Christian canon law is more similar to civil law in its use of codes; and Islamic sharia law (and fiqh jurisprudence) is based on legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (qiyas), and is thus considered similar to common law. The main kinds of religious law are sharia in Islam, halakha in Judaism, and canon law in some Christian groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual moral guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended and may be used as the basis for a country's legal system; the latter was particularly common during the Middle Ages. Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing Halakha is followed by Orthodox and Conservative Jews in both ecclesiastical and civil relations. No country is fully governed by halakha, but two Jewish people may decide, because of personal belief, to have a dispute heard by a Jewish court, and be bound by its rulings. Canon law is the internal ecclesiastical law, or operational policy, governing the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches), the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the individual national churches within the Anglican Communion. Canon law of the Catholic Church (Latin: jus canonicum) is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church. The canon law of the Catholic Church has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system: laws, courts, lawyers, judges. The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western legal system, and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West. while the distinctive traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris. The Islamic legal system, consisting of sharia (Islamic law) and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), is the most widely used religious law system, and one of the three most common legal systems in the world alongside common law and civil law. It is based on both divine law, derived from the hadith of the Quran and Sunnah, and the rulings of ulema (jurists), who use the methods of ijma (consensus), qiyas (analogical deduction), ijtihad (research), and urf (common practice) to derive fatwā (legal opinions). An ulema was required to qualify for an ijazah (legal doctorate) at a madrasa (law school or college) before they could issue fatwā. During the Islamic Golden Age, classical Islamic law may have had an influence on the development of common law and several civil law institutions. Sharia law governs a number of Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, though most countries use Sharia law only as a supplement to national law. It can relate to all aspects of civil law, including property rights, contracts, and public law. Country Description Afghanistan Islamic law, based on Sunni Hanafi jurisprudence. Iran Islamic law, based on Shia Jaʽfari jurisprudence. Nigeria Sharia in the northern states, common law in the south and at the federal level. Saudi Arabia Islamic law. Yemen Islamic law. Pluralistic systems Civil law and canon law Main article: Canon law (Catholic Church) Canon law is not divine law, properly speaking, because it is not found in revelation. Instead, it is seen as human law inspired by the word of God and applying the demands of that revelation to the actual situation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal ordering of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. Canon law is amended and adopted by the legislative authority of the church, such as councils of bishops, individual bishops for their respective sees, the Pope for the entire Catholic Church, and the British Parliament for the Church of England. Country Description Vatican City Based on Roman & Italian civil law and Catholic canon law Civil law and common law Country Description Botswana Based on South African law. An 1891 proclamation by the High Commissioner for Southern Africa applied the law of the Cape Colony (now part of South Africa) to the Bechuanaland Protectorate (now Botswana). Cameroon Mixture of French civil law system and English common law (After World War I, Cameroon was ruled by France and the United Kingdom as a League of Nations mandate then a United Nations trust territory from 1916 to 1961) Cyprus Based on English common law (Cyprus was a British colony 1878–1960), with admixtures of French and Greek civil and public law, Italian civil law, Indian contract law, Greek Orthodox canon law and Muslim religious law. Eswatini Based on South African law. A 1907 proclamation by the High Commissioner for Southern Africa applied the Roman-Dutch common law of the Transvaal Colony (now part of South Africa) to the Swaziland Protectorate (now Eswatini). Guyana Guyana follows a mixed legal system, a combination of Civil Law & Common Law. India In post-independence India, the Uniform Penal Code throughout India and civil code to residents of Goa. The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita and the Bharatiya Sakshya Act, 2023 amendment bills with minor changes. While Hindu personal law based on customary laws of Indian religions and Muslim personal law based on hanafi school are currently used, the Indian government is promoting a Uniform Civil Code that applies to all citizens. Kenya Based on English Common Law and Civil law as well as the country's customary law. Lesotho Based on South African law. An 1884 proclamation by the High Commissioner for Southern Africa applied the law of the Cape Colony (now part of South Africa) to Basutoland (now Lesotho). Louisiana( U.S.) Based on French and Spanish civil law, but federal laws (based on common law) are also in effect in Louisiana because of federal Supremacy Clause. However, Louisiana's criminal law, procedural law and administrative law is predominantly based on the common law tradition. Malta Initially based on Roman Law and eventually progressed to the Code de Rohan, the Napoleonic Code with influences from Italian Civil Law. English common law however is also a source of Maltese Law, most notably in Public Law. Mauritius Laws governing the Mauritian penal system are derived partly from French civil law and British common law. Namibia Based on South African law. South Africa conquered South-West Africa (now Namibia) in 1915, and a 1919 proclamation by the Governor-General applied the law of the Cape Province of South Africa to the territory. Philippines Based on Spanish law; influenced by U.S. common law after 1898 Spanish– and Philippine–American Wars, personal law based on sharia law applies to Muslims. Puerto Rico( U.S.) Based on Spanish law; influenced by U.S. common law after 1898 (victory of the U.S. over Spain in the Spanish–American War of 1898 and cession of Puerto Rico to the U.S.); federal laws (based on common law) are in effect because of federal Supremacy Clause. Quebec( Canada) After the 1763 Treaty of Paris awarded French Canada to Great Britain, the British initially attempted to impose English Common Law. In 1774, as a result of a ruling by the British courts in Campbell v Hall about the status of legal systems found in acquired territories, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, which preserved French civil law for private law while keeping and reserving English common law for public law including criminal prosecution. Codification occurred in 1866 with the enactment of the Civil Code of Lower Canada (French: Code civil du Bas-Canada), which continued in force when the modern Province of Quebec was created at Confederation in 1867. Subsequently, the Civil Code of Quebec (French: Code civil du Québec) came into effect on 1 January 1994, and is the civil code currently in force. Canadian (federal) criminal law in force in Quebec is based on common law, but federal statutes of or relating to private law take into account the bijuridical nature of Canada and use both common law and civil law terms where appropriate. Saint Lucia Scotland( UK) Based on Roman and continental law, with common law elements dating back to the High Middle Ages. Seychelles The substantive civil law is based on the French Civil Code. Otherwise, the criminal law and court procedure are based on the English common law. See Seychelles Legal Environment. South Africa An amalgam of Roman-Dutch civil law and English common law, as well as Customary Law. Sri Lanka An amalgam of English common law, Roman-Dutch civil law and Customary Law Thailand The Thai legal system became an amalgam of German, Swiss, French, English, Japanese, Italian, Indian and American laws and practices. Even today, Islamic laws and practices exist in four southern provinces. Over the years, Thai law has naturally taken on its own Thai identity. Vanuatu Consists of a mixed system combining the legacy of English common law, French civil law and indigenous customary law. Zimbabwe Based on South African law. An 1891 proclamation by the High Commissioner for Southern Africa applied the law of the Cape Colony (now part of South Africa) to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). Civil law and sharia law Country Description Algeria Bahrain Comoros Djibouti Egypt Family Law (personal Statute) for Muslims based on Islamic Jurisprudence, Separate Personal Statute for non-Muslims, and all other branches of Law are based on French civil law system Eritrea Only applies to Muslims for personal matters Indonesia Based on Napoleonic-Dutch civil law, mixed with Islamic sharia law, and Customary Law. Jordan Mainly based on French Civil Code and Ottoman Majalla, Islamic law applicable to family law Mauritania Mix of Islamic law and French Civil Codes, Islamic law largely applicable to both criminal, family law, and other forms of personal laws such as disputes. Mauritius Civil law and sharia personal law for Muslims. Morocco Based on Islamic law and French and Spanish civil law system. Islamic law is mainly for personal matters and Jews use Halakha. Oman Qatar Based on Islamic law and the Egyptian civil law system (after the French civil law system) Syria Mainly based on French Civil Code. Islamic law is applicable to family law. Non-Muslims follow their own family laws. United Arab Emirates Mixed legal system, based on Islamic law and the Egyptian civil law system (after the French civil law system). The UAE adopts a dual legal system of civil and Sharia. Common law and sharia law Country Description Bangladesh Based on English common law, personal law based on sharia law applies to Muslims. Brunei The Gambia Malaysia Based on English common law, personal law based on sharia law applies to Muslims. Nigeria Common law is used at the federal level and in most states, Sharia is applied in some northern states. Pakistan Based on English common law, some Islamic law (sharia) applications in inheritance. Formerly Tribal Law in the FATA. By geography Despite the usefulness of different classifications, every legal system has its own individual identity. Below are groups of legal systems, categorised by their geographic location. vteLaw of Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limitedrecognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies andother territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla  (Spain) Madeira (Portugal) Mayotte / Réunion (France) Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom) vteLaw of North America Sovereign states Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Belize Canada Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago United States Dependencies andother territories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda Bonaire British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Greenland Guadeloupe Martinique Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten Turks and Caicos Islands United States Virgin Islands vteLaw of South America Sovereign states Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Dependencies andother territories Falkland Islands French Guiana South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands vteLaw of Asia Sovereign states Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus East Timor (Timor-Leste) Egypt Georgia India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen States withlimited recognition Abkhazia Northern Cyprus Palestine South Ossetia Taiwan Dependencies andother territories British Indian Ocean Territory Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Hong Kong Macau Category Asia portal vteLaw in EuropeSovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Vatican City States with limitedrecognition Abkhazia Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies andother entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union vteLaw of Oceania Sovereign states Australia Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Kiribati Marshall Islands Nauru New Zealand Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Associated statesof New Zealand Cook Islands Niue Dependenciesand other territories American Samoa Christmas Island Clipperton Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Easter Island French Polynesia Guam Hawaii New Caledonia Norfolk Island Northern Mariana Islands Pitcairn Islands Tokelau Wallis and Futuna See also Anarchist law Comparative law English common law International customary law Sharia Qanun (law) Legal pluralism Journal of Legal Pluralism Rule of law Rule According to Higher Law Socialist law Soviet law Tribal sovereignty Western law Comparative law wiki Legal education References ^ "Legal Systems of the World" (PDF). Saint: Security Sector Development. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2017. ^ Wood, Phillip (2007). Principles of International Insolvency. Sweet & Maxwell. ISBN 9781847032102. Retrieved 30 August 2015. ^ Wood, Phillip (2008). Maps of World Financial Law:Law and practice of international finance series. Sweet & Maxwell. ISBN 9781847033420. Retrieved 30 August 2015. ^ "English Common Law is the most widespread legal system in the world" (PDF). Sweet & Maxwell. November 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2015. ^ Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems", The American Journal of Comparative Law, 26 (2 ): 187–198 , doi:10.2307/839667, JSTOR 839667 ^ a b Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law", North Carolina Law Review, 77 (5): 1635–1739 ^ Triggiano, Annalisa. "Towards a Civil Code: The Italian Experience". Teoria e Storia del Diritto Privato. ^ Franklin, Mitchell (Spring 1951). "On the Legal Method of the Uniform Commercial Code". Law and Contemporary Problems. 16 (2): 330–343. doi:10.2307/1190098. JSTOR 1190098. ^ The Civil Code of the Republic of Albania, 1991 Archived 22 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas Públicas – Argentina". InfoLEG. Retrieved 19 January 2017. ^ "Comienza a regir el nuevo Código Civil y Comercial". Jornadaonline.com. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2017. ^ Andorra (11/07) ^ "Opći građanski zakonik | Hrvatska enciklopedija". Enciklopedija.hr. Retrieved 19 January 2017. ^ Croatian legal history in the European context, Dalibor Čepulo, p. 357 ^ a b The World Factbook ^ a b Jain, Subhash C. (1970). "French Legal System in Pondicherry: An Introduction". Journal of the Indian Law Institute. 12 (4): 573–608. ISSN 0019-5731. JSTOR 43950094. ^ a b c Ritisha, Sinha (13 December 2023). "India government introduces revised criminal law amendment bills with minor changes". Jurist. Retrieved 31 March 2024. ^ a b c Bhaumik, Aaratrika (18 December 2023). "Revised criminal law bills: The key changes | Explained". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 31 March 2024. ^ a b Ignazio, Castellucci (2012). "Legal Hybridity in Hong Kong and Macau" (PDF). McGill Law Journal. 57 (4): 665–720. doi:10.7202/1013028ar. ^ "Jaime B. Berger Stender Attorney at Law author, Tijuana, B.C., Mexico". Archived from the original on 4 April 2005. Retrieved 23 February 2007. ^ Valeriu Stoica (2009). Drept civil. Drepturile reale Principale. Bucharest: C.H. Beck. pp. XIII. ^ Maggs, Peter B., Olga Schwartz, and William Burnham. Law and legal system of the Russian Federation. Juris Publishing, Inc., 2015. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=J0jwCQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR21&dq=russian+legal+system&ots=uQU0mbKn8F&sig=CwIWM2Ce6-GTpN_bz_ZYq2fSwDY#v=onepage&q=russian%20legal%20system&f=false ^ Butler, William E. "Russian law." Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, Second Edition. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2012. 777-788. https://www.elgaronline.com/display/edcoll/9781849804158/9781849804158.00066.xml ^ Constitution of Uruguay (in Spanish) ^ Uruguayan Civil Code Archived 2013-12-13 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish) ^ "Venezuela: Legal tradition". International Commission of Jurists. Retrieved 19 November 2021. ^ Manooja, D. C. (2000). "Uniform Civil Code: A Suggestion". Journal of the Indian Law Institute. 42 (2/4): 448–457. ISSN 0019-5731. JSTOR 43953824. ^ "Magna Carta". Retrieved 10 November 2006. ^ Nandini Chavan, Qutub Jehan Kidwai (2006). "Territorial Diversities and Personal Laws". Personal Law Reforms and Gender Empowerment: A Debate on Uniform Civil Code. Hope India Publications. p. 245. ISBN 978-81-7871-079-2. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ a b Martin, Lau (1994). "Introduction to the Pakistani Legal System, with Special Reference to the Law of Contract". HeinOnline. ^ El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. (2006), Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice, Cambridge University Press, p. 16, ISBN 0-521-86414-3 ^ Boudinhon, Auguste. "Canon Law." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 9 August 2013 ^ Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 771: "Jus canonicum" ^ Della Rocca, Manual of Canon Law, p. 3. ^ Edward N. Peters, "A Catechist's Introduction to Canon Law", CanonLaw.info, accessed June-11-2013 ^ Berman, Harold J. Law and Revolution, pp. 86, 115. ^ Edward N. Peters, CanonLaw.info Home Page, accessed 11 June 2013. ^ Raymond Wacks,Law: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Ed. (Oxford University Press, 2015) p. 13. ^ Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems", The American Journal of Comparative Law, 26 (2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, 24–25 February 1977): 187–198, doi:10.2307/839667, JSTOR 839667 ^ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 109 (2): 175–182 , doi:10.2307/604423, JSTOR 604423 ^ Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems", The American Journal of Comparative Law, 26 (2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, 24–25 February 1977): 187–198 , doi:10.2307/839667, JSTOR 839667 ^ Arwa, Ibrahim. "Explainer: The Taliban and Islamic law in Afghanistan". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 23 August 2021. ^ "An Intellectual History of the Ja'fari School". Law and religion forum. Retrieved 25 August 2022. ^ "Pope Francis reforms Vatican City courts with new law". Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 16 February 2021. ^ a b c Pain, JH (July 1978). "The reception of English and Roman-Dutch law in Africa with reference to Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland". The Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa. 11 (2): 137–167. ^ Errol, A. Adams (2020). "Guyana Law and Legal Research". Hauser Global Law School Program, New York University School of Law. ^ "Religious conversion: HC query raises more question marks". The Times of India. Retrieved 1 December 2017. ^ "Modi's party set to bring contentious common civil laws in India through states". Reuters. Retrieved 31 January 2024. ^ "Mauritius-Penal System". Retrieved 19 March 2018. ^ Geraldo, Geraldine Mwanza; Nowases, Isabella (April 2010). "Researching Namibian Law and the Namibian Legal System". Retrieved 7 May 2013. ^ This definition is partly disputed – Thomson, Stephen, Mixed Jurisdiction and the Scottish Legal Tradition: Reconsidering the Concept of Mixture (2014) 7(1) Journal of Civil Law Studies 51–91 ^ "The Federal Judiciary". The UAE Government. 2022. Sources Books Moustaira Elina N., Comparative Law: University Courses (in Greek), Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2004, ISBN 960-15-1267-5. Moustaira Elina N., Milestones in the Course of Comparative Law: Thesis and Antithesis (in Greek), Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2003, ISBN 960-15-1097-4. Palmer, Vernon Valentine, Mohamed Y. Mattar, & Anna Kopper, eds. Mixed Legal Systems, East and West. Farnham–Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014. External links World Legal Systems, Website of the Faculty of Law of the University of Ottawa Factbook list of legal systems vteLawCore subjects Administrative law Civil law Constitutional law Contract Criminal law Crime Deed Equity Evidence International law Law of obligations Private law Procedure Civil Criminal Property law Public law Restitution and unjust enrichment Statutory law Tort Disciplines Abortion law Agricultural law Aviation law Amnesty law Banking law Bankruptcy Commercial law Competition law Conflict of laws Construction law Consumer protection Corporate law Cyberlaw Drugs law Election law Energy law Entertainment law (Media law) Environmental law Family law Financial law Financial regulation Health law Immigration law Intellectual property International criminal law International human rights International slavery laws International trade law Jurimetrics Labour Landlord–tenant law Law of war Legal archaeology Legal fiction Maritime law Marriage law Military law 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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Legal_Systems_-_Global.svg"},{"link_name":"systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems"},{"link_name":"civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)"},{"link_name":"common law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law"},{"link_name":"customary law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customary_law"},{"link_name":"religious law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_law"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"comparative law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_law"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Legal systems of the worldThe contemporary national legal systems are generally based on one of four basic systems: civil law, common law, customary law, religious law or combinations of these. However, the legal system of each country is shaped by its unique history and so incorporates individual variations.[1] The science that studies law at the level of legal systems is called comparative law.Both civil (also known as Roman) and common law systems can be considered the most widespread in the world: civil law because it is the most widespread by landmass and by population overall, and common law because it is employed by the greatest number of people compared to any single civil law system.[2][3][4]","title":"List of national legal systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.png"},{"link_name":"Shamash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamash"},{"link_name":"Babylonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonia"},{"link_name":"Hammurabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi"},{"link_name":"code of law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Code_of_Hammurabi"},{"link_name":"codifications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codification_(law)"},{"link_name":"statute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute"},{"link_name":"legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislature"},{"link_name":"Code of Hammurabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi"},{"link_name":"Babylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Corpus Juris Civilis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis"},{"link_name":"Justinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"religious laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_law"},{"link_name":"Canon law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law"},{"link_name":"Islamic law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Badr-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-J-Makdisi-6"},{"link_name":"legislative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislature"},{"link_name":"precedents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent"},{"link_name":"comparative law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_law"},{"link_name":"legal origins theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_origins_theory"},{"link_name":"French civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Code"},{"link_name":"Benelux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benelux"},{"link_name":"German civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Germany#Civil_law"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"its former colonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Empire"},{"link_name":"Scandinavian civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_law"},{"link_name":"Northern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Europe"},{"link_name":"has its own","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Iceland#History"},{"link_name":"Italian civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_law"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"civil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_code"},{"link_name":"commercial codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_code_(law)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Swiss civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_law"},{"link_name":"Swiss civil code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_civil_code"},{"link_name":"Republic of Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey"},{"link_name":"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk"},{"link_name":"codified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codification_(law)"}],"text":"Shamash (the Babylonian sun god) hands King Hammurabi a code of law.The source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature, to amend a code.\nWhile the concept of codification dates back to the Code of Hammurabi in Babylon ca. 1790 BC, civil law systems derive from the Roman Empire and, more particularly, the Corpus Juris Civilis issued by the Emperor Justinian ca. AD 529. This was an extensive reform of the law in the Byzantine Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was also partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law and Islamic law.[5][6] Civil law today, in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges. Only legislative enactments (rather than legal precedents, as in common law) are considered legally binding.Scholars of comparative law and economists promoting the legal origins theory usually subdivide civil law into distinct groups:French civil law: in France, the Benelux countries, Italy, Romania, Spain and former colonies of those countries, mainly in Latin America, Africa and the Middle East;\nGerman civil law: in Germany, Austria, Russia, Switzerland, Estonia, Latvia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo*, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia, Greece, Portugal and its former colonies, Turkey, and East Asian countries including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan (Republic of China);\nScandinavian civil law: in Northern Europe such as Denmark, Norway, Finland, Iceland and Sweden. As historically integrated into the Scandinavian cultural sphere, Finland and Iceland also inherited the system, although especially Iceland has its own legal roots. Scandinavian or Nordic civil law exhibit least similar treats with other civil law systems and is sometimes considered a legal system in its own right, despite reception from mainly German civil law.However, some of these legal systems are often and more correctly said to be of hybrid nature:Napoleonic to Germanistic influence (Italian civil law)The Italian civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865, introducing germanistic elements due to the geopolitical alliances of the time.[7] The Italian approach has been imitated by other countries including Portugal (1966), the Netherlands (1992), Lithuania (2000), Brazil (2002) and Argentina (2014). Most of them have innovations introduced by the Italian legislation, including the unification of the civil and commercial codes.[8]Germanistic to Napoleonic influence (Swiss civil law)The Swiss civil code is considered mainly influenced by the German civil code and partly influenced by the French civil code. The civil code of the Republic of Turkey is a slightly modified version of the Swiss code, adopted in 1926 during Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's presidency as part of the government's progressive reforms and secularization.A comprehensive list of countries that base their legal system on a codified civil law follows:","title":"Civil law"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_(Magna_Carta)_by_English_School.png"},{"link_name":"Magna Carta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta"},{"link_name":"equity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity_(law)"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxons"},{"link_name":"Norman conquest of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England"},{"link_name":"Norman law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_law"},{"link_name":"Salic law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salic_law"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"precedent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_law"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"England, Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_law"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_law"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_India"},{"link_name":"Goa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goa_civil_code"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Court of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"Magna Carta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"King John of England signs Magna Carta.Common law and equity are systems of law whose sources are the decisions in cases by judges. In addition, every system will have a legislature that passes new laws and statutes. The relationships between statutes and judicial decisions can be complex. In some jurisdictions, such statutes may overrule judicial decisions or codify the topic covered by several contradictory or ambiguous decisions. In some jurisdictions, judicial decisions may decide whether the jurisdiction's constitution allowed a particular statute or statutory provision to be made or what meaning is contained within the statutory provisions. The common law developed in England, influenced by Anglo-Saxon law and to a much lesser extent by the Norman conquest of England, which introduced legal concepts from Norman law, which, in turn, had its origins in Salic law. Common law was later inherited by the Commonwealth of Nations, and almost every former colony of the British Empire has adopted it (Malta being an exception). The doctrine of stare decisis, also known as case law or precedent by courts, is the major difference to codified civil law systems.Common law is practiced in Canada (excluding Quebec), Australia, New Zealand, most of the United Kingdom (England, Wales, and Northern Ireland), South Africa, Ireland, India (excluding Goa and Puducherry),[27] Pakistan, Hong Kong, the United States (on state and territorial levels excluding Louisiana and Puerto Rico), Bangladesh, and many other places. Several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system; For example, Nigeria operates largely on a common law system in the southern states and at the federal level, but also incorporates religious law in the northern states.In the European Union, the Court of Justice takes an approach mixing civil law (based on the treaties) with an attachment to the importance of case law. One of the most fundamental documents to shape common law is the English Magna Carta,[28] which placed limits on the power of the English Kings. It served as a kind of medieval bill of rights for the aristocracy and the judiciary who developed the law.","title":"Common law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"halakha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha"},{"link_name":"canon law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law"},{"link_name":"civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)"},{"link_name":"codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_(law)"},{"link_name":"sharia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia"},{"link_name":"fiqh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh"},{"link_name":"precedent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent"},{"link_name":"analogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogy"},{"link_name":"qiyas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiyas"},{"link_name":"common law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"sharia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia"},{"link_name":"halakha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha"},{"link_name":"canon law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism"},{"link_name":"Conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Judaism"},{"link_name":"Canon law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law"},{"link_name":"ecclesiastical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Latin Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Church"},{"link_name":"Eastern Catholic Churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Oriental Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"Anglican Communion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Communion"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Canon law of the Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_system"},{"link_name":"laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"},{"link_name":"legal principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law"},{"link_name":"hierarchical authorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"courts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_court"},{"link_name":"lawyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_lawyer"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clinfocat-36"},{"link_name":"legal system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_system"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Eastern Catholic canon law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_canon_law"},{"link_name":"particular churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particular_church"},{"link_name":"sui iuris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_iuris"},{"link_name":"sharia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia"},{"link_name":"fiqh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh"},{"link_name":"religious law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_law"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"divine law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_law"},{"link_name":"hadith of the Quran and Sunnah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith_of_the_Quran_and_Sunnah"},{"link_name":"ulema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema"},{"link_name":"ijma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijma"},{"link_name":"qiyas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiyas"},{"link_name":"ijtihad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad"},{"link_name":"urf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urf"},{"link_name":"fatwā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatw%C4%81"},{"link_name":"ijazah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijazah"},{"link_name":"legal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_degree"},{"link_name":"doctorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorate"},{"link_name":"madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasa"},{"link_name":"law school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_school"},{"link_name":"college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G-Makdisi-41"},{"link_name":"Islamic Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age"},{"link_name":"influence on the development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-J-Makdisi-6"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-42"}],"text":"Religious law refers to the notion of a religious system or document being used as a legal source, though the methodology used varies. For example, the use of Judaism and halakha for public law has a static and unalterable quality, precluding amendment through legislative acts of government or development through judicial precedent; Christian canon law is more similar to civil law in its use of codes; and Islamic sharia law (and fiqh jurisprudence) is based on legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (qiyas), and is thus considered similar to common law.[32]The main kinds of religious law are sharia in Islam, halakha in Judaism, and canon law in some Christian groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual moral guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended and may be used as the basis for a country's legal system; the latter was particularly common during the Middle Ages.Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointingHalakha is followed by Orthodox and Conservative Jews in both ecclesiastical and civil relations. No country is fully governed by halakha, but two Jewish people may decide, because of personal belief, to have a dispute heard by a Jewish court, and be bound by its rulings.Canon law is the internal ecclesiastical law, or operational policy, governing the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches), the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the individual national churches within the Anglican Communion.[33] Canon law of the Catholic Church (Latin: jus canonicum)[34] is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church.[35] The canon law of the Catholic Church has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system: laws, courts, lawyers, judges.[36] The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western legal system,[37] and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West.[38][39] while the distinctive traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris.The Islamic legal system, consisting of sharia (Islamic law) and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), is the most widely used religious law system, and one of the three most common legal systems in the world alongside common law and civil law.[40] It is based on both divine law, derived from the hadith of the Quran and Sunnah, and the rulings of ulema (jurists), who use the methods of ijma (consensus), qiyas (analogical deduction), ijtihad (research), and urf (common practice) to derive fatwā (legal opinions). An ulema was required to qualify for an ijazah (legal doctorate) at a madrasa (law school or college) before they could issue fatwā.[41] During the Islamic Golden Age, classical Islamic law may have had an influence on the development of common law[6] and several civil law institutions.[42] Sharia law governs a number of Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, though most countries use Sharia law only as a supplement to national law. It can relate to all aspects of civil law, including property rights, contracts, and public law.","title":"Religious law"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Pluralistic systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canon law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law"},{"link_name":"Canon law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law_(Catholic_Church)"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodox Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Anglican Communion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Communion"},{"link_name":"councils of bishops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_conference"},{"link_name":"Pope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"}],"sub_title":"Civil law and canon law","text":"Canon law is not divine law, properly speaking, because it is not found in revelation. Instead, it is seen as human law inspired by the word of God and applying the demands of that revelation to the actual situation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal ordering of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. Canon law is amended and adopted by the legislative authority of the church, such as councils of bishops, individual bishops for their respective sees, the Pope for the entire Catholic Church, and the British Parliament for the Church of England.","title":"Pluralistic systems"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Civil law and common law","title":"Pluralistic systems"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Civil law and sharia law","title":"Pluralistic systems"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Common law and sharia law","title":"Pluralistic systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"geographic location","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Africa_topic"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topic"},{"link_name":"Law of Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Africa"},{"link_name":"Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Algeria&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Angola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Angola&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Benin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Benin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Botswana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Botswana&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Burkina Faso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Burkina_Faso&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Burundi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Burundi"},{"link_name":"Cameroon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Cameroon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cape Verde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Cape_Verde&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Central African Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Central_African_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Chad&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Comoros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_Comoros"},{"link_name":"Democratic Republic of the Congo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Republic of the Congo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Djibouti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Djibouti&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Equatorial Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Equatorial_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Eritrea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Eritrea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Eswatini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Eswatini&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Ethiopia"},{"link_name":"Gabon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Gabon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"The Gambia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Gambia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ghana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Ghana&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Guinea-Bissau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guinea-Bissau&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ivory Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Kenya&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lesotho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Lesotho&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Liberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Liberia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Libya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Libya"},{"link_name":"Madagascar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Madagascar&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Malawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Malawi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mali&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mauritania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mauritania&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mauritius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mauritius&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Mozambique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Namibia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Namibia"},{"link_name":"Niger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Niger"},{"link_name":"Nigeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Nigeria"},{"link_name":"Rwanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Rwanda&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"São Tomé and Príncipe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe"},{"link_name":"Senegal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Senegal&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Seychelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Seychelles&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sierra Leone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sierra_Leone&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Somalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Somalia"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"South Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tanzania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tanzania&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Togo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Togo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tunisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tunisia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Uganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Uganda"},{"link_name":"Zambia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Zambia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Zimbabwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Zimbabwe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sahrawi Arab Democratic 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Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Marshall_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nauru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Nauru"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Palau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Palau&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Papua New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Papua_New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"Samoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Solomon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tonga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tonga&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tuvalu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Tuvalu"},{"link_name":"Vanuatu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Vanuatu"},{"link_name":"Cook Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Cook_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Niue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Niue&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"American Samoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_American_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Christmas Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Clipperton Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Clipperton_Island&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cocos (Keeling) Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Easter Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"French Polynesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_French_Polynesia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Guam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guam&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"New Caledonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_New_Caledonia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Norfolk Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Northern Mariana Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands"},{"link_name":"Pitcairn Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tokelau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tokelau&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Wallis and Futuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Despite the usefulness of different classifications, every legal system has its own individual identity. Below are groups of legal systems, categorised by their geographic location.vteLaw of Africa Sovereign states\nAlgeria\nAngola\nBenin\nBotswana\nBurkina Faso\nBurundi\nCameroon\nCape Verde\nCentral African Republic\nChad\nComoros\nDemocratic Republic of the Congo\nRepublic of the Congo\nDjibouti\nEgypt\nEquatorial Guinea\nEritrea\nEswatini\nEthiopia\nGabon\nThe Gambia\nGhana\nGuinea\nGuinea-Bissau\nIvory Coast\nKenya\nLesotho\nLiberia\nLibya\nMadagascar\nMalawi\nMali\nMauritania\nMauritius\nMorocco\nMozambique\nNamibia\nNiger\nNigeria\nRwanda\nSão Tomé and Príncipe\nSenegal\nSeychelles\nSierra Leone\nSomalia\nSouth Africa\nSouth Sudan\nSudan\nTanzania\nTogo\nTunisia\nUganda\nZambia\nZimbabwe\nStates with limitedrecognition\nSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic\nSomaliland\nDependencies andother territories\nCanary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla  (Spain)\nMadeira (Portugal)\nMayotte / Réunion (France)\nSaint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)vteLaw of North America Sovereign states\nAntigua and Barbuda\nBahamas\nBarbados\nBelize\nCanada\nCosta Rica\nCuba\nDominica\nDominican Republic\nEl Salvador\nGrenada\nGuatemala\nHaiti\nHonduras\nJamaica\nMexico\nNicaragua\nPanama\nSaint Kitts and Nevis\nSaint Lucia\nSaint Vincent and the Grenadines\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUnited States\nDependencies andother territories\nAnguilla\nAruba\nBermuda\nBonaire\nBritish Virgin Islands\nCayman Islands\nCuraçao\nGreenland\nGuadeloupe\nMartinique\nMontserrat\nPuerto Rico\nSaint Barthélemy\nSaint Martin\nSaint Pierre and Miquelon\nSaba\nSint Eustatius\nSint Maarten\nTurks and Caicos Islands\nUnited States Virgin IslandsvteLaw of South America Sovereign states\nArgentina\nBolivia\nBrazil\nChile\nColombia\nEcuador\nGuyana\nParaguay\nPeru\nSuriname\nUruguay\nVenezuela\nDependencies andother territories\nFalkland Islands\nFrench Guiana\nSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich IslandsvteLaw of Asia Sovereign states\nAfghanistan\nArmenia\nAzerbaijan\nBahrain\nBangladesh\nBhutan\nBrunei\nCambodia\nChina\nCyprus\nEast Timor (Timor-Leste)\nEgypt\nGeorgia\nIndia\nIndonesia\nIran\nIraq\nIsrael\nJapan\nJordan\nKazakhstan\nNorth Korea\nSouth Korea\nKuwait\nKyrgyzstan\nLaos\nLebanon\nMalaysia\nMaldives\nMongolia\nMyanmar\nNepal\nOman\nPakistan\nPhilippines\nQatar\nRussia\nSaudi Arabia\nSingapore\nSri Lanka\nSyria\nTajikistan\nThailand\nTurkey\nTurkmenistan\nUnited Arab Emirates\nUzbekistan\nVietnam\nYemen\nStates withlimited recognition\nAbkhazia\nNorthern Cyprus\nPalestine\nSouth Ossetia\nTaiwan\nDependencies andother territories\nBritish Indian Ocean Territory\nChristmas Island\nCocos (Keeling) Islands\nHong Kong\nMacau\n\n Category\n Asia portalvteLaw in EuropeSovereign states\nAlbania\nAndorra\nArmenia\nAustria\nAzerbaijan\nBelarus\nBelgium\nBosnia and Herzegovina\nBulgaria\nCroatia\nCyprus\nCzech Republic\nDenmark\nEstonia\nFinland\nFrance\nGeorgia\nGermany\nGreece\nHungary\nIceland\nIreland\n\nItaly\nKazakhstan\nLatvia\nLiechtenstein\nLithuania\nLuxembourg\nMalta\nMoldova\nMonaco\nMontenegro\nNetherlands\nNorth Macedonia\nNorway\nPoland\nPortugal\nRomania\nRussia\nSan Marino\nSerbia\nSlovakia\nSlovenia\nSpain\nSweden\nSwitzerland\nTurkey\nUkraine\nUnited Kingdom\nEngland\nNorthern Ireland\nScotland\nWales\nVatican City\nStates with limitedrecognition\nAbkhazia\nKosovo\nNorthern Cyprus\nSouth Ossetia\nTransnistria\nDependencies andother entities\nÅland\nFaroe Islands\nGibraltar\nGuernsey\nIsle of Man\nJersey\nSvalbard\nOther entities\nEuropean UnionvteLaw of Oceania Sovereign states\nAustralia\nFederated States of Micronesia\nFiji\nKiribati\nMarshall Islands\nNauru\nNew Zealand\nPalau\nPapua New Guinea\nSamoa\nSolomon Islands\nTonga\nTuvalu\nVanuatu\nAssociated statesof New Zealand\nCook Islands\nNiue\nDependenciesand other territories\nAmerican Samoa\nChristmas Island\nClipperton Island\nCocos (Keeling) Islands\nEaster Island\nFrench Polynesia\nGuam\nHawaii\nNew Caledonia\nNorfolk Island\nNorthern Mariana Islands\nPitcairn Islands\nTokelau\nWallis and Futuna","title":"By geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"960-15-1267-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/960-15-1267-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"960-15-1097-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/960-15-1097-4"}],"text":"Books\nMoustaira Elina N., Comparative Law: University Courses (in Greek), Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2004, ISBN 960-15-1267-5.\nMoustaira Elina N., Milestones in the Course of Comparative Law: Thesis and Antithesis (in Greek), Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2003, ISBN 960-15-1097-4.\nPalmer, Vernon Valentine, Mohamed Y. Mattar, & Anna Kopper, eds. Mixed Legal Systems, East and West. Farnham–Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014.","title":"Sources"}]

[{"image_text":"Legal systems of the world","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Legal_Systems_-_Global.svg/220px-Legal_Systems_-_Global.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Shamash (the Babylonian sun god) hands King Hammurabi a code of law.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.png/150px-Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.png"},{"image_text":"King John of England signs Magna Carta.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png/150px-King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png"},{"image_text":"Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg/150px-Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Anarchist law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchist_law"},{"title":"Comparative law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_law"},{"title":"English common law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_common_law"},{"title":"International customary law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_customary_law"},{"title":"Sharia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia"},{"title":"Qanun (law)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanun_(law)"},{"title":"Legal pluralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_pluralism"},{"title":"Journal of Legal Pluralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Legal_Pluralism"},{"title":"Rule of law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_law"},{"title":"Rule According to Higher Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_According_to_Higher_Law"},{"title":"Socialist law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_law"},{"title":"Soviet law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_law"},{"title":"Tribal sovereignty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty"},{"title":"Western law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_law"},{"title":"Comparative law wiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_law_wiki"},{"title":"Legal education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_education"}]

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Maps of World Financial Law:Law and practice of international finance series. Sweet & Maxwell. ISBN 9781847033420. Retrieved 30 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5vKGAAACAAJ","url_text":"Maps of World Financial Law:Law and practice of international finance series"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847033420","url_text":"9781847033420"}]},{"reference":"\"English Common Law is the most widespread legal system in the world\" (PDF). Sweet & Maxwell. November 2008. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil

Devil

["1 Etymology","2 Definitions","3 Baháʼí Faith","4 Christianity","4.1 Apocrypha/Deuterocanon","5 Gnostic religions","5.1 Catharism","6 Islam","6.1 In Sufism and mysticism","6.2 In Salafism","7 Judaism","8 Mandaeism","9 Manichaeism","10 Tengrism","11 Yazidism","12 Zoroastrianism","13 Devil in moral philosophy","13.1 Spinoza","13.2 Kant","14 Titles","15 Contemporary belief","16 See also","17 Notes","18 References","19 External links"]

Personification of evil "Devilish" redirects here. For other uses, see Devil (disambiguation). Statue of the devil in the Žmuidzinavičius Museum or Devil's Museum in Kaunas, Lithuania Satan (the dragon; on the left) gives to the beast of the sea (on the right) power represented by a sceptre in a detail of panel III.40 of the medieval French Apocalypse Tapestry, produced between 1377 and 1382. A fresco detail from the Rila Monastery, in which demons are depicted as having grotesque faces and bodies A devil is the personification of evil as it is conceived in various cultures and religious traditions. It is seen as the objectification of a hostile and destructive force. Jeffrey Burton Russell states that the different conceptions of the devil can be summed up as 1) a principle of evil independent from God, 2) an aspect of God, 3) a created being turning evil (a fallen angel), and 4) a symbol of human evil.: 23  Each tradition, culture, and religion with a devil in its mythos offers a different lens on manifestations of evil. The history of these perspectives intertwines with theology, mythology, psychiatry, art, and literature, developing independently within each of the traditions. It occurs historically in many contexts and cultures, and is given many different names—Satan, Lucifer, Beelzebub, Mephistopheles, Iblis—and attributes: it is portrayed as blue, black, or red; it is portrayed as having horns on its head, and without horns, and so on. While depictions of the devil are usually taken seriously, there are times when it is treated less seriously; when, for example, devil figures are used in advertising and on candy wrappers. Etymology The Modern English word devil derives from the Middle English devel, from the Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of the Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from the Greek διάβολος diábolos, "slanderer", from διαβάλλειν diabállein, "to slander" from διά diá, "across, through" and βάλλειν bállein, "to hurl", probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate, "he lifts up". Definitions In his book The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Jeffrey Burton Russell discusses various meanings and difficulties that are encountered when using the term devil. He does not claim to define the word in a general sense, but he describes the limited use that he intends for the word in his book—limited in order to "minimize this difficulty" and "for the sake of clarity". In this book Russell uses the word devil as "the personification of evil found in a variety of cultures", as opposed to the word Satan, which he reserves specifically for the figure in the Abrahamic religions. In the Introduction to his book Satan: A Biography, Henry Ansgar Kelly discusses various considerations and meanings that he has encountered in using terms such as devil and Satan, etc. While not offering a general definition, he describes that in his book "whenever diabolos is used as the proper name of Satan", he signals it by using "small caps". The Oxford English Dictionary has a variety of definitions for the meaning of "devil", supported by a range of citations: "Devil" may refer to Satan, the supreme spirit of evil, or one of Satan's emissaries or demons that populate Hell, or to one of the spirits that possess a demoniac person; "devil" may refer to one of the "malignant deities" feared and worshiped by "heathen people", a demon, a malignant being of superhuman powers; figuratively "devil" may be applied to a wicked person, or playfully to a rogue or rascal, or in empathy often accompanied by the word "poor" to a person—"poor devil". Baháʼí Faith In the Baháʼí Faith, a malevolent, superhuman entity such as a devil or satan is not believed to exist. However, these terms do appear in the Baháʼí writings, where they are used as metaphors for the lower nature of man. Human beings are seen to have free will, and are thus able to turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities or turn away from God and become immersed in their self-centered desires. Individuals who follow the temptations of the self and do not develop spiritual virtues are often described in the Baháʼí writings with the word satanic. The Baháʼí writings also state that the devil is a metaphor for the "insistent self" or "lower self", which is a self-serving inclination within each individual. Those who follow their lower nature are also described as followers of "the Evil One". Christianity Main article: Devil in Christianity See also: Satan § Christianity, and War in Heaven The Fallen Angel (1847) by Alexandre Cabanel (Musée Fabre, Montpellier) In Christianity, evil is incarnate in the devil or Satan, a fallen angel who is the primary opponent of God. Some Christians also considered the Roman and Greek deities to be devils. Christianity describes Satan as a fallen angel who terrorizes the world through evil, is the antithesis of truth, and shall be condemned, together with the fallen angels who follow him, to eternal fire at the Last Judgment. In mainstream Christianity, the devil is usually referred to as Satan. This is because Christian beliefs in Satan are inspired directly by the dominant view of Second Temple Judaism (recorded in the Enochian books), as expressed/practiced by Jesus, and with some minor variations. Some modern Christians consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons), rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described as hating all humanity (or more accurately creation), opposing God, spreading lies and wreaking havoc on their souls. Horns of a goat and a ram, goat's fur and ears, nose and canines of a pig; a typical depiction of the devil in Christian art. The goat, ram and pig are consistently associated with the devil. Detail of a 16th-century painting by Jacob de Backer in the National Museum in Warsaw. Satan is traditionally identified as the serpent who convinced Eve to eat the forbidden fruit; thus, Satan has often been depicted as a serpent. In the Bible, the devil is identified with "the dragon" and "the old serpent" seen in the Book of Revelation, as has "the prince of this world" in the Gospel of John; and "the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience" in the Epistle to the Ephesians; and "the god of this world" in 2 Corinthians 4:4. He is also identified as the dragon in the Book of Revelation and the tempter of the Gospels. Beelzebub is originally the name of a Philistine god (more specifically a certain type of Baal, from Ba‘al Zebûb, lit. "Lord of Flies") but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for the devil. A corrupted version, "Belzeboub", appears in The Divine Comedy (Inferno XXXIV). In other, non-mainstream, Christian beliefs (e.g. the beliefs of the Christadelphians) the word "satan" in the Bible is not regarded as referring to a supernatural, personal being but to any 'adversary' and figuratively refers to human sin and temptation. Apocrypha/Deuterocanon See also: Apocrypha, Biblical apocrypha, and Deuterocanonical books In the Book of Wisdom, the devil is represented as the one who brought death into the world. The Second Book of Enoch contains references to a Watcher called Satanael, describing him as the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was "righteous" and "sinful". In the Book of Jubilees, Satan rules over a host of angels. Mastema, who induced God to test Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature. The Book of Enoch contains references to Sathariel, thought also to be Sataniel and Satan'el. The similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren Michael, Raphael, Uriel, and Gabriel, previous to his expulsion from Heaven. Gnostic religions See also: Demiurge § Gnosticism A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge. Gnostic and Gnostic-influenced religions postulate the idea that the material world is inherently evil. The One true God is remote, beyond the material universe, therefore this universe must be governed by an inferior imposter deity. This deity was identified with the deity of the Old Testament by some sects, such as the Sethians and the Marcions. Tertullian accuses Marcion of Sinope, that he the Old Testament was a scandal to the faithful … and … accounted for it by postulating a secondary deity, a demiurgus, who was god, in a sense, but not the supreme God; he was just, rigidly just, he had his good qualities, but he was not the good god, who was Father of Our Lord Jesus Christ. John Arendzen (1909) in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) mentions that Eusebius accused Apelles, the 2nd-century AD Gnostic, of considering the Inspirer of Old Testament prophecies to be not a god, but an evil angel. These writings commonly refer to the Creator of the material world as "a demiurgus" to distinguish him from the One true God. Some texts, such as the Apocryphon of John and On the Origin of the World, not only demonized the Creator God but also called him by the name of the devil in some Jewish writings, Samael. Catharism In the 12th century in Europe the Cathars, who were rooted in Gnosticism, dealt with the problem of evil, and developed ideas of dualism and demonology. The Cathars were seen as a serious potential challenge to the Catholic church of the time. The Cathars split into two camps. The first is absolute dualism, which held that evil was completely separate from the good God, and that God and the devil each had power. The second camp is mitigated dualism, which considers Lucifer to be a son of God, and a brother to Christ. To explain this they used the parable of the prodigal son, with Christ as the good son, and Lucifer as the son that strayed into evilness. The Catholic Church responded to dualism in AD 1215 in the Fourth Lateran Council, saying that God created everything from nothing, and the devil was good when he was created, but he made himself bad by his own free will. In the Gospel of the Secret Supper, Lucifer, just as in prior Gnostic systems, appears as a demiurge, who created the material world. Islam Main articles: Azazil and Iblis See also: Satan § Islam Iblis (top right on the picture) refuses to prostrate before the newly created Adam from a Persian miniature. In Islam, the principle of evil is expressed by two terms referring to the same entity: Shaitan (meaning astray, distant or devil) and Iblis. Iblis is the proper name of the devil representing the characteristics of evil. Iblis is mentioned in the Quranic narrative about the creation of humanity. When God created Adam, he ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before him. All did, but Iblis refused and claimed to be superior to Adam out of pride. Therefore, pride but also envy became a sign of "unbelief" in Islam. Thereafter, Iblis was condemned to Hell, but God granted him a request to lead humanity astray, knowing the righteous would resist Iblis' attempts to misguide them. In Islam, both good and evil are ultimately created by God. But since God's will is good, the evil in the world must be part of God's plan. Actually, God allowed the devil to seduce humanity. Evil and suffering are regarded as a test or a chance to prove confidence in God. Some philosophers and mystics emphasized Iblis himself as a role model of confidence in God, because God ordered the angels to prostrate themselves, Iblis was forced to choose between God's command and God's will (not to praise someone else than God). He successfully passed the test, yet his disobedience caused his punishment and therefore suffering. However, he stays patient and is rewarded in the end. Muslims hold that the pre-Islamic jinn, tutelary deities, became subject under Islam to the judgment of God, and that those who did not submit to the law of God are devils. Although Iblis is often compared to the devil in Christian theology, Islam rejects the idea that Satan is an opponent of God and the implied struggle between God and the devil. Iblis might either be regarded as the most monotheistic or the greatest sinner, but remains only a creature of God. Iblis did not become an unbeliever due to his disobedience, but because of attributing injustice to God; that is, by asserting that the command to prostrate himself before Adam was inappropriate. There is no sign of angelic revolt in the Quran and no mention of Iblis trying to take God's throne, and Iblis's sin could be forgiven at anytime by God. According to the Quran, Iblis's disobedience was due to his disdain for humanity, a narrative already occurring in early New Testament apocrypha. As in Christianity, Iblis was once a pious creature of God but later cast out of Heaven due to his pride. However, to maintain God's absolute sovereignty, Islam matches the line taken by Irenaeus instead of the later Christian consensus that the devil did not rebel against God but against humanity. Further, although Iblis is generally regarded as a real bodily entity, he plays a less significant role as the personification of evil than in Christianity. Iblis is merely a tempter, notable for inciting humans into sin by whispering into humans minds (waswās), akin to the Jewish idea of the devil as yetzer hara. On the other hand, Shaitan refers unilaterally to forces of evil, including the devil Iblis, then he causes mischief. Shaitan is also linked to humans' psychological nature, appearing in dreams, causing anger, or interrupting the mental preparation for prayer. Furthermore, the term Shaitan also refers to beings, who follow the evil suggestions of Iblis. Furthermore, the principle of shaitan is in many ways a symbol of spiritual impurity, representing humans' own deficits, in contrast to a "true Muslim", who is free from anger, lust and other devilish desires. In Muslim culture, devils are believed to be hermaphrodite creatures created from hell-fire, with one male and one female thigh. By that, they procreate without another mate. It is generally believed that devils can harm the souls of humans through their whisperings. While whisperings tempt humans to sin, the devils might enter the hearth (qalb) of an individual. If the devils take over the soul of a person, this would render them aggressive or insane. In extreme cases, the alterings of the soul are believed to have effect on the body, matching its spiritual qualities. In Sufism and mysticism See also: Nafs In contrast to Occidental philosophy, the Sufi idea of seeing "Many as One", and considering the creation in its essence as the Absolute, leads to the idea of the dissolution of any dualism between the ego substance and the "external" substantial objects. The rebellion against God, mentioned in the Quran, takes place on the level of the psyche, that must be trained and disciplined for its union with the spirit that is pure. Since psyche drives the body, flesh is not the obstacle to humans but rather an unawareness that allows the impulsive forces to cause rebellion against God on the level of the psyche. Yet it is not a dualism between body, psyche and spirit, since the spirit embraces both psyche and corporeal aspects of humanity. Since the world is held to be the mirror in which God's attributes are reflected, participation in worldly affairs is not necessarily seen as opposed to God. The devil activates the selfish desires of the psyche, leading the human astray from the Divine. Thus it is the I that is regarded as evil, and both Iblis and Pharao are present as symbols for uttering "I" in ones own behavior. Therefore it is recommended to use the term I as little as possible. It is only God who has the right to say "I", since it is only God who is self-subsistent. Uttering "I" is therefore a way to compare oneself to God, regarded as shirk. In Salafism See also: Taghut Salafi strands of Islam commonly emphasize a dualistic worldview contrasting believers and unbelievers, and featuring the devil as the enemy of the faithful who tries to lead them astray from God's path. Even though the devil will eventually be defeated by God, he remains a serious and dangerous opponent of humans. While in classical hadiths, the demons (Shayateen) and the jinn are responsible for impurity and capable of endangering human souls, in Salafi thought, it is the devil himself, who lies in wait for believers, always striving to lure them away from God. The devil is regarded as an omnipresent entity, permanently inciting humans into sin, but can be pushed away by remembering the name God. The devil is regarded as an external entity, threatening the everyday life of the believer, even in social aspects of life. Thus for example, it is the devil who is responsible for Western emancipation. Judaism Further information: Satan § Judaism Yahweh, the god in pre-exilic Judaism, created both good and evil, as stated in Isaiah 45:7: "I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things." The devil does not exist in Jewish scriptures. However, the influence of Zoroastrianism during the Achaemenid Empire introduced evil as a separate principle into the Jewish belief system, which gradually externalized the opposition until the Hebrew term satan developed into a specific type of supernatural entity, changing the monistic view of Judaism into a dualistic one. Later, Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Enochian books (written during the Second Temple period under Persian influence), which depicted the devil as an independent force of evil besides God. After the apocalyptic period, references to Satan in the Tanakh are thought to be allegorical. Mandaeism Main article: World of Darkness (Mandaeism) See also: Mandaeism and Ruha In Mandaean mythology, Ruha fell apart from the World of Light and became the queen of the World of Darkness, also referred to as Sheol. She is considered evil and a liar, sorcerer and seductress.: 541 She gives birth to Ur, also referred to as Leviathan. He is portrayed as a large, ferocious dragon or snake and is considered the king of the World of Darkness. Together they rule the underworld and create the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations. Also found in the underworld is Krun, the greatest of the five Mandaean Lords of the underworld. He dwells in the lowest depths of creation and his epithet is the 'mountain of flesh'.: 251  Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include lilith, nalai (vampire), niuli (hobgoblin), latabi (devil), gadalta (ghost), satani (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits. Manichaeism Main article: Prince of darkness (Manichaeism) In Manichaeism, God and the devil are two unrelated principles. God created good and inhabits the realm of light, while the devil (also called the prince of darkness) created evil and inhabits the kingdom of darkness. The contemporary world came into existence, when the kingdom of darkness assaulted the kingdom of light and mingled with the spiritual world. At the end, the devil and his followers will be sealed forever and the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness will continue to co-exist eternally, never to commingle again. Hegemonius (4th century CE) accuses that the Persian prophet Mani, founder of the Manichaean sect in the 3rd century CE, identified Jehovah as "the devil god which created the world" and said that "he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests … is the of Darkness, … not the god of truth." Tengrism Among the Tengristic myths of central Asia, Erlik refers to a devil-like figure as the ruler of Tamag (Hell), who was also the first human. According to one narrative, Erlik and God swam together over the primordial waters. When God was about to create the Earth, he sent Erlik to dive into the waters and collect some mud. Erlik hid some inside his mouth to later create his own world. But when God commanded the Earth to expand, Erlik got troubled by the mud in his mouth. God aided Erlik to spit it out. The mud carried by Erlik gave place to the unpleasant areas of the world. Because of his sin, he was assigned to evil. In another variant, the creator-god is identified with Ulgen. Again, Erlik appears to be the first human. He desired to create a human just as Ulgen did, thereupon Ulgen reacted by punishing Erlik, casting him into the Underworld where he becomes its ruler. According to Tengrism, there is no death, meaning that, when life comes to an end, it is merely a transition into the invisible world. As the ruler of Hell, Erlik enslaves the souls, who are damned to Hell. Further, he lurks on the souls of those humans living on Earth by causing death, disease and illnesses. At the time of birth, Erlik sends a Kormos to seize the soul of the newborn, following him for the rest of his life in an attempt to seize his soul by hampering, misguiding, and injuring him. When Erlik succeeds in destroying a human's body, the Kormos sent by Erlik will try take him down into the Underworld. However a good soul will be brought to Paradise by a Yayutshi sent by Ulgen. Some shamans also made sacrifices to Erlik, for gaining a higher rank in the Underworld, if they should be damned to Hell. Yazidism According to Yazidism there is no entity that represents evil in opposition to God; such dualism is rejected by Yazidis, and evil is regarded as nonexistent. Yazidis adhere to strict monism and are prohibited from uttering the word "devil" and from speaking of anything related to Hell. Zoroastrianism Main articles: Angra Mainyu and Dualistic cosmology Ahriman Div being slain during a scene from the Shahnameh Zoroastrianism probably introduced the first idea of the devil; a principle of evil independently existing apart from God. In Zoroastrianism, good and evil derive from two ultimately opposed forces. The force of good is called Ahura Mazda and the "destructive spirit" in the Avestan language is called Angra Mainyu. The Middle Persian equivalent is Ahriman. They are in eternal struggle and neither is all-powerful, especially Angra Mainyu is limited to space and time: in the end of time, he will be finally defeated. While Ahura Mazda creates what is good, Angra Mainyu is responsible for every evil and suffering in the world, such as toads and scorpions. Iranian Zoroastrians also considered the Daeva as devil creature, because of this in the Shahnameh, it is mentioned as both Ahriman Div (Persian: اهریمن دیو, romanized: Ahriman Div) as a devil. Devil in moral philosophy Spinoza A non-published manuscript of Spinoza's Ethics contained a chapter (Chapter XXI) on the devil, where Spinoza examined whether the devil may exist or not. He defines the devil as an entity which is contrary to God.: 46 : 150  However, if the devil is the opposite of God, the devil would consist of Nothingness, which does not exist.: 145  In a paper called On Devils, he writes that we can a priori find out that such a thing cannot exist. Because the duration of a thing results in its degree of perfection, and the more essence a thing possess the more lasting it is, and since the devil has no perfection at all, it is impossible for the devil to be an existing thing.: 72  Evil or immoral behaviour in humans, such as anger, hate, envy, and all things for which the devil is blamed for could be explained without the proposal of a devil.: 145  Thus, the devil does not have any explanatory power and should be dismissed (Occam's razor). Regarding evil through free choice, Spinoza asks how it can be that Adam would have chosen sin over his own well-being. Theology traditionally responds to this by asserting it is the devil who tempts humans into sin, but who would have tempted the devil? According to Spinoza, a rational being, such as the devil must have been, could not choose his own damnation. The devil must have known his sin would lead to doom, thus the devil was not knowing, or the devil did not know his sin will lead to doom, thus the devil would not have been a rational being. Spinoza deducts a strict determinism in which moral agency as a free choice, cannot exist.: 150  Kant In Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone, Immanuel Kant uses the devil as the personification of maximum moral reprehensibility. Deviating from the common Christian idea, Kant does not locate the morally reprehensible in sensual urges. Since evil has to be intelligible, only when the sensual is consciously placed above the moral obligation can something be regarded as morally evil. Thus, to be evil, the devil must be able to comprehend morality but consciously reject it, and, as a spiritual being (Geistwesen), having no relation to any form of sensual pleasure. It is necessarily required for the devil to be a spiritual being because if the devil were also a sensual being, it would be possible that the devil does evil to satisfy lower sensual desires, and does not act from the mind alone. The devil acts against morals, not to satisfy sensual lust, but solely for the sake of evil. As such, the devil is unselfish, for he does not benefit from his evil deeds. However, Kant denies that a human being could ever be completely devilish. Kant admits that there are devilish vices (ingratitude, envy, and malicious joy), i.e., vices that do not bring any personal advantage, but a person can never be completely a devil. In his Lecture on Moral Philosophy (1774/75) Kant gives an example of a tulip seller who was in possession of a rare tulip, but when he learned that another seller had the same tulip, he bought it from him and then destroyed it instead of keeping it for himself. If he had acted according to his sensual urges, the seller would have kept the tulip for himself to make a profit, but not have destroyed it. Nevertheless, the destruction of the tulip cannot be completely absolved from sensual impulses, since a sensual joy or relief still accompanies the destruction of the tulip and therefore cannot be thought of solely as a violation of morality.: 156-173  Kant further argues that a (spiritual) devil would be a contradiction. If the devil would be defined by doing evil, the devil had no free choice in the first place. But if the devil had no free-choice, the devil could not have been held accountable for his actions, since he had no free will but was only following his nature. Titles Honorifics or styles of address used to indicate devil-figures. Ash-Shaytan "Satan", the attributive Arabic term referring to the devil Angra Mainyu, Ahriman: "malign spirit", "unholy spirit" Dark lord Der Leibhaftige (German): " in the flesh, corporeal" Diabolus, Diabolos (Greek: Διάβολος) The Evil One The Father of Lies (John 8:44), in contrast to Jesus ("I am the truth"). Iblis, name of the devil in Islam The Lord of the Underworld / Lord of Hell / Lord of this world Lucifer / the Morning Star (Greek and Roman): the bringer of light, illuminator; the planet Venus, often portrayed as Satan's name in Christianity Kölski (Iceland) Mephistopheles Old Scratch, the Stranger, Old Nick: a colloquialism for the devil, as indicated by the name of the character in the short story "The Devil and Tom Walker" Prince of darkness, the devil in Manichaeism Ruprecht (German form of Robert), a common name for the Devil in Germany (see Knecht Ruprecht (Knight Robert)) Satan / the Adversary, Accuser, Prosecutor; in Christianity, the devil (The ancient/old/crooked/coiling) Serpent Voland (fictional character in The Master and Margarita) Contemporary belief Opinion polls show that belief in the devil in Western countries is more common in the United States ... Belief in the devil in 1982 Country U.S. U.K. France Percentage ~60 21 17 where it is more common among the religious, regular church goers, political conservatives, and the older and less well educated, ... but has declined in recent decades. Belief in the devil in the U.S. Year surveyed 2001 2004 2000 2016 2023 Percentage believing 68 70 70 61 58 See also Deal with the Devil Devil in popular culture Hades, Underworld Krampus, in the Tyrolean area also Tuifl Non-physical entity Theistic Satanism Notes ^ all polling done in May of that year References ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, pp. 11 and 34 ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 34 ^ Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1990). Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9718-6. ^ a b Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, pp. 41–75 ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, pp. 44 and 51 ^ a b Arp, Robert. The Devil and Philosophy: The Nature of His Game. Open Court, 2014. ISBN 978-0-8126-9880-0. pp. 30–50 ^ a b Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press. 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3. p. 66. ^ Russell, Jeffrey Burton, The Prince of Darkness: Radical Evil and the Power of Good in History, Cornell University Press (1992) ISBN 978-0-8014-8056-0, p. 2 ^ διάβολος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ "Definition of DEVIL". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 23 April 2016. ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell (1987). The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press. pp. 11, 34. ISBN 0-8014-9409-5. ^ Kelly, Henry Ansgar (2006). Satan: A Biography. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-521-60402-4. ^ Craige, W. A.; Onions, C. T. A. "Devil". A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles: Introduction, Supplement, and Bibliography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (1933) pp. 283–284 ^ a b Smith, Peter (2000). "satan". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 304. ISBN 1-85168-184-1. ^ Bahá'u'lláh; Baháʼuʼlláh (1994) . "Tablet of the World". Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Wilmette, Illinois, US: Baháʼí Publishing Trust. p. 87. ISBN 0-87743-174-4. ^ Shoghi Effendi quoted in Hornby, Helen (1983). Hornby, Helen (ed.). Lights of Guidance: A Baháʼí Reference File. Baháʼí Publishing Trust, New Delhi, India. p. 513. ISBN 81-85091-46-3. ^ a b c Leeming, David (2005). The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press (US). ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0. ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 174 ^ "Definition of DEVIL". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 12 June 2016. ^ Fritscher, Jack (2004). Popular Witchcraft: Straight from the Witch's Mouth. Popular Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-299-20304-2. The pig, goat, ram—all of these creatures are consistently associated with the Devil. ^ 12:9, 20:2 ^ 12:31, 14:30 ^ 2:2 ^ 2 Corinthians 2:2 ^ e.g. Rev. 12:9 ^ e.g. Matthew 4:1 ^ "Do you Believe in a Devil? Bible Teaching on Temptation". Archived from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2007. ^ "But by the envy of the devil, death came into the world" – Book of Wisdom II. 24 ^ 2 Enoch 18:3 ^ "And I threw him out from the height with his angels, and he was flying in the air continuously above the bottomless" – 2 Enoch 29:4 ^ "The devil is the evil spirit of the lower places, as a fugitive he made Sotona from the heavens as his name was Satanail, thus he became different from the angels, but his nature did not change his intelligence as far as his understanding of righteous and sinful things" – 2 Enoch 31:4 ^ Martyrdom of Isaiah, 2:2; Vita Adæ et Evæ, 16) ^ Book of Jubilees, xvii. 18 ^ a b Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Marcionites" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Gnosticism" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Birger A. Pearson Gnosticism Judaism Egyptian Fortress Press ISBN 978-1-4514-0434-0 p. 100 ^ Rouner, Leroy (1983). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-664-22748-7. ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, Cornell University Press 1986 ISBN 978-0-801-49429-1, pp. 187–188 ^ Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications 2009 ISBN 978-0-834-82414-0 p. 764 ^ Jane Dammen McAuliffe Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān Brill 2001 ISBN 978-90-04-14764-5 p. 526 ^ a b Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, Cornell University Press 1986 ISBN 978-0-801-49429-1, p. 57 ^ Benjamin W. McCraw, Robert Arp Philosophical Approaches to the Devil Routledge 2015 ISBN 978-1-317-39221-7 ^ a b Jerald D. Gort, Henry Jansen, Hendrik M. Vroom Probing the Depths of Evil and Good: Multireligious Views and Case Studies Rodopi 2007 ISBN 978-90-420-2231-7 p. 250 ^ Quran 17:62 ^ a b Jerald D. Gort, Henry Jansen, Hendrik M. Vroom Probing the Depths of Evil and Good: Multireligious Views and Case Studies Rodopi 2007 ISBN 978-90-420-2231-7 p. 249 ^ Jerald D. Gort, Henry Jansen, Hendrik M. Vroom Probing the Depths of Evil and Good: Multireligious Views and Case Studies Rodopi 2007 ISBN 978-90-420-2231-7 pp. 254–255 ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 58 ^ Sharpe, Elizabeth Marie Into the realm of smokeless fire: (Qur'an 55:14): A critical translation of al-Damiri's article on the jinn from "Hayat al-Hayawan al-Kubra 1953 The University of Arizona download date: 15/03/2020 ^ El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn. Syracuse University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0815650706. ^ Vicchio, Stephen J. (2008). Biblical Figures in the Islamic Faith. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. pp. 175–185. ISBN 978-1556353048. ^ Ahmadi, Nader; Ahmadi, Fereshtah (1998). Iranian Islam: The Concept of the Individual. Berlin, Germany: Axel Springer. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-230-37349-5. ^ Houtman, Alberdina; Kadari, Tamar; Poorthuis, Marcel; Tohar, Vered (2016). Religious Stories in Transformation: Conflict, Revision and Reception. Leiden, Germany: Brill Publishers. p. 66. ISBN 978-9-004-33481-6. ^ Amira El-Zein Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn Syracuse University Press 2009 ISBN 978-0-8156-5070-6 p. 45 ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 56 ^ a b Cenap Çakmak Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia ABC-CLIO 2017 ISBN 978-1-610-69217-5 p. 1399 ^ a b Fereshteh Ahmadi, Nader Ahmadi Iranian Islam: The Concept of the Individual Springer 1998 ISBN 978-0-230-37349-5 p. 79 ^ Nils G. Holm The Human Symbolic Construction of Reality: A Psycho-Phenomenological Study LIT Verlag Münster 2014 ISBN 978-3-643-90526-0 p. 54 ^ "Shaitan, Islamic Mythology." Encyclopaedia Britannica (Britannica.com). Retrieved 23 June 2019. ^ Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 p. 74 ^ Bullard, A. (2022). Spiritual and Mental Health Crisis in Globalizing Senegal: A History of Transcultural Psychiatry. US: Taylor & Francis. ^ Woodward, Mark. Java, Indonesia and Islam. Deutschland, Springer Netherlands, 2010. p. 88 ^ Fereshteh Ahmadi, Nader Ahmadi Iranian Islam: The Concept of the Individual Springer 1998 ISBN 978-0-230-37349-5 p. 81-82 ^ John O'Kane, Bernd Radtke The Concept of Sainthood in Early Islamic Mysticism: Two Works by Al-Hakim Al-Tirmidhi – An Annotated Translation with Introduction Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-1-136-79309-7 p. 48 ^ Peter J. Awn Satan's Tragedy and Redemption: Iblis in Sufi Psychology BRILL 1983 ISBN 978-90-04-06906-0 p. 93 ^ Thorsten Gerald Schneiders Salafismus in Deutschland: Ursprünge und Gefahren einer islamisch-fundamentalistischen Bewegung transcript Verlag 2014 ISBN 978-3-8394-2711-8 p. 392 (German) ^ Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 p. 67 ^ Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 p. 68 ^ Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 p. 69 ^ Michael Kiefer, Jörg Hüttermann, Bacem Dziri, Rauf Ceylan, Viktoria Roth, Fabian Srowig, Andreas Zick "Lasset uns in shaʼa Allah ein Plan machen": Fallgestützte Analyse der Radikalisierung einer WhatsApp-Gruppe Springer-Verlag 2017 ISBN 978-3-658-17950-2 p. 111 ^ Janusz Biene, Christopher Daase, Julian Junk, Harald Müller Salafismus und Dschihadismus in Deutschland: Ursachen, Dynamiken, Handlungsempfehlungen Campus Verlag 2016 9783593506371 p. 177 (German) ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 58 ^ Jackson, David R. (2004). Enochic Judaism. London: T&T Clark International. pp. 2–4. ISBN 0-8264-7089-0 ^ Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 29 ^ a b Al-Saadi, Qais Mughashghash; Al-Saadi, Hamed Mughashghash (2019). "Glossary". Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure. An equivalent translation of the Mandaean Holy Book (2 ed.). Drabsha. ^ a b c d Aldihisi, Sabah (2008). The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba (PhD). University College London. ^ Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2002). The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515385-5. OCLC 65198443. ^ Deutsch, Nathniel (2003). Mandaean Literature. In Barnstone, Willis; Meyer, Marvin (2003). The Gnostic Bible. Boston & London: Shambhala. ^ Drower, E.S. (1937). The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ a b Acta Archelai of Hegemonius, Chapter XII, c. AD 350, quoted in Translated Texts of Manicheism, compiled by Prods Oktor Skjærvø, p. 68. ^ a b History of the Acta Archelai explained in the Introduction, p. 11 ^ Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications 2009 ISBN 978-0-834-82414-0 p. 596 ^ Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications 2009 ISBN 978-0-834-82414-0 p. 598 ^ Manichaeism by Alan G. Hefner in The Mystica, undated ^ Mircea Eliade History of Religious Ideas, Volume 3: From Muhammad to the Age of Reforms University of Chicago Press, 31 December 2013 ISBN 978-0-226-14772-7 p. 9 ^ David Adams Leeming A Dictionary of Creation Myths Oxford University Press 2014 ISBN 978-0-19-510275-8 p. 7 ^ Plantagenet Publishing The Cambridge Medieval History Series volumes 1–5 ^ Birgül Açikyildiz The Yezidis: The History of a Community, Culture and Religion I.B. Tauris 2014 ISBN 978-0-857-72061-0 p. 74 ^ Wadie Jwaideh The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origins and Development Syracuse University Press 2006 ISBN 978-0-815-63093-7 p. 20 ^ Florin Curta, Andrew Holt Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History ABC-CLIO 2016 ISBN 978-1-610-69566-4 p. 513 ^ a b Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 99 ^ John R. Hinnells The Zoroastrian Diaspora: Religion and Migration OUP Oxford 2005 ISBN 978-0-191-51350-3 p. 108 ^ a b c d , B. d., Spinoza, B. (1985). The Collected Works of Spinoza, Volume I. Vereinigtes Königreich: Princeton University Press. ^ Jarrett, C. (2007). Spinoza: A Guide for the Perplexed. Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. ^ Guthrie, S. L. (2018). Gods of this World: A Philosophical Discussion and Defense of Christian Demonology. US: Pickwick Publications. ^ Polka, B. (2007). Between Philosophy and Religion, Vol. II: Spinoza, the Bible, and Modernity. Ukraine: Lexington Books. ^ Hendrik Klinge: Die moralische Stufenleiter: Kant über Teufel, Menschen, Engel und Gott. Walter de Gruyter, 2018, ISBN 978-3-11-057620-7 ^ Formosa, Paul. "Kant on the limits of human evil." Journal of Philosophical Research 34 (2009): 189–214. ^ Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch s.v. "leibhaftig": "gern in bezug auf den teufel: dasz er kein mensch möchte sein, sondern ein leibhaftiger teufel. volksbuch von dr. Faust der auch blosz der leibhaftige heiszt, so in Tirol. Fromm. 6, 445; wenn ich dén sehe, wäre es mir immer, der leibhaftige wäre da und wolle mich nehmen. J. Gotthelf Uli d. pächter (1870) 345 ^ "Vísindavefurinn: How many words are there in Icelandic for the devil?". Visindavefur.hi.is. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2012. ^ Oldridge, Darren (2012). The Devil, a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 90–91. ^ BRENAN, MEGAN (20 July 2023). "Belief in Five Spiritual Entities Edges Down to New Lows". Gallup. Retrieved 19 February 2024. ^ "Religion". Gallup. Retrieved 19 February 2024. ^ Krampus: Gezähmter Teufel mit grotesker Männlichkeit, in Der Standard from 5 December 2017 ^ Wo heut der Teufel los ist, in Kleine Zeitung from 25 November 2017 ^ Krampusläufe: Tradition trifft Tourismus, in ORF from 4 December 2016 ^ Ein schiacher Krampen hat immer Saison, in Der Standard from 5 December 2017 External links The dictionary definition of Devil at Wiktionary Media related to Devils at Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote has quotations related to Devil. Kent, William Henry (1908). "Devil" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. Garvie, Alfred Ernest (1911). "Devil" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). pp. 121–123. Entry from the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia Can you sell your soul to the Devil? A Jewish view on the Devil vteSatanIn the Bible Book of Job Book of Revelation Book of Zechariah Parable of the Sower Parable of the Strong Man Parable of the Tares Serpents in the Bible Temptation of Christ The Sheep and the Goats War in Heaven Deuterocanonical works Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan Life of Adam and Eve Questions of Bartholomew Other names & related figures Abaddon Ahriman Azazel Baphomet Beelzebub Belial Ezekiel's cherub in Eden Hades His Infernal Majesty Iblis Lucifer Mastema Mr. S Old Scratch Samael Samyaza Temeluchus The Adversary The Big D The Father of Lies The Dark Demon The Devil The Evil One The Prince of Darkness The Wicked One Yetzer Hara In literature Faust Goethe's Faust Faust, Part One Faust, Part Two Inferno Dante's Satan Johann Georg Faust Mephistopheles Paradise Lost Paradise Regained The Marriage of Heaven and Hell The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus The Summoner's Tale Satanism After School Satan Anton LaVey Black Mass Church of Satan Cutter v. Wilkinson First Satanic Church Greater and lesser magic Grotto Hail Satan Joy of Satan LaVeyan Satanism Order of Nine Angles Palladists Satan Speaks! Satan Takes a Holiday Sigil of Baphomet Temple of the Black Light Theistic Satanism The Devil's Notebook The infernal names The Mass of Saint-Sécaire The Satanic Bible The Satanic Rituals The Satanic Temple The Satanic Witch Authority control databases: National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Devil (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:022_devil_representation.JPG"},{"link_name":"Žmuidzinavičius Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDmuidzinavi%C4%8Dius_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_tenture_de_lApocalypse_(Angers)_(2).jpg"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"sceptre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sceptre"},{"link_name":"Apocalypse Tapestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalypse_Tapestry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Devils-from-Rila-monastery.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rila Monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rila_Monastery"},{"link_name":"personification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personification"},{"link_name":"evil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey Burton Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Burton_Russell"},{"link_name":"God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceC-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"Lucifer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer"},{"link_name":"Beelzebub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beelzebub"},{"link_name":"Mephistopheles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mephistopheles"},{"link_name":"Iblis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iblis"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arp,_Robert_2014-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceD-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceC-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Personification of evil\"Devilish\" redirects here. For other uses, see Devil (disambiguation).Statue of the devil in the Žmuidzinavičius Museum or Devil's Museum in Kaunas, LithuaniaSatan (the dragon; on the left) gives to the beast of the sea (on the right) power represented by a sceptre in a detail of panel III.40 of the medieval French Apocalypse Tapestry, produced between 1377 and 1382.A fresco detail from the Rila Monastery, in which demons are depicted as having grotesque faces and bodiesA devil is the personification of evil as it is conceived in various cultures and religious traditions.[1] It is seen as the objectification of a hostile and destructive force.[2] Jeffrey Burton Russell states that the different conceptions of the devil can be summed up as 1) a principle of evil independent from God, 2) an aspect of God, 3) a created being turning evil (a fallen angel), and 4) a symbol of human evil.[3]: 23Each tradition, culture, and religion with a devil in its mythos offers a different lens on manifestations of evil.[4] The history of these perspectives intertwines with theology, mythology, psychiatry, art, and literature, developing independently within each of the traditions.[5] It occurs historically in many contexts and cultures, and is given many different names—Satan, Lucifer, Beelzebub, Mephistopheles, Iblis—and attributes: it is portrayed as blue, black, or red; it is portrayed as having horns on its head, and without horns, and so on.[6][7] While depictions of the devil are usually taken seriously, there are times when it is treated less seriously; when, for example, devil figures are used in advertising and on candy wrappers.[4][8]","title":"Devil"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"devil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/devil"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"devel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/devel"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"dēofol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deofol"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"diabolus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diabolus"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"διάβολος","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"διά","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%AC"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The Modern English word devil derives from the Middle English devel, from the Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of the Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from the Greek διάβολος diábolos, \"slanderer\",[9] from διαβάλλειν diabállein, \"to slander\" from διά diá, \"across, through\" and βάλλειν bállein, \"to hurl\", probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate, \"he lifts up\".[10]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jeffrey Burton Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Burton_Russell"},{"link_name":"personification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personification"},{"link_name":"evil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"Abrahamic religions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Oxford English Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"In his book The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Jeffrey Burton Russell discusses various meanings and difficulties that are encountered when using the term devil. He does not claim to define the word in a general sense, but he describes the limited use that he intends for the word in his book—limited in order to \"minimize this difficulty\" and \"for the sake of clarity\". In this book Russell uses the word devil as \"the personification of evil found in a variety of cultures\", as opposed to the word Satan, which he reserves specifically for the figure in the Abrahamic religions.[11]In the Introduction to his book Satan: A Biography, Henry Ansgar Kelly discusses various considerations and meanings that he has encountered in using terms such as devil and Satan, etc. While not offering a general definition, he describes that in his book \"whenever diabolos is used as the proper name of Satan\", he signals it by using \"small caps\".[12]The Oxford English Dictionary has a variety of definitions for the meaning of \"devil\", supported by a range of citations: \"Devil\" may refer to Satan, the supreme spirit of evil, or one of Satan's emissaries or demons that populate Hell, or to one of the spirits that possess a demoniac person; \"devil\" may refer to one of the \"malignant deities\" feared and worshiped by \"heathen people\", a demon, a malignant being of superhuman powers; figuratively \"devil\" may be applied to a wicked person, or playfully to a rogue or rascal, or in empathy often accompanied by the word \"poor\" to a person—\"poor devil\".[13]","title":"Definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Baháʼí Faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-14"},{"link_name":"free will","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"In the Baháʼí Faith, a malevolent, superhuman entity such as a devil or satan is not believed to exist.[14] However, these terms do appear in the Baháʼí writings, where they are used as metaphors for the lower nature of man. Human beings are seen to have free will, and are thus able to turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities or turn away from God and become immersed in their self-centered desires. Individuals who follow the temptations of the self and do not develop spiritual virtues are often described in the Baháʼí writings with the word satanic.[14] The Baháʼí writings also state that the devil is a metaphor for the \"insistent self\" or \"lower self\", which is a self-serving inclination within each individual. Those who follow their lower nature are also described as followers of \"the Evil One\".[15][16]","title":"Baháʼí Faith"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Satan § Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan#Christianity"},{"link_name":"War in Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Heaven"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Fallen_Angel.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alexandre Cabanel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Cabanel"},{"link_name":"Musée Fabre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Fabre"},{"link_name":"Montpellier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpellier"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities"},{"link_name":"Greek deities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_primordial_deities"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arp,_Robert_2014-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceD-7"},{"link_name":"fallen angel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallen_angel"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"antithesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antithesis"},{"link_name":"truth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Last Judgment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Judgment"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"Second Temple Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism"},{"link_name":"Enochian books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_(ancestor_of_Noah)"},{"link_name":"Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus"},{"link_name":"who?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"angel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel"},{"link_name":"Lake of Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_of_Fire"},{"link_name":"attribution needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Attribution_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Backer_Judgment_(detail).JPG"},{"link_name":"goat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goat"},{"link_name":"ram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep"},{"link_name":"pig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig"},{"link_name":"Christian art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_art"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Jacob de Backer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_de_Backer"},{"link_name":"National Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum,_Warsaw"},{"link_name":"Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw"},{"link_name":"serpent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve"},{"link_name":"forbidden fruit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_fruit"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Gospel of John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_John"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Epistle to the Ephesians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Ephesians"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"2 Corinthians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Gospels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospels"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Beelzebub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beelzebub"},{"link_name":"Philistine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philistines"},{"link_name":"Baal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Divine Comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_Comedy"},{"link_name":"Christadelphians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil_in_Christianity#Unitarians_and_Christadelphians"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"See also: Satan § Christianity, and War in HeavenThe Fallen Angel (1847) by Alexandre Cabanel (Musée Fabre, Montpellier)In Christianity, evil is incarnate in the devil or Satan, a fallen angel who is the primary opponent of God.[17][18] Some Christians also considered the Roman and Greek deities to be devils.[6][7]Christianity describes Satan as a fallen angel who terrorizes the world through evil,[17] is the antithesis of truth,[19] and shall be condemned, together with the fallen angels who follow him, to eternal fire at the Last Judgment.[17]In mainstream Christianity, the devil is usually referred to as Satan. This is because Christian beliefs in Satan are inspired directly by the dominant view of Second Temple Judaism (recorded in the Enochian books), as expressed/practiced by Jesus, and with some minor variations. Some modern Christians [who?] consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons), rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described [attribution needed] as hating all humanity (or more accurately creation), opposing God, spreading lies and wreaking havoc on their souls.Horns of a goat and a ram, goat's fur and ears, nose and canines of a pig; a typical depiction of the devil in Christian art. The goat, ram and pig are consistently associated with the devil.[20] Detail of a 16th-century painting by Jacob de Backer in the National Museum in Warsaw.Satan is traditionally identified as the serpent who convinced Eve to eat the forbidden fruit; thus, Satan has often been depicted as a serpent. In the Bible, the devil is identified with \"the dragon\" and \"the old serpent\" seen in the Book of Revelation,[21] as has \"the prince of this world\" in the Gospel of John;[22] and \"the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience\" in the Epistle to the Ephesians;[23] and \"the god of this world\" in 2 Corinthians 4:4.[24] He is also identified as the dragon in the Book of Revelation[25] and the tempter of the Gospels.[26]Beelzebub is originally the name of a Philistine god (more specifically a certain type of Baal, from Ba‘al Zebûb, lit. \"Lord of Flies\") but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for the devil.[citation needed] A corrupted version, \"Belzeboub\", appears in The Divine Comedy (Inferno XXXIV).In other, non-mainstream, Christian beliefs (e.g. the beliefs of the Christadelphians) the word \"satan\" in the Bible is not regarded as referring to a supernatural, personal being but to any 'adversary' and figuratively refers to human sin and temptation.[27]","title":"Christianity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apocrypha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrypha"},{"link_name":"Biblical apocrypha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha"},{"link_name":"Deuterocanonical books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books"},{"link_name":"Book of Wisdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Wisdom"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Second Book of Enoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Book_of_Enoch"},{"link_name":"Watcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watcher_(angel)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Grigori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watcher_(angel)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"evil spirit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_spirit"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Book of Jubilees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Jubilees"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Mastema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastema"},{"link_name":"Abraham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham"},{"link_name":"sacrifice of Isaac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_of_Isaac"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Book of Enoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Enoch"},{"link_name":"Sathariel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sathariel"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"Satan'el","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satanel"},{"link_name":"Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_(archangel)"},{"link_name":"Raphael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael_(angel)"},{"link_name":"Uriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uriel"},{"link_name":"Gabriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Apocrypha/Deuterocanon","text":"See also: Apocrypha, Biblical apocrypha, and Deuterocanonical booksIn the Book of Wisdom, the devil is represented as the one who brought death into the world.[28] The Second Book of Enoch contains references to a Watcher called Satanael,[29] describing him as the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven[30] and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was \"righteous\" and \"sinful\".[31]In the Book of Jubilees, Satan rules over a host of angels.[32] Mastema, who induced God to test Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature.[33] The Book of Enoch contains references to Sathariel, thought also [by whom?] to be Sataniel and Satan'el. The similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren Michael, Raphael, Uriel, and Gabriel, previous to his expulsion from Heaven.[citation needed]","title":"Christianity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Demiurge § Gnosticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demiurge#Gnosticism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lion-faced_deity.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bernard de Montfaucon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_de_Montfaucon"},{"link_name":"Sethians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sethianism"},{"link_name":"Marcions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcionism"},{"link_name":"Tertullian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian"},{"link_name":"Marcion of Sinope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope"},{"link_name":"demiurgus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demiurge"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marcion-34"},{"link_name":"John Arendzen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Arendzen"},{"link_name":"Catholic Encyclopedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia"},{"link_name":"Eusebius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius"},{"link_name":"Apelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apelles_(gnostic)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Apelles-35"},{"link_name":"demiurgus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demiurge"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marcion-34"},{"link_name":"Apocryphon of John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocryphon_of_John"},{"link_name":"On the Origin of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"Samael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samael"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"See also: Demiurge § GnosticismA lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge.Gnostic and Gnostic-influenced religions postulate the idea that the material world is inherently evil. The One true God is remote, beyond the material universe, therefore this universe must be governed by an inferior imposter deity. This deity was identified with the deity of the Old Testament by some sects, such as the Sethians and the Marcions. Tertullian accuses Marcion of Sinope, that he[held that] the Old Testament was a scandal to the faithful … and … accounted for it by postulating [that Jehovah was] a secondary deity, a demiurgus, who was god, in a sense, but not the supreme God; he was just, rigidly just, he had his good qualities, but he was not the good god, who was Father of Our Lord Jesus Christ.[34]John Arendzen (1909) in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) mentions that Eusebius accused Apelles, the 2nd-century AD Gnostic, of considering the Inspirer of Old Testament prophecies to be not a god, but an evil angel.[35] These writings commonly refer to the Creator of the material world as \"a demiurgus\"[34] to distinguish him from the One true God. Some texts, such as the Apocryphon of John and On the Origin of the World, not only demonized the Creator God but also called him by the name of the devil in some Jewish writings, Samael.[36]","title":"Gnostic religions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cathars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharism"},{"link_name":"Gnosticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticism"},{"link_name":"Lucifer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer"},{"link_name":"Fourth Lateran Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Gospel of the Secret Supper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_the_Secret_Supper"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Catharism","text":"In the 12th century in Europe the Cathars, who were rooted in Gnosticism, dealt with the problem of evil, and developed ideas of dualism and demonology. The Cathars were seen as a serious potential challenge to the Catholic church of the time. The Cathars split into two camps. The first is absolute dualism, which held that evil was completely separate from the good God, and that God and the devil each had power. The second camp is mitigated dualism, which considers Lucifer to be a son of God, and a brother to Christ. To explain this they used the parable of the prodigal son, with Christ as the good son, and Lucifer as the son that strayed into evilness. The Catholic Church responded to dualism in AD 1215 in the Fourth Lateran Council, saying that God created everything from nothing, and the devil was good when he was created, but he made himself bad by his own free will.[37][38] In the Gospel of the Secret Supper, Lucifer, just as in prior Gnostic systems, appears as a demiurge, who created the material world.[39]","title":"Gnostic religions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Satan § Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan#Islam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adam_honored.jpg"},{"link_name":"Iblis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iblis"},{"link_name":"Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam"},{"link_name":"Persian miniature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_miniature"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceE-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Shaitan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaitan"},{"link_name":"Iblis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iblis"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceF-43"},{"link_name":"Quranic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islam"},{"link_name":"Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_in_Islam"},{"link_name":"Quran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"7:12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//quran.com/7?startingVerse=12"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceF-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceG-45"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceG-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"pre-Islamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia"},{"link_name":"jinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinn"},{"link_name":"tutelary deities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutelary_deity"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"devils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaitan"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Christian theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_theology"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"the devil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_devil"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"unbeliever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unbeliever"},{"link_name":"Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Quran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"sin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"humanity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human"},{"link_name":"New Testament apocrypha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament_apocrypha"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceB-54"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceE-41"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceH-55"},{"link_name":"yetzer hara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yetzer_hara"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceI-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceH-55"},{"link_name":"true Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumin"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"hearth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalb"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"text":"See also: Satan § IslamIblis (top right on the picture) refuses to prostrate before the newly created Adam from a Persian miniature.In Islam, the principle of evil is expressed by two terms referring to the same entity:[40][41][42] Shaitan (meaning astray, distant or devil) and Iblis. Iblis is the proper name of the devil representing the characteristics of evil.[43] Iblis is mentioned in the Quranic narrative about the creation of humanity. When God created Adam, he ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before him. All did, but Iblis refused and claimed to be superior to Adam out of pride.[Quran 7:12] Therefore, pride but also envy became a sign of \"unbelief\" in Islam.[43] Thereafter, Iblis was condemned to Hell, but God granted him a request to lead humanity astray,[44] knowing the righteous would resist Iblis' attempts to misguide them. In Islam, both good and evil are ultimately created by God. But since God's will is good, the evil in the world must be part of God's plan.[45] Actually, God allowed the devil to seduce humanity. Evil and suffering are regarded as a test or a chance to prove confidence in God.[45] Some philosophers and mystics emphasized Iblis himself as a role model of confidence in God, because God ordered the angels to prostrate themselves, Iblis was forced to choose between God's command and God's will (not to praise someone else than God). He successfully passed the test, yet his disobedience caused his punishment and therefore suffering. However, he stays patient and is rewarded in the end.[46]Muslims hold that the pre-Islamic jinn, tutelary deities, became subject under Islam to the judgment of God, and that those who did not submit to the law of God are devils.[47]Although Iblis is often compared to the devil in Christian theology, Islam rejects the idea that Satan is an opponent of God and the implied struggle between God and the devil.[clarification needed] Iblis might either be regarded as the most monotheistic or the greatest sinner, but remains only a creature of God. Iblis did not become an unbeliever due to his disobedience, but because of attributing injustice to God; that is, by asserting that the command to prostrate himself before Adam was inappropriate.[48] There is no sign of angelic revolt in the Quran and no mention of Iblis trying to take God's throne,[49][50] and Iblis's sin could be forgiven at anytime by God.[51] According to the Quran, Iblis's disobedience was due to his disdain for humanity, a narrative already occurring in early New Testament apocrypha.[52]As in Christianity, Iblis was once a pious creature of God but later cast out of Heaven due to his pride. However, to maintain God's absolute sovereignty,[53] Islam matches the line taken by Irenaeus instead of the later Christian consensus that the devil did not rebel against God but against humanity.[54][41] Further, although Iblis is generally regarded as a real bodily entity,[55] he plays a less significant role as the personification of evil than in Christianity. Iblis is merely a tempter, notable for inciting humans into sin by whispering into humans minds (waswās), akin to the Jewish idea of the devil as yetzer hara.[56][57]On the other hand, Shaitan refers unilaterally to forces of evil, including the devil Iblis, then he causes mischief.[58] Shaitan is also linked to humans' psychological nature, appearing in dreams, causing anger, or interrupting the mental preparation for prayer.[55] Furthermore, the term Shaitan also refers to beings, who follow the evil suggestions of Iblis. Furthermore, the principle of shaitan is in many ways a symbol of spiritual impurity, representing humans' own deficits, in contrast to a \"true Muslim\", who is free from anger, lust and other devilish desires.[59]In Muslim culture, devils are believed to be hermaphrodite creatures created from hell-fire, with one male and one female thigh. By that, they procreate without another mate. It is generally believed that devils can harm the souls of humans through their whisperings. While whisperings tempt humans to sin, the devils might enter the hearth (qalb) of an individual. If the devils take over the soul of a person, this would render them aggressive or insane.[60] In extreme cases, the alterings of the soul are believed to have effect on the body, matching its spiritual qualities.[61]","title":"Islam"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nafs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafs"},{"link_name":"psyche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafs"},{"link_name":"spirit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruh"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceI-56"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_(pronoun)"},{"link_name":"Pharao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaohs_in_the_Bible"},{"link_name":"shirk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirk_(Islam)"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"sub_title":"In Sufism and mysticism","text":"See also: NafsIn contrast to Occidental philosophy, the Sufi idea of seeing \"Many as One\", and considering the creation in its essence as the Absolute, leads to the idea of the dissolution of any dualism between the ego substance and the \"external\" substantial objects. The rebellion against God, mentioned in the Quran, takes place on the level of the psyche, that must be trained and disciplined for its union with the spirit that is pure. Since psyche drives the body, flesh is not the obstacle to humans but rather an unawareness that allows the impulsive forces to cause rebellion against God on the level of the psyche. Yet it is not a dualism between body, psyche and spirit, since the spirit embraces both psyche and corporeal aspects of humanity.[62] Since the world is held to be the mirror in which God's attributes are reflected, participation in worldly affairs is not necessarily seen as opposed to God.[56] The devil activates the selfish desires of the psyche, leading the human astray from the Divine.[63] Thus it is the I that is regarded as evil, and both Iblis and Pharao are present as symbols for uttering \"I\" in ones own behavior. Therefore it is recommended to use the term I as little as possible. It is only God who has the right to say \"I\", since it is only God who is self-subsistent. Uttering \"I\" is therefore a way to compare oneself to God, regarded as shirk.[64]","title":"Islam"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Taghut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taghut"},{"link_name":"Salafi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafism"},{"link_name":"dualistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"hadiths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith"},{"link_name":"jinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinn"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Western","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world"},{"link_name":"emancipation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"In Salafism","text":"See also: TaghutSalafi strands of Islam commonly emphasize a dualistic worldview contrasting believers and unbelievers,[65] and featuring the devil as the enemy of the faithful who tries to lead them astray from God's path. Even though the devil will eventually be defeated by God, he remains a serious and dangerous opponent of humans.[66] While in classical hadiths, the demons (Shayateen) and the jinn are responsible for impurity and capable of endangering human souls, in Salafi thought, it is the devil himself, who lies in wait for believers,[67] always striving to lure them away from God. The devil is regarded as an omnipresent entity, permanently inciting humans into sin, but can be pushed away by remembering the name God.[68] The devil is regarded as an external entity, threatening the everyday life of the believer, even in social aspects of life.[69] Thus for example, it is the devil who is responsible for Western emancipation.[70]","title":"Islam"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Satan § Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan#Judaism"},{"link_name":"Yahweh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahweh"},{"link_name":"Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"Isaiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah"},{"link_name":"Zoroastrianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism"},{"link_name":"Achaemenid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Rabbinic Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Enochian books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_(ancestor_of_Noah)"},{"link_name":"Second Temple period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple_period"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persians"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"apocalyptic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan#Judaism"},{"link_name":"Tanakh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanakh"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"allegorical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegorical"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"text":"Further information: Satan § JudaismYahweh, the god in pre-exilic Judaism, created both good and evil, as stated in Isaiah 45:7: \"I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things.\" The devil does not exist in Jewish scriptures. However, the influence of Zoroastrianism during the Achaemenid Empire introduced evil as a separate principle into the Jewish belief system, which gradually externalized the opposition until the Hebrew term satan developed into a specific type of supernatural entity, changing the monistic view of Judaism into a dualistic one.[71] Later, Rabbinic Judaism rejected[when?] the Enochian books (written during the Second Temple period under Persian influence), which depicted the devil as an independent force of evil besides God.[72] After the apocalyptic period, references to Satan in the Tanakh are thought[by whom?] to be allegorical.[73]","title":"Judaism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mandaeism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandaeism"},{"link_name":"Ruha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruha"},{"link_name":"Mandaean mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandaean_mythology"},{"link_name":"Ruha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruha"},{"link_name":"World of Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_of_Light"},{"link_name":"World of Darkness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_of_Darkness_(Mandaeism)"},{"link_name":"Sheol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheol"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR_Saadi-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aldihisi_2008-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buckley_2002-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GB-77"},{"link_name":"Ur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur_(Mandaeism)"},{"link_name":"Leviathan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aldihisi_2008-75"},{"link_name":"underworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underworld"},{"link_name":"seven planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_planet"},{"link_name":"twelve zodiac constellations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiac"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aldihisi_2008-75"},{"link_name":"Krun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krun"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Drower-78"},{"link_name":"lilith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilith"},{"link_name":"vampire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire"},{"link_name":"hobgoblin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobgoblin"},{"link_name":"ghost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aldihisi_2008-75"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR_Saadi-74"}],"text":"See also: Mandaeism and RuhaIn Mandaean mythology, Ruha fell apart from the World of Light and became the queen of the World of Darkness, also referred to as Sheol.[74][75][76] She is considered evil and a liar, sorcerer and seductress.[77]: 541 She gives birth to Ur, also referred to as Leviathan. He is portrayed as a large, ferocious dragon or snake and is considered the king of the World of Darkness.[75] Together they rule the underworld and create the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations.[75] Also found in the underworld is Krun, the greatest of the five Mandaean Lords of the underworld. He dwells in the lowest depths of creation and his epithet is the 'mountain of flesh'.[78]: 251  Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include lilith, nalai (vampire), niuli (hobgoblin), latabi (devil), gadalta (ghost), satani (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits.[75][74]","title":"Mandaeism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Manichaeism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mani2-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mani3-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"Hegemonius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegemonius"},{"link_name":"Mani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mani_(prophet)"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mani1-83"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mani2-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mani3-80"}],"text":"In Manichaeism, God and the devil are two unrelated principles. God created good and inhabits the realm of light, while the devil (also called the prince of darkness[79][80]) created evil and inhabits the kingdom of darkness. The contemporary world came into existence, when the kingdom of darkness assaulted the kingdom of light and mingled with the spiritual world.[81] At the end, the devil and his followers will be sealed forever and the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness will continue to co-exist eternally, never to commingle again.[82]Hegemonius (4th century CE) accuses that the Persian prophet Mani, founder of the Manichaean sect in the 3rd century CE, identified Jehovah as \"the devil god which created the world\"[83] and said that \"he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests … is the [Prince] of Darkness, … not the god of truth.\"[79][80]","title":"Manichaeism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tengristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengrism"},{"link_name":"Erlik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlik"},{"link_name":"Tamag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamag"},{"link_name":"Ulgen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulgen"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Kormos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kormos"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"text":"Among the Tengristic myths of central Asia, Erlik refers to a devil-like figure as the ruler of Tamag (Hell), who was also the first human. According to one narrative, Erlik and God swam together over the primordial waters. When God was about to create the Earth, he sent Erlik to dive into the waters and collect some mud. Erlik hid some inside his mouth to later create his own world. But when God commanded the Earth to expand, Erlik got troubled by the mud in his mouth. God aided Erlik to spit it out. The mud carried by Erlik gave place to the unpleasant areas of the world. Because of his sin, he was assigned to evil. In another variant, the creator-god is identified with Ulgen. Again, Erlik appears to be the first human. He desired to create a human just as Ulgen did, thereupon Ulgen reacted by punishing Erlik, casting him into the Underworld where he becomes its ruler.[84][85]According to Tengrism, there is no death, meaning that, when life comes to an end, it is merely a transition into the invisible world. As the ruler of Hell, Erlik enslaves the souls, who are damned to Hell. Further, he lurks on the souls of those humans living on Earth by causing death, disease and illnesses. At the time of birth, Erlik sends a Kormos to seize the soul of the newborn, following him for the rest of his life in an attempt to seize his soul by hampering, misguiding, and injuring him. When Erlik succeeds in destroying a human's body, the Kormos sent by Erlik will try take him down into the Underworld. However a good soul will be brought to Paradise by a Yayutshi sent by Ulgen.[86] Some shamans also made sacrifices to Erlik, for gaining a higher rank in the Underworld, if they should be damned to Hell.","title":"Tengrism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yazidism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazidism"},{"link_name":"dualism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"}],"text":"According to Yazidism there is no entity that represents evil in opposition to God; such dualism is rejected by Yazidis,[87] and evil is regarded as nonexistent.[88] Yazidis adhere to strict monism and are prohibited from uttering the word \"devil\" and from speaking of anything related to Hell.[89]","title":"Yazidism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Namah,_the_Persian_Epic_of_the_Kings_Wellcome_L0035183.jpg"},{"link_name":"Shahnameh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh"},{"link_name":"Zoroastrianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Russell99-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Ahura Mazda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahura_Mazda"},{"link_name":"Avestan language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avestan_language"},{"link_name":"Angra Mainyu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angra_Mainyu"},{"link_name":"Middle Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian"},{"link_name":"Ahriman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahriman"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Russell99-90"},{"link_name":"Daeva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daeva"},{"link_name":"Shahnameh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh"},{"link_name":"Div","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Div_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian"}],"text":"Ahriman Div being slain during a scene from the ShahnamehZoroastrianism probably introduced the first idea of the devil; a principle of evil independently existing apart from God.[90] In Zoroastrianism, good and evil derive from two ultimately opposed forces.[91] The force of good is called Ahura Mazda and the \"destructive spirit\" in the Avestan language is called Angra Mainyu. The Middle Persian equivalent is Ahriman. They are in eternal struggle and neither is all-powerful, especially Angra Mainyu is limited to space and time: in the end of time, he will be finally defeated. While Ahura Mazda creates what is good, Angra Mainyu is responsible for every evil and suffering in the world, such as toads and scorpions.[90]\nIranian Zoroastrians also considered the Daeva as devil creature, because of this in the Shahnameh, it is mentioned as both Ahriman Div (Persian: اهریمن دیو, romanized: Ahriman Div) as a devil.","title":"Zoroastrianism"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Devil in moral philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spinoza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinoza"},{"link_name":"Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spinoza-1985-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spinoza-2007-93"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spinoza-1985-92"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spinoza-1985-92"},{"link_name":"explanatory power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanatory_power"},{"link_name":"Occam's razor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"determinism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism"},{"link_name":"moral agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_agency"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spinoza-1985-92"}],"sub_title":"Spinoza","text":"A non-published manuscript of Spinoza's Ethics contained a chapter (Chapter XXI) on the devil, where Spinoza examined whether the devil may exist or not. He defines the devil as an entity which is contrary to God.[92]: 46 [93]: 150  However, if the devil is the opposite of God, the devil would consist of Nothingness, which does not exist.[92]: 145In a paper called On Devils, he writes that we can a priori find out that such a thing cannot exist. Because the duration of a thing results in its degree of perfection, and the more essence a thing possess the more lasting it is, and since the devil has no perfection at all, it is impossible for the devil to be an existing thing.[94]: 72  Evil or immoral behaviour in humans, such as anger, hate, envy, and all things for which the devil is blamed for could be explained without the proposal of a devil.[92]: 145  Thus, the devil does not have any explanatory power and should be dismissed (Occam's razor).Regarding evil through free choice, Spinoza asks how it can be that Adam would have chosen sin over his own well-being. Theology traditionally responds to this by asserting it is the devil who tempts humans into sin, but who would have tempted the devil? According to Spinoza, a rational being, such as the devil must have been, could not choose his own damnation.[95] The devil must have known his sin would lead to doom, thus the devil was not knowing, or the devil did not know his sin will lead to doom, thus the devil would not have been a rational being. Spinoza deducts a strict determinism in which moral agency as a free choice, cannot exist.[92]: 150","title":"Devil in moral philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_Within_the_Limits_of_Reason_Alone"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Kant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant"},{"link_name":"intelligible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligibility_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"Geistwesen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geist"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"}],"sub_title":"Kant","text":"In Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone, Immanuel Kant uses the devil as the personification of maximum moral reprehensibility. Deviating from the common Christian idea, Kant does not locate the morally reprehensible in sensual urges. Since evil has to be intelligible, only when the sensual is consciously placed above the moral obligation can something be regarded as morally evil. Thus, to be evil, the devil must be able to comprehend morality but consciously reject it, and, as a spiritual being (Geistwesen), having no relation to any form of sensual pleasure. It is necessarily required for the devil to be a spiritual being because if the devil were also a sensual being, it would be possible that the devil does evil to satisfy lower sensual desires, and does not act from the mind alone. The devil acts against morals, not to satisfy sensual lust, but solely for the sake of evil. As such, the devil is unselfish, for he does not benefit from his evil deeds.However, Kant denies that a human being could ever be completely devilish. Kant admits that there are devilish vices (ingratitude, envy, and malicious joy), i.e., vices that do not bring any personal advantage, but a person can never be completely a devil. In his Lecture on Moral Philosophy (1774/75) Kant gives an example of a tulip seller who was in possession of a rare tulip, but when he learned that another seller had the same tulip, he bought it from him and then destroyed it instead of keeping it for himself. If he had acted according to his sensual urges, the seller would have kept the tulip for himself to make a profit, but not have destroyed it. Nevertheless, the destruction of the tulip cannot be completely absolved from sensual impulses, since a sensual joy or relief still accompanies the destruction of the tulip and therefore cannot be thought of solely as a violation of morality.[96]: 156-173Kant further argues that a (spiritual) devil would be a contradiction. If the devil would be defined by doing evil, the devil had no free choice in the first place. But if the devil had no free-choice, the devil could not have been held accountable for his actions, since he had no free will but was only following his nature.[97]","title":"Devil in moral philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shaytan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaytan"},{"link_name":"Angra Mainyu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angra_Mainyu"},{"link_name":"Dark lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_lord"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Iblis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iblis"},{"link_name":"Lord of the Underworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underworld"},{"link_name":"Hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell"},{"link_name":"Lucifer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer"},{"link_name":"Venus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Mephistopheles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mephistopheles"},{"link_name":"Old Scratch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Scratch"},{"link_name":"Old Nick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_teaching_about_the_Devil"},{"link_name":"The Devil and Tom Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Devil_and_Tom_Walker"},{"link_name":"Prince of darkness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_darkness_(Manichaeism)"},{"link_name":"Robert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert"},{"link_name":"Knecht Ruprecht (Knight Robert)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knecht_Ruprecht"},{"link_name":"Satan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satan"},{"link_name":"Serpent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Voland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voland"},{"link_name":"The Master and Margarita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_Margarita"}],"text":"Honorifics or styles of address used to indicate devil-figures.Ash-Shaytan \"Satan\", the attributive Arabic term referring to the devil\nAngra Mainyu, Ahriman: \"malign spirit\", \"unholy spirit\"\nDark lord\nDer Leibhaftige [Teufel] (German): \"[the devil] in the flesh, corporeal\"[98]\nDiabolus, Diabolos (Greek: Διάβολος)\nThe Evil One\nThe Father of Lies (John 8:44), in contrast to Jesus (\"I am the truth\").\nIblis, name of the devil in Islam\nThe Lord of the Underworld / Lord of Hell / Lord of this world\nLucifer / the Morning Star (Greek and Roman): the bringer of light, illuminator; the planet Venus, often portrayed as Satan's name in Christianity\nKölski (Iceland)[99]\nMephistopheles\nOld Scratch, the Stranger, Old Nick: a colloquialism for the devil, as indicated by the name of the character in the short story \"The Devil and Tom Walker\"\nPrince of darkness, the devil in Manichaeism\nRuprecht (German form of Robert), a common name for the Devil in Germany (see Knecht Ruprecht (Knight Robert))\nSatan / the Adversary, Accuser, Prosecutor; in Christianity, the devil\n(The ancient/old/crooked/coiling) Serpent\nVoland (fictional character in The Master and Margarita)","title":"Titles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BRENAN-Gallup-belief-101"}],"text":"Opinion polls show that belief in the devil in Western countries is more common in the United States ...where it is more common among the religious, regular church goers, political conservatives, and the older and less well educated,[101]\n... but has declined in recent decades.","title":"Contemporary belief"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-103"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gallup.religion-102"}],"text":"^ all polling done in May of that year[102]","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"Statue of the devil in the Žmuidzinavičius Museum or Devil's Museum in Kaunas, Lithuania","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/022_devil_representation.JPG/170px-022_devil_representation.JPG"},{"image_text":"Satan (the dragon; on the left) gives to the beast of the sea (on the right) power represented by a sceptre in a detail of panel III.40 of the medieval French Apocalypse Tapestry, produced between 1377 and 1382.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/La_tenture_de_lApocalypse_%28Angers%29_%282%29.jpg/220px-La_tenture_de_lApocalypse_%28Angers%29_%282%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A fresco detail from the Rila Monastery, in which demons are depicted as having grotesque faces and bodies","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Devils-from-Rila-monastery.jpg/170px-Devils-from-Rila-monastery.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Fallen Angel (1847) by Alexandre Cabanel (Musée Fabre, Montpellier)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Fallen_Angel.jpg/220px-Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Fallen_Angel.jpg"},{"image_text":"Horns of a goat and a ram, goat's fur and ears, nose and canines of a pig; a typical depiction of the devil in Christian art. The goat, ram and pig are consistently associated with the devil.[20] Detail of a 16th-century painting by Jacob de Backer in the National Museum in Warsaw.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Backer_Judgment_%28detail%29.JPG/220px-Backer_Judgment_%28detail%29.JPG"},{"image_text":"A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Lion-faced_deity.jpg/150px-Lion-faced_deity.jpg"},{"image_text":"Iblis (top right on the picture) refuses to prostrate before the newly created Adam from a Persian miniature.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Adam_honored.jpg/170px-Adam_honored.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ahriman Div being slain during a scene from the Shahnameh","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Shah_Namah%2C_the_Persian_Epic_of_the_Kings_Wellcome_L0035183.jpg/220px-Shah_Namah%2C_the_Persian_Epic_of_the_Kings_Wellcome_L0035183.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Deal with the Devil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deal_with_the_Devil"},{"title":"Devil in popular culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil_in_popular_culture"},{"title":"Hades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hades"},{"title":"Underworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underworld"},{"title":"Krampus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krampus"},{"title":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"title":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"title":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"title":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"title":"Non-physical entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-physical_entity"},{"title":"Theistic Satanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_Satanism"}]

[{"reference":"Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1990). Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9718-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9718-6","url_text":"978-0-8014-9718-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of DEVIL\". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 23 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/devil","url_text":"\"Definition of DEVIL\""}]},{"reference":"Jeffrey Burton Russell (1987). The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press. pp. 11, 34. ISBN 0-8014-9409-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=D2-Na937xRYC","url_text":"The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9409-5","url_text":"0-8014-9409-5"}]},{"reference":"Kelly, Henry Ansgar (2006). Satan: A Biography. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-521-60402-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gPIpQg0lRbMC&pg=PA12","url_text":"Satan: A Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60402-4","url_text":"978-0-521-60402-4"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Peter (2000). \"satan\". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 304. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/304","url_text":"\"satan\""},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/304","url_text":"304"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85168-184-1","url_text":"1-85168-184-1"}]},{"reference":"Bahá'u'lláh; Baháʼuʼlláh (1994) [1873–92]. \"Tablet of the World\". Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Wilmette, Illinois, US: Baháʼí Publishing Trust. p. 87. ISBN 0-87743-174-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27u%27ll%C3%A1h","url_text":"Bahá'u'lláh"},{"url":"http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/TB/tb-8.html#pg87","url_text":"Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87743-174-4","url_text":"0-87743-174-4"}]},{"reference":"Hornby, Helen (1983). Hornby, Helen (ed.). Lights of Guidance: A Baháʼí Reference File. Baháʼí Publishing Trust, New Delhi, India. p. 513. ISBN 81-85091-46-3.","urls":[{"url":"http://bahai-library.com/hornby_lights_guidance_2&chapter=4#n1738","url_text":"Lights of Guidance: A Baháʼí Reference File"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85091-46-3","url_text":"81-85091-46-3"}]},{"reference":"Leeming, David (2005). The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press (US). ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem","url_text":"The Oxford Companion to World Mythology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515669-0","url_text":"978-0-19-515669-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of DEVIL\". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 12 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/devil","url_text":"\"Definition of DEVIL\""}]},{"reference":"Fritscher, Jack (2004). Popular Witchcraft: Straight from the Witch's Mouth. Popular Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-299-20304-2. The pig, goat, ram—all of these creatures are consistently associated with the Devil.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-20304-2","url_text":"0-299-20304-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Do you Believe in a Devil? Bible Teaching on Temptation\". Archived from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/devil.htm","url_text":"\"Do you Believe in a Devil? Bible Teaching on Temptation\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220529141551/http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/devil.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). \"Marcionites\" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Marcionites","url_text":"\"Marcionites\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia","url_text":"Catholic Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). \"Gnosticism\" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Gnosticism","url_text":"\"Gnosticism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia","url_text":"Catholic Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn. Syracuse University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0815650706.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press","url_text":"Syracuse University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815650706","url_text":"978-0815650706"}]},{"reference":"Vicchio, Stephen J. (2008). Biblical Figures in the Islamic Faith. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. pp. 175–185. ISBN 978-1556353048.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipf_and_Stock","url_text":"Wipf and Stock"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1556353048","url_text":"978-1556353048"}]},{"reference":"Ahmadi, Nader; Ahmadi, Fereshtah (1998). Iranian Islam: The Concept of the Individual. Berlin, Germany: Axel Springer. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-230-37349-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Springer","url_text":"Axel Springer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-37349-5","url_text":"978-0-230-37349-5"}]},{"reference":"Houtman, Alberdina; Kadari, Tamar; Poorthuis, Marcel; Tohar, Vered (2016). Religious Stories in Transformation: Conflict, Revision and Reception. Leiden, Germany: Brill Publishers. p. 66. ISBN 978-9-004-33481-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brill_Publishers","url_text":"Brill Publishers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-004-33481-6","url_text":"978-9-004-33481-6"}]},{"reference":"Al-Saadi, Qais Mughashghash; Al-Saadi, Hamed Mughashghash (2019). \"Glossary\". Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure. An equivalent translation of the Mandaean Holy Book (2 ed.). Drabsha.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amazon.de/Ginza-Rabba-English-Translation-Drabsha/dp/B00A3GO458","url_text":"Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure. An equivalent translation of the Mandaean Holy Book"}]},{"reference":"Aldihisi, Sabah (2008). The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba (PhD). University College London.","urls":[{"url":"https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1444088/","url_text":"The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba"}]},{"reference":"Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2002). The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515385-5. OCLC 65198443.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515385-5","url_text":"0-19-515385-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/65198443","url_text":"65198443"}]},{"reference":"Barnstone, Willis; Meyer, Marvin (2003). The Gnostic Bible. Boston & London: Shambhala.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Drower, E.S. (1937). The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Vísindavefurinn: How many words are there in Icelandic for the devil?\". Visindavefur.hi.is. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120207014220/http://www.visindavefur.hi.is/svar.asp?id=4793","url_text":"\"Vísindavefurinn: How many words are there in Icelandic for the devil?\""},{"url":"http://visindavefur.hi.is/svar.asp?id=4793","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Oldridge, Darren (2012). The Devil, a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 90–91.","urls":[]},{"reference":"BRENAN, MEGAN (20 July 2023). \"Belief in Five Spiritual Entities Edges Down to New Lows\". Gallup. Retrieved 19 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.gallup.com/poll/508886/belief-five-spiritual-entities-edges-down-new-lows.aspx","url_text":"\"Belief in Five Spiritual Entities Edges Down to New Lows\""}]},{"reference":"\"Religion\". Gallup. Retrieved 19 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.gallup.com/poll/1690/religion.aspx","url_text":"\"Religion\""}]},{"reference":"Kent, William Henry (1908). \"Devil\" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Devil","url_text":"\"Devil\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia","url_text":"Catholic Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"Garvie, Alfred Ernest (1911). \"Devil\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). pp. 121–123.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Devil","url_text":"\"Devil\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savage:_The_Battle_for_Newerth

Savage: The Battle for Newerth

["1 Gameplay","2 Release","3 Reception","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

2003 video game This article is about the 2003 real-time strategy video game. For the 1988 action video game, see Savage (video game). 2003 video gameSavage: The Battle for NewerthDeveloper(s)S2 Games The Newerth CommunityPlatform(s)WindowsLinuxMac OS XReleaseSeptember 9, 2003Genre(s)Real-time strategy, first-person shooterMode(s)Multiplayer Savage: The Battle for Newerth is a 2003 video game combining aspects of the real-time strategy and first-person shooter genres, developed by S2 Games. It takes place in a science fantasy distant future when mankind has rebuilt society after the apocalypse, but is threatened by intelligent beasts led by a sorceress. Gameplay Savage is a solely online game, as it does not include a single-player mode. Each match takes place on a map of varying size. A single match has two or more teams, which can be either human or beasts (most maps have one human team and one beast team, but any configuration is possible). The goal of the game is to destroy the primary enemy structure — the "Stronghold" for the human race, or the "Lair" for the beast race. Each team has one commander, who plays the game like a real-time strategy (RTS), and additional players, who play the game like a first / third person shooter / hack and slash. The human team is better at defense and ranged combat, while the beast team is better at offense and melee combat. A lot of gameplay is based on melee combat, which is notoriously hard to master and different from most games. A commander is responsible for directing his team, constructing buildings and researching technology. The commander is capable of creating a maximum of ten workers, which are NPCs that are fully controlled by the commander. These workers can be commanded to construct and repair buildings, mine resources and even attack other players or NPCs. Commanders can also issue these commands to the players on their team, allowing the commander to coordinate team movements and attacks. Players can also receive buffs from the commander once the technology tree has been sufficiently developed. When a match starts, players may request to act as the commander. Depending on the game server's settings, they may either be promoted immediately, or the team must vote on the request. A match cannot start until both teams have a commander, although commanders may quit the game after the match has started. The other 1 to 127 players on the team are the field players, that receive orders from the commander, which appear as visual waypoints. They can be ordered to attack enemies, mine resources, or construct buildings, although there is no penalty for ignoring orders. Some players can be promoted to the rank of "Officer" by their commander, which allows them to issue similar orders to other players on the team. Officers also grant a passive healing bonus to teammates around them. When a field player is killed, they are presented with the option to purchase units and weapons before spawning. The units and weapons that are available are determined by the commander's development of the technology tree and the amount of gold the player has (although players can request items from the commander if they don't have enough gold). Gold is obtained by killing players, NPCs, and damaging enemy buildings. Release The game was released in 2003, was turned freeware on September 1, 2006, and its source code was made available to the public. S2 Games have discontinued the game since, but its community continued developing it. Developed by a team at Newerth.com with S2 Games' support, XR was the most widely used continuation of Savage. It includes all improvements contributed by the Savage Full Enhancement mod, and adds better player models, new animations, new music, an additional 500 props for map designers, a reworked GUI and better support for mods, among other features. Unlike the original Savage, XR is not open-source due to concerns about cheating, which has been a problem in the past for open-sourced versions of the game. The official Savage XR website, Newerth.com, was closed down in 2022 but the community continues developing the game. Reception ReceptionAggregate scoresAggregatorScoreGameRankings77%Metacritic75/100Review scoresPublicationScoreEurogamer8/10GameSpot7.1/10IGN8.7/10 Eurogamer awarded Savage 8 out of 10, criticizing technical glitches and the lack of any introductory tutorials, but highlighting the RTS-style gameplay aspects, accommodation for a wide range of player styles and good looking graphics. It won the 2004 Seumas McNally Grand Prize for best indie game. See also Portal: Video games Savage 2: A Tortured Soul Heroes of Newerth References ^ "Savage slips to July - PC News at Gamespot". CNET Networks. Retrieved 2008-11-02. ^ a b "IGN: Savage: The Battle for Newerth Preview". IGN Entertainment. Archived from the original on August 5, 2002. Retrieved 2008-11-02. ^ "Savage Updated Preview". CNET Networks. Retrieved 2008-11-02. ^ "How melee works". Archived from the original on 2013-02-15. Retrieved 2012-09-22. ^ "IGN: A Savage Game". IGN Entertainment. Archived from the original on December 22, 2002. Retrieved 2008-11-02. ^ "linuX-gamers.net - Savage: The Battle for Newerth now Freeware". linux-Gamers. Archived from the original on June 8, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-02. ^ "Newerth Savage XR - About us". Newerth.com. Archived from the original on 2016-07-28. Retrieved 2016-07-21. In 2007 Newerth.com acquired the source code for Savage: The Battle for Newerth and announced its continued development with the implementation of new features and content into the game via a patch named XR, incorporating previous community modifications. ^ "Newerth.com - What is the community patch Savage XR?". Archived from the original on 2012-09-22. Retrieved 2012-09-22. ^ "Savage XR 1.0 Released - Full Details". 2012-09-17. Archived from the original on 2012-09-22. Retrieved 2012-09-22. ^ "Why isn't Savage XR open-source?". Archived from the original on 2015-05-01. Retrieved 2012-09-23. ^ "Newerth.com Has Closed Down". Newerth.com. 2022-08-30. Retrieved 2023-01-14. ^ "Savage: The Battle for Newerth for PC". GameRankings. CBS Interactive. Retrieved June 6, 2018. ^ "Savage: The Battle for Newerth for PC Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved June 6, 2018. ^ a b Bramwell, Tom (February 17, 2004). "Savage: The Battle for Newerth". Eurogamer. Gamer Network. Retrieved June 6, 2018. ^ Butts, Steve (September 12, 2003). "Savage: The Battle for Newerth Review". IGN. Ziff Davis. Retrieved June 6, 2018. ^ Kasavin, Greg (September 26, 2003). "Savage: The Battle for Newerth Review". GameSpot. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on December 29, 2013. Retrieved June 6, 2018. External links Official Savage XR website vteSeumas McNally Grand Prize1990s Fire and Darkness (1999) 2000s Tread Marks (2000) Shattered Galaxy (2001) Bad Milk (2002) Wild Earth (2003) Savage: The Battle for Newerth (2004) Oasis (2004) Gish (2005) Wik and the Fable of Souls (2005) Darwinia (2006) Aquaria (2007) Crayon Physics Deluxe (2008) Blueberry Garden (2009) 2010s Monaco (2010) Minecraft (2011) Fez (2012) Cart Life (2013) Papers, Please (2014) Outer Wilds (2015) Her Story (2016) Quadrilateral Cowboy (2017) Night in the Woods (2018) Return of the Obra Dinn (2019) 2020s A Short Hike (2020) Umurangi Generation (2021) Inscryption (2022) Betrayal at Club Low (2023) Venba (2024)

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For the 1988 action video game, see Savage (video game).2003 video gameSavage: The Battle for Newerth is a 2003 video game combining aspects of the real-time strategy and first-person shooter genres, developed by S2 Games.[1] It takes place in a science fantasy distant future when mankind has rebuilt society after the apocalypse, but is threatened by intelligent beasts led by a sorceress.","title":"Savage: The Battle for Newerth"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_game"},{"link_name":"single-player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-player"},{"link_name":"real-time strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_strategy"},{"link_name":"first","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_person_shooter"},{"link_name":"third person shooter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_person_shooter"},{"link_name":"hack and slash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hack_and_slash"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign_preview-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"NPCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPCs"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign_preview-2"},{"link_name":"buffs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buff_(computer_gaming)"},{"link_name":"game server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_server"},{"link_name":"waypoints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waypoint"},{"link_name":"spawning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spawning_(computer_gaming)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Savage is a solely online game, as it does not include a single-player mode. Each match takes place on a map of varying size. A single match has two or more teams, which can be either human or beasts (most maps have one human team and one beast team, but any configuration is possible). The goal of the game is to destroy the primary enemy structure — the \"Stronghold\" for the human race, or the \"Lair\" for the beast race. Each team has one commander, who plays the game like a real-time strategy (RTS), and additional players, who play the game like a first / third person shooter / hack and slash.[2][3] The human team is better at defense and ranged combat, while the beast team is better at offense and melee combat. A lot of gameplay is based on melee combat, which is notoriously hard to master and different from most games.[4]A commander is responsible for directing his team, constructing buildings and researching technology.[5] The commander is capable of creating a maximum of ten workers, which are NPCs that are fully controlled by the commander. These workers can be commanded to construct and repair buildings, mine resources and even attack other players or NPCs. Commanders can also issue these commands to the players on their team, allowing the commander to coordinate team movements and attacks.[2] Players can also receive buffs from the commander once the technology tree has been sufficiently developed. When a match starts, players may request to act as the commander. Depending on the game server's settings, they may either be promoted immediately, or the team must vote on the request. A match cannot start until both teams have a commander, although commanders may quit the game after the match has started.The other 1 to 127 players on the team are the field players, that receive orders from the commander, which appear as visual waypoints. They can be ordered to attack enemies, mine resources, or construct buildings, although there is no penalty for ignoring orders. Some players can be promoted to the rank of \"Officer\" by their commander, which allows them to issue similar orders to other players on the team. Officers also grant a passive healing bonus to teammates around them. When a field player is killed, they are presented with the option to purchase units and weapons before spawning. The units and weapons that are available are determined by the commander's development of the technology tree and the amount of gold the player has (although players can request items from the commander if they don't have enough gold). Gold is obtained by killing players, NPCs, and damaging enemy buildings.[citation needed]","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"freeware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeware"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"made available to the public","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_leak"},{"link_name":"S2 Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2_Games"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"S2 Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2_Games"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newerth_xr-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"open-source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The game was released in 2003, was turned freeware on September 1, 2006,[6] and its source code was made available to the public. S2 Games have discontinued the game since, but its community continued developing it.[7]Developed by a team at Newerth.com with S2 Games' support, XR was the most widely used continuation of Savage. It includes all improvements contributed by the Savage Full Enhancement mod, and adds better player models, new animations, new music, an additional 500 props for map designers, a reworked GUI and better support for mods, among other features.[8][9] Unlike the original Savage, XR is not open-source due to concerns about cheating, which has been a problem in the past for open-sourced versions of the game.[10]The official Savage XR website, Newerth.com, was closed down in 2022 but the community continues developing the game.[11]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GameRankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameRankings"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamerankings_score-12"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-metacritic_score-13"},{"link_name":"Eurogamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurogamer_review-14"},{"link_name":"GameSpot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_review-16"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign_review-15"},{"link_name":"Eurogamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurogamer_review-14"},{"link_name":"Seumas McNally Grand Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seumas_McNally_Grand_Prize"}],"text":"ReceptionAggregate scoresAggregatorScoreGameRankings77%[12]Metacritic75/100[13]Review scoresPublicationScoreEurogamer8/10[14]GameSpot7.1/10[16]IGN8.7/10[15]Eurogamer awarded Savage 8 out of 10, criticizing technical glitches and the lack of any introductory tutorials, but highlighting the RTS-style gameplay aspects, accommodation for a wide range of player styles and good looking graphics.[14]It won the 2004 Seumas McNally Grand Prize for best indie game.","title":"Reception"}]

[]

[{"title":"Portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"},{"title":"Video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Video_games"},{"title":"Savage 2: A Tortured Soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savage_2:_A_Tortured_Soul"},{"title":"Heroes of Newerth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroes_of_Newerth"}]

[{"reference":"\"Savage slips to July - PC News at Gamespot\". CNET Networks. Retrieved 2008-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gamespot.com/pc/action/savage/news.html?sid=6024256&mode=recent","url_text":"\"Savage slips to July - PC News at Gamespot\""}]},{"reference":"\"IGN: Savage: The Battle for Newerth Preview\". IGN Entertainment. Archived from the original on August 5, 2002. Retrieved 2008-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20020805203513/http://pc.ign.com/articles/361/361820p1.html","url_text":"\"IGN: Savage: The Battle for Newerth Preview\""},{"url":"http://pc.ign.com/articles/361/361820p1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Savage Updated Preview\". CNET Networks. Retrieved 2008-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gamespot.com/pc/action/savage/news.html?sid=6025391&mode=recent","url_text":"\"Savage Updated Preview\""}]},{"reference":"\"How melee works\". Archived from the original on 2013-02-15. Retrieved 2012-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130215072049/http://www.newerth.com/smf/index.php/topic,15169.0.html","url_text":"\"How melee works\""},{"url":"http://www.newerth.com/smf/index.php/topic,15169.0.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"IGN: A Savage Game\". IGN Entertainment. Archived from the original on December 22, 2002. Retrieved 2008-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20021222142815/http://pc.ign.com/articles/359/359667p1.html","url_text":"\"IGN: A Savage Game\""},{"url":"http://pc.ign.com/articles/359/359667p1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"linuX-gamers.net - Savage: The Battle for Newerth now Freeware\". linux-Gamers. Archived from the original on June 8, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080608113437/http://www.linux-gamers.net/modules/news/article.php?storyid=1779","url_text":"\"linuX-gamers.net - Savage: The Battle for Newerth now Freeware\""},{"url":"http://www.linux-gamers.net/modules/news/article.php?storyid=1779","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Newerth Savage XR - About us\". Newerth.com. Archived from the original on 2016-07-28. Retrieved 2016-07-21. In 2007 Newerth.com acquired the source code for Savage: The Battle for Newerth and announced its continued development with the implementation of new features and content into the game via a patch named XR, incorporating previous community modifications.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160728114306/https://www.newerth.com/?id=about","url_text":"\"Newerth Savage XR - About us\""},{"url":"https://www.newerth.com/?id=about","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Newerth.com - What is the community patch Savage XR?\". Archived from the original on 2012-09-22. Retrieved 2012-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120922163120/https://www.newerth.com/?id=xr","url_text":"\"Newerth.com - What is the community patch Savage XR?\""},{"url":"http://www.newerth.com/?id=xr","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Savage XR 1.0 Released - Full Details\". 2012-09-17. Archived from the original on 2012-09-22. Retrieved 2012-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120922163358/https://www.newerth.com/smf/index.php/topic%2C15825.0.html","url_text":"\"Savage XR 1.0 Released - Full Details\""},{"url":"http://www.newerth.com/smf/index.php/topic,15825.0.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Why isn't Savage XR open-source?\". Archived from the original on 2015-05-01. Retrieved 2012-09-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150501081650/http://www.newerth.com/smf/index.php/topic%2C12955.0.html","url_text":"\"Why isn't Savage XR open-source?\""},{"url":"http://www.newerth.com/smf/index.php/topic,12955.0.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Newerth.com Has Closed Down\". Newerth.com. 2022-08-30. Retrieved 2023-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newerth.com/","url_text":"\"Newerth.com Has Closed Down\""}]},{"reference":"\"Savage: The Battle for Newerth for PC\". GameRankings. CBS Interactive. Retrieved June 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamerankings.com/pc/561393-savage-the-battle-for-newerth/index.html","url_text":"\"Savage: The Battle for Newerth for PC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameRankings","url_text":"GameRankings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Interactive","url_text":"CBS Interactive"}]},{"reference":"\"Savage: The Battle for Newerth for PC Reviews\". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved June 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.metacritic.com/game/savage-the-battle-for-newerth/critic-reviews/?platform=pc","url_text":"\"Savage: The Battle for Newerth for PC Reviews\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic","url_text":"Metacritic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Interactive","url_text":"CBS Interactive"}]},{"reference":"Bramwell, Tom (February 17, 2004). \"Savage: The Battle for Newerth\". Eurogamer. Gamer Network. Retrieved June 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/r_savage_pc","url_text":"\"Savage: The Battle for Newerth\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer","url_text":"Eurogamer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamer_Network","url_text":"Gamer Network"}]},{"reference":"Butts, Steve (September 12, 2003). \"Savage: The Battle for Newerth Review\". IGN. Ziff Davis. Retrieved June 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ign.com/articles/2003/09/13/savage-the-battle-for-newerth-review","url_text":"\"Savage: The Battle for Newerth Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN","url_text":"IGN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff_Davis","url_text":"Ziff Davis"}]},{"reference":"Kasavin, Greg (September 26, 2003). \"Savage: The Battle for Newerth Review\". GameSpot. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on December 29, 2013. Retrieved June 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamespot.com/reviews/savage-the-battle-for-newerth-review/1900-6075926/","url_text":"\"Savage: The Battle for Newerth Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot","url_text":"GameSpot"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Interactive","url_text":"CBS Interactive"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131229142204/http://www.gamespot.com:80/reviews/savage-the-battle-for-newerth-review/1900-6075926/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Levitt

William Levitt

["1 Early life and education","2 Levitt & Sons","2.1 1920s–1930s","2.2 After World War II","2.3 Levittown housing developments","2.4 Personal fortune","2.5 Racial segregation","2.6 Company sale","3 Later years and death","4 Legacy","5 Personal life","6 References","7 External links"]

American real estate developer and suburbia pioneer William LevittLevitt, Pictured in 1964BornWilliam Jaird Levitt(1907-02-11)February 11, 1907New York City, USDiedJanuary 28, 1994(1994-01-28) (aged 86)Manhasset, New York, USAlma materNew York University(no degree)OccupationReal estate developerEmployerLevitt & SonsKnown forAmerican suburban developmentSpouse(s)Rhoda Kirshner (divorced) Alice D. Kenny (divorced) Simone KorchinChildren4 (including 2 adopted)Military careerAllegiance United StatesService/branchUnited States NavyYears of service1942–1945Rank LieutenantUnitNaval Construction BattalionsBattles/warsWorld War II William Jaird Levitt (February 11, 1907 – January 28, 1994) was an American real-estate developer and housing pioneer. As president of Levitt & Sons, he is widely credited as the father of modern American suburbia. In 1998 he was named one of Time Magazine's "100 Most Influential People of the 20th Century." Early life and education Levitt was born in 1907 to a Jewish family in Brooklyn. His generation was the second since emigrating from Russia and Austria; the paternal grandparents who immigrated to the United States had been a rabbi grandfather from Russia and a grandmother from Austria-Germany. His father was Abraham Levitt, a Brooklyn-born real estate attorney and part-time investor; his mother was Pauline Biederman. A younger brother, Alfred, was born when William was five years old. William received a public school education at Public School 44 and Boys High School. He then attended New York University for three years, but dropped out before graduating. Levitt & Sons 1920s–1930s In 1929, William's father Abraham founded a real-estate development company called Levitt & Sons. Levitt & Sons built mostly upscale housing on and around Long Island, New York, in the 1930s. William Levitt served as company president, overseeing all aspects of the company except for the designs of the homes they built, which fell to William's brother Alfred. After World War II During World War II, Levitt served in the Navy as a lieutenant in the Seabees. After returning from the war, he saw a need for affordable housing for returning veterans. America's post-war prosperity and baby boom had created a crisis of affordable housing. Even before returning from the war, Levitt experimented with mass housing projects, building a 1,600-home community in Norfolk, Virginia, which was not a success and housing units remained unsold in 1950. Levittown housing developments Aerial view circa 1959 of Levittown, Pennsylvania Levittown, Puerto Rico Levitt progressed to become a pioneer of mass production. He had houses built in less than six weeks on inexpensive land with no urban infrastructure. Houses were built on concrete slabs, with no foundation, and could be purchased for as little as a one-dollar down payment. Levitt & Sons' first successful housing development was located on almost 20 square miles (52 km2) of land near Hempstead, Long Island and was named Levittown. The assembly line construction method enabled Levitt to build more efficiently than other developers at the time, with teams of specialized workers following each other from house to house to complete incremental steps in the construction. Levitt reduced the cost of constructing houses by freezing out union labor. This provoked picket lines, but enabled him to use the latest technology, such as spray painting. Levitt also cut out middlemen and purchased many items, including lumber and televisions, directly from manufacturers, as well as constructing his own factory to produce nails. The building of every house was reduced to 27 steps, and sub-contractors were responsible for each step. His mass production of thousands of houses at virtually the same time allowed Levitt to sell them, fully furnished with modern electric appliances, for as little as $8,000 each ($65,000 in 2009 dollars), which, with the G.I. Bill and Federal housing subsidies, reduced the up-front cost of a house to many buyers to around $400. Levitt was the cover story in Time magazine for July 3, 1950, with the tag line "For Sale: a new way of life." In 1952, people started buying over 17,000 Levitt-built homes in Bucks County, Pennsylvania. In addition, the company built Willingboro, New Jersey, which still has street names such as Levitt Parkway. During the late 1950s, Levitt and Sons constructed "Belair at Bowie" in Bowie, Maryland. William had taken control of Levitt & Sons in 1954 and the company went public in 1960. During the 1960s, when Levitt was leading the company, Levitt & Sons developed properties beyond the American mainland, such as Levittown, Puerto Rico; Lésigny, France in Seine-et-Marne; and Mennecy in Essonne, France. In the early 1960s, the company built a 5,000-house community in north central New Jersey called Strathmore-at-Matawan. Personal fortune By the late 1960s, Levitt had become one of the richest men in America, with a fortune estimated in excess of $100 million. He lived in a lavish 30-room mansion on his "La Coline" estate in Mill Neck, New York, and spent much of his time on La Belle Simone, his 237 feet (72 m) yacht named after his third wife. Racial segregation Levitt refused to integrate his developments. The Jewish Levitt barred Jews from Strathmore, his first pre-Levittown development on Long Island in New York, and he refused to sell his homes to African Americans. His sales contracts also forbade the resale of properties to blacks through restrictive covenants, although in 1957 a Jewish couple resold their house to the first black family to live in a Levitt home. Levitt's all-white policies also led to civil rights protests in Bowie, Maryland in 1963. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the American Civil Liberties Union opposed Levitt's racist policies, and the Federal Housing Administration prepared to refuse mortgages on his next Levittown. Nevertheless, Levitt would not back down and continued planning another whites-only Levittown in Willingboro Township, New Jersey. He fought legal challenges in New Jersey courts until the United States Supreme Court refused to hear his case. The 2003 PBS series Race: The Power of an Illusion, by California Newsreel, features Levittown and nearby Roosevelt in documenting systemic racism in the development of the early suburbs. Levitt has been criticized for his racially discriminatory policies when providing housing, which were especially discriminatory to African Americans, Jews, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans and Native Americans. Company sale After he had built over 140,000 houses around the world, then 60-year-old Levitt sold the company to ITT for $92 million ($840 million today) in July 1967, of which $62 million was in the form of ITT stock. ITT made Levitt president of the renamed Levitt Corp., with a non-compete clause where Levitt could not found or be employed by another United States home building company for ten years. He entered the agreement thinking he would play an active role in ITT affairs, but executives felt Levitt was too old to take on more responsibility. Levitt remained president under ITT until 1972. During that time he led the subsidiary's development of housing projects in Palm Coast, Florida; Richmond, Virginia; and Fairfax, Virginia. Later years and death After the restriction against Levitt moving to a new home building company in the United States expired, he was unable to repeat the success he had achieved with Levitt & Sons. He established a series of companies and joint ventures through the 1970s and 1980s which failed. The ITT stock he often used for collateral on these ventures lost 90% of its value, saddling him with great debt. The Levitt Corp. had its license to conduct business in Prince George's County, Maryland, revoked in October 1978 after building inspectors found more than 2,500 code violations in 122 homes of their latest subdivision, Northview. He was accused of misappropriation of funds from the charitable Levitt Foundation and agreed to repay $5 million, more than $5 million or $11 million (in 1992). Levitt died from kidney disease at a hospital in Manhasset, New York, on January 28, 1994, at the age of 86. Legacy William Levitt came to symbolize the new suburban growth with his use of mass-production techniques to construct large developments of houses, eponymously named Levittowns, selling for under $10,000. Many other relatively inexpensive suburban developments soon appeared throughout the country. While he did not invent the building of communities of affordable single-family homes within driving distance of major areas of employment, his innovations in providing affordable housing popularized this type of planned community in the years following World War II. His nicknames included "The King of Suburbia" and "Inventor of the Suburb." At his height, when he was completing one suburban house every 11 minutes, Levitt compared his successes to those of Henry Ford's automobile assembly line. Time magazine recognized Levitt as one of the "100 Most Important People of the 20th Century" in 1998. Levitt was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal in 1965. Personal life Levitt married Rhoda Kirshner in November 1929. Their son William Junior was born in 1932, and their second son, James, was born in 1944. The couple divorced in 1959, and, the same year, Levitt married his long-time mistress, Alice D. Kenny, an interior decorator at Levitt & Sons, and adopted her two daughters from a previous marriage, Joanne Habermehl and Mariellen Habermehl. Ten years later, in 1969, Levitt divorced his second wife and married a French art dealer, Simone Korchin. References ^ "Time 100 Persons Of The Century". Time. June 6, 1999. ^ a b c d e f g h Pace, Eric (January 29, 1994). "William J. Levitt, 86, Pioneer of Suburbs, Dies". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-07-26. ^ Ephross, Peter (February 9, 2009). "How Jews both Segregated and Integrated Levittown". Baltimore Jewish Times. Archived from the original on June 8, 2011. Retrieved December 3, 2014. ^ Ferrer, Margaret Lundrigan; Navarra, Tova (1997-03-01). Levittown: The First 50 Years. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 9780738562285. ^ a b c d e Glaeser, Edward (2011), Triumph of the City: How Our Best Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier, New York: Penguin Press, pp. 174–77, ISBN 978-1-59420-277-3 ^ Blackwell, Jon. "1951: American dream houses, all in a row". The Trentonian. ^ David Raizman (2023). History of Modern Design Third Edition. Quercus Publishing. ISBN 9781529419757. ^ a b c d e Lacayo, Richard (December 7, 1998). "Suburban Legend William Levitt". Time (magazine). Archived from the original on April 8, 2011. Retrieved October 1, 2010. ^ Staff (July 3, 1950). "House Builder Levitt, For Sale: a new way of life". Time. Archived from the original on December 2, 2006. ^ https://boundarystones.weta.org/2020/06/12/belair-bowie-segregated-suburbia ^ Staff (December 10, 1965). "France: A Lesson from Levitt". Time. Archived from the original on April 22, 2008. Retrieved 2011-01-11. ^ a b "William Levitt". Entrepreneur.com. 10 October 2008. Retrieved 2015-11-20. ^ Ephross, Peter (February 9, 2009) "How Jews both Segregated and Integrated Levittown" Baltimore Jewish Times ^ a b c "William Levitt" Your Dictionary ^ Jacobson, Joanne (April 14 , 2009) "Jew vs Jew in Levittown" The Forward ^ "Levitt Communities". LevittownBeyond.com. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Diehl, Jackson (October 14, 1978). "The Rise And Fall of Levitt Era". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 14, 2019. ^ Kaufman, Michael T. (September 24, 1989). "Tough Times For Mr. Levittown". The New York Times. ^ "William J. Levitt, Pioneer of Postwar Suburbia, Dies". The Washington Post. January 30, 1994. ^ a b Schneiderman, Matt (April 30, 2008). "William Levitt: The king of suburbia". The Real Deal. ^ Halberstam, David (1997) The Fifties: "The Fear and the Dream" (documentary) ^ Kushner, David (2009-07-01). Levittown: Two Families, One Tycoon, and the Fight for Civil Rights in America's Legendary Suburb. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 9780802719737. ^ Levitt & Sons (July 10, 1958). "This Is Levittown, New Jersey" (PDF). Philadelphia Inquirer. ^ "Miss Joanne Levitt Is Bride of Frederic J. VanderKloot". New York Times. March 25, 1962. ^ "Benjamin Olliff Jr. Marries Miss Levitt". New York Times. June 16, 1963. External links New York Times obituary vteTime 100: The Most Important People of the 20th CenturyLeaders & revolutionaries David Ben-Gurion Winston Churchill Mahatma Gandhi Mikhail Gorbachev Adolf Hitler Ho Chi Minh Pope John Paul II Ruhollah Khomeini Martin Luther King Jr. Vladimir Lenin Nelson Mandela Mao Zedong Ronald Reagan Eleanor Roosevelt Franklin D. Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt Margaret Sanger Margaret Thatcher Unknown Tiananmen Square rebel Lech Wałęsa Artists & entertainers Louis Armstrong Lucille Ball The Beatles Marlon Brando Coco Chanel Charlie Chaplin Le Corbusier Bob Dylan T. S. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"real-estate developer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-estate_developer"},{"link_name":"Levitt & Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levitt_%26_Sons"},{"link_name":"suburbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbs"},{"link_name":"Time Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"100 Most Influential People of the 20th Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"William Jaird Levitt (February 11, 1907 – January 28, 1994) was an American real-estate developer and housing pioneer. As president of Levitt & Sons, he is widely credited as the father of modern American suburbia. In 1998 he was named one of Time Magazine's \"100 Most Influential People of the 20th Century.\"[1]","title":"William Levitt"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew"},{"link_name":"Brooklyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytobit-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"rabbi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbi"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-triumph-5"},{"link_name":"Boys High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boys_High_School_(Brooklyn)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytobit-2"},{"link_name":"New York University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytobit-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-triumph-5"}],"text":"Levitt was born in 1907 to a Jewish family in Brooklyn.[2] His generation was the second since emigrating from Russia and Austria;[3] the paternal grandparents who immigrated to the United States had been a rabbi grandfather from Russia and a grandmother from Austria-Germany.[4] His father was Abraham Levitt, a Brooklyn-born[5] real estate attorney and part-time investor; his mother was Pauline Biederman. A younger brother, Alfred, was born when William was five years old. William received a public school education at Public School 44 and Boys High School.[2] He then attended New York University for three years, but dropped out before graduating.[2][5]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Levitt & Sons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"real-estate development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_estate_developer"},{"link_name":"Levitt & Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levitt_%26_Sons"},{"link_name":"Long Island, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-triumph-5"}],"sub_title":"1920s–1930s","text":"In 1929, William's father Abraham founded a real-estate development company called Levitt & Sons. Levitt & Sons built mostly upscale housing on and around Long Island, New York, in the 1930s. William Levitt served as company president, overseeing all aspects of the company except for the designs of the homes they built, which fell to William's brother Alfred.[5]","title":"Levitt & Sons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant"},{"link_name":"Seabees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabee"},{"link_name":"baby boom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_boom"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Norfolk, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-triumph-5"}],"sub_title":"After World War II","text":"During World War II, Levitt served in the Navy as a lieutenant in the Seabees. After returning from the war, he saw a need for affordable housing for returning veterans. America's post-war prosperity and baby boom had created a crisis of affordable housing.[6]Even before returning from the war, Levitt experimented with mass housing projects, building a 1,600-home community in Norfolk, Virginia, which was not a success and housing units remained unsold in 1950.[5]","title":"Levitt & Sons"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LevittownPA.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Levittown,_Puerto_Rico.jpg"},{"link_name":"mass production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_production"},{"link_name":"urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_area"},{"link_name":"foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"down payment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_payment"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Hempstead, Long Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hempstead_(village),_New_York"},{"link_name":"Levittown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levittown,_New_York"},{"link_name":"assembly line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_line"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time100-8"},{"link_name":"spray painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spray_painting"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time100-8"},{"link_name":"electric appliances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliance"},{"link_name":"G.I. Bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.I._Bill"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-triumph-5"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Bucks County, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucks_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Willingboro, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willingboro,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowie,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytobit-2"},{"link_name":"Levittown, Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levittown,_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Lésigny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9signy,_Seine-et-Marne"},{"link_name":"Seine-et-Marne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seine-et-Marne"},{"link_name":"Mennecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mennecy"},{"link_name":"Essonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essonne"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Levittown housing developments","text":"Aerial view circa 1959 of Levittown, PennsylvaniaLevittown, Puerto RicoLevitt progressed to become a pioneer of mass production. He had houses built in less than six weeks on inexpensive land with no urban infrastructure. Houses were built on concrete slabs, with no foundation, and could be purchased for as little as a one-dollar down payment.[7]Levitt & Sons' first successful housing development was located on almost 20 square miles (52 km2) of land near Hempstead, Long Island and was named Levittown. The assembly line construction method enabled Levitt to build more efficiently than other developers at the time, with teams of specialized workers following each other from house to house to complete incremental steps in the construction.[8]Levitt reduced the cost of constructing houses by freezing out union labor. This provoked picket lines, but enabled him to use the latest technology, such as spray painting. Levitt also cut out middlemen and purchased many items, including lumber and televisions, directly from manufacturers, as well as constructing his own factory to produce nails. The building of every house was reduced to 27 steps,[8] and sub-contractors were responsible for each step. His mass production of thousands of houses at virtually the same time allowed Levitt to sell them, fully furnished with modern electric appliances, for as little as $8,000 each ($65,000 in 2009 dollars), which, with the G.I. Bill and Federal housing subsidies, reduced the up-front cost of a house to many buyers to around $400.[5]Levitt was the cover story in Time magazine for July 3, 1950, with the tag line \"For Sale: a new way of life.\"[9]In 1952, people started buying over 17,000 Levitt-built homes in Bucks County, Pennsylvania. In addition, the company built Willingboro, New Jersey, which still has street names such as Levitt Parkway. During the late 1950s, Levitt and Sons constructed \"Belair at Bowie\" in Bowie, Maryland.[10]William had taken control of Levitt & Sons in 1954[2] and the company went public in 1960. During the 1960s, when Levitt was leading the company, Levitt & Sons developed properties beyond the American mainland, such as Levittown, Puerto Rico; Lésigny, France in Seine-et-Marne; and Mennecy in Essonne, France.[11] In the early 1960s, the company built a 5,000-house community in north central New Jersey called Strathmore-at-Matawan.","title":"Levitt & Sons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mill Neck, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mill_Neck,_New_York"},{"link_name":"yacht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yacht"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-William_Levitt-12"}],"sub_title":"Personal fortune","text":"By the late 1960s, Levitt had become one of the richest men in America, with a fortune estimated in excess of $100 million. He lived in a lavish 30-room mansion on his \"La Coline\" estate in Mill Neck, New York, and spent much of his time on La Belle Simone, his 237 feet (72 m) yacht named after his third wife.[12]","title":"Levitt & Sons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"restrictive covenants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictive_covenants"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Bowie, Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowie,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-William_Levitt-12"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-biography.yourdictionary.com-14"},{"link_name":"National Association for the Advancement of Colored People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People"},{"link_name":"American Civil Liberties Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union"},{"link_name":"Federal Housing Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration"},{"link_name":"Willingboro Township, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willingboro,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"United States Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS"},{"link_name":"Race: The Power of an Illusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race:_The_Power_of_an_Illusion"},{"link_name":"California Newsreel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Newsreel"},{"link_name":"Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt,_New_York"},{"link_name":"African Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew"},{"link_name":"Asian Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_American"},{"link_name":"Hispanic Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_American"},{"link_name":"Native Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States"}],"sub_title":"Racial segregation","text":"Levitt refused to integrate his developments. The Jewish Levitt barred Jews from Strathmore, his first pre-Levittown development on Long Island in New York, and he refused to sell his homes to African Americans. His sales contracts also forbade the resale of properties to blacks through restrictive covenants, although in 1957 a Jewish couple resold their house to the first black family to live in a Levitt home.[13] Levitt's all-white policies also led to civil rights protests in Bowie, Maryland in 1963.[12][14] The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the American Civil Liberties Union opposed Levitt's racist policies, and the Federal Housing Administration prepared to refuse mortgages on his next Levittown. Nevertheless, Levitt would not back down and continued planning another whites-only Levittown in Willingboro Township, New Jersey. He fought legal challenges in New Jersey courts until the United States Supreme Court refused to hear his case.[15]The 2003 PBS series Race: The Power of an Illusion, by California Newsreel, features Levittown and nearby Roosevelt in documenting systemic racism in the development of the early suburbs.Levitt has been criticized for his racially discriminatory policies when providing housing, which were especially discriminatory to African Americans, Jews, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans and Native Americans.","title":"Levitt & Sons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ITT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITT_Corporation"},{"link_name":"non-compete clause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-compete_clause"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time100-8"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-biography.yourdictionary.com-14"},{"link_name":"Palm Coast, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_Coast,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Richmond, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Fairfax, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfax,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Company sale","text":"After he had built over 140,000 houses around the world, then 60-year-old Levitt sold the company to ITT for $92 million ($840 million today) in July 1967, of which $62 million was in the form of ITT stock. ITT made Levitt president of the renamed Levitt Corp., with a non-compete clause where Levitt could not found or be employed by another United States home building company for ten years.[8] He entered the agreement thinking he would play an active role in ITT affairs, but executives felt Levitt was too old to take on more responsibility.[14]Levitt remained president under ITT until 1972. During that time he led the subsidiary's development of housing projects in Palm Coast, Florida; Richmond, Virginia; and Fairfax, Virginia.[citation needed]","title":"Levitt & Sons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LevittCommunities-16"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytobit-2"},{"link_name":"Prince George's County, Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytobit-2"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WP-19"},{"link_name":"Manhasset, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhasset,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytobit-2"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-biography.yourdictionary.com-14"}],"text":"After the restriction against Levitt moving to a new home building company in the United States expired, he was unable to repeat the success he had achieved with Levitt & Sons. He established a series of companies and joint ventures through the 1970s and 1980s[16] which failed. The ITT stock he often used for collateral on these ventures lost 90% of its value, saddling him with great debt.[2]The Levitt Corp. had its license to conduct business in Prince George's County, Maryland, revoked in October 1978 after building inspectors found more than 2,500 code violations in 122 homes of their latest subdivision, Northview.[17]He was accused of misappropriation of funds from the charitable Levitt Foundation and agreed to repay $5 million,[18] more than $5 million[2] or $11 million (in 1992).[19]Levitt died from kidney disease at a hospital in Manhasset, New York, on January 28, 1994, at the age of 86.[2][14]","title":"Later years and death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"planned community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_community"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time100-8"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-therealdeal.com-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Henry Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-therealdeal.com-20"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time100-8"},{"link_name":"Frank P. Brown Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_P._Brown_Medal"}],"text":"William Levitt came to symbolize the new suburban growth with his use of mass-production techniques to construct large developments of houses, eponymously named Levittowns, selling for under $10,000. Many other relatively inexpensive suburban developments soon appeared throughout the country. While he did not invent the building of communities of affordable single-family homes within driving distance of major areas of employment, his innovations in providing affordable housing popularized this type of planned community in the years following World War II.[8]His nicknames included \"The King of Suburbia\" [20] and \"Inventor of the Suburb.\" At his height, when he was completing one suburban house every 11 minutes,[21] Levitt compared his successes to those of Henry Ford's automobile assembly line.[20] Time magazine recognized Levitt as one of the \"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\" in 1998.[8]Levitt was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal in 1965.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"mistress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistress_(lover)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"art dealer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_dealer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytobit-2"}],"text":"Levitt married Rhoda Kirshner in November 1929.[22] Their son William Junior was born in 1932, and their second son, James, was born in 1944. The couple divorced in 1959, and, the same year, Levitt married his long-time mistress, Alice D. Kenny, an interior decorator at Levitt & Sons, and adopted her two daughters from a previous marriage, Joanne Habermehl and Mariellen Habermehl.[23][24][25] Ten years later, in 1969, Levitt divorced his second wife and married a French art dealer, Simone Korchin.[2]","title":"Personal life"}]

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Retrieved December 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110608090427/http://www.jewishtimes.com/index.php/jewishtimes/news/jt/national_news/%20how_jews_both_segregated_and_integrated_levittown/10496","url_text":"\"How Jews both Segregated and Integrated Levittown\""},{"url":"http://www.jewishtimes.com/index.php/jewishtimes/news/jt/national_news/%20how_jews_both_segregated_and_integrated_levittown/10496","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ferrer, Margaret Lundrigan; Navarra, Tova (1997-03-01). Levittown: The First 50 Years. Arcadia Publishing. 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The Trentonian.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.capitalcentury.com/1951.html","url_text":"\"1951: American dream houses, all in a row\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trentonian","url_text":"The Trentonian"}]},{"reference":"David Raizman (2023). History of Modern Design Third Edition. Quercus Publishing. ISBN 9781529419757.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781529419757","url_text":"9781529419757"}]},{"reference":"Lacayo, Richard (December 7, 1998). \"Suburban Legend William Levitt\". Time (magazine). Archived from the original on April 8, 2011. Retrieved October 1, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110408091855/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,989781-1,00.html","url_text":"\"Suburban Legend William Levitt\""},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,989781-1,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Staff (July 3, 1950). \"House Builder Levitt, For Sale: a new way of life\". Time. Archived from the original on December 2, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061202091935/http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,1101500703,00.html","url_text":"\"House Builder Levitt, For Sale: a new way of life\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time"},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,1101500703,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Staff (December 10, 1965). \"France: A Lesson from Levitt\". Time. Archived from the original on April 22, 2008. Retrieved 2011-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080422063308/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898440,00.html","url_text":"\"France: A Lesson from Levitt\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time"},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898440,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"William Levitt\". Entrepreneur.com. 10 October 2008. Retrieved 2015-11-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/197662","url_text":"\"William Levitt\""}]},{"reference":"\"Levitt Communities\". LevittownBeyond.com. Retrieved 3 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://levittownbeyond.com/LevittCommunities.html","url_text":"\"Levitt Communities\""}]},{"reference":"Diehl, Jackson (October 14, 1978). \"The Rise And Fall of Levitt Era\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 14, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/10/14/the-rise-and-fall-of-levitt-era/266d6a7d-0882-426f-9009-28655fde09ef/","url_text":"\"The Rise And Fall of Levitt Era\""}]},{"reference":"Kaufman, Michael T. (September 24, 1989). \"Tough Times For Mr. Levittown\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/24/magazine/tough-times-for-mr-levittown.html?pagewanted=all","url_text":"\"Tough Times For Mr. Levittown\""}]},{"reference":"\"William J. Levitt, Pioneer of Postwar Suburbia, Dies\". The Washington Post. January 30, 1994.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1994/01/30/william-j-levitt-pioneer-of-postwar-suburbia-dies/5b966bf8-0a69-436c-aa0b-4f3a8e63ed95/","url_text":"\"William J. Levitt, Pioneer of Postwar Suburbia, Dies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post","url_text":"The Washington Post"}]},{"reference":"Schneiderman, Matt (April 30, 2008). \"William Levitt: The king of suburbia\". The Real Deal.","urls":[{"url":"http://therealdeal.com/issues_articles/william-levitt-the-king-of-suburbia/","url_text":"\"William Levitt: The king of suburbia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Deal_(magazine)","url_text":"The Real Deal"}]},{"reference":"Kushner, David (2009-07-01). Levittown: Two Families, One Tycoon, and the Fight for Civil Rights in America's Legendary Suburb. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 9780802719737.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2KqsKUk36ZkC","url_text":"Levittown: Two Families, One Tycoon, and the Fight for Civil Rights in America's Legendary Suburb"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802719737","url_text":"9780802719737"}]},{"reference":"Levitt & Sons (July 10, 1958). \"This Is Levittown, New Jersey\" (PDF). Philadelphia Inquirer.","urls":[{"url":"https://fultonhistory.com/Newspapers%2023/Philadelphia%20PA%20Inquirer/Philadelphia%20PA%20Inquirer%201958/Philadelphia%20PA%20Inquirer%201958%20a%20-%200566.pdf","url_text":"\"This Is Levittown, New Jersey\""}]},{"reference":"\"Miss Joanne Levitt Is Bride of Frederic J. VanderKloot\". New York Times. March 25, 1962.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/25/archives/miss-joanne-levitt-is-bride-of-frederic-j-vanderkloot.html","url_text":"\"Miss Joanne Levitt Is Bride of Frederic J. VanderKloot\""}]},{"reference":"\"Benjamin Olliff Jr. Marries Miss Levitt\". New York Times. June 16, 1963.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1963/06/16/archives/benjamin-olliff-jr-marries-miss-levitt.html","url_text":"\"Benjamin Olliff Jr. Marries Miss Levitt\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullard

Mullard

["1 Start-up","2 Partnership with Philips","3 Factories","3.1 Mitcham","3.2 Blackburn","3.3 Others","4 Teletext","5 Semiconductors","6 Space science","7 Mullard brand name","8 Z Electric Lamp Company","9 See also","10 50th Anniversary in 1970","11 References","12 External links"]

British manufacturer of electronic components For the crossbred duck popular as a food, see Mulard. MullardIndustryElectronicsFounded1920FounderStanley R. MullardHeadquartersUnited KingdomProductsElectronic ComponentsTransistorsVacuum Tubes A Mullard TDD4 valve. The gold spray coating served no purpose other than to hide the blackened interior, as Mullard valves were still manufactured using the azide process, long abandoned by other makers. A Mullard EL34 power pentode An EL84 valve made in Russia in the 21st century Mullard Limited was a British manufacturer of electronic components. The Mullard Radio Valve Co. Ltd. of Southfields, London, was founded in 1920 by Captain Stanley R. Mullard, who had previously designed thermionic valves for the Admiralty before becoming managing director of the Z Electric Lamp Co. The company soon moved to Hammersmith, London and then in 1923 to Balham, London. The head office in later years was Mullard House at 1–19 Torrington Place, Bloomsbury, now part of University College London. Start-up In 1921, the directors were Sir Ralph Ashton (chairman), Basil Binyon of the Radio Communication Co, C.F. Elwell and S.R. Mullard (managing director). Partnership with Philips In 1923, to meet the technical demands of the newly formed BBC, Mullard formed a partnership with the Dutch manufacturer Philips. The valves (vacuum tubes) produced in this period were named with the prefix PM, for Philips-Mullard, beginning with the PM3 and PM4 in 1926. Mullard finally sold all its shares to Philips in 1927. In 1928, the company introduced the first pentode valve to the British market. Factories Mitcham Mullard opened a new manufacturing plant at the end of New Road, Mitcham, Surrey in 1929. A second building was added in 1936. Both buildings had a very distinctive flat roof construction and were very similar to those at Philips' headquarters in Eindhoven, Netherlands. Co-sited with the Mullard buildings was the manufacturing complex for Philips Radios. Mitcham was also home to the Mullard Application Laboratory. Blackburn In the late 1930s Philips opened a plant in Blackburn, Lancashire, and during the Second World War some operations were moved there from Mitcham; by the end of the war, nearly 3,000 were employed. Tungsten and molybdenum wire were produced on-site from 1954, and a glass factory was built in 1955. In 1962 over 6,200 were employed and Mullard described the Blackburn works as "the largest valve manufacturing plant in Europe". By 1949 Mullard had produced a number of television sets, such as the MTS-521 and MTS-684. In 1951 Mullard was producing the LSD series of photographic flash tubes. Others Mullard had factories in Southport and Simonstone, both in Lancashire. The latter closed in 2004. There was also a sister factory at Belmont in Durham (closed in June 2005). Other factories included those at Fleetwood (closed in 1979) and Lytham St. Annes (closed in 1972). A feeder factory at Haydock closed in 1981. A small factory in Hove closed in the early 1970s. Teletext Main article: SAA5050 In the early 1980s, Mullard manufactured the SAA5050, one of the first teletext character generator modules made in the UK. Semiconductors Mullard transistors of the 1960s, showing the variety of SO-2 packages used: OC200, silicon PNP transistor in an aluminium can.Germanium OC45 in a black-painted glass package.OC45 in a clear glass and blue putty package, with rubber sleeve Mullard owned semiconductor factories in Southampton and Hazel Grove, Stockport, Cheshire. Southampton (Millbrook Trading Estate) was a purpose-built plant, opened in 1957 for the manufacture of semiconductors. Production of germanium alloy transistors was transferred from Mitcham. At the same time the plant started the research, development and production of electro optical devices. Fabrication of planar devices on a mass production basis did not begin until 1966, when germanium sales were decreasing. 1967 saw the start of the development and production of integrated circuits. The plant was planned to be the biggest semiconductor facility in Europe, employing 3,000 people including 200 scientists and engineers. In 1962 Associated Semiconductor Manufacturers (ASM) Ltd was formed by Mullard and GEC to combine the semiconductor development and production facilities of the two companies; Mullard owned two-thirds of the company and included the Southampton plant; GEC contributed their small factory in School Street, Hazel Grove, producing thyristors, rectifiers and power diodes. GEC pulled out of ASM Ltd in 1969. In 1972 production was moved to a newly constructed factory nearby on Bramhall Moor Lane. Both sites were later owned by NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips Semiconductors). The Southampton site is now closed. The one in Hazel Grove, Stockport specialises in power semiconductor devices and is now Nexperia Manchester. The first transistors produced by Mullard were the OC50 and OC51 point-contact types in 1952, which were not widely used. In 1953 Mullard moved to junction transistors, beginning with the plastic-cased OC10 series. These were followed by the glass-encapsulated OC43...47, OC70/71, (released in 1957) and OC80 series (the output devices were metal encapsulated to facilitate heatsinking), which were produced in large numbers and copied by other companies, such as Valvo (another Philips subsidiary) and Siemens in Germany, and Amperex in the USA. RF transistors were the OC170 and OC171. All these were germanium PNP transistors. Mullard's first silicon transistors were the OC201 to OC207, PNP alloy types using the standard SO-2 metal-over-glass construction such as the OC200 shown. From about 1960 Mullard switched to using the BC prefix for silicon, and AC for germanium, eliminating the confusion of part numbers. in the mid-1960s the first plastic packages were introduced. In 1964 the company produced a prototype electronic desktop calculator as a technology demonstrator for its transistors and cold cathode indicator tubes. Space science In 1957 Philips-Mullard helped to set up the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory (MRAO) at the University of Cambridge. In 1966 the Mullard Space Science Laboratory (MSSL) was opened near Dorking, Surrey as part of University College London. The Royal Society Mullard Award for young scientists and engineers was set up in 1967. Mullard brand name Philips continued to use the brand name "Mullard" in the UK until 1988. Mullard Research Laboratories in Redhill, Surrey then became Philips Research Laboratories. As of 2007, the Mullard brand has been revived by Sovtek, producing a variant of the ECC83 and EL34. Z Electric Lamp Company The Z Electric Lamp Co. continued business into the 1970s operating from premises in Thornton Heath, southern Greater London, manufacturing lamps of specialised design. However, it closed due to the recession in the mid-1970s. See also Mullard–Philips tube designation MEL Equipment 50th Anniversary in 1970 To mark the 50th anniversary of the founding of the company, Mullard management decided to have a rose named after the company. Mullard's quest was simple, they wanted a world-beater, nothing less, so they contacted the renowned grower Sam McGredy IV in Northern Ireland. The naming fee of £10,000/$24,000 was a lot of money in 1970 and established a record fee for a new rose: Mullard Jubilee "Electron". To mark the occasion every employee received a "Mullard Jubilee" rose bush. References ^ "Mullard". The National Valve Museum. Retrieved 14 January 2017. ^ "Stanley Robert Mullard (1883-1979)". ^ "The Radio Review Vol.2 1921" (PDF). Retrieved 26 July 2021. ^ The Blackburn Story – Mullard film, 1960s on YouTube ^ Grimley, Robert (2016) . "Mullard & CES - Mullard & Combined Electronic Services (CES)". Early Philips Colour TV. Archived from the original on 27 October 2017. Retrieved 14 January 2017. ^ Milner, Mark (2 March 2005). "Union says LG Philips is to close Durham factory". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 January 2017. ^ "LG Philips closure marks end of an era". The Journal. 23 July 2005. Retrieved 14 January 2017. ^ Woodcock, Ray (January 2006). "And Then There Were None" (PDF). Philips Electronic Pensioners. Retrieved 14 January 2017. ^ "SAA5050 Series Datasheet" (PDF). Mullard. July 1982. Retrieved 16 June 2021. ^ Note: Mullard's OC43...47s were germanium-PNP, while Clevite-Intermetall's OC43...47s, sold at the same time, were silicon-PNP ^ "Royal Society Mullard Award: Mullard Medallists". Royal Society. London. 2016. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016. ^ "Mullard Award". Royal Society. Archived from the original on 14 October 2006. ^ "Mullard Jubilee Rose". External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mullard. The Blackburn Story – Mullard film, 1960s on YouTube Mullard Semiconductors by Andrew Wylie Some Mullard History on personal blog History of Mullard Tubes Mullard Valve Works in Blackburn

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Mullard (managing director).[3]","title":"Start-up"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Philips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips"},{"link_name":"valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"pentode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentode"}],"text":"In 1923, to meet the technical demands of the newly formed BBC, Mullard formed a partnership with the Dutch manufacturer Philips. The valves (vacuum tubes) produced in this period were named with the prefix PM, for Philips-Mullard, beginning with the PM3 and PM4 in 1926. Mullard finally sold all its shares to Philips in 1927. In 1928, the company introduced the first pentode valve to the British market.","title":"Partnership with Philips"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Factories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mitcham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitcham"},{"link_name":"Eindhoven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eindhoven"}],"sub_title":"Mitcham","text":"Mullard opened a new manufacturing plant at the end of New Road, Mitcham, Surrey in 1929. A second building was added in 1936. Both buildings had a very distinctive flat roof construction and were very similar to those at Philips' headquarters in Eindhoven, Netherlands. Co-sited with the Mullard buildings was the manufacturing complex for Philips Radios. Mitcham was also home to the Mullard Application Laboratory.","title":"Factories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blackburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackburn"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Blackburn","text":"In the late 1930s Philips opened a plant in Blackburn, Lancashire, and during the Second World War some operations were moved there from Mitcham; by the end of the war, nearly 3,000 were employed. Tungsten and molybdenum wire were produced on-site from 1954, and a glass factory was built in 1955. In 1962 over 6,200 were employed and Mullard described the Blackburn works as \"the largest valve manufacturing plant in Europe\".[4]By 1949 Mullard had produced a number of television sets, such as the MTS-521 and MTS-684. In 1951 Mullard was producing the LSD series of photographic flash tubes.","title":"Factories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Southport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southport"},{"link_name":"Simonstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonstone,_Lancashire"},{"link_name":"Durham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham,_England"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grimley_2017-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Fleetwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleetwood"},{"link_name":"Lytham St. Annes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytham_St._Annes"},{"link_name":"Haydock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haydock"}],"sub_title":"Others","text":"Mullard had factories in Southport and Simonstone, both in Lancashire. The latter closed in 2004. There was also a sister factory at Belmont in Durham (closed in June 2005).[5][6][7][8] Other factories included those at Fleetwood (closed in 1979) and Lytham St. Annes (closed in 1972). A feeder factory at Haydock closed in 1981. A small factory in Hove closed in the early 1970s.","title":"Factories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SAA5050","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAA5050"},{"link_name":"teletext","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletext"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In the early 1980s, Mullard manufactured the SAA5050, one of the first teletext character generator modules made in the UK.[9]","title":"Teletext"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Early_Mullard_small_signal_transistor_packages.jpg"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"Southampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton"},{"link_name":"Hazel Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazel_Grove"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"GEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric_Company"},{"link_name":"thyristors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor"},{"link_name":"rectifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier"},{"link_name":"diodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"NXP Semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NXP_Semiconductors"},{"link_name":"Philips Semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips_Semiconductors"},{"link_name":"power semiconductor devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device"},{"link_name":"Nexperia Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexperia"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Valvo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valvo"},{"link_name":"Siemens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_AG"},{"link_name":"Amperex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amperex"},{"link_name":"calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator"},{"link_name":"cold cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_cathode"}],"text":"Mullard transistors of the 1960s, showing the variety of SO-2 packages used: OC200, silicon PNP transistor in an aluminium can.Germanium OC45 in a black-painted glass package.OC45 in a clear glass and blue putty package, with rubber sleeveMullard owned semiconductor factories in Southampton and Hazel Grove, Stockport, Cheshire.Southampton (Millbrook Trading Estate) was a purpose-built plant, opened in 1957 for the manufacture of semiconductors. Production of germanium alloy transistors was transferred from Mitcham. \nAt the same time the plant started the research, development and production of electro optical devices. Fabrication of planar devices on a mass production basis did not begin until 1966, when germanium sales were decreasing. 1967 saw the start of the development and production of integrated circuits. The plant was planned to be the biggest semiconductor facility in Europe, employing 3,000 people including 200 scientists and engineers.In 1962 Associated Semiconductor Manufacturers (ASM) Ltd was formed by Mullard and GEC to combine the semiconductor development and production facilities of the two companies; Mullard owned two-thirds of the company and included the Southampton plant; GEC contributed their small factory in School Street, Hazel Grove, producing thyristors, rectifiers and power diodes. GEC pulled out of ASM Ltd in 1969.\nIn 1972 production was moved to a newly constructed factory nearby on Bramhall Moor Lane.Both sites were later owned by NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips Semiconductors). The Southampton site is now closed. The one in Hazel Grove, Stockport specialises in power semiconductor devices and is now Nexperia Manchester.The first transistors produced by Mullard were the OC50 and OC51 point-contact types in 1952, which were not widely used. In 1953 Mullard moved to junction transistors, beginning with the plastic-cased OC10 series. These were followed by the glass-encapsulated OC43...47,[10] OC70/71, (released in 1957) and OC80 series (the output devices were metal encapsulated to facilitate heatsinking), which were produced in large numbers and copied by other companies, such as Valvo (another Philips subsidiary) and Siemens in Germany, and Amperex in the USA. RF transistors were the OC170 and OC171. All these were germanium PNP transistors. Mullard's first silicon transistors were the OC201 to OC207, PNP alloy types using the standard SO-2 metal-over-glass construction such as the OC200 shown. From about 1960 Mullard switched to using the BC prefix for silicon, and AC for germanium, eliminating the confusion of part numbers. in the mid-1960s the first plastic packages were introduced. In 1964 the company produced a prototype electronic desktop calculator as a technology demonstrator for its transistors and cold cathode indicator tubes.","title":"Semiconductors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullard_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Mullard Space Science Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullard_Space_Science_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Dorking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorking"},{"link_name":"University College London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"Mullard Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullard_Award"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mullardmedallists-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"In 1957 Philips-Mullard helped to set up the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory (MRAO) at the University of Cambridge. In 1966 the Mullard Space Science Laboratory (MSSL) was opened near Dorking, Surrey as part of University College London. The Royal Society Mullard Award[11][12] for young scientists and engineers was set up in 1967.","title":"Space science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Redhill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redhill,_Surrey"},{"link_name":"Sovtek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovtek"},{"link_name":"ECC83","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECC83"},{"link_name":"EL34","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EL34"}],"text":"Philips continued to use the brand name \"Mullard\" in the UK until 1988. Mullard Research Laboratories in Redhill, Surrey then became Philips Research Laboratories. As of 2007, the Mullard brand has been revived by Sovtek, producing a variant of the ECC83 and EL34.","title":"Mullard brand name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thornton Heath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton_Heath"}],"text":"The Z Electric Lamp Co. continued business into the 1970s operating from premises in Thornton Heath, southern Greater London, manufacturing lamps of specialised design. However, it closed due to the recession in the mid-1970s.","title":"Z Electric Lamp Company"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Mullard Jubilee \"Electron\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosa_%27Electron%27"}],"text":"To mark the 50th anniversary of the founding of the company, Mullard management decided to have a rose named after the company. Mullard's quest was simple, they wanted a world-beater, nothing less, so they contacted the renowned grower Sam McGredy IV in Northern Ireland.[13] The naming fee of £10,000/$24,000 was a lot of money in 1970 and established a record fee for a new rose: Mullard Jubilee \"Electron\". To mark the occasion every employee received a \"Mullard Jubilee\" rose bush.","title":"50th Anniversary in 1970"}]

[{"image_text":"A Mullard TDD4 valve. The gold spray coating served no purpose other than to hide the blackened interior, as Mullard valves were still manufactured using the azide process, long abandoned by other makers.[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/TDD4.JPG/170px-TDD4.JPG"},{"image_text":"A Mullard EL34 power pentode","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Mullard_el34.jpg/170px-Mullard_el34.jpg"},{"image_text":"An EL84 valve made in Russia in the 21st century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Mullard_el84_vacuum_tube.jpg/220px-Mullard_el84_vacuum_tube.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mullard transistors of the 1960s, showing the variety of SO-2 packages used: OC200, silicon PNP transistor in an aluminium can.Germanium OC45 in a black-painted glass package.OC45 in a clear glass and blue putty package, with rubber sleeve","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Early_Mullard_small_signal_transistor_packages.jpg/220px-Early_Mullard_small_signal_transistor_packages.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Mullard–Philips tube designation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullard%E2%80%93Philips_tube_designation"},{"title":"MEL Equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEL_Equipment"}]

[{"reference":"\"Mullard\". The National Valve Museum. Retrieved 14 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.r-type.org/static/makemull.htm","url_text":"\"Mullard\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stanley Robert Mullard (1883-1979)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Stanley_Robert_Mullard","url_text":"\"Stanley Robert Mullard (1883-1979)\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Radio Review Vol.2 1921\" (PDF). Retrieved 26 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX-Site-Early-Radio/Archive-Wireless-World-IDX/20s/Radio-Review-1921-02-OCR-Page-0045.pdf","url_text":"\"The Radio Review Vol.2 1921\""}]},{"reference":"Grimley, Robert (2016) [2011]. \"Mullard & CES - Mullard & Combined Electronic Services (CES)\". Early Philips Colour TV. Archived from the original on 27 October 2017. Retrieved 14 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171027082741/http://www.philipstv.org.uk/blog/early-philips-colour-tv/mullard-combined-electronic-services-ces/","url_text":"\"Mullard & CES - Mullard & Combined Electronic Services (CES)\""},{"url":"http://www.philipstv.org.uk/blog/early-philips-colour-tv/mullard-combined-electronic-services-ces/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Milner, Mark (2 March 2005). \"Union says LG Philips is to close Durham factory\". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2005/mar/02/17","url_text":"\"Union says LG Philips is to close Durham factory\""}]},{"reference":"\"LG Philips closure marks end of an era\". The Journal. 23 July 2005. Retrieved 14 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thejournal.co.uk/news/north-east-news/lg-philips-closure-marks-end-4611959","url_text":"\"LG Philips closure marks end of an era\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_(Newcastle_upon_Tyne_newspaper)","url_text":"The Journal"}]},{"reference":"Woodcock, Ray (January 2006). \"And Then There Were None\" (PDF). Philips Electronic Pensioners. Retrieved 14 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pepnet.org.uk/RWoodcock/And%20then%20there%20were%20none.pdf","url_text":"\"And Then There Were None\""}]},{"reference":"\"SAA5050 Series Datasheet\" (PDF). Mullard. July 1982. Retrieved 16 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://vd-view.azurewebsites.net/Documents/SAA5050.pdf","url_text":"\"SAA5050 Series Datasheet\""}]},{"reference":"\"Royal Society Mullard Award: Mullard Medallists\". Royal Society. London. 2016. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160719114301/https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/mullard-award/","url_text":"\"Royal Society Mullard Award: Mullard Medallists\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society","url_text":"Royal Society"},{"url":"https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/mullard-award/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mullard Award\". Royal Society. Archived from the original on 14 October 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061014220617/http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/funding.asp?id=4870","url_text":"\"Mullard Award\""},{"url":"http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/funding.asp?id=4870","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mullard Jubilee Rose\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.helpmefind.com/rose/pl.php?n=11116&tab=7&qn=1&qc=b","url_text":"\"Mullard Jubilee Rose\""}]}]

[{"Link":"http://www.r-type.org/static/makemull.htm","external_links_name":"\"Mullard\""},{"Link":"https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Stanley_Robert_Mullard","external_links_name":"\"Stanley Robert Mullard (1883-1979)\""},{"Link":"https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX-Site-Early-Radio/Archive-Wireless-World-IDX/20s/Radio-Review-1921-02-OCR-Page-0045.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The Radio Review Vol.2 1921\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDvF89Bh27Y","external_links_name":"The Blackburn Story – Mullard film, 1960s"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171027082741/http://www.philipstv.org.uk/blog/early-philips-colour-tv/mullard-combined-electronic-services-ces/","external_links_name":"\"Mullard & CES - Mullard & Combined Electronic Services (CES)\""},{"Link":"http://www.philipstv.org.uk/blog/early-philips-colour-tv/mullard-combined-electronic-services-ces/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2005/mar/02/17","external_links_name":"\"Union says LG Philips is to close Durham factory\""},{"Link":"http://www.thejournal.co.uk/news/north-east-news/lg-philips-closure-marks-end-4611959","external_links_name":"\"LG Philips closure marks end of an era\""},{"Link":"http://www.pepnet.org.uk/RWoodcock/And%20then%20there%20were%20none.pdf","external_links_name":"\"And Then There Were None\""},{"Link":"https://vd-view.azurewebsites.net/Documents/SAA5050.pdf","external_links_name":"\"SAA5050 Series Datasheet\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160719114301/https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/mullard-award/","external_links_name":"\"Royal Society Mullard Award: Mullard Medallists\""},{"Link":"https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/mullard-award/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061014220617/http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/funding.asp?id=4870","external_links_name":"\"Mullard Award\""},{"Link":"http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/funding.asp?id=4870","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.helpmefind.com/rose/pl.php?n=11116&tab=7&qn=1&qc=b","external_links_name":"\"Mullard Jubilee Rose\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDvF89Bh27Y","external_links_name":"The Blackburn Story – Mullard film, 1960s"},{"Link":"http://www.wylie.org.uk/technology/semics/Mullard/Mullard.htm","external_links_name":"Mullard Semiconductors by Andrew Wylie"},{"Link":"https://mullard.org/blogs/news","external_links_name":"Some Mullard History on personal blog"},{"Link":"http://blog.thetubestore.com/history-of-mullard-tubes/","external_links_name":"History of Mullard Tubes"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180320142215/http://www.effectrode.com/signal-tubes/speed-efficiency-perfection-aims-built-mammoth-factory-16-years/","external_links_name":"Mullard Valve Works in Blackburn"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seeley_Historical_Library

Seeley Historical Library

["1 History","2 Campaign to rename the library","3 Gallery","4 References","5 External links"]

Seeley Historical LibrarySeeley Library interior52°12′07″N 0°06′33″E / 52.201963761092145°N 0.10911769955253407°E / 52.201963761092145; 0.10911769955253407LocationCambridge, EnglandTypeAcademic libraryOther informationAffiliationUniversity of CambridgeWebsitehttps://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library The Seeley Historical Library was originally established as the history library of the University of Cambridge, England. It now holds collections for history, land economy, Latin American studies, politics and international studies and sociology. It is housed within the History Faculty building on the Sidgwick Site off West Road, Cambridge. Since October 2003, incoming books have been classified according to the Library of Congress scheme; before that a unique system was used. History The history library was established in 1807 with a collection of a thousand books donated by the will of John Symonds, professor of modern history. After some years of neglect, the library again became a priority in 1884, on the behest of Oscar Browning. It was moved from the gallery of the Philosophical Library to King's College in 1890. In 1895 a memorial fund was raised to commemorate historian Sir John Seeley’s services to the British Empire and to the University; the greater part of this fund was devoted to the endowment of the library, which was named in his honour in 1897. In 1912 the collection relocated to the top floor of the Arts School, Bene't Street, then in 1935 to the Old Schools. In 1968 the Seeley moved to the Sidgwick site as part of the new History Faculty building designed by James Stirling. Today the library accommodates over 300 students and houses more than 95,000 volumes. The skylight over the reading room is a crucial part of the design, although it is difficult to see from outside the building and contributes nothing to its silhouette. Although the building was admired by students of architecture it is less well regarded by those who have to work in it. A 1968 review noted that environmental controls might be difficult to operate by humanities-oriented occupants. Expensive modifications were necessary to render it usable, and in 1984 the university came close to pulling the whole building down. The remodelling of Stirling's attempt to create an environmentally sustainable structure was announced in 2004. The project was headed by John McAslan, who said that "The main problem with the building is that it leaks, it’s too bright, too hot in summer and too cold in winter.” Drainage problems and leaks have persisted in the Seeley Library, and a further attempt to remedy the issue was made in the Summer of 2015, when an entirely new surface was given to the flat concrete roof over the book stacks. Campaign to rename the library A "Rename Seeley Library" sticker on a road crossing sign, opposite Bateman Street, in Cambridge In November 2021, a petition calling on the University of Cambridge to change the name of the library to the History Faculty Library has attracted more than 600 signatures. 28 university societies and organisations have backed the petition, including the Student Union, which is calling on the university's history department to rename the Seeley Historical Library because its current name celebrates John Robert Seeley, a Cambridge historian “known for his justification of the British Empire". At Christ’s College where Seeley studied and was a tutor, the former "Seeley History Society" has been renamed "Christ’s College History Society". Gallery Seeley Library from the southeast Seeley Library from the northeast Seeley Library from the north References ^ "Seeley Library | Faculty of History University of Cambridge". www.hist.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 June 2023. ^ "Locating material in the library". Seeley Historical Library. Archived from the original on 21 June 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2022. ^ Endowments of the University of Cambridge. Cambridge University Press Archive. 1904. p. 184. ^ "History of the Library". Seeley Historical Library. Archived from the original on 21 June 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2010. ^ a b Banham, Reyner (November 1968). "The History Faculty, Cambridge". The Architectural Review. Archived from the original on 3 May 2015. ^ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, entry on Sir Geoffrey Elton ^ "McAslan to remodel Stirling library". Building Design. 23 April 2004. Retrieved 24 March 2014.(registration required) ^ "Petition calling for Cambridge library to change name over colonialism links". Cambridge News. 9 November 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2021. ^ "Petition to rename Seeley Library". Google docs. Retrieved 3 April 2023. ^ Kenney, Esmé (2021). "Student open letter calls for Seeley Library to be renamed amidst colonial links". Varsity Online. No. 7 November 21. Varsity Publications Ltd. Retrieved 25 November 2021. External links Seeley Library website Library catalogue Authority control databases: People ISIL GB-UkCU-HIS

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"History Faculty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_of_History,_University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Sidgwick Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidgwick_Site"},{"link_name":"West Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Road,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Library of Congress scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Classification"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"The Seeley Historical Library was originally established as the history library of the University of Cambridge, England. It now holds collections for history, land economy, Latin American studies, politics and international studies and sociology.[1] It is housed within the History Faculty building on the Sidgwick Site off West Road, Cambridge. Since October 2003, incoming books have been classified according to the Library of Congress scheme; before that a unique system was used.[2]","title":"Seeley Historical Library"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Symonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Symonds_(academic)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Oscar Browning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Browning"},{"link_name":"King's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Sir John Seeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Robert_Seeley"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Bene't Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bene%27t_Street"},{"link_name":"Old Schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Schools"},{"link_name":"James Stirling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Stirling_(architect)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banham1968-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banham1968-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"John McAslan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McAslan"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The history library was established in 1807 with a collection of a thousand books donated by the will of John Symonds, professor of modern history.[3] After some years of neglect, the library again became a priority in 1884, on the behest of Oscar Browning. It was moved from the gallery of the Philosophical Library to King's College in 1890.In 1895 a memorial fund was raised to commemorate historian Sir John Seeley’s services to the British Empire and to the University; the greater part of this fund was devoted to the endowment of the library, which was named in his honour in 1897.In 1912 the collection relocated to the top floor of the Arts School, Bene't Street, then in 1935 to the Old Schools. In 1968 the Seeley moved to the Sidgwick site as part of the new History Faculty building designed by James Stirling.Today the library accommodates over 300 students and houses more than 95,000 volumes.[4] The skylight over the reading room is a crucial part of the design, although it is difficult to see from outside the building and contributes nothing to its silhouette.[5]Although the building was admired by students of architecture it is less well regarded by those who have to work in it. A 1968 review noted that environmental controls might be difficult to operate by humanities-oriented occupants.[5] Expensive modifications were necessary to render it usable, and in 1984 the university came close to pulling the whole building down.[6] The remodelling of Stirling's attempt to create an environmentally sustainable structure was announced in 2004. The project was headed by John McAslan, who said that \"The main problem with the building is that it leaks, it’s too bright, too hot in summer and too cold in winter.”[7]Drainage problems and leaks have persisted in the Seeley Library, and a further attempt to remedy the issue was made in the Summer of 2015, when an entirely new surface was given to the flat concrete roof over the book stacks.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rename_Seeley_Library_sticker_opposite_Bateman_Street_in_Cambridge.jpg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Christ’s College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kenney-10"}],"text":"A \"Rename Seeley Library\" sticker on a road crossing sign, opposite Bateman Street, in CambridgeIn November 2021, a petition calling on the University of Cambridge to change the name of the library to the History Faculty Library has attracted more than 600 signatures. 28 university societies and organisations have backed the petition, including the Student Union, which is calling on the university's history department to rename the Seeley Historical Library because its current name celebrates John Robert Seeley, a Cambridge historian “known for his justification of the British Empire\".[8] [9] At Christ’s College where Seeley studied and was a tutor, the former \"Seeley History Society\" has been renamed \"Christ’s College History Society\".[10]","title":"Campaign to rename the library"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:History_Faculty_University_of_Cambridge.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seeley_Historical_Library,_Cambridge_university.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seeley_Historical_Library,_Cambridge_university_003.jpg"}],"text":"Seeley Library from the southeast\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSeeley Library from the northeast\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSeeley Library from the north","title":"Gallery"}]

[{"image_text":"A \"Rename Seeley Library\" sticker on a road crossing sign, opposite Bateman Street, in Cambridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Rename_Seeley_Library_sticker_opposite_Bateman_Street_in_Cambridge.jpg/220px-Rename_Seeley_Library_sticker_opposite_Bateman_Street_in_Cambridge.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"\"Seeley Library | Faculty of History University of Cambridge\". www.hist.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library","url_text":"\"Seeley Library | Faculty of History University of Cambridge\""}]},{"reference":"\"Locating material in the library\". Seeley Historical Library. Archived from the original on 21 June 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120621204552/http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library/classification-scheme","url_text":"\"Locating material in the library\""},{"url":"http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library/classification-scheme","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Endowments of the University of Cambridge. Cambridge University Press Archive. 1904. p. 184.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/endowmentsofuniv00claruoft","url_text":"Endowments of the University of Cambridge"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/endowmentsofuniv00claruoft/page/184","url_text":"184"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the Library\". Seeley Historical Library. Archived from the original on 21 June 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120621205232/http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library/history","url_text":"\"History of the Library\""},{"url":"http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library/history","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Banham, Reyner (November 1968). \"The History Faculty, Cambridge\". The Architectural Review. Archived from the original on 3 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150503042554/http://www.architectural-review.com/1968-november-the-history-faculty-cambridge-by-reyner-banham/8604125.article%23","url_text":"\"The History Faculty, Cambridge\""},{"url":"http://www.architectural-review.com/1968-november-the-history-faculty-cambridge-by-reyner-banham/8604125.article","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"McAslan to remodel Stirling library\". Building Design. 23 April 2004. Retrieved 24 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bdonline.co.uk/mcaslan-to-remodel-stirling-library/3034796.article","url_text":"\"McAslan to remodel Stirling library\""}]},{"reference":"\"Petition calling for Cambridge library to change name over colonialism links\". Cambridge News. 9 November 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/seeley-library-name-petition-colonialism-22102940","url_text":"\"Petition calling for Cambridge library to change name over colonialism links\""}]},{"reference":"\"Petition to rename Seeley Library\". Google docs. Retrieved 3 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.google.com/document/d/10Ho9g8zbrM-agGbCX-8WvFzyYFhNhmkhnG0kmM3yS8I/mobilebasic","url_text":"\"Petition to rename Seeley Library\""}]},{"reference":"Kenney, Esmé (2021). \"Student open letter calls for Seeley Library to be renamed amidst colonial links\". Varsity Online. No. 7 November 21. Varsity Publications Ltd. Retrieved 25 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.varsity.co.uk/news/22422","url_text":"\"Student open letter calls for Seeley Library to be renamed amidst colonial links\""}]}]

[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Seeley_Historical_Library&params=52.201963761092_N_0.10911769955253_E_type:landmark_region:GB-ENG","external_links_name":"52°12′07″N 0°06′33″E / 52.201963761092145°N 0.10911769955253407°E / 52.201963761092145; 0.10911769955253407"},{"Link":"https://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library","external_links_name":"https://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library"},{"Link":"https://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library","external_links_name":"\"Seeley Library | Faculty of History University of Cambridge\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120621204552/http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library/classification-scheme","external_links_name":"\"Locating material in the library\""},{"Link":"http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library/classification-scheme","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/endowmentsofuniv00claruoft","external_links_name":"Endowments of the University of Cambridge"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/endowmentsofuniv00claruoft/page/184","external_links_name":"184"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120621205232/http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library/history","external_links_name":"\"History of the Library\""},{"Link":"http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library/history","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150503042554/http://www.architectural-review.com/1968-november-the-history-faculty-cambridge-by-reyner-banham/8604125.article%23","external_links_name":"\"The History Faculty, Cambridge\""},{"Link":"http://www.architectural-review.com/1968-november-the-history-faculty-cambridge-by-reyner-banham/8604125.article","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.bdonline.co.uk/mcaslan-to-remodel-stirling-library/3034796.article","external_links_name":"\"McAslan to remodel Stirling library\""},{"Link":"https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/seeley-library-name-petition-colonialism-22102940","external_links_name":"\"Petition calling for Cambridge library to change name over colonialism links\""},{"Link":"https://docs.google.com/document/d/10Ho9g8zbrM-agGbCX-8WvFzyYFhNhmkhnG0kmM3yS8I/mobilebasic","external_links_name":"\"Petition to rename Seeley Library\""},{"Link":"https://www.varsity.co.uk/news/22422","external_links_name":"\"Student open letter calls for Seeley Library to be renamed amidst colonial links\""},{"Link":"https://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/seeley-library","external_links_name":"Seeley Library website"},{"Link":"https://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/library-catalogue","external_links_name":"Library catalogue"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AW*-algebra

AW*-algebra

["1 Definition","2 Structure theory","3 The commutative case","4 References"]

In mathematics, an AW*-algebra is an algebraic generalization of a W*-algebra. They were introduced by Irving Kaplansky in 1951. As operator algebras, von Neumann algebras, among all C*-algebras, are typically handled using one of two means: they are the dual space of some Banach space, and they are determined to a large extent by their projections. The idea behind AW*-algebras is to forgo the former, topological, condition, and use only the latter, algebraic, condition. Definition Recall that a projection of a C*-algebra is a self-adjoint idempotent element. A C*-algebra A is an AW*-algebra if for every subset S of A, the left annihilator A n n L ( S ) = { a ∈ A ∣ ∀ s ∈ S , a s = 0 } {\displaystyle \mathrm {Ann} _{L}(S)=\{a\in A\mid \forall s\in S,as=0\}\,} is generated as a left ideal by some projection p of A, and similarly the right annihilator is generated as a right ideal by some projection q: ∀ S ⊆ A ∃ p , q ∈ P r o j ( A ) : A n n L ( S ) = A p , A n n R ( S ) = q A {\displaystyle \forall S\subseteq A\,\exists p,q\in \mathrm {Proj} (A)\colon \mathrm {Ann} _{L}(S)=Ap,\quad \mathrm {Ann} _{R}(S)=qA} . Hence an AW*-algebra is a C*-algebras that is at the same time a Baer *-ring. The original definition of Kaplansky states that an AW*-algebra is a C*-algebra such that (1) any set of orthogonal projections has a least upper bound, and (2) that each maximal commutative C*-subalgebra is generated by its projections. The first condition states that the projections have an interesting structure, while the second condition ensures that there are enough projections for it to be interesting. Note that the second condition is equivalent to the condition that each maximal commutative C*-subalgebra is monotone complete. Structure theory Many results concerning von Neumann algebras carry over to AW*-algebras. For example, AW*-algebras can be classified according to the behavior of their projections, and decompose into types. For another example, normal matrices with entries in an AW*-algebra can always be diagonalized. AW*-algebras also always have polar decomposition. However, there are also ways in which AW*-algebras behave differently from von Neumann algebras. For example, AW*-algebras of type I can exhibit pathological properties, even though Kaplansky already showed that such algebras with trivial center are automatically von Neumann algebras. The commutative case A commutative C*-algebra is an AW*-algebra if and only if its spectrum is a Stonean space. Via Stone duality, commutative AW*-algebras therefore correspond to complete Boolean algebras. The projections of a commutative AW*-algebra form a complete Boolean algebra, and conversely, any complete Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the projections of some commutative AW*-algebra. References ^ a b Kaplansky, Irving (1951). "Projections in Banach algebras". Annals of Mathematics. 53 (2): 235–249. doi:10.2307/1969540. ^ Berberian, Sterling (1972). Baer *-rings. Springer. ^ Heunen, Chris; Reyes, Manuel L. (2013). "Diagonalizing matrices over AW*-algebras". Journal of Functional Analysis. 264 (8): 1873–1898. arXiv:1208.5120. doi:10.1016/j.jfa.2013.01.022. ^ Ara, Pere (1989). "Left and right projections are equivalent in Rickart C*-algebras". Journal of Algebra. 120 (2): 433–448. doi:10.1016/0021-8693(89)90209-3. ^ Wright, J. D. Maitland. "AW*-algebra". Springer. ^ Ozawa, Masanao (1984). "Nonuniqueness of the cardinality attached to homogeneous AW*-algebras". Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 93: 681–684. doi:10.2307/2045544.

[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"AW*-algebra"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projection_(linear_algebra)#Orthogonal_projections"},{"link_name":"self-adjoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-adjoint"},{"link_name":"idempotent element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idempotent_element_(ring_theory)"},{"link_name":"annihilator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annihilator_(ring_theory)"},{"link_name":"ideal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_(ring_theory)"},{"link_name":"Baer *-ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baer_*-ring"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kaplansky-1"}],"text":"Recall that a projection of a C*-algebra is a self-adjoint idempotent element. A C*-algebra A is an AW*-algebra if for every subset S of A, the left annihilatorA\n n\n n\n \n \n L\n \n \n (\n S\n )\n =\n {\n a\n ∈\n A\n ∣\n ∀\n s\n ∈\n S\n ,\n a\n s\n =\n 0\n }\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {Ann} _{L}(S)=\\{a\\in A\\mid \\forall s\\in S,as=0\\}\\,}is generated as a left ideal by some projection p of A, and similarly the right annihilator is generated as a right ideal by some projection q:∀\n S\n ⊆\n A\n \n ∃\n p\n ,\n q\n ∈\n \n P\n r\n o\n j\n \n (\n A\n )\n :\n \n \n A\n n\n n\n \n \n L\n \n \n (\n S\n )\n =\n A\n p\n ,\n \n \n \n A\n n\n n\n \n \n R\n \n \n (\n S\n )\n =\n q\n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall S\\subseteq A\\,\\exists p,q\\in \\mathrm {Proj} (A)\\colon \\mathrm {Ann} _{L}(S)=Ap,\\quad \\mathrm {Ann} _{R}(S)=qA}\n \n.Hence an AW*-algebra is a C*-algebras that is at the same time a Baer *-ring.The original definition of Kaplansky states that an AW*-algebra is a C*-algebra such that (1) any set of orthogonal projections has a least upper bound, and (2) that each maximal commutative C*-subalgebra is generated by its projections. The first condition states that the projections have an interesting structure, while the second condition ensures that there are enough projections for it to be interesting.[1] Note that the second condition is equivalent to the condition that each maximal commutative C*-subalgebra is monotone complete.","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W*-algebra#Factors"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"normal matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_matrix"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"polar decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_decomposition"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Many results concerning von Neumann algebras carry over to AW*-algebras. For example, AW*-algebras can be classified according to the behavior of their projections, and decompose into types.[2] For another example, normal matrices with entries in an AW*-algebra can always be diagonalized.[3] AW*-algebras also always have polar decomposition.[4]However, there are also ways in which AW*-algebras behave differently from von Neumann algebras.[5] For example, AW*-algebras of type I can exhibit pathological properties,[6] even though Kaplansky already showed that such algebras with trivial center are automatically von Neumann algebras.","title":"Structure theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_of_a_C*-algebra"},{"link_name":"Stonean space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonean_space"},{"link_name":"Stone duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_duality"},{"link_name":"complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_lattice"},{"link_name":"Boolean algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra"}],"text":"A commutative C*-algebra is an AW*-algebra if and only if its spectrum is a Stonean space. Via Stone duality, commutative AW*-algebras therefore correspond to complete Boolean algebras. The projections of a commutative AW*-algebra form a complete Boolean algebra, and conversely, any complete Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the projections of some commutative AW*-algebra.","title":"The commutative case"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_Review

Harvard Business Review

["1 Background","1.1 Early days","1.2 1980s through 2009","1.3 Redesign","2 McKinsey Awards","3 References","4 External links"]

American management magazine Harvard Business ReviewEditor-in-ChiefAdi IgnatiusFormer editorsThomas A. StewartCategoriesBusinessFrequency6 times per yearCirculation263,645PublisherSarah McConvilleFounded1922; 102 years ago (1922)CompanyHarvard Business PublishingCountryUnited StatesBased inBrighton, MassachusettsLanguageEnglishWebsitehbr.org ISSN0017-8012 Some issues of Harvard Business Review Harvard Business Review (HBR) is a general management magazine published by Harvard Business Publishing, a not-for-profit, independent corporation that is an affiliate of Harvard Business School. HBR is published six times a year and is headquartered in Brighton, Massachusetts. HBR covers a wide range of topics that are relevant to various industries, management functions, and geographic locations. These include leadership, negotiation, strategy, operations, marketing, and finance. Harvard Business Review has published articles by Clayton Christensen, Peter F. Drucker, Justin Fox, Michael E. Porter, Rosabeth Moss Kanter, John Hagel III, Thomas H. Davenport, Gary Hamel, C. K. Prahalad, Vijay Govindarajan, Robert S. Kaplan, Rita Gunther McGrath and others. Several management concepts and business terms were first given prominence in HBR. Harvard Business Review's worldwide English-language circulation is 250,000. HBR licenses its content for publication in nine international editions. Cover of HBR Italia Background Early days Harvard Business Review began in 1922 as a magazine for Harvard Business School. Founded under the auspices of Dean Wallace Donham, HBR was meant to be more than just a typical school publication. "The paper is intended to be the highest type of business journal that we can make it, and for use by the student and the business man. It is not a school paper," Donham wrote. Initially, HBR's focus was on macroeconomic trends, as well as on important developments within specific industries. Following World War II, HBR emphasized the cutting-edge management techniques that were developed in large corporations, like General Motors, during that time period. Over the next three decades, the magazine continued to refine its focus on general management issues that affect business leaders, billing itself as the "magazine for decision makers". Prominent articles published during this period include "Marketing Myopia" by Theodore Levitt and "Barriers and Gateways to Communication" by Carl R. Rogers and Fritz J. Roethlisberger. 1980s through 2009 In the 1980s, Theodore Levitt became the editor of Harvard Business Review and changed the magazine to make it more accessible to general audiences. Articles were shortened and the scope of the magazine was expanded to include a wider range of topics. In 1994, Harvard Business School formed Harvard Business Publishing (HBP) as an independent entity. In 2002, a management and editorial staff shakeup occurred at the publication after the revelation of an affair between editor-in-chief Suzy Wetlaufer and former General Electric CEO Jack Welch. The two met while Wetlaufer was interviewing Welch while researching an article for the research-based magazine. Two senior Harvard Business Review editors left complaining the affair initiated during Wetlaufer's work with Welch for an article had broken ethical standards and cited an unfair office climate. Shortly after the resignations, Wetlaufer resigned on March 8, 2002 amid further rebuke by remaining staff. Three months later, the publisher, Penelope Muse Abernathy, was also forced out. Between 2006 and 2008, HBP went through several reorganizations but finally settled into the three market-facing groups that exist today: Higher Education, which distributes cases, articles, and book chapters for business education materials; Corporate Learning, which provides standardized on-line and tailored off-line leadership development courses; and Harvard Business Review Group, which publishes Harvard Business Review magazine and its web counterpart (HBR.org), and publishes books (Harvard Business Review Press). Redesign In 2009, HBR brought on Adi Ignatius, the former deputy managing editor of Time magazine, to be its editor-in-chief. Ignatius oversees all editorial operations for Harvard Business Review Group. At the time that Ignatius was hired, the United States was going through an economic recession, but HBR was not covering the topic. "The world was desperate for new approaches. Business-as-usual was not a credible response," Ignatius has recalled. During this period the frequency of HBR switched from ten times per year to six times per year. As a result, Ignatius realigned HBR's focus and goals to make sure that it "delivers information in the zeitgeist that our readers are living in." HBR continues to emphasize research-based, academic pieces that would help readers improve their companies and further their careers, but it broadened its audience and improved reach and impact by including more contemporary topics. As part of the redesigned magazine, Ignatius also led the charge to integrate the print and digital divisions more closely, and gave each edition of HBR a distinct theme and personality, as opposed to being a collection of academically superlative, yet mostly unrelated articles. HBR won the 2020 Webby Award for Business Blog/Website in the category Web. McKinsey Awards See also: Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award Since 1959, the magazine's annual McKinsey Award has recognized the two most significant Harvard Business Review articles published each year, as determined by a group of highly independent judges. Past winners have included Peter F. Drucker, who was honored seven times; Clayton M. Christensen; Theodore Levitt; Michael Porter; Rosabeth Moss Kanter; John Hagel III; and C. K. Prahalad. References ^ Harvard Business Review Names Adi Ignatius as Editor-in-Chief, a Harvard Business School press release ^ "eCirc for Consumer Magazines". Alliance for Audited Media. December 31, 2012. Archived from the original on January 23, 2017. Retrieved April 7, 2015. ^ a b "Harvard Business Review Revamps". The New York Times. December 10, 2009. ^ "Reviewing Harvard's Business Review". The New York Times. March 15, 2002. ^ "Harvard Business Review Announces New Podcast Network, HBR Presents" (Press release). April 3, 2019. ^ a b "Harvard Business Review (HBR) | PreventionWeb.net". preventionweb.net. Retrieved July 8, 2021. ^ "Harvard Business Review Guidelines". Hbr.org. December 31, 2012. Retrieved September 10, 2013. ^ a b "Private Sector; Seeing the Corporation's Demise". The New York Times. November 14, 1999. ^ "Justin Fox". CUNY TV. ^ "HBR Global Editions". Hbr.org. Retrieved July 20, 2023. ^ Jennings, Marianne M. (April 18, 2002). "Affair Takes Shine Off 2 Adulterers". Deseret News. Retrieved January 4, 2021. ^ DePaulo, Lisa (May 6, 2002). "If You Knew Suzy…". New York Magazine. ^ Armstrong, David (July 9, 2002). "Harvard Business Review Publisher Is Forced to Resign Amid Overhaul". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved January 4, 2021. ^ Delbridge, Emily (November 21, 2019). "The 8 Best Business Magazines of 2020". The Balance Small Business. New York City: Dotdash. Best for Professionals:Harvard Business Review. Retrieved February 8, 2020. ^ Faisal Kalim (August 13, 2019). ""Magazines are alive and well": Publishers refresh their strategies for the print format". WNIP. Retrieved June 1, 2020. ^ Kastrenakes, Jacob (May 20, 2020). "Here are all the winners of the 2020 Webby Awards". The Verge. Retrieved May 22, 2020. ^ Frederick Andrews (October 29, 1976). "Management: How a Boss Works in Calculated Chaos". The New York Times. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Harvard Business Review. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HarvardBusinessReview.jpg"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HBRrevamp.NYT2009-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Harvard Business Publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_Publishing"},{"link_name":"Harvard Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HBRrevamp.NYT2009-3"},{"link_name":"Brighton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brighton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Clayton Christensen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Christensen"},{"link_name":"Peter F. Drucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_F._Drucker"},{"link_name":"Justin Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Fox"},{"link_name":"Michael E. Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_E._Porter"},{"link_name":"Rosabeth Moss Kanter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosabeth_Moss_Kanter"},{"link_name":"John Hagel III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hagel_III"},{"link_name":"Thomas H. Davenport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Davenport"},{"link_name":"Gary Hamel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Hamel"},{"link_name":"C. K. Prahalad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._K._Prahalad"},{"link_name":"Vijay Govindarajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijay_Govindarajan"},{"link_name":"Robert S. Kaplan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_S._Kaplan"},{"link_name":"Rita Gunther McGrath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita_Gunther_McGrath"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HBR-PeterDrucker-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harvard_Business_Review_website-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cover_hbr_italia_july_2023.jpg"}],"text":"Some issues of Harvard Business ReviewHarvard Business Review (HBR)[3][4] is a general management magazine[5] [6] published by Harvard Business Publishing, a not-for-profit, independent corporation that is an affiliate of Harvard Business School. HBR is published six times a year[3] and is headquartered in Brighton, Massachusetts.HBR covers a wide range of topics that are relevant to various industries, management functions, and geographic locations. These include leadership, negotiation, strategy, operations, marketing, and finance.[7]Harvard Business Review has published articles by Clayton Christensen, Peter F. Drucker, Justin Fox, Michael E. Porter, Rosabeth Moss Kanter, John Hagel III, Thomas H. Davenport, Gary Hamel, C. K. Prahalad, Vijay Govindarajan, Robert S. Kaplan, Rita Gunther McGrath and others.[8][9] Several management concepts and business terms were first given prominence in HBR.Harvard Business Review's worldwide English-language circulation is 250,000. HBR licenses its content for publication in nine international editions.[10]Cover of HBR Italia","title":"Harvard Business Review"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Harvard Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School"},{"link_name":"macroeconomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroeconomic"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"corporations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation"},{"link_name":"General Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"Marketing Myopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_Myopia"},{"link_name":"Theodore Levitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Levitt"},{"link_name":"Carl R. Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_R._Rogers"}],"sub_title":"Early days","text":"Harvard Business Review began in 1922[6] as a magazine for Harvard Business School. Founded under the auspices of Dean Wallace Donham, HBR was meant to be more than just a typical school publication. \"The paper [HBR] is intended to be the highest type of business journal that we can make it, and for use by the student and the business man. It is not a school paper,\" Donham wrote. Initially, HBR's focus was on macroeconomic trends, as well as on important developments within specific industries.Following World War II, HBR emphasized the cutting-edge management techniques that were developed in large corporations, like General Motors, during that time period. Over the next three decades, the magazine continued to refine its focus on general management issues that affect business leaders, billing itself as the \"magazine for decision makers\". Prominent articles published during this period include \"Marketing Myopia\" by Theodore Levitt and \"Barriers and Gateways to Communication\" by Carl R. Rogers and Fritz J. Roethlisberger.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Suzy Wetlaufer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzy_Welch"},{"link_name":"Jack Welch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Welch"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"1980s through 2009","text":"In the 1980s, Theodore Levitt became the editor of Harvard Business Review and changed the magazine to make it more accessible to general audiences. Articles were shortened and the scope of the magazine was expanded to include a wider range of topics. In 1994, Harvard Business School formed Harvard Business Publishing (HBP) as an independent entity.In 2002, a management and editorial staff shakeup occurred at the publication after the revelation of an affair between editor-in-chief Suzy Wetlaufer and former General Electric CEO Jack Welch. The two met while Wetlaufer was interviewing Welch while researching an article for the research-based magazine.[11] Two senior Harvard Business Review editors left complaining the affair initiated during Wetlaufer's work with Welch for an article had broken ethical standards and cited an unfair office climate. Shortly after the resignations, Wetlaufer resigned on March 8, 2002 amid further rebuke by remaining staff. [12] Three months later, the publisher, Penelope Muse Abernathy, was also forced out.\n[13]Between 2006 and 2008, HBP went through several reorganizations but finally settled into the three market-facing groups that exist today: Higher Education, which distributes cases, articles, and book chapters for business education materials; Corporate Learning, which provides standardized on-line and tailored off-line leadership development courses; and Harvard Business Review Group, which publishes Harvard Business Review magazine and its web counterpart (HBR.org), and publishes books (Harvard Business Review Press).","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adi Ignatius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adi_Ignatius"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"editor-in-chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editor-in-chief"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"economic recession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Recession"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"zeitgeist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeist"},{"link_name":"2020 Webby Award for Business Blog/Website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Webby_Award"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kastrenakes-16"}],"sub_title":"Redesign","text":"In 2009, HBR brought on Adi Ignatius, the former deputy managing editor of Time magazine, to be its editor-in-chief.[14] Ignatius oversees all editorial operations for Harvard Business Review Group. At the time that Ignatius was hired, the United States was going through an economic recession, but HBR was not covering the topic. \"The world was desperate for new approaches. Business-as-usual was not a credible response,\" Ignatius has recalled. During this period the frequency of HBR switched from ten times per year to six times per year.[15]As a result, Ignatius realigned HBR's focus and goals to make sure that it \"delivers information in the zeitgeist that our readers are living in.\" HBR continues to emphasize research-based, academic pieces that would help readers improve their companies and further their careers, but it broadened its audience and improved reach and impact by including more contemporary topics.As part of the redesigned magazine, Ignatius also led the charge to integrate the print and digital divisions more closely, and gave each edition of HBR a distinct theme and personality, as opposed to being a collection of academically superlative, yet mostly unrelated articles.HBR won the 2020 Webby Award for Business Blog/Website in the category Web.[16]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times_and_McKinsey_Business_Book_of_the_Year_Award"},{"link_name":"McKinsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McKinsey_%26_Company"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HBR-PeterDrucker-8"},{"link_name":"Rosabeth Moss Kanter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosabeth_Moss_Kanter"},{"link_name":"C. K. Prahalad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._K._Prahalad"}],"text":"See also: Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year AwardSince 1959, the magazine's annual McKinsey Award[17] has recognized the two most significant Harvard Business Review articles published each year, as determined by a group of highly independent judges. Past winners have included Peter F. Drucker,[8] who was honored seven times; Clayton M. Christensen; Theodore Levitt; Michael Porter; Rosabeth Moss Kanter; John Hagel III; and C. K. Prahalad.","title":"McKinsey Awards"}]

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[{"reference":"\"eCirc for Consumer Magazines\". Alliance for Audited Media. December 31, 2012. Archived from the original on January 23, 2017. Retrieved April 7, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20170123200306/http://abcas3.auditedmedia.com/ecirc/magtitlesearch.asp","url_text":"\"eCirc for Consumer Magazines\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_for_Audited_Media","url_text":"Alliance for Audited Media"},{"url":"http://abcas3.auditedmedia.com/ecirc/magtitlesearch.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Harvard Business Review Revamps\". The New York Times. December 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/11/business/media/11adco.html","url_text":"\"Harvard Business Review Revamps\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Reviewing Harvard's Business Review\". The New York Times. March 15, 2002.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/15/opinion/reviewing-harvard-s-business-review.html","url_text":"\"Reviewing Harvard's Business Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Harvard Business Review Announces New Podcast Network, HBR Presents\" (Press release). April 3, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20190403005592/en/Harvard-Business-Review-Announces-New-Podcast-Network-HBR-Presents","url_text":"\"Harvard Business Review Announces New Podcast Network, HBR Presents\""}]},{"reference":"\"Harvard Business Review (HBR) | PreventionWeb.net\". preventionweb.net. Retrieved July 8, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.preventionweb.net/organizations/23297","url_text":"\"Harvard Business Review (HBR) | PreventionWeb.net\""}]},{"reference":"\"Harvard Business Review Guidelines\". Hbr.org. December 31, 2012. 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Retrieved January 4, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.deseret.com/2002/4/18/19649275/affair-takes-shine-off-2-adulterers","url_text":"\"Affair Takes Shine Off 2 Adulterers\""}]},{"reference":"DePaulo, Lisa (May 6, 2002). \"If You Knew Suzy…\". New York Magazine.","urls":[{"url":"https://nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/5976/","url_text":"\"If You Knew Suzy…\""}]},{"reference":"Armstrong, David (July 9, 2002). \"Harvard Business Review Publisher Is Forced to Resign Amid Overhaul\". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved January 4, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1026170411870381840","url_text":"\"Harvard Business Review Publisher Is Forced to Resign Amid Overhaul\""}]},{"reference":"Delbridge, Emily (November 21, 2019). \"The 8 Best Business Magazines of 2020\". The Balance Small Business. New York City: Dotdash. Best for Professionals:Harvard Business Review. Retrieved February 8, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thebalancesmb.com/best-business-magazines-4176680","url_text":"\"The 8 Best Business Magazines of 2020\""}]},{"reference":"Faisal Kalim (August 13, 2019). \"\"Magazines are alive and well\": Publishers refresh their strategies for the print format\". WNIP. Retrieved June 1, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://whatsnewinpublishing.com/magazines-are-alive-and-well-publishers-refresh-their-strategies-for-the-print-format/","url_text":"\"\"Magazines are alive and well\": Publishers refresh their strategies for the print format\""}]},{"reference":"Kastrenakes, Jacob (May 20, 2020). \"Here are all the winners of the 2020 Webby Awards\". The Verge. Retrieved May 22, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/20/21263445/2020-webby-awards-winners-lil-nas-x-nasa-jon-krasinski","url_text":"\"Here are all the winners of the 2020 Webby Awards\""}]},{"reference":"Frederick Andrews (October 29, 1976). \"Management: How a Boss Works in Calculated Chaos\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1976/10/29/archives/management-how-a-boss-works-in-calculated-chaos-management-how-an.html","url_text":"\"Management: How a Boss Works in Calculated Chaos\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021

Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021

["1 Case statistics","2 Pandemic chronology","2.1 1 June","2.2 2 June","2.3 3 June","2.4 4 June","2.5 5 June","2.6 6 June","2.7 7 June","2.8 8 June","2.9 9 June","2.10 10 June","2.11 11 June","2.12 12 June","2.13 13 June","2.14 14 June","2.15 15 June","2.16 16 June","2.17 17 June","2.18 18 June","2.19 19 June","2.20 20 June","2.21 21 June","2.22 22 June","2.23 23 June","2.24 24 June","2.25 25 June","2.26 26 June","2.27 27 June","2.28 28 June","2.29 29 June","2.30 30 June","3 Summary","4 See also","5 References"]

See also: COVID-19 pandemic and Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021 Part of a series on theCOVID-19 pandemicScientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom. COVID-19 (disease) SARS-CoV-2 (virus) Cases Deaths Timeline 2019 2020 January responses February responses March responses April responses May responses June responses July responses August responses September responses October responses November responses December responses 2021 January responses February responses March responses April responses May responses June responses July responses August responses September responses October responses November responses December responses 2022 January responses February responses March responses April responses May responses June responses July responses August responses September responses October responses November December 2023 Locations By country and territory Africa Antarctica Asia Europe North America Oceania South America By conveyance Cruise ships Naval ships International response Endemic phase Evacuations Face masks International aid Origin Lockdowns by country Misinformation by governments Fake treatments Social distancing Software Travel United Nations World Health Organization WTO IP waiver Undercounting of deaths COVID-19 apps Zero-COVID National responses Africa China European Union Germany Ghana India Ireland Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Philippines Russia Sweden UK government US federal government Vietnam Medical response Disease testing Breathalyzer Development Drug development Drug repurposing Public health mitigation Vaccines History Research VITT Deployment Authorizations Operation Warp Speed Misinformation and hesitancy US Vaccine card Vaccine passports Current vaccines CoronaVac Covaxin Convidecia Janssen Medigen Moderna Novavax Oxford–AstraZeneca Pfizer–BioNTech Sinopharm BIBP Sputnik V Variants Variants of concern Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Omicron Other variants Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda Mu Cluster 5 Lineage B.1.617 Economic impact and recession Arts and culture Aviation Cannabis Cinema films Disney Fashion Financial markets Food industry Food security Journalism Music Performing arts Retail Shipping Television US sportscasting programs Tourism Video games By country Canada India Ireland Malaysia New Zealand Russia UK US By sport Association football Baseball Basketball Combat sports Cricket Disc golf Gaelic games Gridiron football Ice hockey Motorsport Rugby league Impacts Animals Alzheimer's disease patients Black people Crime Death rates by country Disability Domestic violence Emergency evacuations Education Female Environment Hospitals Language LGBT community Long-term care Media coverage Mental health symptoms Migration Military Notable deaths Other health issues Politics diplomacy Popular culture Protests Pregnancy Prisons Religion Catholic Church Hajj Science and technology Social media Strikes Suicides Telehealth Xenophobia and racism Society Ireland Malaysia New Zealand Russia UK US COVID-19 portalvte Main article: Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. This article documents the chronology and epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, in June 2021. The first human cases of COVID-19 were identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Case statistics Further information: Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic § Case statistics Pandemic chronology 1 June World Health Organization weekly report: Fiji has reported 35 new cases with some cases recorded in the Nadi and C.W.M Hospital. Malaysia has reported 7,105 new cases, bringing the total number to 579,462. There are 6,083 recoveries, bringing the total number to 496,121. There are 71 deaths, bringing the death toll to 2,867. There are 80,474 active cases, with 872 in intensive care and 419 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported no new cases, with the total remaining 2,673 (2,317 confirmed and 356 probable). There are four recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,634. The death toll remains 26. There are 13 active cases. Singapore has reported 18 new cases including 15 in community and three imported, bringing the total to 62,069. 22 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,481. The death toll remains at 33. Ukraine has reported 2,137 new daily cases and 163 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,204,631 and 50,699 respectively; a total of 2,053,167 patients have recovered. 2 June Fiji has confirmed 35 new cases. Malaysia has reported 7,703 new cases, bringing the total number to 587,165. There are 5,777 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 501,898. There are 126 deaths, bringing the death toll to 2,993. There are 82,274 active cases, with 878 in intensive care and 441 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported 6 new cases, bringing the total number to 2,679 (2,323 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,635. The death toll remains 26. There are 18 active cases. Singapore has reported 31 new cases including 24 in community and seven imported, bringing the total to 62,100. In addition, a new cluster has emerged at MINDSville@Napiri with 26 community cases linked to it. 42 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,523. The death toll remains at 33. Ukraine has reported 2,205 new daily cases and 158 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,206,836 and 50,857 respectively; a total of 2,062,572 patients have recovered. 3 June Fiji has confirmed 28 new cases. Malaysia has reported 8,209, bringing the total number to 595,374. There are 7,049 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 508,947. There are 103 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,096. There are 83,331 active cases, with 880 in intensive care and 446 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported two new cases, bringing the total number to 2,681 (2,325 confirmed and 356 probable). There are three recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,638. The death toll remains 26. There are 17 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 45 new cases including 35 in community and ten imported, bringing the total to 62,145. Of the community cases, 22 of them are linked to the MINDSville@Napiri cluster. In addition, a new cluster has emerged at Block 506 Hougang Avenue 8 with 13 community cases linked to it. There are 34 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,557. The death toll remains at 33. Ukraine has reported 2,581 new daily cases and 102 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,209,417 and 50,959 respectively; a total of 2,072,091 patients have recovered. 4 June Australia reported the first case of the Indian Delta variant in Melbourne, Victoria. Fiji has reported 35 new cases. Malaysia has reported 7,748 new cases, bringing the total number to 603,122. There are 6,624 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 515,571. 86 have died, bringing the death toll to 3,182. There are 84,369 active cases, with 883 in intensive care and 453 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,683 (2,326 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,639. The death toll remains 26. There are 17 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 13 new cases including seven in community and six imported, bringing the total to 62,158. 23 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,580. The death toll remains at 33. Ukraine has reported 2,266 new daily cases and 95 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,211,683 and 51,054 respectively; a total of 2,080,382 patients have recovered. 5 June The Cook Islands has confirmed its first positive COVID-19 test result, but it was determined to be a non-infectious historical case who had already completed quarantine in NZ. Fiji has confirmed 33 new cases. Malaysia has reported 7,452 new cases, bringing the total number to 610,754. There are 6,105 recoveries, bringing the total number to 521,676. There are 109 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,291. There are 85,607 active cases, with 886 in intensive care and 446 on ventilator support. Singapore has reported 18 new cases including 13 in community and five imported, bringing the total to 62,176. Of the community cases, all of them are linked to previous cases. In addition, a new cluster has emerged at Atatcutz Singapore with four community cases linked to it. 33 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,613. The death toll remains at 33. Ukraine has reported 1,897 new daily cases and 86 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,213,580 and 51,140 respectively; a total of 2,088,712 patients have recovered. 6 June Fiji has confirmed 83 new cases, with cases reported outside containment areas. Malaysia has reported 6,241 confirmed cases, bringing the total number to 616,815. There are 5,133 recoveries bringing the total number of recoveries to 526,809. There are 87 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,378. There are 86,628 active cases, with 890 in intensive care and 444 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported one new case while one previously reported case was classified; bringing the total number to 2,682 (2,326 confirmed and 356 probable). The number of recoveries remain 2,639 while the death toll remains 26. There are 17 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 20 new cases including six in community and 14 imported, bringing the total to 62,196. There are 22 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,635. The death toll remains at 33. Ukraine has reported 937 new daily cases and 42 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,214,517 and 51,182 respectively; a total of 2,093,228 patients have recovered. 7 June Fiji has confirmed 64 new cases and reported a 14% positive rate in tests in the last seven days. Malaysia has reported 5,271 new cases, bringing the total number to 622,086. There are 7,548 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 534,357. There are 82 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,460. There are 84,269 active cases, with 902 in intensive care and 447 on ventilator support. Singapore has reported 14 new cases including five in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,210. 25 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,660. The death toll remains at 33. Ukraine has reported 535 new daily cases and 33 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,215,052 and 51,215 respectively; a total of 2,094,971 patients have recovered. 8 June World Health Organization weekly report: Argentina surpasses 4 million COVID-19 cases. Fiji has reported 94 new cases. Malaysia as reported 5,566 new cases, bringing the total number to 627,652. 6,962 recoveries were reported, bringing the total number of recoveries to 541,319. 76 deaths were reported, bringing the death toll to 3,536. There are 82,797 active cases, with 903 in intensive care and 458 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported 10 new cases, bringing the total number to 2,692 (2,336 confirmed and 356 probable). There are five recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,644. The death toll remains 26. There are 22 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported nine new cases including three in community and one residing in a dormitory, bringing the total to 62,219. 42 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,702. Another death was later confirmed, bringing the death toll to 34. Ukraine has reported 1,602 new daily cases and 118 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,216,654 and 51,333 respectively; a total of 2,101,722 patients have recovered. 9 June Fiji has reported 35 new cases, bringing the total number of cases to 880. 15 patients have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 249. The death toll remains 4. There are 624 active cases. India has reported 86,498 new cases, bringing the total to over 29 million cases. Malaysia has reported 6,239 new cases, bringing the total number to 633,891. There are 7,386 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 548,705. There are 75 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,611. There are 81,575 active cases, with 905 in intensive care and 453 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported four new cases, bringing the total number to 2,696 (2,340 confirmed and 356 probable). There are two recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,646. The death toll remains 26. There are 24 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported four new cases including two in community and one imported, bringing the total to 62,223. Of the community cases, one of them is unlinked. There are 38 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,740. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 1,385 new daily cases and 77 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,218,039 and 51,410 respectively; a total of 2,108,684 patients have recovered. 10 June Fiji has confirmed 39 new cases, bringing the total number of cases to 849. Seven new recoveries were confirmed, bringing the total number of recoveries to 256. The death toll remains four. There are 656 active cases. Malaysia has reported 5,671 new cases, bringing the total number to 639,562. There are 7,362 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 556,030. There are 73 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,684. There are 79,848 active cases, with 911 in intensive care and 461 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,697 (2,341 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,647. The death toll remains 26. There are 24 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 13 new cases including four in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,236. 25 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,765. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 1,785 new daily cases and 97 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,219,824 and 51,507 respectively; a total of 2,115,197 patients have recovered. 11 June Fiji has confirmed 51 new cases of COVID-19. Iran surpasses 3 million cases. Malaysia has reported 6,849 new cases, bringing the total number to 646,411. There are 7,749 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 563,779. There are 84 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,768. There are 78,864 active cases, with 912 in intensive care and 458 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported five new cases, bringing the total number to 2,702. The number of recoveries remain 2,647 while the death toll remains 26. There are 29 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported nine new cases including three in community and six imported, bringing the total to 62,245. Of the community cases, all of them are unlinked. 34 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,799. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 1,603 new daily cases and 70 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,221,427 and 51,577 respectively; a total of 2,120,780 patients have recovered. 12 June Fiji has confirmed 47 new cases of COVID-19. Malaysia has reported 5,793 new cases, bringing the total number to 652,204. There are 8,334 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 572,113. There are 76 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,844. There are 76,247 active cases, with 914 in intensive care and 459 on ventilator support. Singapore has reported 21 new cases including 12 in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,266. Of the community cases, five of them are unlinked. In addition, three community cases were subtracted from the tally after further tests showed negative results, bringing the total to 62,263. There are 39 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,838. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 1,274 new daily cases and 69 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,222,701 and 51,646 respectively; a total of 2,125,685 patients have recovered. 13 June Fiji has confirmed a record of 105 new cases. Malaysia has reported 5,304 new cases, bringing the total number to 657,508. There are 8,163 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 580,276. There are 64 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,908. There are 73,324 active cases, with 917 in intensive care and 452 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported six new cases, bringing the total number to 2,708 (2,352 confirmed and 356 probable). There are eight recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,655. The death toll remains 26. There are 27 active cases. Singapore has reported 13 new cases including ten in community and three imported, bringing the total to 62,276. 31 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,869. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 857 new daily cases and 33 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,223,558 and 51,679 respectively; a total of 2,127,337 patients have recovered. 14 June Fiji has confirmed 89 new cases as the government due to the Delta variant. 23 patients have recovered and there are 860 active cases. Malaysia has reported 4,949 new cases, bringing the total number of cases to 662,457. There are 6,588 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 586,864. There are 60 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,968. There are 71,625 active cases, with 921 in intensive care and 459 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,709 (2,353 confirmed and 356 probable). There was one recovery, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,656. The death toll remains 26. There are 27 active cases. Singapore has reported 25 new cases including 18 in community and one residing in a dormitory, bringing the total to 62,301. 25 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,894. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 420 new daily cases and 13 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,223,978 and 51,692, respectively; a total of 2,130,665 patients have recovered. 15 June World Health Organization weekly report: Fiji has confirmed a record of 116 new cases of COVID-19 and announced another death bringing the death toll to five. Malaysia has reported 5,419 new cases, bringing the total number to 667,876. There are 6,831 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 593,695. 101 deaths were reported, bringing the death toll to 4,069. There are 70,112 active cases, with 922 in intensive care and 450 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported a historical case while another previously reported cases was reclassified; bringing the total number to 2,709 (2,353 confirmed and 356 probable). Four people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,660. The death toll remains 26. There are 23 active cases. Singapore has reported 14 new community cases including five unlinked, bringing the total to 62,315. There are 17 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,911. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 1,014 new daily cases and 77 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,224,992 and 51,769, respectively; a total of 2,136,176 patients have recovered. 16 June Fiji has confirmed 121 new cases. Malaysia has reported 5,150 new cases, bringing the total number to 673,026. There are 7,240 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 600,935. There are 73 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,142. There are 67,949 active cases, with 924 in intensive care and 453 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported two new cases, bringing the total number to 2,711 (2,355 confirmed and 356 probable). There are two recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,662. The death toll remains 26. There are 23 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 24 new cases including 19 in community and five imported, bringing the total to 62,339. Of the community cases, three of them are unlinked. 20 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,931. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 1,045 new daily cases and 78 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,226,037 and 51,847 respectively; a total of 2,140,978 patients have recovered. 17 June Fiji has confirmed 91 new cases and announced another death bringing the death toll to 6. Malaysia has reported 5,738 new cases, bringing the total number to 678,764. There are 7,530 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 608,465. There are 60 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,602. There are 66,097 active cases, with 909 in intensive care and 441 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported two new cases, bringing the total number to 2,713 (2,357 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,663. The death toll remains 26. There are 24 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 27 new cases including 20 in community and seven imported, bringing the total to 62,366. Of the community cases, two of them are unlinked. 29 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,960. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 1,188 new daily cases and 55 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,227,225 and 51,902 respectively; a total of 2,145,660 patients have recovered. Slovakia national team defender Denis Vavro and one of his staff members have tested positive for COVID-19. 18 June Fiji has confirmed 115 new cases. Malaysia has reported 6,440 new cases, bringing the total number to 685,204. There are 6,861 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 615,326. There are 74 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,276. There are 65,602 active cases, with 894 in intensive care and 451 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,714 (2,358 confirmed and 356 probable). Two people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,665. The death toll remains 26. There are 23 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 16 new cases including 14 in community and two imported, bringing the total to 62,382. There are 27 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,987. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 967 new daily cases and 50 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,228,192 and 51,952 respectively; a total of 2,147,972 patients have recovered. The global COVID-19 death toll has surpassed 4 million. 19 June Brazil has reached 500,000 COVID-19 deaths. The country has reported an average of 70,000 cases and 2,000 deaths daily. Fiji has confirmed a record of 150 new cases. Malaysia has reported 5,911 new cases, bringing the total number to 691,115. There are 6,918 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 622,244. There are 72 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,348. There are 64,523 active cases, with 886 in intensive care and 441 on ventilator support. Singapore has reported 21 new cases including 14 in community and seven imported, bringing the total to 62,403. Of the community cases, four of them are unlinked. 36 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,023. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 852 new daily cases and 40 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,229,044 and 51,992 respectively; a total of 2,150,708 patients have recovered. 20 June Fiji has confirmed 166 cases of COVID-19 and announced one death bringing the death toll to 7. Malaysia has reported 5,293 new cases, bringing the total number to 696,408. There are 5,941 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 628,185. There are 60 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,408. There are 63,815 active cases, with 880 in intensive care and 454 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported four new cases were reported, bringing the total number to 2,718 (2,362 confirmed and 356 probable). Five people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,670. The death toll remains 26. There are 22 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 11 new cases including nine in community and two imported, bringing the total to 62,414. Of the community cases, five of them are unlinked. 19 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,042. The death toll remains at 34. Ukraine has reported 479 new daily cases and 24 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,229,523 and 52,016 respectively; a total of 2,151,463 patients have recovered. 21 June Fiji has confirmed 126 new cases. Indonesia surpasses 2 million cases. Malaysia has reported 4,611 new cases, bringing the total number to 701,019. There are 5,439 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 633,624. There are 69 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,477. There are 62,918 active cases, with 880 in intensive care and 452 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported three new cases, bringing the total number to 2,720 (2,364 confirmed and 356 probable). One previously reported case has been reclassified. One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,671. The death toll remains 26. There are 23 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported 16 new cases including 13 in community and three imported, bringing the total to 62,430. There are 28 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,070. Another death was later confirmed, bringing the death toll to 35. Ukraine has reported 323 new daily cases and 16 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,229,846 and 52,032, respectively; a total of 2,152,140 patients have recovered. 22 June World Health Organization weekly report: Fiji has confirmed 180 new cases. Malaysia has reported 4,743 new cases, bringing the total number to 705,762. There are 5,577 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 639,181. There are 77 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,554. There are 62,027 active cases, with 875 in intensive care and 445 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reclassified one previously reported case, bringing the total number down to 2,719 (2,363 confirmed and 356 probable). Two people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,673. The death toll remains 26. There are 20 active cases. Singapore has reported 18 new cases including 15 in community and three imported, bringing the total to 62,448. 28 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,098. The death toll remains at 35. Ukraine has reported 296 new daily cases and 21 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,230,142 and 52,053, respectively; a total of 2,152,969 patients have recovered. 23 June Fiji has confirmed 279 new cases of COVID-19. Colombia surpasses 4 million cases. India surpasses 30 million COVID-19 cases. In addition, the country announced a new Delta variant with an additional mutation called the Delta Plus variant after 40 cases were detected in it. Malaysia has reported 5,244 new cases, bringing the total number to 711,006. There are 6,372 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 645,553. There are 83 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,637. There are 60,816 cases, with 879 in intensive care and 433 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported four new cases, bringing the total number to 2,723 (2,367 confirmed and 356 probable). The number of recoveries remain 2,673 while the death toll remains 26. There are 24 active cases. Singapore has reported 22 new cases including 13 in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,470. Of the community cases, three of them are unlinked. 15 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,113. The death toll remains at 35. Ukraine has reported 835 new daily cases along with the first case of the Delta variant and 70 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,230,977 and 52,123, respectively; a total of 2,155,261 patients have recovered. 24 June Fiji has confirmed 308 new cases. Malaysia has reported 5,841 new cases, bringing the total number to 716,847. There are 5,411 new cases, bringing the total number to 650,964. There are 84 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,721. There are 61,162 active cases, with 869 in intensive care and 438 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported no new cases, with the total number remaining 2,723 (2,367 confirmed and 356 probable). Seven people have recovered, bringing the total number to 2,680. The death toll remains 26. There are 17 active cases. Singapore has reported 23 new cases including 14 in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,493. Of the community cases, two of them are unlinked. There are 27 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,140. The death toll remains at 35. Ukraine has reported 937 new daily cases and 58 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,231,914 and 52,181, respectively; a total of 2,157,732 patients have recovered. 25 June Fiji has confirmed 215 new cases. One new death was reported, bringing the death toll to 14. Malaysia has reported 5,812 new cases, bringing the total number to 722,659. There are 6,775 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 657,739. There are 82 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,803. There are 60,117 active cases, with 870 in intensive care and 433 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported two new cases, bringing the total number to 2,725 (2,369 confirmed and 356 probable). The number of recoveries remains 2,680 while the death toll remains 26. There are 19 active cases. Singapore has reported 20 new cases including 15 in community and five imported, bringing the total to 62,513. Of the community cases, three of them are unlinked. 21 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,161. The death toll remains at 35. Ukraine has reported 876 new daily cases and 53 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,232,790 and 52,234, respectively; a total of 2,160,137 patients have recovered. 26 June Fiji has confirmed 266 new cases of COVID-19. One death was recorded, bringing the death toll to 15. Malaysia has reported 5,803 new cases, bringing the total number to 728,462. There are 5,193 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 662,932. There are 81 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,884. There are 60,646 active cases, with 866 in intensive care and 435 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported four new cases, bringing the total number to 2,729 (2,373 confirmed and 356 probable). Two people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,682. The death toll remains 26. There are 21 active cases. Singapore has reported 17 new cases including 13 in community and four imported, bringing the total to 62,530. Of the community cases, six of them are unlinked. 20 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,181. Another death was later confirmed, bringing the death toll to 36. Ukraine has reported 756 new daily cases and 35 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,233,546 and 52,269, respectively; a total of 2,161,972 patients have recovered. 27 June Fiji has confirmed 262 new cases. Malaysia has reported 5,586 new cases, bringing the total number to 734,048. There are 4,777 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 667,709. There are 60 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,944. There are 61,395 active cases, with 886 in intensive care and 446 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported one new case while two previously reported cases have been reclassified, bringing the total number to 2,728 (2,372 confirmed and 356 probable). One person have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,683. The death toll remains 26. There are 19 active cases. Singapore has reported 14 new cases including 12 in community and two imported, bringing the total to 62,544. Of the community cases, one of them is unlinked. There are 14 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,195. The death toll remains at 36. Ukraine has reported 450 new daily cases and 17 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,233,996 and 52,286, respectively; a total of 2,163,069 patients have recovered. 28 June Fiji has reported 241 new cases, bringing the total number to 3,832. There are 26 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 779. Two deaths were reported, bringing the death toll to 15. There are 3,027 active cases. Malaysia has reported 5,218 new cases, bringing the total number to 739,266. There are 4,744 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 672,453. There are 57 deaths, bringing the death toll to 5,001. There are 61,812 active cases, with 899 in intensive care and 451 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported 10 new cases, bringing the total number to 2,738 (2,382 confirmed and 356 probable). There was one recovery, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,684. The death toll remains 26. There are 28 active cases in managed isolation. Singapore has reported nine new cases including four in community and five imported, bringing the total to 62,553. Of the community cases, all of them are linked to previous cases. 17 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,212. The death toll remains at 36. Ukraine has reported 285 new daily cases and 9 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,234,281 and 52,295, respectively; a total of 2,163,792 patients have recovered. 29 June World Health Organization weekly report: Fiji has reported 312 new cases of COVID-19 and announced 4 deaths bringing the death toll to 21. Malaysia has reported 6,437 new cases, bringing the total number to 745,703. There are 5,298 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 677,751. There are 107 deaths, bringing the death toll to 5,108. There are 62,844 active cases, with 905 in intensive care and 455 on ventilator support. New Zealand has reported four new cases while a previously reported case was reclassified, bringing the total number to 2,741 (2,385 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,685. The death toll remains 26. There are 30 cases. Singapore has reported ten new cases including five locally transmitted and five imported, bringing the total to 62,563. Of the locally transmitted cases, all of them are linked to previous cases. Seven have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,219. The death toll remains at 36. Ukraine has reported 182 new daily cases and 5 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,234,463 and 52,300, respectively; a total of 2,164,374 patients have recovered. 30 June Malaysia has reported 6,276 new cases, bringing the total number to 751,979. There are 4,929 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 682,680. There are 62 deaths, bringing the death toll to 5,170. There are 64,129 active cases, with 905 in intensive care and 452 on ventilator support. Fiji has confirmed 274 new cases of COVID-19. New Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,742 (2,386 confirmed and 356 probable). The number of recoveries remains 2,685 while the death toll remains 26. There are 31 active cases. Singapore has reported 16 new cases including five locally transmitted and 11 imported, bringing the total to 62,579. Of the locally transmitted cases, all of them are linked to previous cases. There are nine recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,228. The death toll remains at 36. Ukraine has reported 633 new daily cases and 40 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,235,096 and 52,340, respectively; a total of 2,166,668 patients have recovered. Summary Countries and territories that confirmed their first cases during June 2021: Nil. 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Gao Azra Ghani Sarah Gilbert Guan Yi Kentaro Iwata Katalin Karikó Matt Keeling Trudie Lang Li Lanjuan W. Ian Lipkin Ma Xiaowei Shabir Madhi Allison McGeer Camilla Rothe Shi Zhengli Moncef Slaoui Mike Tildesley John Todd Wang Chen Wang Guangfa Drew Weissman Yuen Kwok-yung Zeng Guang Zhang Jixian Zhang Yongzhen Zhong Nanshan OfficialsWHO Tedros Adhanom (Director-General of the WHO) Bruce Aylward (Team lead of WHO-China COVID-19 mission) Maria Van Kerkhove (Technical Lead for COVID-19 response) Michael J. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021"},{"link_name":"dynamic list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Dynamic_lists"},{"link_name":"adding missing items","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021"},{"link_name":"reliable sources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"epidemiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology"},{"link_name":"SARS-CoV-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Wuhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan"}],"text":"See also: COVID-19 pandemic and Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.This article documents the chronology and epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, in June 2021. The first human cases of COVID-19 were identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019.","title":"Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic § Case statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Case_statistics"}],"text":"Further information: Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic § Case statistics","title":"Case statistics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"C.W.M Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_War_Memorial_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"1 June","text":"World Health Organization weekly report:[1]Fiji has reported 35 new cases with some cases recorded in the Nadi and C.W.M Hospital.[2]\nMalaysia has reported 7,105 new cases, bringing the total number to 579,462. There are 6,083 recoveries, bringing the total number to 496,121. There are 71 deaths, bringing the death toll to 2,867. There are 80,474 active cases, with 872 in intensive care and 419 on ventilator support.[3]\nNew Zealand has reported no new cases, with the total remaining 2,673 (2,317 confirmed and 356 probable). There are four recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,634. The death toll remains 26. There are 13 active cases.[4]\nSingapore has reported 18 new cases including 15 in community and three imported, bringing the total to 62,069.[5] 22 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,481. The death toll remains at 33.[6]\nUkraine has reported 2,137 new daily cases and 163 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,204,631 and 50,699 respectively; a total of 2,053,167 patients have recovered.[7]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"2 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 35 new cases.[8]\nMalaysia has reported 7,703 new cases, bringing the total number to 587,165. There are 5,777 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 501,898. There are 126 deaths, bringing the death toll to 2,993. There are 82,274 active cases, with 878 in intensive care and 441 on ventilator support.[9]\nNew Zealand has reported 6 new cases, bringing the total number to 2,679 (2,323 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,635. The death toll remains 26. There are 18 active cases.[10]\nSingapore has reported 31 new cases including 24 in community and seven imported, bringing the total to 62,100.[11] In addition, a new cluster has emerged at MINDSville@Napiri with 26 community cases linked to it. 42 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,523. The death toll remains at 33.[12]\nUkraine has reported 2,205 new daily cases and 158 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,206,836 and 50,857 respectively; a total of 2,062,572 patients have recovered.[13]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"3 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 28 new cases.[14]\nMalaysia has reported 8,209, bringing the total number to 595,374. There are 7,049 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 508,947. There are 103 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,096. There are 83,331 active cases, with 880 in intensive care and 446 on ventilator support.[15]\nNew Zealand has reported two new cases, bringing the total number to 2,681 (2,325 confirmed and 356 probable). There are three recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,638. The death toll remains 26. There are 17 active cases in managed isolation.[16]\nSingapore has reported 45 new cases including 35 in community and ten imported, bringing the total to 62,145. Of the community cases, 22 of them are linked to the MINDSville@Napiri cluster.[17] In addition, a new cluster has emerged at Block 506 Hougang Avenue 8 with 13 community cases linked to it. There are 34 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,557. The death toll remains at 33.[18]\nUkraine has reported 2,581 new daily cases and 102 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,209,417 and 50,959 respectively; a total of 2,072,091 patients have recovered.[19]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"4 June","text":"Australia reported the first case of the Indian Delta variant in Melbourne, Victoria.[20]\nFiji has reported 35 new cases.[21]\nMalaysia has reported 7,748 new cases, bringing the total number to 603,122. There are 6,624 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 515,571. 86 have died, bringing the death toll to 3,182. There are 84,369 active cases, with 883 in intensive care and 453 on ventilator support.[22]\nNew Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,683 (2,326 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,639. The death toll remains 26. There are 17 active cases in managed isolation.[23]\nSingapore has reported 13 new cases including seven in community and six imported, bringing the total to 62,158.[24] 23 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,580. The death toll remains at 33.[25]\nUkraine has reported 2,266 new daily cases and 95 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,211,683 and 51,054 respectively; a total of 2,080,382 patients have recovered.[26]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cook Islands has confirmed its first positive COVID-19 test result","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cook_Islands"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"5 June","text":"The Cook Islands has confirmed its first positive COVID-19 test result, but it was determined to be a non-infectious historical case who had already completed quarantine in NZ.[27][28]\nFiji has confirmed 33 new cases.[29]\nMalaysia has reported 7,452 new cases, bringing the total number to 610,754. There are 6,105 recoveries, bringing the total number to 521,676. There are 109 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,291. There are 85,607 active cases, with 886 in intensive care and 446 on ventilator support.[30]\nSingapore has reported 18 new cases including 13 in community and five imported, bringing the total to 62,176. Of the community cases, all of them are linked to previous cases.[31] In addition, a new cluster has emerged at Atatcutz Singapore with four community cases linked to it. 33 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,613. The death toll remains at 33.[32]\nUkraine has reported 1,897 new daily cases and 86 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,213,580 and 51,140 respectively; a total of 2,088,712 patients have recovered.[33]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"6 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 83 new cases, with cases reported outside containment areas.[34]\nMalaysia has reported 6,241 confirmed cases, bringing the total number to 616,815. There are 5,133 recoveries bringing the total number of recoveries to 526,809. There are 87 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,378. There are 86,628 active cases, with 890 in intensive care and 444 on ventilator support.[35]\nNew Zealand has reported one new case while one previously reported case was classified; bringing the total number to 2,682 (2,326 confirmed and 356 probable). The number of recoveries remain 2,639 while the death toll remains 26. There are 17 active cases in managed isolation.[36]\nSingapore has reported 20 new cases including six in community and 14 imported, bringing the total to 62,196.[37] There are 22 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,635. The death toll remains at 33.[38]\nUkraine has reported 937 new daily cases and 42 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,214,517 and 51,182 respectively; a total of 2,093,228 patients have recovered.[39]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"7 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 64 new cases and reported a 14% positive rate in tests in the last seven days.[40]\nMalaysia has reported 5,271 new cases, bringing the total number to 622,086. There are 7,548 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 534,357. There are 82 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,460. There are 84,269 active cases, with 902 in intensive care and 447 on ventilator support.[41]\nSingapore has reported 14 new cases including five in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,210.[42] 25 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,660. The death toll remains at 33.[43]\nUkraine has reported 535 new daily cases and 33 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,215,052 and 51,215 respectively; a total of 2,094,971 patients have recovered.[44]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"8 June","text":"World Health Organization weekly report:[45]Argentina surpasses 4 million COVID-19 cases.[46]\nFiji has reported 94 new cases.[47]\nMalaysia as reported 5,566 new cases, bringing the total number to 627,652. 6,962 recoveries were reported, bringing the total number of recoveries to 541,319. 76 deaths were reported, bringing the death toll to 3,536. There are 82,797 active cases, with 903 in intensive care and 458 on ventilator support.[48]\nNew Zealand has reported 10 new cases, bringing the total number to 2,692 (2,336 confirmed and 356 probable). There are five recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,644. The death toll remains 26. There are 22 active cases in managed isolation.[49]\nSingapore has reported nine new cases including three in community and one residing in a dormitory, bringing the total to 62,219.[50] 42 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,702. Another death was later confirmed, bringing the death toll to 34.[51]\nUkraine has reported 1,602 new daily cases and 118 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,216,654 and 51,333\t respectively; a total of 2,101,722 patients have recovered.[52]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"sub_title":"9 June","text":"Fiji has reported 35 new cases, bringing the total number of cases to 880. 15 patients have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 249. The death toll remains 4. There are 624 active cases.[53]\nIndia has reported 86,498 new cases, bringing the total to over 29 million cases.[54]\nMalaysia has reported 6,239 new cases, bringing the total number to 633,891. There are 7,386 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 548,705. There are 75 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,611. There are 81,575 active cases, with 905 in intensive care and 453 on ventilator support.[55]\nNew Zealand has reported four new cases, bringing the total number to 2,696 (2,340 confirmed and 356 probable). There are two recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,646. The death toll remains 26. There are 24 active cases in managed isolation.[56]\nSingapore has reported four new cases including two in community and one imported, bringing the total to 62,223. Of the community cases, one of them is unlinked.[57] There are 38 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,740. The death toll remains at 34.[58]\nUkraine has reported 1,385 new daily cases and 77 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,218,039 and 51,410\t respectively; a total of 2,108,684 patients have recovered.[59]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"sub_title":"10 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 39 new cases, bringing the total number of cases to 849. Seven new recoveries were confirmed, bringing the total number of recoveries to 256. The death toll remains four. There are 656 active cases.[60]\nMalaysia has reported 5,671 new cases, bringing the total number to 639,562. There are 7,362 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 556,030. There are 73 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,684. There are 79,848 active cases, with 911 in intensive care and 461 on ventilator support.[61]\nNew Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,697 (2,341 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,647. The death toll remains 26. There are 24 active cases in managed isolation.[62]\nSingapore has reported 13 new cases including four in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,236.[63] 25 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,765. The death toll remains at 34.[64]\nUkraine has reported 1,785 new daily cases and 97 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,219,824 and 51,507\t respectively; a total of 2,115,197 patients have recovered.[65]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"}],"sub_title":"11 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 51 new cases of COVID-19.[66]\nIran surpasses 3 million cases.[67]\nMalaysia has reported 6,849 new cases, bringing the total number to 646,411. There are 7,749 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 563,779. There are 84 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,768. There are 78,864 active cases, with 912 in intensive care and 458 on ventilator support.[68]\nNew Zealand has reported five new cases, bringing the total number to 2,702. The number of recoveries remain 2,647 while the death toll remains 26. There are 29 active cases in managed isolation.[69]\nSingapore has reported nine new cases including three in community and six imported, bringing the total to 62,245. Of the community cases, all of them are unlinked.[70] 34 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,799. The death toll remains at 34.[71]\nUkraine has reported 1,603 new daily cases and 70 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,221,427 and 51,577\t respectively; a total of 2,120,780 patients have recovered.[72]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"12 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 47 new cases of COVID-19.[73]\nMalaysia has reported 5,793 new cases, bringing the total number to 652,204. There are 8,334 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 572,113. There are 76 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,844. There are 76,247 active cases, with 914 in intensive care and 459 on ventilator support.[74]\nSingapore has reported 21 new cases including 12 in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,266. Of the community cases, five of them are unlinked.[75] In addition, three community cases were subtracted from the tally after further tests showed negative results, bringing the total to 62,263. There are 39 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,838. The death toll remains at 34.[76]\nUkraine has reported 1,274 new daily cases and 69 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,222,701 and 51,646\t respectively; a total of 2,125,685 patients have recovered.[77]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"13 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed a record of 105 new cases.[78]\nMalaysia has reported 5,304 new cases, bringing the total number to 657,508. There are 8,163 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 580,276. There are 64 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,908. There are 73,324 active cases, with 917 in intensive care and 452 on ventilator support.[79]\nNew Zealand has reported six new cases, bringing the total number to 2,708 (2,352 confirmed and 356 probable). There are eight recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,655. The death toll remains 26. There are 27 active cases.[80]\nSingapore has reported 13 new cases including ten in community and three imported, bringing the total to 62,276.[81] 31 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,869. The death toll remains at 34.[82]\nUkraine has reported 857 new daily cases and 33 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,223,558 and 51,679\t respectively; a total of 2,127,337 patients have recovered.[83]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Delta variant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_variant"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"}],"sub_title":"14 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 89 new cases as the government due to the Delta variant. 23 patients have recovered and there are 860 active cases.[84]\nMalaysia has reported 4,949 new cases, bringing the total number of cases to 662,457. There are 6,588 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 586,864. There are 60 deaths, bringing the death toll to 3,968. There are 71,625 active cases, with 921 in intensive care and 459 on ventilator support.[85]\nNew Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,709 (2,353 confirmed and 356 probable). There was one recovery, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,656. The death toll remains 26. There are 27 active cases.[86]\nSingapore has reported 25 new cases including 18 in community and one residing in a dormitory, bringing the total to 62,301.[87] 25 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,894. The death toll remains at 34.[88]\nUkraine has reported 420 new daily cases and 13 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,223,978 and 51,692, respectively; a total of 2,130,665 patients have recovered.[89]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"sub_title":"15 June","text":"World Health Organization weekly report:[90]Fiji has confirmed a record of 116 new cases of COVID-19 and announced another death bringing the death toll to five.[91]\nMalaysia has reported 5,419 new cases, bringing the total number to 667,876. There are 6,831 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 593,695. 101 deaths were reported, bringing the death toll to 4,069. There are 70,112 active cases, with 922 in intensive care and 450 on ventilator support.[92]\nNew Zealand has reported a historical case while another previously reported cases was reclassified; bringing the total number to 2,709 (2,353 confirmed and 356 probable). Four people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,660. The death toll remains 26. There are 23 active cases.[93]\nSingapore has reported 14 new community cases including five unlinked, bringing the total to 62,315.[94] There are 17 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,911. The death toll remains at 34.[95]\nUkraine has reported 1,014 new daily cases and 77 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,224,992 and 51,769, respectively; a total of 2,136,176 patients have recovered.[96]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"sub_title":"16 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 121 new cases.[97]\nMalaysia has reported 5,150 new cases, bringing the total number to 673,026. There are 7,240 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 600,935. There are 73 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,142. There are 67,949 active cases, with 924 in intensive care and 453 on ventilator support.[98]\nNew Zealand has reported two new cases, bringing the total number to 2,711 (2,355 confirmed and 356 probable). There are two recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,662. The death toll remains 26. There are 23 active cases in managed isolation.[99]\nSingapore has reported 24 new cases including 19 in community and five imported, bringing the total to 62,339. Of the community cases, three of them are unlinked.[100] 20 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,931. The death toll remains at 34.[101]\nUkraine has reported 1,045 new daily cases and 78 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,226,037 and 51,847\t respectively; a total of 2,140,978 patients have recovered.[102]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Slovakia national team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"Denis Vavro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Vavro"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"}],"sub_title":"17 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 91 new cases and announced another death bringing the death toll to 6.[103]\nMalaysia has reported 5,738 new cases, bringing the total number to 678,764. There are 7,530 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 608,465. There are 60 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,602. There are 66,097 active cases, with 909 in intensive care and 441 on ventilator support.[104]\nNew Zealand has reported two new cases, bringing the total number to 2,713 (2,357 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,663. The death toll remains 26. There are 24 active cases in managed isolation.[105]\nSingapore has reported 27 new cases including 20 in community and seven imported, bringing the total to 62,366. Of the community cases, two of them are unlinked.[106] 29 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,960. The death toll remains at 34.[107]\nUkraine has reported 1,188 new daily cases and 55 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,227,225 and 51,902\t respectively; a total of 2,145,660 patients have recovered.[108]\nSlovakia national team defender Denis Vavro and one of his staff members have tested positive for COVID-19.[109]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"}],"sub_title":"18 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 115 new cases.[110]\nMalaysia has reported 6,440 new cases, bringing the total number to 685,204. There are 6,861 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 615,326. There are 74 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,276. There are 65,602 active cases, with 894 in intensive care and 451 on ventilator support.[111]\nNew Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,714 (2,358 confirmed and 356 probable). Two people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,665. The death toll remains 26. There are 23 active cases in managed isolation.[112]\nSingapore has reported 16 new cases including 14 in community and two imported, bringing the total to 62,382.[113] There are 27 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 61,987. The death toll remains at 34.[114]\nUkraine has reported 967 new daily cases and 50 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,228,192 and 51,952\t respectively; a total of 2,147,972 patients have recovered.[115]\nThe global COVID-19 death toll has surpassed 4 million.[116]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"}],"sub_title":"19 June","text":"Brazil has reached 500,000 COVID-19 deaths. The country has reported an average of 70,000 cases and 2,000 deaths daily.[117]\nFiji has confirmed a record of 150 new cases.[118]\nMalaysia has reported 5,911 new cases, bringing the total number to 691,115. There are 6,918 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 622,244. There are 72 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,348. There are 64,523 active cases, with 886 in intensive care and 441 on ventilator support.[119]\nSingapore has reported 21 new cases including 14 in community and seven imported, bringing the total to 62,403. Of the community cases, four of them are unlinked.[120] 36 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,023. The death toll remains at 34.[121]\nUkraine has reported 852 new daily cases and 40 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,229,044 and 51,992 respectively; a total of 2,150,708 patients have recovered.[122]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"}],"sub_title":"20 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 166 cases of COVID-19 and announced one death bringing the death toll to 7.[123]\nMalaysia has reported 5,293 new cases, bringing the total number to 696,408. There are 5,941 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 628,185. There are 60 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,408. There are 63,815 active cases, with 880 in intensive care and 454 on ventilator support.[124]\nNew Zealand has reported four new cases were reported, bringing the total number to 2,718 (2,362 confirmed and 356 probable). Five people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,670. The death toll remains 26. There are 22 active cases in managed isolation.[125]\nSingapore has reported 11 new cases including nine in community and two imported, bringing the total to 62,414. Of the community cases, five of them are unlinked.[126] 19 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,042. The death toll remains at 34.[127]\nUkraine has reported 479 new daily cases and 24 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,229,523 and 52,016 respectively; a total of 2,151,463 patients have recovered.[128]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"}],"sub_title":"21 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 126 new cases.[129]\nIndonesia surpasses 2 million cases.[130]\nMalaysia has reported 4,611 new cases, bringing the total number to 701,019. There are 5,439 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 633,624. There are 69 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,477. There are 62,918 active cases, with 880 in intensive care and 452 on ventilator support.[131]\nNew Zealand has reported three new cases, bringing the total number to 2,720 (2,364 confirmed and 356 probable). One previously reported case has been reclassified. One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,671. The death toll remains 26. There are 23 active cases in managed isolation.[132]\nSingapore has reported 16 new cases including 13 in community and three imported, bringing the total to 62,430.[133] There are 28 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,070. Another death was later confirmed, bringing the death toll to 35.[134]\nUkraine has reported 323 new daily cases and 16 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,229,846 and 52,032, respectively; a total of 2,152,140 patients have recovered.[135]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"}],"sub_title":"22 June","text":"World Health Organization weekly report:[136]Fiji has confirmed 180 new cases.[137]\nMalaysia has reported 4,743 new cases, bringing the total number to 705,762. There are 5,577 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 639,181. There are 77 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,554. There are 62,027 active cases, with 875 in intensive care and 445 on ventilator support.[138]\nNew Zealand has reclassified one previously reported case, bringing the total number down to 2,719 (2,363 confirmed and 356 probable). Two people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,673. The death toll remains 26. There are 20 active cases.[139]\nSingapore has reported 18 new cases including 15 in community and three imported, bringing the total to 62,448.[140] 28 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,098. The death toll remains at 35.[141]\nUkraine has reported 296 new daily cases and 21 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,230,142 and 52,053, respectively; a total of 2,152,969 patients have recovered.[142]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"Delta variant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"}],"sub_title":"23 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 279 new cases of COVID-19.[143]\nColombia surpasses 4 million cases.[144]\nIndia surpasses 30 million COVID-19 cases.[145] In addition, the country announced a new Delta variant with an additional mutation called the Delta Plus variant after 40 cases were detected in it.[146]\nMalaysia has reported 5,244 new cases, bringing the total number to 711,006. There are 6,372 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 645,553. There are 83 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,637. There are 60,816 cases, with 879 in intensive care and 433 on ventilator support.[147]\nNew Zealand has reported four new cases, bringing the total number to 2,723 (2,367 confirmed and 356 probable). The number of recoveries remain 2,673 while the death toll remains 26. There are 24 active cases.[148]\nSingapore has reported 22 new cases including 13 in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,470. Of the community cases, three of them are unlinked.[149] 15 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,113. The death toll remains at 35.[150]\nUkraine has reported 835 new daily cases along with the first case of the Delta variant and 70 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,230,977 and 52,123, respectively; a total of 2,155,261 patients have recovered.[151]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"}],"sub_title":"24 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 308 new cases.[152][153]\nMalaysia has reported 5,841 new cases, bringing the total number to 716,847. There are 5,411 new cases, bringing the total number to 650,964. There are 84 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,721. There are 61,162 active cases, with 869 in intensive care and 438 on ventilator support.[154]\nNew Zealand has reported no new cases, with the total number remaining 2,723 (2,367 confirmed and 356 probable). Seven people have recovered, bringing the total number to 2,680. The death toll remains 26. There are 17 active cases.[155]\nSingapore has reported 23 new cases including 14 in community and nine imported, bringing the total to 62,493. Of the community cases, two of them are unlinked.[156] There are 27 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,140. The death toll remains at 35.[157]\nUkraine has reported 937 new daily cases and 58 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,231,914 and 52,181, respectively; a total of 2,157,732 patients have recovered.[158]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"}],"sub_title":"25 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 215 new cases. One new death was reported, bringing the death toll to 14.[159]\nMalaysia has reported 5,812 new cases, bringing the total number to 722,659. There are 6,775 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 657,739. There are 82 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,803. There are 60,117 active cases, with 870 in intensive care and 433 on ventilator support.[160]\nNew Zealand has reported two new cases, bringing the total number to 2,725 (2,369 confirmed and 356 probable). The number of recoveries remains 2,680 while the death toll remains 26. There are 19 active cases.[161]\nSingapore has reported 20 new cases including 15 in community and five imported, bringing the total to 62,513. Of the community cases, three of them are unlinked.[162] 21 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,161. The death toll remains at 35.[163]\nUkraine has reported 876 new daily cases and 53 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,232,790 and 52,234, respectively; a total of 2,160,137 patients have recovered.[164]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"}],"sub_title":"26 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 266 new cases of COVID-19. One death was recorded, bringing the death toll to 15.[165]\nMalaysia has reported 5,803 new cases, bringing the total number to 728,462. There are 5,193 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 662,932. There are 81 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,884. There are 60,646 active cases, with 866 in intensive care and 435 on ventilator support.[166]\nNew Zealand has reported four new cases, bringing the total number to 2,729 (2,373 confirmed and 356 probable). Two people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,682. The death toll remains 26. There are 21 active cases.[167]\nSingapore has reported 17 new cases including 13 in community and four imported, bringing the total to 62,530. Of the community cases, six of them are unlinked.[168] 20 have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,181. Another death was later confirmed, bringing the death toll to 36.[169]\nUkraine has reported 756 new daily cases and 35 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,233,546 and 52,269, respectively; a total of 2,161,972 patients have recovered.[170]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-172"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"}],"sub_title":"27 June","text":"Fiji has confirmed 262 new cases.[171]\nMalaysia has reported 5,586 new cases, bringing the total number to 734,048. There are 4,777 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 667,709. There are 60 deaths, bringing the death toll to 4,944. There are 61,395 active cases, with 886 in intensive care and 446 on ventilator support.[172]\nNew Zealand has reported one new case while two previously reported cases have been reclassified, bringing the total number to 2,728 (2,372 confirmed and 356 probable). One person have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,683. The death toll remains 26. There are 19 active cases.\nSingapore has reported 14 new cases including 12 in community and two imported, bringing the total to 62,544. Of the community cases, one of them is unlinked.[173] There are 14 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,195. The death toll remains at 36.[174]\nUkraine has reported 450 new daily cases and 17 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,233,996 and 52,286, respectively; a total of 2,163,069 patients have recovered.[175]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"}],"sub_title":"28 June","text":"Fiji has reported 241 new cases, bringing the total number to 3,832. There are 26 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 779. Two deaths were reported, bringing the death toll to 15. There are 3,027 active cases.[176]\nMalaysia has reported 5,218 new cases, bringing the total number to 739,266. There are 4,744 recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 672,453. There are 57 deaths, bringing the death toll to 5,001. There are 61,812 active cases, with 899 in intensive care and 451 on ventilator support.[177]\nNew Zealand has reported 10 new cases, bringing the total number to 2,738 (2,382 confirmed and 356 probable). There was one recovery, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,684. The death toll remains 26. There are 28 active cases in managed isolation.[178]\nSingapore has reported nine new cases including four in community and five imported, bringing the total to 62,553. Of the community cases, all of them are linked to previous cases.[179] 17 people have recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,212. The death toll remains at 36.[180]\nUkraine has reported 285 new daily cases and 9 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,234,281 and 52,295, respectively; a total of 2,163,792 patients have recovered.[181]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"}],"sub_title":"29 June","text":"World Health Organization weekly report:[182]Fiji has reported 312 new cases of COVID-19 and announced 4 deaths bringing the death toll to 21.[183]\nMalaysia has reported 6,437 new cases, bringing the total number to 745,703. There are 5,298 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 677,751. There are 107 deaths, bringing the death toll to 5,108. There are 62,844 active cases, with 905 in intensive care and 455 on ventilator support.[184]\nNew Zealand has reported four new cases while a previously reported case was reclassified, bringing the total number to 2,741 (2,385 confirmed and 356 probable). One person has recovered, bringing the total number of recoveries to 2,685. The death toll remains 26. There are 30 cases.[185]\nSingapore has reported ten new cases including five locally transmitted and five imported, bringing the total to 62,563. Of the locally transmitted cases, all of them are linked to previous cases.[186] Seven have been discharged, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,219. The death toll remains at 36.[187]\nUkraine has reported 182 new daily cases and 5 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,234,463 and 52,300, respectively; a total of 2,164,374 patients have recovered.[188]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-193"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"}],"sub_title":"30 June","text":"Malaysia has reported 6,276 new cases, bringing the total number to 751,979. There are 4,929 new recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 682,680. There are 62 deaths, bringing the death toll to 5,170. There are 64,129 active cases, with 905 in intensive care and 452 on ventilator support.[189]\nFiji has confirmed 274 new cases of COVID-19.[190]\nNew Zealand has reported one new case, bringing the total number to 2,742 (2,386 confirmed and 356 probable). The number of recoveries remains 2,685 while the death toll remains 26. There are 31 active cases.[191]\nSingapore has reported 16 new cases including five locally transmitted and 11 imported, bringing the total to 62,579. Of the locally transmitted cases, all of them are linked to previous cases.[192] There are nine recoveries, bringing the total number of recoveries to 62,228. The death toll remains at 36.[193]\nUkraine has reported 633 new daily cases and 40 new daily deaths, bringing the total number to 2,235,096 and 52,340, respectively; a total of 2,166,668 patients have recovered.[194]","title":"Pandemic chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SARS-CoV-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2"},{"link_name":"Christmas Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Island"},{"link_name":"Cocos (Keeling) Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands"},{"link_name":"North Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea"},{"link_name":"Turkmenistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan"},{"link_name":"Svalbard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard"},{"link_name":"Cook Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Islands"},{"link_name":"Nauru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauru"},{"link_name":"Niue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niue"},{"link_name":"Norfolk Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_Island"},{"link_name":"Pitcairn Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands"},{"link_name":"Tokelau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokelau"},{"link_name":"Tonga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonga"},{"link_name":"Tuvalu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvalu"}],"text":"Countries and territories that confirmed their first cases during June 2021: Nil.By the end of June, only the following countries and territories have not reported any cases of SARS-CoV-2 infections:AsiaChristmas Island\n Cocos (Keeling) Islands\n North Korea\n TurkmenistanEuropeSvalbardOceaniaCook Islands\n Nauru\n Niue\n Norfolk Island\n Pitcairn Islands\n Tokelau\n Tonga\n Tuvalu","title":"Summary"}]

[{"image_text":"Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each \"ball\" is an atom.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/110px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png"}]

[{"title":"Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic"},{"title":"Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021"}]

[{"reference":"\"Weekly epidemiological update on COVID-19 - 1 June 2021\". World Health Organization. 1 June 2021. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19---1-june-2021","url_text":"\"Weekly epidemiological update on COVID-19 - 1 June 2021\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization","url_text":"World Health Organization"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210827003332/https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19---1-june-2021","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Nine new cases, two from CWM Hospital\". Fiji Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism

Metabolism

["1 Key biochemicals","1.1 Amino acids and proteins","1.2 Lipids","1.3 Carbohydrates","1.4 Nucleotides","1.5 Coenzymes","1.6 Mineral and cofactors","2 Catabolism","2.1 Digestion","2.2 Energy from organic compounds","3 Energy transformations","3.1 Oxidative phosphorylation","3.2 Energy from inorganic compounds","3.3 Energy from light","4 Anabolism","4.1 Carbon fixation","4.2 Carbohydrates and glycans","4.3 Fatty acids, isoprenoids and sterol","4.4 Proteins","4.5 Nucleotide synthesis and salvage","5 Xenobiotics and redox metabolism","6 Thermodynamics of living organisms","7 Regulation and control","8 Evolution","9 Investigation and manipulation","10 History","10.1 Greek philosophy","10.2 Application of the scientific method and Modern metabolic theories","11 See also","12 References","13 Further reading","14 External links"]

Set of chemical reactions in organisms "Cellular metabolism" redirects here. For the journal, see Cell Metabolism. For the journal Metabolism, see Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental. For the architectural movement, see Metabolism (architecture). Simplified view of the cellular metabolism Structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a central intermediate in energy metabolism Part of a series onBiochemistryChemistry of life Index Outline History Key components Biomolecules Enzymes Gene expression Metabolism List of biochemists Biochemist List of biochemists Biomolecule families Carbohydrates: Alcohols Glycoproteins Glycosides Lipids: Eicosanoids Fatty acids Fatty-acid metabolism Glycerides Phospholipids Sphingolipids Cholesterol Steroids Nucleic acids: Nucleobases Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleotide metabolism Proteins: Amino acids Amino acid metabolism Other: Tetrapyrroles Heme Chemical synthesis Artificial gene synthesis Biomimetic synthesis Bioretrosynthesis Biosynthesis Chemosynthesis Convergent synthesis Custom peptide synthesis Direct process Divergent synthesis Electrosynthesis Enantioselective synthesis Fully automated synthesis Hydrothermal synthesis LASiS Mechanosynthesis One-pot synthesis Organic synthesis Peptide synthesis Radiosynthesis Retrosynthesis Semisynthesis Solid-phase synthesis Solvothermal synthesis Total synthesis Volume combustion synthesis Biochemistry fields Molecular biology Cell biology Chemical biology Bioorthogonal chemistry Medicinal chemistry Pharmacology Clinical chemistry Neurochemistry Bioorganic chemistry Bioorganometallic chemistry Bioinorganic chemistry Biophysical chemistry Bacteriology parasitology virology immunology Glossaries Glossary of biology Glossary of chemistry  Categoryvte Metabolism (/məˈtæbəlɪzəm/, from Greek: μεταβολή metabolē, "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transportation of substances into and between different cells, in which case the above described set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary (or intermediate) metabolism. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic—the breaking down of compounds (for example, of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic—the building up (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy and will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts—they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly—and they also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells. The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The basal metabolic rate of an organism is the measure of the amount of energy consumed by all of these chemical reactions. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways among vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history, and their retention is likely due to their efficacy. In various diseases, such as type II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cancer, normal metabolism is disrupted. The metabolism of cancer cells is also different from the metabolism of normal cells, and these differences can be used to find targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer. Key biochemicals Further information: Biomolecule, Cell (biology), and Biochemistry Structure of a triacylglycerol lipid This is a diagram depicting a large set of human metabolic pathways. Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from four basic classes of molecules: amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid and lipids (often called fats). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or on breaking them down and using them to obtain energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life. Type of molecule Name of monomer forms Name of polymer forms Examples of polymer forms Amino acids Amino acids Proteins (made of polypeptides) Fibrous proteins and globular proteins Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Polysaccharides Starch, glycogen and cellulose Nucleic acids Nucleotides Polynucleotides DNA and RNA Amino acids and proteins Main article: Protein Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape. Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle), especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress. Lipids Main article: Biolipid Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of internal and external biological membranes, such as the cell membrane. Their chemical energy can also be used. Lipids contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol, benzene or chloroform. The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids by ester linkages is called a triacylglyceride. Several variations of the basic structure exist, including backbones such as sphingosine in sphingomyelin, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate in phospholipids. Steroids such as sterol are another major class of lipids. Carbohydrates Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.Main article: Carbohydrate Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways. Nucleotides Main article: Nucleotide The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis. This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication. Many viruses have an RNA genome, such as HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome. RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions. Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar. These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines. Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic-group-transfer reactions. Coenzymes Structure of the coenzyme acetyl-CoA. The transferable acetyl group is bonded to the sulfur atom at the extreme left. Main article: Coenzyme Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules. This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions. These group-transfer intermediates are called coenzymes. Each class of group-transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled. One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day. ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions. A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a derivative of vitamin B3 (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to transfer hydrogen atoms to their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD+/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP+/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions. The structure of iron-containing hemoglobin. The protein subunits are in red and blue, and the iron-containing heme groups in green. From PDB: 1GZX​. Mineral and cofactors Further information: Bioinorganic chemistry Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of a human's body weight is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water. The abundant inorganic elements act as electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH. Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol. Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T-tubules. Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant of those. Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed. Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use. Catabolism Main article: Catabolism Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules. The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy, hydrogen, and carbon (their primary nutritional groups), as shown in the table below. Organic molecules are used as a source of hydrogen atoms or electrons by organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates. Whereas phototrophs convert sunlight to chemical energy, chemotrophs depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to oxygen, nitrate or sulfate. In animals, these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria, use similar electron-transfer reactions to store energy absorbed from sunlight. Classification of organisms based on their metabolism Energy source sunlight photo-   -troph molecules chemo- Hydrogen or electron donor organic compound   organo-   inorganic compound litho- Carbon source organic compound   hetero- inorganic compound auto- The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids, are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on acetyl-CoA is oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing more energy while reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into NADH. Digestion Further information: Digestion and Gastrointestinal tract Macromolecules cannot be directly processed by cells. Macromolecules must be broken into smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Different classes of enzymes are used to digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides. Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and in salivary glands. The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins. A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats Energy from organic compounds Further information: Cellular respiration, Fermentation (biochemistry), Carbohydrate catabolism, Fat catabolism, and Protein catabolism Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells after they have been digested into monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose. Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, in which glucose is converted into pyruvate. This process generates the energy-conveying molecule NADH from NAD+, and generates ATP from ADP for use in powering many processes within the cell. Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle, which enables more ATP production by means of oxidative phosphorylation. This oxidation consumes molecular oxygen and releases water and the waste product carbon dioxide. When oxygen is lacking, or when pyruvate is temporarily produced faster than it can be consumed by the citric acid cycle (as in intense muscular exertion), pyruvate is converted to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase, a process that also oxidizes NADH back to NAD+ for re-use in further glycolysis, allowing energy production to continue. The lactate is later converted back to pyruvate for ATP production where energy is needed, or back to glucose in the Cori cycle. An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway, which produces less energy but supports anabolism (biomolecule synthesis). This pathway reduces the coenzyme NADP+ to NADPH and produces pentose compounds such as ribose 5-phosphate for synthesis of many biomolecules such as nucleotides and aromatic amino acids. Carbon Catabolism pathway map for free energy including carbohydrate and lipid sources of energy Fats are catabolized by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates. Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy. M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol-use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis. Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide to produce energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example α-ketoglutarate formed by deamination of glutamate. The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis. Energy transformations Oxidative phosphorylation Further information: Oxidative phosphorylation, Chemiosmosis, and Mitochondrion In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane. These proteins use the energy from reduced molecules like NADH to pump protons across a membrane. Mechanism of ATP synthase. ATP is shown in red, ADP and phosphate in pink and the rotating stalk subunit in black. Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate—turning it into ATP. Energy from inorganic compounds Further information: Microbial metabolism and Nitrogen cycle Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen, reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate), ferrous iron (Fe(II)) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds. These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility. Energy from light Further information: Phototroph, Photophosphorylation, and Chloroplast The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can, however, operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds. In many organisms, the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis. The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres. Reaction centers are classified into two types depending on the nature of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP+. This coenzyme can enter the Calvin cycle or be recycled for further ATP generation. Anabolism Further information: Anabolism Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from smaller and simpler precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. First, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids. Anabolism in organisms can be different according to the source of constructed molecules in their cells. Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in their cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from oxidation reactions. Carbon fixation Further information: Photosynthesis, Carbon fixation, and Chemosynthesis Plant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin–Benson cycle. Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions. In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin–Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle, or the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA. Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin–Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction. Carbohydrates and glycans Further information: Gluconeogenesis, Glyoxylate cycle, Glycogenesis, and Glycosylation In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis. However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle. Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl-CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery. As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids. In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose. Other than fat, glucose is stored in most tissues, as an energy resource available within the tissue through glycogenesis which was usually being used to maintained glucose level in blood. Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-Glc) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures. The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by the enzymes oligosaccharyltransferases. Fatty acids, isoprenoids and sterol Further information: Fatty acid synthesis and Steroid metabolism Simplified version of the steroid synthesis pathway with the intermediates isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) and squalene shown. Some intermediates are omitted for clarity. Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway. Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products. These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates. One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is sterol biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol. Lanosterol can then be converted into other sterols such as cholesterol and ergosterol. Proteins Further information: Protein biosynthesis and Amino acid synthesis Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food. Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae, lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Nonessensial amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid. Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined in a chain of peptide bonds. Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA. Nucleotide synthesis and salvage Further information: Nucleotide salvage, Pyrimidine biosynthesis, and Purine § Metabolism Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy. Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides. Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose). Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate. Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate. Xenobiotics and redox metabolism Further information: Xenobiotic metabolism, Drug metabolism, Alcohol metabolism, and Antioxidant All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and that would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics. Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and glutathione S-transferases. This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills. Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds. A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress. Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases. Thermodynamics of living organisms Further information: Biological thermodynamics Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any isolated system, the amount of entropy (disorder) cannot decrease. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments. The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder. Regulation and control Further information: Metabolic pathway, Metabolic control analysis, Hormone, Regulatory enzymes, and Cell signaling As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway). For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway. Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1), which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6). There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate. This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway. Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of water-soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface. These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins. A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen. The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes. Evolution Further information: Proto-metabolism, Molecular evolution, and Phylogenetics Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestry of organisms from all three domains of life. Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, and archaea green. Relative positions of some of the phyla included are shown around the tree. The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal common ancestor. This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps. The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world. Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway. The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway. An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic. A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as "modules" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules. As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host. Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms. Investigation and manipulation Further information: Protein methods, Proteomics, Metabolomics, and Metabolic network modelling Metabolic network of the Arabidopsis thaliana citric acid cycle. Enzymes and metabolites are shown as red squares and the interactions between them as black lines. Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products. The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell. An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 26.500 genes. However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior. These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies. Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research. These models are now used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites. Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow-tie organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies. A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid. These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes. History Further information: History of biochemistry and History of molecular biology The term metabolism is derived from the Ancient Greek word μεταβολή—"metabole" for "a change" which is derived from μεταβάλλ—"metaballein", meaning "to change" Aristotle's metabolism as an open flow model Greek philosophy Aristotle's The Parts of Animals sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces. Ibn al-Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change." Application of the scientific method and Modern metabolic theories The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina. He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called "insensible perspiration". Santorio Santorio in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medicina, first published 1614 In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue. In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments". He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells." This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea, and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors. This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry. It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry. The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism. He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle. Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labelling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells. See also Anthropogenic metabolism Antimetabolite – Chemical that inhibits the use of a metabolite Calorimetry – Determining heat transfer in a system by measuring its other properties Isothermal microcalorimetry – Measuring versus elapsed time the net rate of heat flow Inborn errors of metabolism – Class of genetic diseases Iron–sulfur world hypothesis – Hypothetical scenario for the origin of life, a "metabolism first" theory of the origin of life Metabolic disorder – disease that involving errors in metabolic processes of building or degradation of moleculesPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Microphysiometry Primary nutritional groups – Group of organisms Proto-metabolism Respirometry – Estimation of metabolic rates by measuring heat production Stream metabolism Sulfur metabolism – Set of chemical reactions involving sulfur in living organisms Thermic effect of food – effect of foodPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Urban metabolism – Model of the flows of materials and energy in cities Water metabolism – Aspect of homeostasis concerning control of the amount of water in an organism Overflow metabolism – Cellular phenomena Oncometabolism Reactome – Database of biological pathways KEGG – Collection of bioinformatics databases References ^ a b Friedrich, CG (1997). 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"Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal tissues". The Biochemical Journal. 31 (4): 645–60. doi:10.1042/bj0310645. PMC 1266984. PMID 16746382. Further reading Library resources about Metabolism Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Introductory Rose S, Mileusnic R (1999). The Chemistry of Life. Penguin Press Science. ISBN 0-14-027273-9. Schneider EC, Sagan D (2005). Into the Cool: Energy Flow, Thermodynamics, and Life. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-73936-8. Lane N (2004). Oxygen: The Molecule that Made the World. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860783-0. Advanced Price N, Stevens L (1999). Fundamentals of Enzymology: Cell and Molecular Biology of Catalytic Proteins. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850229-X. Berg J, Tymoczko J, Stryer L (2002). Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-4955-6. Cox M, Nelson DL (2004). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6. Brock TD, Madigan MR, Martinko J, Parker J (2002). Brock's Biology of Microorganisms. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-13-066271-2. Da Silva JJ, Williams RJ (1991). The Biological Chemistry of the Elements: The Inorganic Chemistry of Life. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-855598-9. Nicholls DG, Ferguson SJ (2002). Bioenergetics. Academic Press Inc. ISBN 0-12-518121-3. Wood HG (February 1991). "Life with CO or CO2 and H2 as a source of carbon and energy". FASEB Journal. 5 (2): 156–63. doi:10.1096/fasebj.5.2.1900793. PMID 1900793. S2CID 45967404. External links Wikiversity has learning resources about Topic:Biochemistry Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Metabolism Look up metabolism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metabolism. General information The Biochemistry of Metabolism (archived 8 March 2005) Sparknotes SAT biochemistry Overview of biochemistry. School level. MIT Biology Hypertextbook Archived 19 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive Undergraduate-level guide to molecular biology. Human metabolism Topics in Medical Biochemistry Guide to human metabolic pathways. School level. THE Medical Biochemistry Page Comprehensive resource on human metabolism. Databases Flow Chart of Metabolic Pathways at ExPASy IUBMB-Nicholson Metabolic Pathways Chart SuperCYP: Database for Drug-Cytochrome-Metabolism Archived 3 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine Metabolic pathways Metabolism reference Pathway Archived 23 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine The Nitrogen cycle and Nitrogen fixation at the Wayback Machine (archive index) Articles related to Metabolism vteMetabolism map Carbonfixation Photo-respiration Pentosephosphatepathway Citricacid cycle Glyoxylatecycle Ureacycle Fattyacidsynthesis Fattyacidelongation Betaoxidation Peroxisomal betaoxidation Glyco-genolysis Glyco-genesis Glyco-lysis Gluconeo-genesis Pyruvatedecarb-oxylation Fermentation Keto-lysis Keto-genesis feeders togluconeo-genesis Direct / C4 / CAMcarbon intake Light reaction Oxidativephosphorylation Amino aciddeamination Citrateshuttle Lipogenesis Lipolysis Steroidogenesis MVA pathway MEP pathway Shikimatepathway Transcription &replication Translation Proteolysis Glycosyl-ation Sugaracids Double/multiplesugars & glycans Simplesugars Inositol-P Amino sugars& sialic acids Nucleotide sugars Hexose-P Triose-P Glycerol P-glycerates Pentose-P Tetrose-P Propionyl-CoA Succinate Acetyl-CoA Pentose-P P-glycerates Glyoxylate Photosystems Pyruvate Lactate Acetyl-CoA Citrate Oxalo-acetate Malate Succinyl-CoA α-Keto-glutarate Ketonebodies Respiratorychain Serine group Alanine Branched-chainamino acids Aspartategroup Homoserinegroup& lysine Glutamategroup& proline Arginine Creatine& polyamines Ketogenic &glucogenicamino acids Amino acids Shikimate Aromatic aminoacids & histidine Ascorbate(vitamin C) δ-ALA Bilepigments Hemes Cobalamins (vitamin B12) Variousvitamin Bs Calciferols(vitamin D) Retinoids(vitamin A) Quinones (vitamin K)& tocopherols (vitamin E) Cofactors Vitamins& minerals Antioxidants PRPP Nucleotides Nucleicacids Proteins Glycoproteins& proteoglycans Chlorophylls MEP MVA Acetyl-CoA Polyketides Terpenoidbackbones Terpenoids& carotenoids (vitamin A) Cholesterol Bile acids Glycero-phospholipids Glycerolipids Acyl-CoA Fattyacids Glyco-sphingolipids Sphingolipids Waxes Polyunsaturatedfatty acids Neurotransmitters& thyroid hormones Steroids Endo-cannabinoids Eicosanoids Major metabolic pathways in metro-style map. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article.Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes). Orange nodes: carbohydrate metabolism. Violet nodes: photosynthesis. Red nodes: cellular respiration. Pink nodes: cell signaling. Blue nodes: amino acid metabolism. Grey nodes: vitamin and cofactor metabolism. Brown nodes: nucleotide and protein metabolism. Green nodes: lipid metabolism. vteMetabolism, catabolism, anabolismGeneral Metabolic pathway Metabolic network Primary nutritional groups Energy metabolismAerobic respiration Glycolysis → Pyruvate decarboxylation → Citric acid cycle → Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain + ATP synthase) Anaerobic respiration Electron acceptors other than oxygen Fermentation Glycolysis → Substrate-level phosphorylation ABE Ethanol Lactic acid Specific pathsProtein metabolism Protein synthesis Catabolism (protein→peptide→amino acid) Amino acid Amino acid synthesis Amino acid degradation (amino acid→pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or TCA intermediate) Urea cycle Nucleotide metabolism Purine metabolism Nucleotide salvage Pyrimidine metabolism Purine nucleotide cycle Carbohydrate metabolism(carbohydrate catabolismand anabolism)Human Glycolysis ⇄ Gluconeogenesis Glycogenolysis ⇄ Glycogenesis Pentose phosphate pathway Fructolysis Polyol pathway Galactolysis Leloir pathway Glycosylation N-linked O-linked Nonhuman Photosynthesis Anoxygenic photosynthesis Chemosynthesis Carbon fixation DeLey-Doudoroff pathway Entner-Doudoroff pathway Xylose metabolism Radiotrophism Lipid metabolism (lipolysis, lipogenesis)Fatty acid metabolism Fatty acid degradation (Beta oxidation) Fatty acid synthesis Other Steroid metabolism Sphingolipid metabolism Eicosanoid metabolism Ketosis Reverse cholesterol transport Other Metal metabolism Iron metabolism Ethanol metabolism Phospagen system (ATP-PCr) vteMetabolism: carbohydrate metabolism: glycolysis/gluconeogenesis enzymesGlycolysis Hexokinase (HK1, HK2, HK3, Glucokinase)→/Glucose 6-phosphatase← Glucose isomerase Phosphofructokinase 1 (Liver, Muscle, Platelet)→/Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase← Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (Aldolase A, B, C) Triosephosphate isomerase Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase Phosphoglycerate kinase Phosphoglycerate mutase Enolase Pyruvate kinase (PKLR, PKM2) Gluconeogenesis onlyto oxaloacetate: Pyruvate carboxylase Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase from lactate (Cori cycle): Lactate dehydrogenase from alanine (Alanine cycle): Alanine transaminase from glycerol: Glycerol kinase Glycerol dehydrogenase Regulatory Fructose 6-P,2-kinase:fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase PFKFB1, PFKFB2, PFKFB3, PFKFB4 Bisphosphoglycerate mutase vte Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism fructose and galactose enzymes Fructose / Fructolysis Hepatic fructokinase Aldolase B Triokinase Sorbitol Sorbitol dehydrogenase Aldose reductase Galactose / Galactolysis Galactokinase Galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase/UDP-glucose 4-epimerase Aldose reductase Galactose mutarotase Lactose Lactose synthase Lactase Mannose Mannose phosphate isomerase vte Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism proteoglycan enzymes glycosaminoglycan anabolism L-xylulose reductase L-gulonolactone oxidase UDP-glucuronate 5'-epimerase Xylosyltransferase Sulfotransferase Heparan sulfate EXT1 EXT2 Chondroitin sulfate PAPSS1 PAPSS2 glycosaminoglycan catabolismHunter, Hurler Iduronate-2-sulfatase Iduronidase Sanfilippo, Sly Heparan sulfamidase N-acetyltransferase Alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase Glucuronidase N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfatase Morquio/Maroteaux-Lamy Arylsulfatase B Galactosamine-6 sulfatase Beta-galactosidase (GLB1) vteMetabolism: carbohydrate metabolism · glycoprotein enzymesAnabolism Dolichol kinase GCS1 Oligosaccharyltransferase Catabolism Neuraminidase Beta-galactosidase Hexosaminidase mannosidase alpha-Mannosidase beta-mannosidase Aspartylglucosaminidase Fucosidase NAGA Transport SLC17A5 M6P tagging N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase vteMetabolism, lipid metabolism, glycolipid enzymesSphingolipidTo glycosphingolipid Glycosyltransferase Sulfotransferase To ceramide From ganglioside Beta-galactosidase Hexosaminidase A Neuraminidase Glucocerebrosidase From globoside Hexosaminidase B Alpha-galactosidase Beta-galactosidase Glucocerebrosidase From sphingomyelin Sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase Sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 1 From sulfatide Arylsulfatase A Galactosylceramidase To sphingosine Ceramidase ACER1 ACER2 ACER3 ASAH1 ASAH2 ASAH2B ASAH2C Other Sphingosine kinase NCL Palmitoyl protein thioesterase Tripeptidyl peptidase I CLN3 CLN5 CLN6 CLN8 Ceramide synthesis Serine C-palmitoyltransferase (SPTLC1) Ceramide glucosyltransferase (UGCG) vteMetabolism: lipid metabolism – eicosanoid metabolism enzymesPrecursor Phospholipase A2 Phospholipase C Diacylglycerol lipase Prostanoids Cyclooxygenase PTGS1 PTGS2 PGD2 synthase PGE synthase Prostaglandin-E2 9-reductase PGI2 synthase TXA synthase Leukotrienes 5-Lipoxygenase activating protein/Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase LTA4 hydrolase (B4 synthesis) LTC4 synthase Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase LTD4 hydrolase Ungrouped HPGD vteMetabolism: lipid metabolism / fatty acid metabolism, triglyceride and fatty acid enzymesSynthesisMalonyl-CoA synthesis ATP citrate lyase Acetyl-CoA carboxylase Fatty acid synthesis/Fatty acid synthase Beta-ketoacyl-ACP synthase Β-Ketoacyl ACP reductase 3-Hydroxyacyl ACP dehydrase Enoyl ACP reductase Fatty acid desaturases Stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 Triacyl glycerol Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase Thiokinase DegradationAcyl transport Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I Carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II Beta oxidationGeneral Acyl CoA dehydrogenase (ACADL ACADM ACADS ACADVL ACADSB) Enoyl-CoA hydratase MTP: HADH HADHA HADHB Acetyl-CoA C-acyltransferase Unsaturated Enoyl CoA isomerase 2,4 Dienoyl-CoA reductase Odd chain Propionyl-CoA carboxylase Other Hydroxyacyl-Coenzyme A dehydrogenase To acetyl-CoA Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase Aldehydes Long-chain-aldehyde dehydrogenase vteMetabolism: amino acid metabolism - urea cycle enzymesMain cyclemitochondrial matrix: Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I Ornithine transcarbamylase cytosol: Argininosuccinate synthetase Argininosuccinate lyase Arginase Regulatory/transport N-Acetylglutamate synthase Ornithine translocase vteEnzymes involved in neurotransmissionmonoaminehistidine → histamineanabolism: Histidine decarboxylase catabolism: Histamine N-methyltransferase Diamine oxidase tyrosine→dopamine→epinephrineanabolism: Tyrosine hydroxylase Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase Dopamine beta-hydroxylase Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase catabolism: Catechol-O-methyl transferase Monoamine oxidase A B glutamate→GABAanabolism: Glutamate decarboxylase catabolism: 4-aminobutyrate transaminase tryptophan→serotonin→melatonin Tryptophan hydroxylase Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase Aralkylamine N-acetyltransferase Acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase arginine→NO Nitric oxide synthase (NOS1, NOS2, NOS3) choline→Acetylcholineanabolism: Choline acetyltransferase catabolism: Cholinesterase (Acetylcholinesterase, Butyrylcholinesterase) vteEnzymes involved in the metabolism of heme and porphyrinPorphyrin biosynthesisearly mitochondrial: Aminolevulinic acid synthase ALAS1 ALAS2 cytosolic: Porphobilinogen synthase Porphobilinogen deaminase Uroporphyrinogen III synthase Uroporphyrinogen III decarboxylase late mitochondrial: Coproporphyrinogen III oxidase Protoporphyrinogen oxidase Ferrochelatase Heme degradationto bilespleen: Heme oxygenase Biliverdin reductase liver: glucuronosyltransferase UGT1A1 vteMetabolism of vitamins, coenzymes, and cofactorsFat soluble vitaminsVitamin A Retinol binding protein Vitamin E Alpha-tocopherol transfer protein Vitamin D liver (Sterol 27-hydroxylase or CYP27A1) renal (25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase or CYP27B1) degradation (1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 24-hydroxylase or CYP24A1) Vitamin K Vitamin K epoxide reductase Water soluble vitaminsThiamine (B1) Thiamine diphosphokinase Niacin (B3) Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase Formamidase Pantothenic acid (B5) Pantothenate kinase Folic acid (B9) Dihydropteroate synthase Dihydrofolate reductase Serine hydroxymethyltransferase Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase Vitamin B12 MMAA MMAB MMACHC MMADHC Vitamin C L-gulonolactone oxidase Riboflavin (B2) Riboflavin kinase Nonvitamin cofactorsTetrahydrobiopterin GTP cyclohydrolase I 6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase Sepiapterin reductase PCBD1 PTS QDPR Molybdopterin MOCS1 MOCS2 MOCS3 Gephyrin vteMetabolism: Protein metabolism, synthesis and catabolism enzymesEssential amino acids are in CapitalsK→acetyl-CoALYSINE→ Saccharopine dehydrogenase Glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase LEUCINE→ 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex Enoyl-CoA hydratase HMG-CoA lyase HMG-CoA reductase Isovaleryl coenzyme A dehydrogenase α-Ketoisocaproate dioxygenase Leucine 2,3-aminomutase Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase Methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase (See Template:Leucine metabolism in humans – this diagram does not include the pathway for β-leucine synthesis via leucine 2,3-aminomutase) TRYPTOPHAN→ Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase/Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase Arylformamidase Kynureninase 3-hydroxyanthranilate oxidase Aminocarboxymuconate-semialdehyde decarboxylase Aminomuconate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase PHENYLALANINE→tyrosine→ (see below) GG→pyruvate→citrateglycine→serine→ Serine hydroxymethyltransferase Serine dehydratase glycine→creatine: Guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase Creatine kinase alanine→ Alanine transaminase cysteine→ D-cysteine desulfhydrase threonine→ L-threonine dehydrogenase G→glutamate→α-ketoglutarateHISTIDINE→ Histidine ammonia-lyase Urocanate hydratase Formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase proline→ Proline oxidase Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase/ALDH4A1 PYCR1 arginine→ Ornithine aminotransferase Ornithine decarboxylase Agmatinase →alpha-ketoglutarate→TCA Glutamate dehydrogenase Other cysteine+glutamate→glutathione: Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase Glutathione synthetase Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase glutamate→glutamine: Glutamine synthetase Glutaminase G→propionyl-CoA→succinyl-CoAVALINE→ Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex Enoyl-CoA hydratase 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase Methylmalonate semialdehyde dehydrogenase ISOLEUCINE→ Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex 3-hydroxy-2-methylbutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase METHIONINE→ generation of homocysteine: Methionine adenosyltransferase Adenosylhomocysteinase regeneration of methionine: Methionine synthase/Homocysteine methyltransferase Betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase conversion to cysteine: Cystathionine beta synthase Cystathionine gamma-lyase THREONINE→ Threonine aldolase →succinyl-CoA→TCA Propionyl-CoA carboxylase Methylmalonyl CoA epimerase Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase G→fumaratePHENYLALANINE→tyrosine→ Phenylalanine hydroxylase Tyrosine aminotransferase 4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase tyrosine→melanin: Tyrosinase G→oxaloacetateasparagine→aspartate→ Asparaginase/Asparagine synthetase Aspartate transaminase vte Metabolism: amino acid metabolism nucleotide enzymes Purine metabolismAnabolismR5P→IMP: Ribose-phosphate diphosphokinase Amidophosphoribosyltransferase Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase AIR synthetase (FGAM cyclase) Phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase Phosphoribosylaminoimidazolesuccinocarboxamide synthase IMP synthase IMP→AMP: Adenylosuccinate synthase Adenylosuccinate lyase reverse AMP deaminase IMP→GMP: IMP dehydrogenase GMP synthase reverse GMP reductase Nucleotide salvage Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase Catabolism Adenosine deaminase Purine nucleoside phosphorylase Guanine deaminase Xanthine oxidase Urate oxidase Pyrimidine metabolismAnabolism CAD Carbamoyl phosphate synthase II Aspartate carbamoyltransferase Dihydroorotase Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase Orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase/Uridine monophosphate synthetase CTP synthetase Catabolism Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase Dihydropyrimidinase/DPYS Beta-ureidopropionase/UPB1 Deoxyribonucleotides Ribonucleotide reductase Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase DCMP deaminase Thymidylate synthase Dihydrofolate reductase vteMetabolism: lipid metabolism – ketones/cholesterol synthesis enzymes/steroid metabolismMevalonate pathwayTo HMG-CoA Acetyl-Coenzyme A acetyltransferase HMG-CoA synthase (regulated step) Ketogenesis HMG-CoA lyase 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase Thiophorase To Mevalonic acid HMG-CoA reductase To DMAPP Mevalonate kinase Phosphomevalonate kinase Pyrophosphomevalonate decarboxylase Isopentenyl-diphosphate delta isomerase Geranyl- Dimethylallyltranstransferase Geranyl pyrophosphate To cholesterolTo lanosterol Farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase Squalene monooxygenase Lanosterol synthase 7-Dehydrocholesterol path Lanosterol 14α-demethylase Sterol-C5-desaturase-like 7-Dehydrocholesterol reductase Desmosterol path 24-Dehydrocholesterol reductase To Bile acids Cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase Sterol 27-hydroxylase SteroidogenesisTo pregnenolone Cholesterol side-chain cleavage To corticosteroids aldosterone: 18-Hydroxylase cortisol/cortisone: 17α-Hydroxylase 11β-HSD 1 2 both: 3β-HSD 1 2 21-Hydroxylase 11β-Hydroxylase To sex hormonesTo androgens 17α-Hydroxylase 17,20-Lyase 3β-HSD 17β-HSD 5α-Reductase 1 2 To estrogens Aromatase 17β-HSD Other/ungrouped Steroid metabolism: sulfatase Steroid sulfatase sulfotransferase SULT1A1 SULT2A1 Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein Cholesterol total synthesis Reverse cholesterol transport vteMetabolism: carbohydrate metabolism · pentose phosphate pathway enzymesoxidative Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 6-phosphogluconolactonase Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase nonoxidative Phosphopentose isomerase Phosphopentose epimerase Transketolase Transaldolase vteMetabolism - non-mevalonate pathway enzymes DXP synthase DXP reductoisomerase 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidylyltransferase 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase 4-(cytidine 5'-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate synthase 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate reductase vteFood scienceGeneral Allergy Engineering Microbiology Nutrition Diet clinical Processing Processing aids Psychology Quality Sensory analysis Discrimination testing Rheology Storage Technology vteFood chemistry Additives Carbohydrates Coloring Enzymes Essential fatty acids Flavors Fortification Lipids "Minerals" (Chemical elements) Proteins Vitamins Water vteFood preservation Biopreservation Canning Cold chain Curing Drying Fermentation Freeze-drying Freezing Hurdle technology Irradiation Jamming Jellying Jugging Modified atmosphere Pascalization Pickling Potting Confit Potjevleesch Rillettes Salting Smoking Sugaring Tyndallization Vacuum packing Food portal  Category: Food preservation Food industry Manufacturing Packaging Marketing Foodservice Fortification vteConsumer food safetyAdulterants, food contaminants 3-MCPD Aldicarb Antibiotic use in livestock Cyanide Formaldehyde HGH controversies Lead poisoning Melamine Mercury in fish Sudan I Food additives Flavorings Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Salt Sugar High-fructose corn syrup Intestinal parasites, parasitic disease Amoebiasis Anisakiasis Cryptosporidiosis Cyclosporiasis Diphyllobothriasis Enterobiasis Fasciolopsiasis Fasciolosis Giardiasis Gnathostomiasis Paragonimiasis Toxocariasis Toxoplasmosis Trichinosis Trichuriasis Microorganisms Botulism Campylobacter jejuni Clostridium perfringens Cronobacter Enterovirus Escherichia coli O104:H4 Escherichia coli O157:H7 Hepatitis A Hepatitis E Listeria Norovirus Rotavirus Salmonella Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic E. coli Vibrio cholerae Pesticides Chlorpyrifos DDT Lindane Malathion Methamidophos Preservatives Benzoic acid Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) Sodium benzoate Sugar substitutes Acesulfame potassium Aspartame controversy Saccharin Sodium cyclamate Sorbitol Sucralose Toxins, poisons, environment pollution Aflatoxin Arsenic contamination of groundwater Benzene in soft drinks Bisphenol A Dieldrin Diethylstilbestrol Dioxin Mycotoxins Nonylphenol Shellfish poisoning Food processing 4-Hydroxynonenal Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein Acrylamide Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease Food additives Food irradiation Heterocyclic amines Modified starch Nitrosamines Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon Shortening Trans fat Water fluoridation controversy Food contamination incidents Devon colic Swill milk scandal Esing Bakery incident 1858 Bradford sweets poisoning 1900 English beer poisoning Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident Minamata disease 1971 Iraq poison grain disaster Toxic oil syndrome 1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal United Kingdom BSE outbreak Australian meat substitution scandal Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak 1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak 2006 North American E. coli outbreaks ICA meat repackaging controversy 2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak 2008 Chinese milk scandal 2008 Irish pork crisis 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak 2011 Germany E. coli outbreak 2011 United States listeriosis outbreak Bihar school meal poisoning 2013 horse meat scandal 2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning 2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat 2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak 2018 Australian strawberry contamination 2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak Food safety incidents in China Food safety incidents in Taiwan Foodborne illness outbreaks death toll United States Regulation, standards, watchdogs Acceptable daily intake E number Food labeling regulations Food libel laws Food safety in Australia International Food Safety Network ISO 22000 Nutrition facts label Organic certification Quality Assurance International United Kingdom food information regulations Institutions Centre for Food Safety (Hong Kong) European Food Safety Authority Food and Drug Administration Food Information and Control Agency (Spain) Food Standards Agency (United Kingdom) Institute for Food Safety and Health International Food Safety Network Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (South Korea) Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition Related topics Curing (food preservation) Food and drink prohibitions Food fraud Food marketing Food politics Food preservation Food quality Genetically modified food Conspiracy theories Food portal Drink portal Category Commons Cookbook WikiProject vteArtificial foodsArtificial fat substitutes Olestra Artificial protein substitutes Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein Artificial sugar substitutes Acesulfame potassium Alitame Aspartame Aspartame-acesulfame salt Dulcin Glucin Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone Neotame NutraSweet Nutrinova Saccharin Sodium cyclamate Sucralose Natural food substitutes Cheese analogues Coffee substitutes Egg substitutes Meat analogues bacon list Milk substitutes Phyllodulcin Salt substitutes Brands Tang Related topics Food safety List of food additives Food politics Food power Food security Famine Malnutrition Overnutrition Institutions International Association for Food Protection Food and Drug Administration Food and Agriculture Organization National Agriculture and Food Research Organization National Food and Drug Authority Authority control databases National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Latvia Czech Republic Other Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine ^ Beebe, Jane A.; Frey, Perry A. (1 October 1998). "Galactose Mutarotase: Purification, Characterization, and Investigations of Two Important Histidine Residues". Biochemistry. 37 (42): 14989–14997. doi:10.1021/bi9816047. ISSN 0006-2960.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cell Metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_Metabolism"},{"link_name":"Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism:_Clinical_and_Experimental"},{"link_name":"Metabolism (architecture)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism_(architecture)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metabolism.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ATP-3D-vdW.png"},{"link_name":"adenosine triphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"},{"link_name":"/məˈtæbəlɪzəm/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life"},{"link_name":"chemical reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reactions"},{"link_name":"organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisms"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"lipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid"},{"link_name":"nucleic acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid"},{"link_name":"carbohydrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate"},{"link_name":"metabolic wastes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_waste"},{"link_name":"enzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme"},{"link_name":"structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structures#Biological"},{"link_name":"digestion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion"},{"link_name":"catabolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catabolic"},{"link_name":"cellular respiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration"},{"link_name":"anabolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolic"},{"link_name":"synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosynthesis"},{"link_name":"metabolic pathways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathway"},{"link_name":"enzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"coupling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(physics)"},{"link_name":"spontaneous reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_process"},{"link_name":"catalysts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysis"},{"link_name":"regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathway#Regulation"},{"link_name":"cell's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)"},{"link_name":"signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_signaling"},{"link_name":"nutritious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition"},{"link_name":"poisonous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison"},{"link_name":"prokaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote"},{"link_name":"hydrogen sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Physiology1-1"},{"link_name":"basal metabolic rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_metabolic_rate"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"carboxylic acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylic_acid"},{"link_name":"citric acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"unicellular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicellular_organism"},{"link_name":"Escherichia coli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli"},{"link_name":"multicellular organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicellular_organism"},{"link_name":"elephants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SmithE-3"},{"link_name":"evolutionary history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life"},{"link_name":"efficacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ebenhoh-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cascante-5"},{"link_name":"type II diabetes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_II_diabetes"},{"link_name":"metabolic syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_syndrome"},{"link_name":"cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith2018-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vander_Heiden_2017-7"}],"text":"Set of chemical reactions in organisms\"Cellular metabolism\" redirects here. For the journal, see Cell Metabolism.For the journal Metabolism, see Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental. For the architectural movement, see Metabolism (architecture).Simplified view of the cellular metabolismStructure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a central intermediate in energy metabolismMetabolism (/məˈtæbəlɪzəm/, from Greek: μεταβολή metabolē, \"change\") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transportation of substances into and between different cells, in which case the above described set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary (or intermediate) metabolism.Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic—the breaking down of compounds (for example, of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic—the building up (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy and will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts—they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly—and they also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals.[1] The basal metabolic rate of an organism is the measure of the amount of energy consumed by all of these chemical reactions.A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways among vastly different species.[2] For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants.[3] These similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history, and their retention is likely due to their efficacy.[4][5] In various diseases, such as type II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cancer, normal metabolism is disrupted.[6] The metabolism of cancer cells is also different from the metabolism of normal cells, and these differences can be used to find targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer.[7]","title":"Metabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Biomolecule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomolecule"},{"link_name":"Cell (biology)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png"},{"link_name":"triacylglycerol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triacylglycerol"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_Metabolism_-_Pathways.jpg"},{"link_name":"image reference needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule"},{"link_name":"amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"carbohydrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate"},{"link_name":"nucleic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid"},{"link_name":"lipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid"},{"link_name":"fats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat"},{"link_name":"polymers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"macromolecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromolecules"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Further information: Biomolecule, Cell (biology), and BiochemistryStructure of a triacylglycerol lipidThis is a diagram depicting a large set of human metabolic pathways.[image reference needed]Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from four basic classes of molecules: amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid and lipids (often called fats). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or on breaking them down and using them to obtain energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life.[8]","title":"Key biochemicals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"peptide bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_bond"},{"link_name":"enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme"},{"link_name":"catalyze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysis"},{"link_name":"cytoskeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton"},{"link_name":"scaffolding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaffolding"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"cell signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_signaling"},{"link_name":"immune responses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody"},{"link_name":"cell adhesion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_adhesion"},{"link_name":"active transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_transport"},{"link_name":"cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nelson-10"},{"link_name":"tricarboxylic acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricarboxylic_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Amino acids and proteins","text":"Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape.[9] Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle.[10] Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle),[11] especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress.[12]","title":"Key biochemicals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"biological membranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_membrane"},{"link_name":"cell membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nelson-10"},{"link_name":"chemical energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_energy"},{"link_name":"hydrocarbon chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliphatic_compound"},{"link_name":"hydrophobic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobe"},{"link_name":"amphipathic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphiphiles"},{"link_name":"organic solvents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_solvent"},{"link_name":"ethanol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol"},{"link_name":"benzene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene"},{"link_name":"chloroform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroform"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"fats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat"},{"link_name":"fatty acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid"},{"link_name":"glycerol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerol"},{"link_name":"ester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester"},{"link_name":"triacylglyceride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceride"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"sphingosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphingosine"},{"link_name":"sphingomyelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphingomyelin"},{"link_name":"hydrophilic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophile"},{"link_name":"phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate"},{"link_name":"phospholipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phospholipid"},{"link_name":"Steroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid"},{"link_name":"sterol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterol"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Lipids","text":"Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of internal and external biological membranes, such as the cell membrane.[10] Their chemical energy can also be used. Lipids contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol, benzene or chloroform.[13] The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids by ester linkages is called a triacylglyceride.[14] Several variations of the basic structure exist, including backbones such as sphingosine in sphingomyelin, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate in phospholipids. Steroids such as sterol are another major class of lipids.[15]","title":"Key biochemicals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glucose_Fisher_to_Haworth.gif"},{"link_name":"Glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose"},{"link_name":"aldehydes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldehyde"},{"link_name":"ketones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketone"},{"link_name":"hydroxyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"starch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch"},{"link_name":"glycogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen"},{"link_name":"cellulose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose"},{"link_name":"chitin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nelson-10"},{"link_name":"monosaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharide"},{"link_name":"galactose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactose"},{"link_name":"fructose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructose"},{"link_name":"glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose"},{"link_name":"polysaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Carbohydrates","text":"Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals).[10] The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways.[16]","title":"Key biochemicals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"nucleotides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribose"},{"link_name":"deoxyribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deoxyribose"},{"link_name":"nitrogenous base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenous_base"},{"link_name":"transcription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"protein biosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nelson-10"},{"link_name":"DNA repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_repair"},{"link_name":"DNA replication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication"},{"link_name":"viruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus"},{"link_name":"RNA genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_virus"},{"link_name":"HIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV"},{"link_name":"reverse transcription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"ribozymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribozyme"},{"link_name":"spliceosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spliceosome"},{"link_name":"ribosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome"},{"link_name":"nucleosides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoside"},{"link_name":"nucleobase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleobase"},{"link_name":"ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribose"},{"link_name":"heterocyclic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterocyclic"},{"link_name":"purines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purine"},{"link_name":"pyrimidines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wimmer-18"}],"sub_title":"Nucleotides","text":"The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis.[10] This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication. Many viruses have an RNA genome, such as HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome.[17] RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions. Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar. These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines. Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic-group-transfer reactions.[18]","title":"Key biochemicals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acetyl-CoA-2D.svg"},{"link_name":"coenzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzyme"},{"link_name":"acetyl-CoA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl-CoA"},{"link_name":"acetyl group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl"},{"link_name":"functional groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_group"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wimmer-18"},{"link_name":"coenzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzyme"},{"link_name":"substrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dimroth-20"},{"link_name":"adenosine triphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"},{"link_name":"nucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dimroth-20"},{"link_name":"catabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catabolism"},{"link_name":"anabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolism"},{"link_name":"phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"vitamin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin"},{"link_name":"human nutrition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide"},{"link_name":"niacin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin_(nutrient)"},{"link_name":"dehydrogenases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"reduce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"reductases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductase"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1GZX_Haemoglobin.png"},{"link_name":"hemoglobin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobin"},{"link_name":"heme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heme"},{"link_name":"PDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank"},{"link_name":"1GZX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rcsb.org/structure/1GZX"}],"sub_title":"Coenzymes","text":"Structure of the coenzyme acetyl-CoA. The transferable acetyl group is bonded to the sulfur atom at the extreme left.Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules.[19] This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions.[18] These group-transfer intermediates are called coenzymes. Each class of group-transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled.[20]One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day.[20] ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions.[21]A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells.[22] Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a derivative of vitamin B3 (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to transfer hydrogen atoms to their substrates.[23] Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD+/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP+/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.[24]The structure of iron-containing hemoglobin. The protein subunits are in red and blue, and the iron-containing heme groups in green. From PDB: 1GZX​.","title":"Key biochemicals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bioinorganic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"potassium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"nitrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen"},{"link_name":"calcium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"chlorine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine"},{"link_name":"potassium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"phosphorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"sulfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur"},{"link_name":"Organic compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Heymsfield-25"},{"link_name":"electrolytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"potassium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium"},{"link_name":"calcium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium"},{"link_name":"magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloride"},{"link_name":"phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate"},{"link_name":"bicarbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicarbonate"},{"link_name":"ion gradients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_gradient"},{"link_name":"cell membranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane"},{"link_name":"osmotic pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_pressure"},{"link_name":"pH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"nerve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve"},{"link_name":"muscle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle"},{"link_name":"action potentials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential"},{"link_name":"extracellular fluid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular_fluid"},{"link_name":"cytosol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosol"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"ion channels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_channel"},{"link_name":"muscle contraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_contraction"},{"link_name":"T-tubules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-tubule"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Transition metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metal"},{"link_name":"trace elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_element"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"ferritin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferritin"},{"link_name":"metallothionein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallothionein"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Mineral and cofactors","text":"Further information: Bioinorganic chemistryInorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of a human's body weight is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water.[25]The abundant inorganic elements act as electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH.[26] Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol.[27] Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T-tubules.[28]Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant of those.[29] Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed. Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use.[30][31]","title":"Key biochemicals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alberts_2002-32"},{"link_name":"primary nutritional groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups"},{"link_name":"organotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organotroph"},{"link_name":"lithotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithotroph"},{"link_name":"phototrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototroph"},{"link_name":"chemical energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy#Chemical_potential_energy"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"chemotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotroph"},{"link_name":"redox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"organic molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_molecule"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"hydrogen sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide"},{"link_name":"ferrous ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrous"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"nitrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrate"},{"link_name":"sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate"},{"link_name":"organic molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_molecule"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"Photosynthetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis"},{"link_name":"cyanobacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nelson2004-34"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"polysaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide"},{"link_name":"lipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid"},{"link_name":"acetyl coenzyme A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl-CoA"},{"link_name":"citric acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"electron transport chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain"},{"link_name":"nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alberts_2002-32"}],"text":"Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules.[32] The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy, hydrogen, and carbon (their primary nutritional groups), as shown in the table below. Organic molecules are used as a source of hydrogen atoms or electrons by organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates. Whereas phototrophs convert sunlight to chemical energy,[33] chemotrophs depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to oxygen, nitrate or sulfate. In animals, these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria, use similar electron-transfer reactions to store energy absorbed from sunlight.[34]The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids, are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on acetyl-CoA is oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing more energy while reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into NADH.[32]","title":"Catabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digestion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion"},{"link_name":"Gastrointestinal tract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract"},{"link_name":"digestive enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_enzyme"},{"link_name":"proteases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease"},{"link_name":"glycoside hydrolases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoside_hydrolase"},{"link_name":"monosaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharides"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"guts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract"},{"link_name":"stomach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach"},{"link_name":"pancreas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas"},{"link_name":"salivary glands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_gland"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"active transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_transport"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catabolism_schematic.svg"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"carbohydrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate"},{"link_name":"fats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat"},{"link_name":"image reference needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Digestion","text":"Further information: Digestion and Gastrointestinal tractMacromolecules cannot be directly processed by cells. Macromolecules must be broken into smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Different classes of enzymes are used to digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides.[36]Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings,[37][38] while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and in salivary glands.[39] The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins.[40][41]A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats[image reference needed]","title":"Catabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cellular respiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration"},{"link_name":"Fermentation (biochemistry)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"Carbohydrate catabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate_catabolism"},{"link_name":"Fat catabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_catabolism"},{"link_name":"Protein catabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_catabolism"},{"link_name":"monosaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharide"},{"link_name":"glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose"},{"link_name":"fructose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructose"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"glycolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis"},{"link_name":"pyruvate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvic_acid"},{"link_name":"NADH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADH"},{"link_name":"ATP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"},{"link_name":"ADP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bouche-43"},{"link_name":"acetyl-CoA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl-CoA"},{"link_name":"citric acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"lactate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid"},{"link_name":"lactate dehydrogenase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Cori cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cori_cycle"},{"link_name":"pentose phosphate pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathway"},{"link_name":"anabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Anabolism"},{"link_name":"NADP+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADP%2B"},{"link_name":"pentose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentose"},{"link_name":"ribose 5-phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribose_5-phosphate"},{"link_name":"nucleotides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"aromatic amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatic_amino_acid"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kruger_2003-45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carbon_Catabolism.png"},{"link_name":"hydrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis"},{"link_name":"beta oxidation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_oxidation"},{"link_name":"cholesterol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesterol"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"urea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"transaminase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaminase"},{"link_name":"urea cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea_cycle"},{"link_name":"keto acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keto_acid"},{"link_name":"ketoglutarate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-Ketoglutaric_acid"},{"link_name":"glutamate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"glucogenic amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucogenic_amino_acid"},{"link_name":"gluconeogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluconeogenesis"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Energy from organic compounds","text":"Further information: Cellular respiration, Fermentation (biochemistry), Carbohydrate catabolism, Fat catabolism, and Protein catabolismCarbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells after they have been digested into monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose.[42] Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, in which glucose is converted into pyruvate. This process generates the energy-conveying molecule NADH from NAD+, and generates ATP from ADP for use in powering many processes within the cell.[43] Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle, which enables more ATP production by means of oxidative phosphorylation. This oxidation consumes molecular oxygen and releases water and the waste product carbon dioxide. When oxygen is lacking, or when pyruvate is temporarily produced faster than it can be consumed by the citric acid cycle (as in intense muscular exertion), pyruvate is converted to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase, a process that also oxidizes NADH back to NAD+ for re-use in further glycolysis, allowing energy production to continue.[44] The lactate is later converted back to pyruvate for ATP production where energy is needed, or back to glucose in the Cori cycle. An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway, which produces less energy but supports anabolism (biomolecule synthesis). This pathway reduces the coenzyme NADP+ to NADPH and produces pentose compounds such as ribose 5-phosphate for synthesis of many biomolecules such as nucleotides and aromatic amino acids.[45]Carbon Catabolism pathway map for free energy including carbohydrate and lipid sources of energyFats are catabolized by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates. Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy. M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol-use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis.[46]Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide to produce energy.[47] The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example α-ketoglutarate formed by deamination of glutamate.[48] The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis.[49]","title":"Catabolism"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Energy transformations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"Chemiosmosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiosmosis"},{"link_name":"Mitochondrion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion"},{"link_name":"eukaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote"},{"link_name":"electron transport chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain"},{"link_name":"prokaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote"},{"link_name":"inner membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"reduced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducing_agent"},{"link_name":"protons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ATPsyn.gif"},{"link_name":"ATP synthase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase"},{"link_name":"concentration difference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion"},{"link_name":"electrochemical gradient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_gradient"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"ATP synthase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase"},{"link_name":"active site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_site"},{"link_name":"adenosine diphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dimroth-20"}],"sub_title":"Oxidative phosphorylation","text":"Further information: Oxidative phosphorylation, Chemiosmosis, and MitochondrionIn oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane.[50] These proteins use the energy from reduced molecules like NADH to pump protons across a membrane.[51]Mechanism of ATP synthase. ATP is shown in red, ADP and phosphate in pink and the rotating stalk subunit in black.Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient.[52] This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate—turning it into ATP.[20]","title":"Energy transformations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microbial metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial_metabolism"},{"link_name":"Nitrogen cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle"},{"link_name":"Chemolithotrophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemolithotroph"},{"link_name":"prokaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote"},{"link_name":"inorganic compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compound"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"sulfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur"},{"link_name":"sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfide"},{"link_name":"hydrogen sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide"},{"link_name":"thiosulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiosulfate"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Physiology1-1"},{"link_name":"ferrous iron (Fe(II))","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(II)_oxide"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"ammonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"biogeochemical cycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle"},{"link_name":"acetogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetogenesis"},{"link_name":"nitrification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrification"},{"link_name":"denitrification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denitrification"},{"link_name":"soil fertility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility_(soil)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"sub_title":"Energy from inorganic compounds","text":"Further information: Microbial metabolism and Nitrogen cycleChemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen,[53] reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate),[1] ferrous iron (Fe(II))[54] or ammonia[55] as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds.[56] These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility.[57][58]","title":"Energy transformations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Phototroph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototroph"},{"link_name":"Photophosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophosphorylation"},{"link_name":"Chloroplast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast"},{"link_name":"plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant"},{"link_name":"cyanobacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria"},{"link_name":"purple bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_bacteria"},{"link_name":"green sulfur bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria"},{"link_name":"protists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"photosynthetic reaction centres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_reaction_centre"},{"link_name":"photosynthetic pigment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_pigment"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"photosystem II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosystem"},{"link_name":"cytochrome b6f complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome_b6f_complex"},{"link_name":"thylakoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylakoid"},{"link_name":"chloroplast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nelson2004-34"},{"link_name":"photosystem I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosystem"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Calvin cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin_cycle"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Energy from light","text":"Further information: Phototroph, Photophosphorylation, and ChloroplastThe energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can, however, operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds.[59][60]In many organisms, the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis.[61] The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres. Reaction centers are classified into two types depending on the nature of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two.[62]In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast.[34] These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP+.[63] This coenzyme can enter the Calvin cycle or be recycled for further ATP generation.[citation needed]","title":"Energy transformations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolism"},{"link_name":"amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"monosaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharide"},{"link_name":"isoprenoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoid"},{"link_name":"nucleotides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"polysaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide"},{"link_name":"lipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid"},{"link_name":"nucleic acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mandal-2009-64"},{"link_name":"Autotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotroph"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"Heterotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotroph"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mandal-2009-64"}],"text":"Further information: AnabolismAnabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from smaller and simpler precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. First, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.[64]Anabolism in organisms can be different according to the source of constructed molecules in their cells. Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in their cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from oxidation reactions.[64]","title":"Anabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Photosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis"},{"link_name":"Carbon fixation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixation"},{"link_name":"Chemosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"photosynthetic reaction centres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_reaction_centre"},{"link_name":"glycerate 3-phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerate_3-phosphate"},{"link_name":"RuBisCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuBisCO"},{"link_name":"Calvin–Benson cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin_cycle"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"C3 carbon fixation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation"},{"link_name":"C4 carbon fixation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation"},{"link_name":"CAM photosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crassulacean_acid_metabolism"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"prokaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote"},{"link_name":"reversed citric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Krebs_cycle"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"carboxylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylation"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"chemoautotrophs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotroph"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Carbon fixation","text":"Further information: Photosynthesis, Carbon fixation, and ChemosynthesisPlant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesisPhotosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin–Benson cycle.[65] Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions.[66]In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin–Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle,[67] or the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA.[68][69] Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin–Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction.[70]","title":"Anabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gluconeogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluconeogenesis"},{"link_name":"Glyoxylate cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyoxylate_cycle"},{"link_name":"Glycogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogenesis"},{"link_name":"Glycosylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycosylation"},{"link_name":"monosaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharide"},{"link_name":"glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose"},{"link_name":"polysaccharides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide"},{"link_name":"starch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch"},{"link_name":"glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose"},{"link_name":"pyruvate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate"},{"link_name":"lactate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid"},{"link_name":"glycerol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerol"},{"link_name":"glycerate 3-phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerate_3-phosphate"},{"link_name":"amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"gluconeogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluconeogenesis"},{"link_name":"glucose-6-phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose-6-phosphate"},{"link_name":"glycolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bouche-43"},{"link_name":"glycolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis"},{"link_name":"futile cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futile_cycle"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"vertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"fatty acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid"},{"link_name":"gluconeogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluconeogenesis"},{"link_name":"pyruvate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ensign-73"},{"link_name":"ketone bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketone_body"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"glyoxylate cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyoxylate_cycle"},{"link_name":"decarboxylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decarboxylation"},{"link_name":"oxaloacetate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxaloacetate"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ensign-73"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kornberg-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"glycans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycan"},{"link_name":"glycosyltransferase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycosyltransferase"},{"link_name":"uridine diphosphate glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uridine_diphosphate_glucose"},{"link_name":"hydroxyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl"},{"link_name":"hydroxyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"oligosaccharyltransferases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligosaccharyltransferase"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"}],"sub_title":"Carbohydrates and glycans","text":"Further information: Gluconeogenesis, Glyoxylate cycle, Glycogenesis, and GlycosylationIn carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis.[43] However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle.[71][72]Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl-CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery.[73] As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids.[74] In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose.[73][75] Other than fat, glucose is stored in most tissues, as an energy resource available within the tissue through glycogenesis which was usually being used to maintained glucose level in blood.[76]Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-Glc) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures.[77] The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by the enzymes oligosaccharyltransferases.[78][79]","title":"Anabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fatty acid synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthesis"},{"link_name":"Steroid metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid_metabolism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sterol_synthesis.svg"},{"link_name":"steroid synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid_synthesis"},{"link_name":"isopentenyl pyrophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isopentenyl_pyrophosphate"},{"link_name":"dimethylallyl pyrophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylallyl_pyrophosphate"},{"link_name":"geranyl pyrophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geranyl_pyrophosphate"},{"link_name":"squalene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squalene"},{"link_name":"fatty acid synthases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthase"},{"link_name":"dehydrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration_reaction"},{"link_name":"alkene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkene"},{"link_name":"alkane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkane"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"plastids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"Terpenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpene"},{"link_name":"isoprenoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoid"},{"link_name":"carotenoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid"},{"link_name":"natural products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_product"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"isoprene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoprene"},{"link_name":"isopentenyl pyrophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isopentenyl_pyrophosphate"},{"link_name":"dimethylallyl pyrophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylallyl_pyrophosphate"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kuzuyama-84"},{"link_name":"mevalonate pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevalonate_pathway"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"non-mevalonate pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-mevalonate_pathway"},{"link_name":"glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kuzuyama-84"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"sterol biosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid_biosynthesis"},{"link_name":"squalene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squalene"},{"link_name":"lanosterol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanosterol"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schroepfer-87"},{"link_name":"cholesterol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesterol"},{"link_name":"ergosterol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergosterol"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schroepfer-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"Fatty acids, isoprenoids and sterol","text":"Further information: Fatty acid synthesis and Steroid metabolismSimplified version of the steroid synthesis pathway with the intermediates isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) and squalene shown. Some intermediates are omitted for clarity.Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein,[80] while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway.[81][82]Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products.[83] These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.[84] These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA,[85] while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates.[84][86] One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is sterol biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol.[87] Lanosterol can then be converted into other sterols such as cholesterol and ergosterol.[87][88]","title":"Anabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Protein biosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis"},{"link_name":"Amino acid synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid_synthesis"},{"link_name":"essential amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acid"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nelson-10"},{"link_name":"parasites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite"},{"link_name":"Mycoplasma pneumoniae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma_pneumoniae"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"glutamate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate"},{"link_name":"glutamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamine"},{"link_name":"transaminated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaminase"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"peptide bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_bond"},{"link_name":"primary structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_structure"},{"link_name":"transfer RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_RNA"},{"link_name":"ester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester"},{"link_name":"aminoacyl-tRNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminoacyl-tRNA"},{"link_name":"ATP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"},{"link_name":"aminoacyl tRNA synthetase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminoacyl_tRNA_synthetase"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"ribosome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome"},{"link_name":"messenger RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"}],"sub_title":"Proteins","text":"Further information: Protein biosynthesis and Amino acid synthesisOrganisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food.[10] Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae, lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts.[89] All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Nonessensial amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.[90]Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined in a chain of peptide bonds. Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase.[91] This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA.[92]","title":"Anabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nucleotide salvage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide_salvage"},{"link_name":"Pyrimidine biosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine_biosynthesis"},{"link_name":"Purine § Metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purine#Metabolism"},{"link_name":"formic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formic_acid"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rudolph-93"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rudolph-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Purines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purine"},{"link_name":"nucleosides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoside"},{"link_name":"ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribose"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid_22531138-95"},{"link_name":"adenine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenine"},{"link_name":"guanine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanine"},{"link_name":"inosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inosine"},{"link_name":"glycine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine"},{"link_name":"glutamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamine"},{"link_name":"aspartic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartic_acid"},{"link_name":"formate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formate"},{"link_name":"coenzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzyme"},{"link_name":"tetrahydrofolate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid"},{"link_name":"Pyrimidines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine"},{"link_name":"orotate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidinecarboxylic_acid"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"sub_title":"Nucleotide synthesis and salvage","text":"Further information: Nucleotide salvage, Pyrimidine biosynthesis, and Purine § MetabolismNucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy.[93] Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides.[93][94] Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose).[95] Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate. Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate.[96]","title":"Anabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Xenobiotic metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenobiotic_metabolism"},{"link_name":"Drug metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_metabolism"},{"link_name":"Alcohol metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_metabolism"},{"link_name":"Antioxidant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant"},{"link_name":"xenobiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenobiotic"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"synthetic drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug"},{"link_name":"natural poisons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison"},{"link_name":"antibiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic"},{"link_name":"cytochrome P450 oxidases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome_P450"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"UDP-glucuronosyltransferases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucuronosyltransferase"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"glutathione S-transferases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutathione_S-transferase"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"ecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology"},{"link_name":"biodegradation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradation"},{"link_name":"bioremediation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"persistent organic pollutants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant"},{"link_name":"organochloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organochloride"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"aerobic organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_organism"},{"link_name":"oxidative stress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_stress"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies-103"},{"link_name":"oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"disulfide bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disulfide_bond"},{"link_name":"protein folding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_folding"},{"link_name":"reactive oxygen species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species"},{"link_name":"hydrogen peroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"antioxidant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant"},{"link_name":"glutathione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutathione"},{"link_name":"catalases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalase"},{"link_name":"peroxidases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peroxidase"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sies-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vertuani-106"}],"text":"Further information: Xenobiotic metabolism, Drug metabolism, Alcohol metabolism, and AntioxidantAll organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and that would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics.[97] Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases,[98] UDP-glucuronosyltransferases,[99] and glutathione S-transferases.[100] This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills.[101] Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds.[102]A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress.[103] Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide.[104] These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases.[105][106]","title":"Xenobiotics and redox metabolism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Biological thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"laws of thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)"},{"link_name":"second law of thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"isolated system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolated_system"},{"link_name":"entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy"},{"link_name":"open systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_system_(systems_theory)"},{"link_name":"equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"dissipative systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissipative_system"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"spontaneous processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_process"},{"link_name":"thermodynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"}],"text":"Further information: Biological thermodynamicsLiving organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any isolated system, the amount of entropy (disorder) cannot decrease. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments.[107] The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder.[108]","title":"Thermodynamics of living organisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metabolic pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathway"},{"link_name":"Metabolic control analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_control_analysis"},{"link_name":"Hormone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone"},{"link_name":"Regulatory enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_enzymes"},{"link_name":"Cell signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_signaling"},{"link_name":"regulated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory"},{"link_name":"homeostasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"flux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salter-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Insulin_glucose_metabolism_ZP.svg"},{"link_name":"plasma membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_membrane"},{"link_name":"glycogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen"},{"link_name":"glycolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis"},{"link_name":"fatty acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid"},{"link_name":"image reference needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"flux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salter-112"},{"link_name":"allosteric regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allosteric_regulation"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"hormones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone"},{"link_name":"growth factors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_factor"},{"link_name":"receptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"second messenger systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_messenger_system"},{"link_name":"phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"insulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"blood glucose levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugar"},{"link_name":"insulin receptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_receptor"},{"link_name":"protein kinases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_kinase"},{"link_name":"glycogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"phosphorylase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorylase"},{"link_name":"glycogen synthase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen_synthase"},{"link_name":"protein phosphatases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatase"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"}],"text":"Further information: Metabolic pathway, Metabolic control analysis, Hormone, Regulatory enzymes, and Cell signalingAs the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis.[109][110] Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments.[111] Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway).[112] For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.[113]Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1), which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6).[image reference needed]There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate.[112] This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway.[114] Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of water-soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface.[115] These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins.[116]A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin.[117] Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen.[118] The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes.[119]","title":"Regulation and control"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Proto-metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-metabolism"},{"link_name":"Molecular evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution"},{"link_name":"Phylogenetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_int.svg"},{"link_name":"Evolutionary tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree"},{"link_name":"domains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"eukaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote"},{"link_name":"archaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea"},{"link_name":"phyla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum"},{"link_name":"three domains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-domain_system"},{"link_name":"last universal common ancestor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SmithE-3"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"prokaryotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote"},{"link_name":"methanogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanogen"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ebenhoh-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cascante-5"},{"link_name":"purine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purine"},{"link_name":"RNA world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"MANET database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MANET_database"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"parasites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite"},{"link_name":"host","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"endosymbiotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiont"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"}],"text":"Further information: Proto-metabolism, Molecular evolution, and PhylogeneticsEvolutionary tree showing the common ancestry of organisms from all three domains of life. Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, and archaea green. Relative positions of some of the phyla included are shown around the tree.The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal common ancestor.[3][120] This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.[121][122] The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps.[4][5] The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world.[123]Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway.[124] The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway.[125] An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database)[126] These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic.[127] A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as \"modules\" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules.[128]As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host.[129] Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms.[130]","title":"Evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Protein methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_methods"},{"link_name":"Proteomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomics"},{"link_name":"Metabolomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolomics"},{"link_name":"Metabolic network modelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_network_modelling"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_thaliana_metabolic_network.png"},{"link_name":"Metabolic network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_network"},{"link_name":"Arabidopsis thaliana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana"},{"link_name":"citric acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"Enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme"},{"link_name":"metabolites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolite"},{"link_name":"reductionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism"},{"link_name":"radioactive tracers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_tracer"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"purified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_purification"},{"link_name":"kinetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics"},{"link_name":"inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"metabolome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolome"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"metabolic networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_network"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"holistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"gene expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression"},{"link_name":"proteomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomics"},{"link_name":"DNA microarray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_microarray"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"network analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_theory"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"bow-tie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_tie_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15331224-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMID12874056-140"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMID16916470-141"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"metabolic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_engineering"},{"link_name":"yeast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"biotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology"},{"link_name":"drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug"},{"link_name":"antibiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic"},{"link_name":"1,3-propanediol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-Propanediol"},{"link_name":"shikimic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikimic_acid"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"}],"text":"Further information: Protein methods, Proteomics, Metabolomics, and Metabolic network modellingMetabolic network of the Arabidopsis thaliana citric acid cycle. Enzymes and metabolites are shown as red squares and the interactions between them as black lines.Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products.[131] The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell.[132]An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 26.500 genes.[133] However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior.[134] These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies.[135] Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research.[136] These models are now used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites.[137][138]Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow-tie[139][140][141] organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies.[142]A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid.[143][144][145] These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes.[146]","title":"Investigation and manipulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry"},{"link_name":"History of molecular biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle%27s_metabolism.png"},{"link_name":"Aristotle's metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology"}],"text":"Further information: History of biochemistry and History of molecular biologyThe term metabolism is derived from the Ancient Greek word μεταβολή—\"metabole\" for \"a change\" which is derived from μεταβάλλ—\"metaballein\", meaning \"to change\"[147]Aristotle's metabolism as an open flow model","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"The Parts of Animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Parts_of_Animals"},{"link_name":"his views on metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology"},{"link_name":"classical element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_element"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"Ibn al-Nafis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis"},{"link_name":"Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Risalah_al-Kamiliyyah_fil_Siera_al-Nabawiyyah"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"}],"sub_title":"Greek philosophy","text":"Aristotle's The Parts of Animals sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces.[148]Ibn al-Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase \"Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change.\"[149]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"experiments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment"},{"link_name":"Santorio Santorio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santorio_Santorio"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"sleep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleeping"},{"link_name":"insensible perspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insensible_perspiration"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SantoriosMeal.jpg"},{"link_name":"Santorio Santorio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santorio_Santorio"},{"link_name":"vital force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"fermentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_(food)"},{"link_name":"alcohol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol"},{"link_name":"yeast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast"},{"link_name":"Louis Pasteur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Wöhler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Woehler"},{"link_name":"urea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme"},{"link_name":"Eduard Buchner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Buchner"},{"link_name":"biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"Hans Krebs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Adolf_Krebs"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"Hans Kornberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Kornberg"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kornberg-75"},{"link_name":"chromatography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatography"},{"link_name":"X-ray diffraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_diffraction"},{"link_name":"NMR spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMR_spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"radioisotopic labelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotopic_labelling"},{"link_name":"electron microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope"},{"link_name":"molecular dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamics"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Application of the scientific method and Modern metabolic theories","text":"The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina.[150] He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called \"insensible perspiration\".Santorio Santorio in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medicina, first published 1614In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue.[151] In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called \"ferments\". He wrote that \"alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells.\"[152] This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea,[153] and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors. This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry.It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry.[154] The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism.[155] He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle.[156][157][75] Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labelling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Library resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library"},{"link_name":"Online books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Metabolism&library=OLBP"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Metabolism"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Metabolism&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-14-027273-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-027273-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-226-73936-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-73936-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-860783-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860783-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-850229-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-850229-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7167-4955-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-4955-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7167-4339-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-4339-6"},{"link_name":"Brock TD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_D._Brock"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-066271-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-066271-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-855598-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-855598-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-12-518121-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-518121-3"},{"link_name":"\"Life with CO or CO2 and H2 as a source of carbon and energy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1096%2Ffasebj.5.2.1900793"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1096/fasebj.5.2.1900793","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1096%2Ffasebj.5.2.1900793"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1900793","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1900793"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"45967404","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45967404"}],"text":"Library resources about Metabolism \n\nOnline books\nResources in your library\nResources in other librariesIntroductoryRose S, Mileusnic R (1999). The Chemistry of Life. Penguin Press Science. ISBN 0-14-027273-9.\nSchneider EC, Sagan D (2005). Into the Cool: Energy Flow, Thermodynamics, and Life. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-73936-8.\nLane N (2004). Oxygen: The Molecule that Made the World. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860783-0.AdvancedPrice N, Stevens L (1999). Fundamentals of Enzymology: Cell and Molecular Biology of Catalytic Proteins. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850229-X.\nBerg J, Tymoczko J, Stryer L (2002). Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-4955-6.\nCox M, Nelson DL (2004). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6.\nBrock TD, Madigan MR, Martinko J, Parker J (2002). Brock's Biology of Microorganisms. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-13-066271-2.\nDa Silva JJ, Williams RJ (1991). The Biological Chemistry of the Elements: The Inorganic Chemistry of Life. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-855598-9.\nNicholls DG, Ferguson SJ (2002). Bioenergetics. Academic Press Inc. ISBN 0-12-518121-3.\nWood HG (February 1991). \"Life with CO or CO2 and H2 as a source of carbon and energy\". FASEB Journal. 5 (2): 156–63. doi:10.1096/fasebj.5.2.1900793. PMID 1900793. S2CID 45967404.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Simplified view of the cellular metabolism","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Metabolism.png/220px-Metabolism.png"},{"image_text":"Structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a central intermediate in energy metabolism","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/ATP-3D-vdW.png/220px-ATP-3D-vdW.png"},{"image_text":"Structure of a triacylglycerol lipid","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png/250px-Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png"},{"image_text":"This is a diagram depicting a large set of human metabolic pathways.[image reference needed]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Human_Metabolism_-_Pathways.jpg/220px-Human_Metabolism_-_Pathways.jpg"},{"image_text":"Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Glucose_Fisher_to_Haworth.gif"},{"image_text":"Structure of the coenzyme acetyl-CoA. The transferable acetyl group is bonded to the sulfur atom at the extreme left.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Acetyl-CoA-2D.svg/300px-Acetyl-CoA-2D.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The structure of iron-containing hemoglobin. The protein subunits are in red and blue, and the iron-containing heme groups in green. From PDB: 1GZX​.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/1GZX_Haemoglobin.png/300px-1GZX_Haemoglobin.png"},{"image_text":"A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats[image reference needed]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Catabolism_schematic.svg/300px-Catabolism_schematic.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Carbon Catabolism pathway map for free energy including carbohydrate and lipid sources of energy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Carbon_Catabolism.png/500px-Carbon_Catabolism.png"},{"image_text":"Mechanism of ATP synthase. ATP is shown in red, ADP and phosphate in pink and the rotating stalk subunit in black.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/ATPsyn.gif/220px-ATPsyn.gif"},{"image_text":"Plant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesis","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/220px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Simplified version of the steroid synthesis pathway with the intermediates isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) and squalene shown. Some intermediates are omitted for clarity.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sterol_synthesis.svg/350px-Sterol_synthesis.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1), which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6).[image reference needed]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Insulin_glucose_metabolism_ZP.svg/300px-Insulin_glucose_metabolism_ZP.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestry of organisms from all three domains of life. Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, and archaea green. Relative positions of some of the phyla included are shown around the tree.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Tree_of_life_int.svg/400px-Tree_of_life_int.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Metabolic network of the Arabidopsis thaliana citric acid cycle. Enzymes and metabolites are shown as red squares and the interactions between them as black lines.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/A_thaliana_metabolic_network.png/300px-A_thaliana_metabolic_network.png"},{"image_text":"Aristotle's metabolism as an open flow model","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Aristotle%27s_metabolism.png/310px-Aristotle%27s_metabolism.png"},{"image_text":"Santorio Santorio in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medicina, first published 1614","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/SantoriosMeal.jpg/150px-SantoriosMeal.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Anthropogenic metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenic_metabolism"},{"title":"Antimetabolite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimetabolite"},{"title":"Calorimetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calorimetry"},{"title":"Isothermal microcalorimetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isothermal_microcalorimetry"},{"title":"Inborn errors of metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inborn_errors_of_metabolism"},{"title":"Iron–sulfur world hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_world_hypothesis"},{"title":"origin of life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_life"},{"title":"Metabolic disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_disorder"},{"title":"Microphysiometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphysiometry"},{"title":"Primary nutritional groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups"},{"title":"Proto-metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-metabolism"},{"title":"Respirometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirometry"},{"title":"Stream metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_metabolism"},{"title":"Sulfur metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_metabolism"},{"title":"Thermic effect of food","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_dynamic_action"},{"title":"Urban metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_metabolism"},{"title":"Water metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_balance"},{"title":"Overflow metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overflow_metabolism"},{"title":"Oncometabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oncometabolism"},{"title":"Reactome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactome"},{"title":"KEGG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KEGG"}]

[{"reference":"Friedrich, CG (1997). Physiology and Genetics of Sulfur-oxidizing Bacteria. Advances in Microbial Physiology. Vol. 39. pp. 235–89. doi:10.1016/S0065-2911(08)60018-1. ISBN 978-0-12-027739-1. PMID 9328649.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0065-2911%2808%2960018-1","url_text":"10.1016/S0065-2911(08)60018-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-027739-1","url_text":"978-0-12-027739-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9328649","url_text":"9328649"}]},{"reference":"Pace NR (January 2001). \"The universal nature of biochemistry\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (3): 805–8. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98..805P. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.3.805. PMC 33372. PMID 11158550.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC33372","url_text":"\"The universal nature of biochemistry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...98..805P","url_text":"2001PNAS...98..805P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.98.3.805","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.98.3.805"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC33372","url_text":"33372"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11158550","url_text":"11158550"}]},{"reference":"Smith E, Morowitz HJ (September 2004). \"Universality in intermediary metabolism\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (36): 13168–73. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10113168S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0404922101. PMC 516543. PMID 15340153.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC516543","url_text":"\"Universality in intermediary metabolism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..10113168S","url_text":"2004PNAS..10113168S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0404922101","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.0404922101"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC516543","url_text":"516543"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15340153","url_text":"15340153"}]},{"reference":"Ebenhöh O, Heinrich R (January 2001). \"Evolutionary optimization of metabolic pathways. Theoretical reconstruction of the stoichiometry of ATP and NADH producing systems\". Bulletin of Mathematical Biology. 63 (1): 21–55. doi:10.1006/bulm.2000.0197. PMID 11146883. S2CID 44260374.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fbulm.2000.0197","url_text":"10.1006/bulm.2000.0197"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11146883","url_text":"11146883"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44260374","url_text":"44260374"}]},{"reference":"Meléndez-Hevia E, Waddell TG, Cascante M (September 1996). \"The puzzle of the Krebs citric acid cycle: assembling the pieces of chemically feasible reactions, and opportunism in the design of metabolic pathways during evolution\". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 43 (3): 293–303. Bibcode:1996JMolE..43..293M. doi:10.1007/BF02338838. PMID 8703096. S2CID 19107073.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996JMolE..43..293M","url_text":"1996JMolE..43..293M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02338838","url_text":"10.1007/BF02338838"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8703096","url_text":"8703096"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19107073","url_text":"19107073"}]},{"reference":"Smith RL, Soeters MR, Wüst RC, Houtkooper RH (August 2018). \"Metabolic Flexibility as an Adaptation to Energy Resources and Requirements in Health and Disease\". Endocrine Reviews. 39 (4): 489–517. doi:10.1210/er.2017-00211. PMC 6093334. PMID 29697773.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6093334","url_text":"\"Metabolic Flexibility as an Adaptation to Energy Resources and Requirements in Health and Disease\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fer.2017-00211","url_text":"10.1210/er.2017-00211"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6093334","url_text":"6093334"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29697773","url_text":"29697773"}]},{"reference":"Vander Heiden MG, DeBerardinis RJ (February 2017). \"Understanding the Intersections between Metabolism and Cancer Biology\". Cell. 168 (4): 657–669. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.12.039. PMC 5329766. PMID 28187287.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5329766","url_text":"\"Understanding the Intersections between Metabolism and Cancer Biology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2016.12.039","url_text":"10.1016/j.cell.2016.12.039"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5329766","url_text":"5329766"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28187287","url_text":"28187287"}]},{"reference":"Cooper GM (2000). \"The Molecular Composition of Cells\". The Cell: A Molecular Approach (2nd ed.). Archived from the original on 27 August 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9879/","url_text":"\"The Molecular Composition of Cells\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200827120320/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9879/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Michie KA, Löwe J (2006). \"Dynamic filaments of the bacterial cytoskeleton\". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 75: 467–92. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.75.103004.142452. PMID 16756499. S2CID 4550126.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Biochemistry","url_text":"Annual Review of Biochemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.biochem.75.103004.142452","url_text":"10.1146/annurev.biochem.75.103004.142452"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16756499","url_text":"16756499"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4550126","url_text":"4550126"}]},{"reference":"Nelson DL, Cox MM (2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W. H. Freeman and company. p. 841. ISBN 978-0-7167-4339-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lehningerprincip00lehn_0/page/841","url_text":"Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lehningerprincip00lehn_0/page/841","url_text":"841"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4339-2","url_text":"978-0-7167-4339-2"}]},{"reference":"Kelleher JK, Bryan BM, Mallet RT, Holleran AL, Murphy AN, Fiskum G (September 1987). \"Analysis of tricarboxylic acid-cycle metabolism of hepatoma cells by comparison of 14CO2 ratios\". The Biochemical Journal. 246 (3): 633–9. doi:10.1042/bj2460633. PMC 1148327. PMID 3120698.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1148327","url_text":"\"Analysis of tricarboxylic acid-cycle metabolism of hepatoma cells by comparison of 14CO2 ratios\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj2460633","url_text":"10.1042/bj2460633"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1148327","url_text":"1148327"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3120698","url_text":"3120698"}]},{"reference":"Hothersall JS, Ahmed A (2013). \"Metabolic fate of the increased yeast amino Acid uptake subsequent to catabolite derepression\". Journal of Amino Acids. 2013: 461901. doi:10.1155/2013/461901. PMC 3575661. PMID 23431419.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3575661","url_text":"\"Metabolic fate of the increased yeast amino Acid uptake subsequent to catabolite derepression\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2013%2F461901","url_text":"10.1155/2013/461901"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3575661","url_text":"3575661"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23431419","url_text":"23431419"}]},{"reference":"Fahy E, Subramaniam S, Brown HA, Glass CK, Merrill AH, Murphy RC, et al. (May 2005). \"A comprehensive classification system for lipids\". Journal of Lipid Research. 46 (5): 839–61. doi:10.1194/jlr.E400004-JLR200. PMID 15722563.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1194%2Fjlr.E400004-JLR200","url_text":"\"A comprehensive classification system for lipids\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1194%2Fjlr.E400004-JLR200","url_text":"10.1194/jlr.E400004-JLR200"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15722563","url_text":"15722563"}]},{"reference":"\"Lipid nomenclature Lip-1 & Lip-2\". qmul.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.qmul.ac.uk/sbcs/iupac/lipid/lip1n2.html#p11","url_text":"\"Lipid nomenclature Lip-1 & Lip-2\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200606140055/https://www.qmul.ac.uk/sbcs/iupac/lipid/lip1n2.html#p11","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Gatto Jr GJ, Stryer L (8 April 2015). Biochemistry (8 ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. p. 362. ISBN 978-1-4641-2610-9. OCLC 913469736.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4641-2610-9","url_text":"978-1-4641-2610-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/913469736","url_text":"913469736"}]},{"reference":"Raman R, Raguram S, Venkataraman G, Paulson JC, Sasisekharan R (November 2005). \"Glycomics: an integrated systems approach to structure-function relationships of glycans\". Nature Methods. 2 (11): 817–24. doi:10.1038/nmeth807. PMID 16278650. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_close_management

Financial close management

["1 Overview","2 Fluctuation analysis","3 Reporting","4 See also","5 References"]

Financial close management (FCM) is a recurring process in management accounting by which accounting teams verify and adjust account balances at the end of a designated period in order to produce financial reports representative of the company's true financial position to inform stakeholders such as management, investors, lenders, and regulatory agencies. The process starts with recording transactions as journal entries and end with preparing the financial reports for the period. Overview Closing the books involves consolidating transactions from multiple accounts, reconciling the information to ensure its validity, and identifying irregularities and errors that need to be adjusted. Accountants typically perform the close process monthly or annually. In the end, the trial balance — the list of all accounts from the general ledger — must balance: The sum of all debts must equal the sum of all credits. Fluctuation analysis In addition to reconciliations and adjustments, accounting teams track the health of the company by conducting fluctuation analysis (flux analysis). Flux analysis involves aggregating data from multiple periods and identifying material fluctuations from period to period, and what caused them. This helps businesses identify warning signs before they turn into major issues, though — given the labor-intensive nature of the month-end close — many businesses struggle to find the time and energy to conduct a thorough fluctuation analysis. Reporting Businesses report differently based on their stakeholders and other interested parties. For small businesses, reporting on a cash basis is considered adequate. For larger businesses, typically backed by investors, it is necessary to provide more in-depth reporting based on Generally Accepted Account Principles (GAAP) in the United States and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) elsewhere. These principles are a set of rules for accurate and consistent financial reporting and are mandatory for publicly traded companies. See also Accounting Accounting software Bookkeeping References ^ "Markets". The Wall Street Journal. September 17, 2019. ^ "LINKING NUMBERS AND NARRATIVES: Correlating Quantitative Reports with Qualitative Analysis" (PDF). CFO Magazine. August 2012. ^ "Technology Speeds Up Timeline on Quarterly Close". The Wall Street Journal. August 14, 2017. Tasks such as account reconciliation were previously left to the end of ... ^ "Beginners' Guide to Financial Statement". SEC.gov. February 5, 2007. ^ "How close management software can eliminate big headaches". Accounting Today. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Building Blocks of a Successful Financial Close Process". Journal of Accountancy. 2011-12-01. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Closing Entries | Financial Accounting". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Financial Close". www.money-zine.com. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Financial Reporting Fluctuation ("Flux") Analysis" (PDF). www.corporateservices.noaa.gov. US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "The Comprehensive Guide to Understanding GAAP". Accounting.com. Retrieved 2018-12-21.

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Manchester

Avro Manchester

["1 Development","2 Design","3 Operational history","4 Variants","4.1 Orders and production","5 Operators","6 Specifications (Manchester Mk I)","7 See also","8 References","8.1 Notes","8.2 Citations","8.3 Bibliography","9 Further reading","10 External links"]

British twin-engine heavy bomber This article is about the Second World War bomber. For the First World War biplane, see Avro 533 Manchester. Manchester Avro Manchester Mk.1A 'L7486' (note extended tail fins) Role Heavy bomberType of aircraft National origin United Kingdom Manufacturer Avro First flight 25 July 1939 Introduction November 1940 Retired 1942 Primary users Royal Air ForceRoyal Canadian Air Force Produced 1940–1941 Number built 202 Developed into Avro Lancaster The Avro 679 Manchester was a British twin-engine heavy bomber developed and manufactured by the Avro aircraft company in the United Kingdom. While not being built in great numbers, it was the forerunner of the more famed and more successful four-engined Avro Lancaster, which was one of the most capable strategic bombers of the Second World War. Avro designed the Manchester in conformance with the requirements laid out by the British Air Ministry Specification P.13/36, which sought a capable medium bomber with which to equip the Royal Air Force (RAF) and to replace its inventory of twin-engine bombers, such as the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, Handley Page Hampden and Vickers Wellington. Performing its maiden flight on 25 July 1939, the Manchester entered squadron service in November 1940, just over twelve months after the outbreak of the war. Operated by both RAF and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), the Manchester came to be regarded as a complete operational failure, primarily as a result of its Rolls-Royce Vulture engines, which were underdeveloped and hence underpowered and unreliable, and production was terminated in 1941. However, the Manchester was redesigned into a four-engined heavy bomber, powered by the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine instead, which became known as the Lancaster. Development The Manchester has its origins in a design produced by Avro in order to fulfil the British Air Ministry's Specification P.13/36. This was the same specification to which Handley Page had also produced their initial design for what would become the Halifax bomber. Issued in May 1936, Specification P.13/36 called for a twin-engine monoplane "medium bomber" for "worldwide use", which was to be capable of carrying out shallow (30°) dive bombing attacks and carry heavy bombloads (8,000 lb/3,630 kg) or two 18 in (457 mm) torpedoes. Additionally, provisions to conduct catapult assisted takeoffs, which would permit the carriage of the maximum payload, was also a stated requirement, although this provision was removed in July 1938. The envisioned cruising speed of the bomber was to be a minimum of 275 mph at 15,000 feet. The Air Ministry had expectations for an aircraft of similar weight to the B.1/35 specification, but smaller and faster. Avro had already started work on a corresponding design prior to having received a formal invitation to tender. The company was in competition with Boulton Paul, Bristol, Fairey, Handley Page and Shorts. Vickers also had its Warwick, which had Napier Sabre engines, but eventually chose against tendering it. In early 1937, both the Avro design and the rival Handley Page HP.56 were accepted and prototypes of both ordered; but in mid-1937, the Air Ministry exercised their rights to order the types "off the drawing board". This skipping of the usual process was necessary due to the initiation of a wider expansion of the RAF in expectation of large scale war in Europe. From 1939, it was expected that the P.13/36 would begin replacing the RAF's existing medium bombers, such as the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, Handley Page Hampden and Vickers Wellington. The Avro design used the Rolls-Royce Vulture 24-cylinder X-block engine, which was two Rolls-Royce Peregrine Vee cylinder blocks mounted one on top of the other, the bottom one inverted to give the "X" shape. When developed in 1935, the Vulture engine had promise — it was rated at 1,760 hp (1,310 kW) but it proved woefully unreliable and had to be derated to 1,480–1,500 hp (1,100–1,120 kW). Avro's prototype Manchester L7246, was assembled by their experimental department at Manchester's Ringway Airport and first flew from there on 25 July 1939, with the second aircraft following on 26 May 1940. The Vulture engine was chosen by Avro and not stipulated by the Air Ministry as is sometimes claimed; other engine layouts considered included the use of two Bristol Hercules or Bristol Centaurus radial engines. The Handley Page HP.56, always intended as the backup to the Avro, was redesigned to take four engines on the orders of the Air Ministry in 1937, when the Vulture was already showing problems. While the Manchester was designed with a twin tail, the first production aircraft, designated the Mk I, had a central fin added and twenty aircraft like this were built. They were succeeded by the Mk IA which reverted to the twin-fin system but used enlarged, taller fin and rudders mounted on a new tailplane, with span increased from 22 ft (6.71 m) to 33 ft (10.06 m). This configuration was carried over to the Lancaster, except for the first prototype, which also used a central fin and was a converted, unfinished Manchester. Avro constructed 177 Manchesters while Metropolitan-Vickers completed 32 aircraft. Plans for Armstrong Whitworth and Fairey Aviation at Ringway (now Manchester Airport) to build the Manchester were abandoned. Fairey's order for 150 Manchesters was replaced by orders for the Halifax. Design The forward section of a Manchester Mark I at Waddington, Lincolnshire, showing the nose with the bomb-aimer's window, the forward gun-turret and the cockpit, September 1941 The Avro Manchester was designed with great consideration for ease of manufacture and repair. The fuselage of the aircraft comprised longitudinal stringers or longerons throughout, over which an external skin of aluminium alloy was flush-riveted for a smooth external surface. The wings were of a two-spar construction, the internal ribs being made of aluminium alloys; fuel was contained with several self-sealing fuel tanks within the wings. The tail shared a similar construction to the wing, featuring a twin fin-and-rudder configuration that provided good vision for the dorsal gunner. The cockpit housed the pilot and fighting controller's position underneath the canopy, and these two crew members were provided with all-round vision. The navigator was seated aft of the fighting controller and the position included an astrodome for use of a sextant. The bomb aimer's station was housed inside the aircraft's nose, beneath the forward turret and bomb aiming was conducted using optical sights housed in this compartment. For crew comfort on lengthy missions, a rest area was situated just to the rear of the main cabin. The aircraft's undercarriage was entirely retractable via hydraulic systems, or in an emergency, a backup air system. The doors to the bomb bay were also operated by these systems, an additional safety measure was installed to ensure that the bombs could not be dropped if the doors were shut. The bombs were housed on bomb racks inside the internal bomb bay, and other armaments such as torpedoes could also be fitted. All fuel tankage was located in the wings in order to keep the fuselage free to accommodate more armaments in the bomb bay which covered nearly two-thirds of the underside of the fuselage. Vulnerable parts of the aircraft were armoured; the pilot had additional armour and bulletproof glass and an armoured bulkhead was to the rear of the navigator's position. The Manchester featured three hydraulically-operated turrets, located in the nose, rear and mid-upper fuselage; the addition of a ventral turret directly behind the bomb bay had been considered and tested on the second prototype, but did not feature on production aircraft. Access to all crew stations was provided by a walkway and crew positions had nearby escape hatches. The Manchester was powered by a pair of Vulture engines; in service these proved to be extremely unreliable. Aviation author Jon Lake stated of the Vulture: "The engine made the Manchester mainly notable for its unreliability, poor performance, and general inadequacy to the task at hand" and attributed the aircraft's poor service record to the engine troubles. I was one of the six original pilots to have flown with the first Manchester squadron. That was a disaster. The aircraft itself, the airframe, had many shortcomings in equipment in the beginning, but as we found out Avro were excellent in doing modifications and re-equipping the aeroplane. The engines never were and never did become reliable. They did not give enough power for the aeroplane, so we ended up with two extremely unreliable 1,750 hp engines having to haul a 50,000-pound aircraft. We should really have had 2,500 hp engines. You felt that if you'd lost one, that was it, you weren't coming home. It didn't matter if you feathered the propeller or not. There was only one way you went and that was down. I have seen an aircraft doing a run up on the ground and have two pistons come right out through the side of the engine. The original bearings were made without any silver as an economy measure, so they weren't hard enough. The bearings would collapse the connecting rod and the piston would fling out through the side of the engine and bang! Your engine just destroyed itself. Operational history Avro Manchester Mk IA On 5 August 1940, the first production Avro Manchester, L7276, was delivered to RAF Boscombe Down in advance of service acceptance trials. In November 1940, the Manchester officially entered service with the newly reformed No. 207 Squadron of RAF Bomber Command. The type passed all acceptance tests by 21 December 1940, and 207 Squadron had at least 80 Manchesters on strength by the end of 1940. The Manchester's first operational mission was conducted on 24–25 February 1941 in a raid on the French port of Brest. On 13 March 1941, L7319 became the first Manchester to be shot down by enemy fire. On 13 April 1941, all Manchesters were temporarily grounded due to a higher than expected number of engine bearing failures; on 16 June 1941, a second grounding of the type was ordered due to more engine troubles. The unserviceability of the Vulture engine forced squadrons to make use of obsolete bombers such as the Hampden in its place. Upon the restart of operations in August 1941, additional failings were encountered; excessive tail flutter, hydraulic failures and faulty propeller feathering controls. Production of the Manchester was halted in November 1941, by which point a total of 202 aircraft had been constructed. A total of eight bomber squadrons were equipped with the type, it also served in two further squadrons and also saw use by RAF Coastal Command. Interior view of a Manchester MK I While modifications were made by Avro to address some of the technical issues experienced, unit strength suffered and Bomber Command was frequently unable to raise significant numbers of aircraft to participate in large bombing missions; on 7 November 1941, all of the RAFs serviceable bombers had been dispatched to bomb Berlin, out of a force of over 400 bombers, only 15 were Manchesters. On 3 March 1942, out of a force of nearly 200 bombers sent against a Renault factory near Paris, 25 were Manchesters; while during the first 1,000 bomber raid on Cologne on 30 May 1942, 35 Manchesters were amongst the 1,047 bombers sent to attack the city. Flying Officer Leslie Manser was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions while piloting Manchester L7301 of 50 Squadron during the Cologne bombing mission. The Mk III Manchester (serial number BT308) which first flew on 9 January 1941, was essentially the first Lancaster, featuring a longer wing fitted with four Rolls-Royce Merlins in new unitized, power-egg nacelles – originally developed by Rolls-Royce for the Merlin-powered Beaufighter II – although initially retaining the three fins and twin outboard rudders (the central fin had no movable control surface) of the Manchester I. BT308 received the "Lancaster" name immediately after its first flight. The second prototype Lancaster DG595 featured the twin, enlarged fins and rudders of the Manchester IA. Manchester production continued until November of that year but some aircraft that were still in production were instead completed as Lancasters. The 193 operational Manchesters flew 1,269 sorties with Bomber Command, dropping 1,826 tons (1,657 tonnes) of bombs and lost 78 aircraft in action, flying its last operation against Bremen on 25 June 1942. A further 45 were non-operational losses of which 30 involved engine failure. The Manchester was withdrawn from operations in mid-1942 in favour of more capable aircraft. Its final role in RAF service was as instructional trainers for converting crews to the RAF's new Lancaster bombers; the Manchester and Lancaster shared nearly identical crew positions and fuselages. The type persisted in use for training purposes into 1943 before being completely retired. Variants Manchester L7246 First prototype originally with twin tail. Due to lack of directional stability, it had a third fin added. Became a training airframe in November 1942. Manchester L7247 Second prototype first flown 26 May 1940, fitted with armament, became a training airframe in October 1941. Manchester I First production version with 90 ft wing and 28 ft twin tail and additional central fin later added; 20 of this type were built. Manchester IA Main production version with 90 ft wing, twin tail with 33 ft enlarged tailplane. It also had taller fins and rudders. Manchester IB As Manchester IA but with thin-gauge fuselage skin. Manchester IC As Manchester IB but with 2 x 2,520 hp Bristol Centaurus. Installed in one airframe but never flown. Manchester II As Manchester IB but with 95 ft wing. Manchester IIA As Manchester II but with 2 x Bristol Centaurus. None built. Manchester III BT308 This version was powered by four Merlin engines with increased wingspan; also, the three fins and rudders of the Manchester I were retained. This variant was the first prototype of the later Avro Lancaster. Orders and production Two prototypes were ordered against specification P.13/36 and were built by Avro at Ringway. Production contract for 200 Manchesters placed with Avro to be built at Chadderton, contract changed to Lancaster I production after 157 had been built, delivered between August 1940 and November 1941. Production contract for 150 Manchesters placed with Fairey to be built at Ringway, order cancelled. Production contract for 200 Manchesters placed with Metropolitan-Vickers at Trafford Park, contract changed to Lancaster I production after 43 had been built, delivered between March 1941 and March 1942. The first 12 aircraft being built on the Trafford Park production line were destroyed in a German air raid on 23 December 1940, not being completed they are not included in the total aircraft built. Production contract for 150 Manchesters placed with Armstrong-Whitworth, order cancelled. In total two prototypes and 200 production aircraft were built before the production lines changed to building the four-engine Lancaster. Operators  Australia Royal Australian Air Force No. 460 Squadron RAAF (August 1942 - October 1942)  Canada Royal Canadian Air Force No. 408 Squadron RCAF No. 420 Squadron RCAF  United Kingdom Royal Air Force No. 49 Squadron RAF at RAF Scampton (April 1942 – June 1942) No. 50 Squadron RAF at RAF Skellingthorpe (April 1942 – June 1942) No. 61 Squadron RAF at RAF Hemswell (June 1941 – June 1942) No. 83 Squadron RAF at RAF Scampton (December 1941 – June 1942) No. 97 Squadron RAF at RAF Waddington then RAF Coningsby (February 1941 – February 1942) No. 106 Squadron RAF at RAF Coningsby (February 1942 – June 1942) No. 207 Squadron RAF at RAF Waddington then RAF Bottesford (November 1940 – March 1942) No. 25 Operation Training Unit at RAF Finningley No. 44 Conversion Flight No. 1485 Flight RAF No. 1654 Heavy Conversion Unit No. 1656 Heavy Conversion Unit No. 1660 Heavy Conversion Unit No. 1668 Heavy Conversion Unit Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment Torpedo Development Unit at RAF Gosport Specifications (Manchester Mk I) Orthographic projection of the Avro Manchester Mk I, with profile detail of Mk.IA Data from Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57, Avro Aircraft since 1908, FlightGeneral characteristics Crew: 7 Length: 70 ft (21 m) Wingspan: 90 ft 1 in (27.46 m) Height: 19 ft 6 in (5.94 m) Wing area: 1,131 sq ft (105.1 m2) Airfoil: root: NACA 23018; tip: NACA 23012 Empty weight: 31,200 lb (14,152 kg) Max takeoff weight: 50,000 lb (22,680 kg) Powerplant: 2 × Rolls-Royce Vulture I X-24 liquid-cooled piston engine, 1,760 hp (1,310 kW) each Propellers: 3-bladed constant-speed feathering propellers Performance Maximum speed: 265 mph (426 km/h, 230 kn) at 17,000 ft (5,200 m) Range: 1,200 mi (1,900 km, 1,000 nmi) with maximum bomb load of 10,350 lb (4,695 kg) Service ceiling: 19,200 ft (5,900 m) Armament Guns: 8 × 0.303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns, (in Nash & Thompson nose (2), dorsal (2) and tail (4) turrets) Bombs: 10,350 lb (4,695 kg) bomb load See also Flying Officer Leslie Thomas Manser VC Related development Avro Lancaster Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Handley Page Halifax Heinkel He 177 Vickers Warwick Related lists List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force List of aircraft of World War II List of bomber aircraft References Notes ^ Historian Francis K. Mason claimed that the engine selection was a part of the specification, as does aviation author Chaz Bowyer, Buttler states the Ministry specified prototypes with Hercules and Vulture engines, and Sinnott refutes the assertion. ^ Handley Page's aborted HP.56 proposal would become the four engine HP.57 that entered service as the Handley Page Halifax, a significantly more successful aircraft than the Manchester. ^ German pilots soon learnt of the lack of any defence in the ventral area on both the Manchester and its successor the Lancaster, and would often attack the aircraft in a manner to exploit this vulnerability. ^ Designations are internal Avro ones circa November 1939, the Air Ministry only used the 'Mk I' and 'MK IA' designations to differentiate between the early triple-fin and later twin-fin variants. ^ Centaurus development had been halted to enable Bristol to concentrate effort on the Hercules. ^ The initial Avro proposal for 4 x Rolls-Royce Merlins was made September 1939. Alternative engine projects included 2 x 2,100 hp Napier Sabres, 2 x Bristol Hercules (layout only, 1940), 2 x Bristol Pegasus, layout only, 1940. Citations ^ Lake 2002, pp. 89–90. ^ a b Lewis 1974, p. 299. ^ Bowyer 1974, p. 25. ^ a b Bowyer 1974, p. 29. ^ a b Mason 1994, p. 323. ^ a b c d e Bowyer 1974, p. 26. ^ Bowyer 1974, pp. 28–29. ^ Bowyer 1974, pp. 25–26. ^ Buttler, 2004 p102-103 ^ Sinnott 2001, pp. 165–171. ^ Lake 2002, p. 90. ^ a b c d Lake 2002, p. 89. ^ a b c d Flight 1942, p. 555. ^ Flight 1942, pp. 555–556. ^ a b c Flight 1942, p. 556. ^ a b c Flight 1942, p. 557. ^ Bowyer 1974, p. 28. ^ Flight 1942, pp. 556–557. ^ "Before the Lancs", Early Days, Personal Stories, The Bomber Command Association ^ Bowyer 1974, pp. 29–31. ^ Jackson 1990, p. 355. ^ a b c Thetford 1957 ^ Bowyer 1974, p. 31. ^ Bowyer 1974, p. 32. ^ Bowyer 1974, p. 33. ^ Bowyer 1974, p. 34. ^ Bowyer 1974, p. 35. ^ Bowyer 1974, p. 38. ^ Bowyer 1974, pp. 38, 41. ^ a b Jackson 1990, p. 356. ^ a b Bowyer 1974, p. 43. ^ "ADF Serials - Avro Manchester". ^ Lednicer, David. "The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage". m-selig.ae.illinois.edu. Retrieved 16 April 2019. Bibliography "Avro Manchester – Details and Performance of Our Heaviest Twin-engined Bomber". Flight. 4 June 1942. pp. 555–557. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Bowyer, Chaz. Aircraft Profile No. 260: Avro Manchester. Windsor, UK: Profile Publications, 1974. Buttler, Tony. British Secret Projects: Fighters and Bombers 1935–1950. Hickley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. ISBN 978-1-8578-0179-8. Jackson, A.J. Avro Aircraft since 1908. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, Second edition, 1990. ISBN 0-85177-834-8. Lake, Jon. The Great Book of Bombers: The World's Most Important Bombers from World War I to the Present Day. Zenith Imprint, 2002. ISBN 0-76031-347-4. Lewis, Peter. The British Bomber since 1914. London: Putnam, Second edition, 1974. ISBN 0-37010-040-9. "Manchesters". Aeromilitaria No. 2. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd., 1990. Mason, Francis K. The British Bomber since 1914. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1994. ISBN 0-85177-861-5. Sinnott, Colin. The RAF and Aircraft Design 1923–1939: Air Staff Operational Requirements (Studies in Air Power). London: Frank Cass, 2001. ISBN 978-0-7146-5158-3. Thetford, Owen. Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57. London: Putnam, First edition, 1957. ISBN 0-37000-101-X. Further reading Chant, Christopher. Lancaster: The History of Britain's Most Famous World War II Bomber. Bath, UK: Parragon, 2003. ISBN 0-75258-769-2. Holmes, Harry. Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company. Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press Ltd, Second edition, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-651-0. Holmes, Harry. Avro Lancaster (Combat Legend series). Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 2002. ISBN 1-84037-376-8. Jackson, Robert. Aircraft of World War II. Enderby, UK: Silverdale Books, 2006. ISBN 1-85605-751-8. Kirby, Robert. Avro Manchester: The Legend Behind the Manchester. Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85780-028-1. Mackay, R.S.G. Lancaster in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1982. ISBN 0-89747-130-X. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Avro Manchester. Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary – Avro Manchester History, Specifications and Pictures of the Avro Manchester The Lancaster & Manchester Bomber Archive 1941 British Pathe news report on the newly introduced Avro Manchester vteAvro aircraftAvrodesignationsRoe aircraft Roe I Biplane Roe I Triplane Roe II Triplane Roe III Triplane Roe IV Triplane Type letters Type D Type E Type Es Type F Type G Type H Type J NumericaldesignationsBuiltaircraft 500 501 502 503 504 507(wing set) 508 510 511 514 519 521 523 527 528 529 530 531 533 534 536 538 539 540 543 545 546 547 548 549 551 552 554 555 557 558 560 561 562 563 566 567 571 572 574 575 576 581 582 584 585 586 587 594 604 605 611 612 616 617 618 619 620 621 623 624 625 626 627 631 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 646 652 654 661 667 671 674 679 683 685 688 689 691 694 696 698 701 706 707 748 780 Unbuiltprojects 505(skipped) 506 509 512 513 515 516 517 518 520 522 524 525 526 532 535 537 541 542 544 550 553 559 564 565 556 568 569 570 573 577 578 579 580 583 588 589 590 591 592 593 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 606 607 608 609 610 613 614 615 622 628 629 630 632 633 634 635 636 644 645 647 648 649 650 651 653 655 656 657 658 659 660 662 663 664 665 666 668 669 670 672 673 675 676 677 678 680 681 682 684 685B 686 687 690 692 693 695 697 699 700 702 703 704 705 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 781 782 783 784 RoleTrainers 500 504 540 545 548 552 Anson Athena Cadet Sea Tutor Tutor Prefect Warregull Transports 536 537 542 546 547 553 618 652 748 Andover Anson Ashton Commodore Eight Eighteen Five Lancastrian Lincolnian Saloon Six Super Trader Ten Trader Tudor XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII York Bombers 504 519 522 528 529 730 Aldershot Antelope Ava Buffalo Lancaster Lincoln Manchester (1) Manchester (2) Pike Silver King Vulcan Maritime patrol& reconnaissance 501 503 508 510 511 512 541 Anson Arrowscout Bison Shackleton Wright Fighters 521 527 530 531 Avenger Avocet Pike Spider Tiger Fighter Sports/racing aircraft 510 538 539 558 560 Antarctic Baby Avian Avis Baby Cabin Cadet Popular Water Baby Experimental 574 575 576 707 Ashton Burga Duigan Roe I Biplane Roe I Triplane Roe II Triplane Roe III Triplane Roe IV Triplane vteAvro Lancaster aircraft familyBombers Manchester Lancaster Lincoln Patrol Shackleton Airliners/transports Lancastrian York Lincolnian Tudor Trader Super Trader Ashton Notable aircraft FM213 G for George PA474 Topics Accidents and incidents 1945 PA278 disappearance 1945 Avro York crash 1947 Star Dust accident 1948 Star Tiger disappearance 1948 Northwood mid-air collision 1949 Star Ariel disappearance 1950 Llandow air disaster 1952 Luqa crash 1953 Mediterranean Sea mid-air collision 1953 Skyways disappearance 1955 Shackleton disappearance 1956 Scottish Airlines air disaster 1958 Dan-Air crash 1959 Air Charter crash 1990 Scotland crash Lincoln Shackleton York In fiction Ashton Operators Survivors Notable people/groups Stuart Davies Roy Chadwick Related Orange Harvest Authority control databases: National Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Avro 533 Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_533_Manchester"},{"link_name":"heavy bomber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_bomber"},{"link_name":"Avro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro"},{"link_name":"Avro Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"strategic bombers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bomber"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Air Ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Ministry"},{"link_name":"Specification P.13/36","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Air_Ministry_Specifications"},{"link_name":"medium bomber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_bomber"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Armstrong Whitworth Whitley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_Whitley"},{"link_name":"Handley Page Hampden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Hampden"},{"link_name":"Vickers Wellington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Wellington"},{"link_name":"maiden flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiden_flight"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Rolls-Royce Vulture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Vulture"},{"link_name":"Rolls-Royce Merlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Merlin"}],"text":"This article is about the Second World War bomber. For the First World War biplane, see Avro 533 Manchester.The Avro 679 Manchester was a British twin-engine heavy bomber developed and manufactured by the Avro aircraft company in the United Kingdom. While not being built in great numbers, it was the forerunner of the more famed and more successful four-engined Avro Lancaster, which was one of the most capable strategic bombers of the Second World War.Avro designed the Manchester in conformance with the requirements laid out by the British Air Ministry Specification P.13/36, which sought a capable medium bomber with which to equip the Royal Air Force (RAF) and to replace its inventory of twin-engine bombers, such as the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, Handley Page Hampden and Vickers Wellington. Performing its maiden flight on 25 July 1939, the Manchester entered squadron service in November 1940, just over twelve months after the outbreak of the war.Operated by both RAF and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), the Manchester came to be regarded as a complete operational failure, primarily as a result of its Rolls-Royce Vulture engines, which were underdeveloped and hence underpowered and unreliable, and production was terminated in 1941. However, the Manchester was redesigned into a four-engined heavy bomber, powered by the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine instead, which became known as the Lancaster.","title":"Avro Manchester"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Air Ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Ministry"},{"link_name":"Specification P.13/36","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Air_Ministry_Specifications"},{"link_name":"Handley Page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page"},{"link_name":"Halifax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Halifax"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"medium bomber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_bomber"},{"link_name":"dive bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dive_bombing"},{"link_name":"torpedoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lewis_bomber-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_25-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_29-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mason_bomber_p323-5"},{"link_name":"B.1/35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Warwick"},{"link_name":"Boulton Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulton_Paul_Aircraft"},{"link_name":"Bristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Aeroplane_Company"},{"link_name":"Fairey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey_Aviation_Company"},{"link_name":"Shorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Napier Sabre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napier_Sabre"},{"link_name":"Armstrong Whitworth Whitley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_Whitley"},{"link_name":"Handley Page Hampden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Hampden"},{"link_name":"Vickers Wellington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Wellington"},{"link_name":"Rolls-Royce Vulture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Vulture"},{"link_name":"X-block engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_engine"},{"link_name":"Rolls-Royce Peregrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Peregrine"},{"link_name":"Vee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_engine"},{"link_name":"cylinder blocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_block"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_26-6"},{"link_name":"Ringway Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Airport"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lewis_bomber-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Bristol Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Hercules"},{"link_name":"Bristol Centaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Centaurus"},{"link_name":"radial engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_engine"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_26-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"twin tail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_tail"},{"link_name":"rudders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder"},{"link_name":"tailplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailplane"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lake_89-14"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan-Vickers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers"},{"link_name":"Armstrong Whitworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth"},{"link_name":"Fairey Aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey_Aviation"},{"link_name":"Manchester Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Airport"}],"text":"The Manchester has its origins in a design produced by Avro in order to fulfil the British Air Ministry's Specification P.13/36. This was the same specification to which Handley Page had also produced their initial design for what would become the Halifax bomber.[1] Issued in May 1936, Specification P.13/36 called for a twin-engine monoplane \"medium bomber\" for \"worldwide use\", which was to be capable of carrying out shallow (30°) dive bombing attacks and carry heavy bombloads (8,000 lb/3,630 kg) or two 18 in (457 mm) torpedoes.[2][3] Additionally, provisions to conduct catapult assisted takeoffs, which would permit the carriage of the maximum payload, was also a stated requirement, although this provision was removed in July 1938.[4] The envisioned cruising speed of the bomber was to be a minimum of 275 mph at 15,000 feet.[5] The Air Ministry had expectations for an aircraft of similar weight to the B.1/35 specification, but smaller and faster.Avro had already started work on a corresponding design prior to having received a formal invitation to tender. The company was in competition with Boulton Paul, Bristol, Fairey, Handley Page and Shorts. Vickers also had its Warwick, which had Napier Sabre engines, but eventually chose against tendering it. In early 1937, both the Avro design and the rival Handley Page HP.56 were accepted and prototypes of both ordered; but in mid-1937, the Air Ministry exercised their rights to order the types \"off the drawing board\". This skipping of the usual process was necessary due to the initiation of a wider expansion of the RAF in expectation of large scale war in Europe. From 1939, it was expected that the P.13/36 would begin replacing the RAF's existing medium bombers, such as the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, Handley Page Hampden and Vickers Wellington.The Avro design used the Rolls-Royce Vulture 24-cylinder X-block engine, which was two Rolls-Royce Peregrine Vee cylinder blocks mounted one on top of the other, the bottom one inverted to give the \"X\" shape.[6] When developed in 1935, the Vulture engine had promise — it was rated at 1,760 hp (1,310 kW) but it proved woefully unreliable and had to be derated to 1,480–1,500 hp (1,100–1,120 kW). Avro's prototype Manchester L7246, was assembled by their experimental department at Manchester's Ringway Airport and first flew from there on 25 July 1939, with the second aircraft following on 26 May 1940.[2][7] The Vulture engine was chosen by Avro and not stipulated by the Air Ministry as is sometimes claimed;[a] other engine layouts considered included the use of two Bristol Hercules or Bristol Centaurus radial engines.[6] The Handley Page HP.56, always intended as the backup to the Avro, was redesigned to take four engines on the orders of the Air Ministry in 1937, when the Vulture was already showing problems.[11][b]While the Manchester was designed with a twin tail, the first production aircraft, designated the Mk I, had a central fin added and twenty aircraft like this were built. They were succeeded by the Mk IA which reverted to the twin-fin system but used enlarged, taller fin and rudders mounted on a new tailplane, with span increased from 22 ft (6.71 m) to 33 ft (10.06 m). This configuration was carried over to the Lancaster, except for the first prototype, which also used a central fin and was a converted, unfinished Manchester.[12] Avro constructed 177 Manchesters while Metropolitan-Vickers completed 32 aircraft. Plans for Armstrong Whitworth and Fairey Aviation at Ringway (now Manchester Airport) to build the Manchester were abandoned. Fairey's order for 150 Manchesters was replaced by orders for the Halifax.","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avro_Manchester_Mk_I_of_No._207_Squadron_RAF_at_Waddington,_Lincolnshire,_12_September_1941._CH3879.jpg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-15"},{"link_name":"longerons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longeron"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-flight_556-17"},{"link_name":"astrodome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrodome_(aviation)"},{"link_name":"sextant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-flight_556-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-flight_557-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_28-19"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-15"},{"link_name":"bomb bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb_bay"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-flight_557-18"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-flight_557-18"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_26-6"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-flight_556-17"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lake_89-14"},{"link_name":"ventral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_26-6"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lake_89-14"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"}],"text":"The forward section of a Manchester Mark I at Waddington, Lincolnshire, showing the nose with the bomb-aimer's window, the forward gun-turret and the cockpit, September 1941The Avro Manchester was designed with great consideration for ease of manufacture and repair.[13] The fuselage of the aircraft comprised longitudinal stringers or longerons throughout, over which an external skin of aluminium alloy was flush-riveted for a smooth external surface.[13] The wings were of a two-spar construction, the internal ribs being made of aluminium alloys; fuel was contained with several self-sealing fuel tanks within the wings.[14] The tail shared a similar construction to the wing, featuring a twin fin-and-rudder configuration that provided good vision for the dorsal gunner.[15]The cockpit housed the pilot and fighting controller's position underneath the canopy, and these two crew members were provided with all-round vision. The navigator was seated aft of the fighting controller and the position included an astrodome for use of a sextant.[15] The bomb aimer's station was housed inside the aircraft's nose, beneath the forward turret and bomb aiming was conducted using optical sights housed in this compartment.[16] For crew comfort on lengthy missions, a rest area was situated just to the rear of the main cabin.[17]The aircraft's undercarriage was entirely retractable via hydraulic systems, or in an emergency, a backup air system.[13] The doors to the bomb bay were also operated by these systems, an additional safety measure was installed to ensure that the bombs could not be dropped if the doors were shut.[16] The bombs were housed on bomb racks inside the internal bomb bay, and other armaments such as torpedoes could also be fitted.[16] All fuel tankage was located in the wings in order to keep the fuselage free to accommodate more armaments in the bomb bay which covered nearly two-thirds of the underside of the fuselage.[6]Vulnerable parts of the aircraft were armoured; the pilot had additional armour and bulletproof glass and an armoured bulkhead was to the rear of the navigator's position.[15] The Manchester featured three hydraulically-operated turrets, located in the nose, rear and mid-upper fuselage;[12] the addition of a ventral turret directly behind the bomb bay had been considered and tested on the second prototype, but did not feature on production aircraft.[c][6] Access to all crew stations was provided by a walkway and crew positions had nearby escape hatches.[18]The Manchester was powered by a pair of Vulture engines; in service these proved to be extremely unreliable. Aviation author Jon Lake stated of the Vulture: \"The engine made the Manchester mainly notable for its unreliability, poor performance, and general inadequacy to the task at hand\" and attributed the aircraft's poor service record to the engine troubles.[12]I was one of the six original pilots to have flown with the first Manchester squadron. That was a disaster. The aircraft itself, the airframe, had many shortcomings in equipment in the beginning, but as we found out Avro were excellent in doing modifications and re-equipping the aeroplane. The engines never were and never did become reliable. They did not give enough power for the aeroplane, so we ended up with two extremely unreliable 1,750 hp engines having to haul a 50,000-pound aircraft. We should really have had 2,500 hp engines. You felt that if you'd lost one, that was it, you weren't coming home. It didn't matter if you feathered the propeller or not. There was only one way you went and that was down. I have seen an aircraft doing a run up on the ground and have two pistons come right out through the side of the engine. The original bearings were made without any silver as an economy measure, so they weren't hard enough. The bearings would collapse the connecting rod and the piston would fling out through the side of the engine and bang! Your engine just destroyed itself.[19][permanent dead link]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avro_Manchester.jpg"},{"link_name":"RAF Boscombe Down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOD_Boscombe_Down"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_29-4"},{"link_name":"No. 207 Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._207_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"RAF Bomber Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Brest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brest,_France"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thetford_raf-25"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_31-26"},{"link_name":"bearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_32-27"},{"link_name":"propeller feathering controls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aeronautics)#Feathering"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_33-28"},{"link_name":"RAF Coastal Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thetford_raf-25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inside_207_Squadron_Avro_Manchester_WWII_IWM_CH_3884.jpg"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_34-29"},{"link_name":"Renault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_35-30"},{"link_name":"first 1,000 bomber raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Cologne_in_World_War_II#First_1,000_bomber_raid"},{"link_name":"Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_38-31"},{"link_name":"Leslie Manser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Thomas_Manser"},{"link_name":"Victoria Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Cross"},{"link_name":"50 Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._50_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"serial number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_military_aircraft_serials"},{"link_name":"power-egg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-egg"},{"link_name":"Beaufighter II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Beaufighter"},{"link_name":"Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jackson_avro-33"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_43-34"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bowyer_43-34"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lake_89-14"}],"text":"Avro Manchester Mk IAOn 5 August 1940, the first production Avro Manchester, L7276, was delivered to RAF Boscombe Down in advance of service acceptance trials.[4] In November 1940, the Manchester officially entered service with the newly reformed No. 207 Squadron of RAF Bomber Command. The type passed all acceptance tests by 21 December 1940, and 207 Squadron had at least 80 Manchesters on strength by the end of 1940.[20] The Manchester's first operational mission was conducted on 24–25 February 1941 in a raid on the French port of Brest.[21][22] On 13 March 1941, L7319 became the first Manchester to be shot down by enemy fire.[23]On 13 April 1941, all Manchesters were temporarily grounded due to a higher than expected number of engine bearing failures; on 16 June 1941, a second grounding of the type was ordered due to more engine troubles.[24] The unserviceability of the Vulture engine forced squadrons to make use of obsolete bombers such as the Hampden in its place. Upon the restart of operations in August 1941, additional failings were encountered; excessive tail flutter, hydraulic failures and faulty propeller feathering controls.[25] Production of the Manchester was halted in November 1941, by which point a total of 202 aircraft had been constructed. A total of eight bomber squadrons were equipped with the type, it also served in two further squadrons and also saw use by RAF Coastal Command.[22]Interior view of a Manchester MK IWhile modifications were made by Avro to address some of the technical issues experienced, unit strength suffered and Bomber Command was frequently unable to raise significant numbers of aircraft to participate in large bombing missions; on 7 November 1941, all of the RAFs serviceable bombers had been dispatched to bomb Berlin, out of a force of over 400 bombers, only 15 were Manchesters.[26] On 3 March 1942, out of a force of nearly 200 bombers sent against a Renault factory near Paris, 25 were Manchesters;[27] while during the first 1,000 bomber raid on Cologne on 30 May 1942, 35 Manchesters were amongst the 1,047 bombers sent to attack the city.[28] Flying Officer Leslie Manser was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions while piloting Manchester L7301 of 50 Squadron during the Cologne bombing mission.[29]The Mk III Manchester (serial number BT308) which first flew on 9 January 1941, was essentially the first Lancaster, featuring a longer wing fitted with four Rolls-Royce Merlins in new unitized, power-egg nacelles – originally developed by Rolls-Royce for the Merlin-powered Beaufighter II – although initially retaining the three fins and twin outboard rudders (the central fin had no movable control surface) of the Manchester I. BT308 received the \"Lancaster\" name immediately after its first flight. The second prototype Lancaster DG595 featured the twin, enlarged fins and rudders of the Manchester IA. Manchester production continued until November of that year but some aircraft that were still in production were instead completed as Lancasters.The 193 operational Manchesters flew 1,269 sorties with Bomber Command, dropping 1,826 tons (1,657 tonnes) of bombs and lost 78 aircraft in action, flying its last operation against Bremen on 25 June 1942.[30][31] A further 45 were non-operational losses of which 30 involved engine failure. The Manchester was withdrawn from operations in mid-1942 in favour of more capable aircraft. Its final role in RAF service was as instructional trainers for converting crews to the RAF's new Lancaster bombers; the Manchester and Lancaster shared nearly identical crew positions and fuselages.[31] The type persisted in use for training purposes into 1943 before being completely retired.[12]","title":"Operational history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Bristol Centaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Centaurus"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Avro Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"Manchester L7246\nFirst prototype originally with twin tail. Due to lack of directional stability, it had a third fin added. Became a training airframe in November 1942.\nManchester L7247\nSecond prototype first flown 26 May 1940, fitted with armament, became a training airframe in October 1941.\nManchester I\nFirst production version with 90 ft wing and 28 ft twin tail and additional central fin later added; 20 of this type were built.[d]\nManchester IA\nMain production version with 90 ft wing, twin tail with 33 ft enlarged tailplane. It also had taller fins and rudders.\nManchester IB\nAs Manchester IA but with thin-gauge fuselage skin.\nManchester IC\nAs Manchester IB but with 2 x 2,520 hp Bristol Centaurus. Installed in one airframe but never flown.[e]\nManchester II\nAs Manchester IB but with 95 ft wing.\nManchester IIA\nAs Manchester II but with 2 x Bristol Centaurus. None built.\nManchester III BT308\nThis version was powered by four Merlin engines with increased wingspan; also, the three fins and rudders of the Manchester I were retained. This variant was the first prototype of the later Avro Lancaster.[f]","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Orders and production","text":"Two prototypes were ordered against specification P.13/36 and were built by Avro at Ringway.\nProduction contract for 200 Manchesters placed with Avro to be built at Chadderton, contract changed to Lancaster I production after 157 had been built, delivered between August 1940 and November 1941.\nProduction contract for 150 Manchesters placed with Fairey to be built at Ringway, order cancelled.\nProduction contract for 200 Manchesters placed with Metropolitan-Vickers at Trafford Park, contract changed to Lancaster I production after 43 had been built, delivered between March 1941 and March 1942. The first 12 aircraft being built on the Trafford Park production line were destroyed in a German air raid on 23 December 1940, not being completed they are not included in the total aircraft built.\nProduction contract for 150 Manchesters placed with Armstrong-Whitworth, order cancelled.In total two prototypes and 200 production aircraft were built before the production lines changed to building the four-engine Lancaster.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Royal Australian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"No. 460 Squadron RAAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._460_Squadron_RAAF"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"No. 408 Squadron RCAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._408_Squadron_RCAF"},{"link_name":"No. 420 Squadron RCAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._420_Squadron_RCAF"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"No. 49 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._49_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"No. 50 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._50_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"No. 61 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._61_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"No. 83 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._83_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"No. 97 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._97_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"No. 106 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._106_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"No. 207 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._207_Squadron_RAF"}],"text":"AustraliaRoyal Australian Air Force\nNo. 460 Squadron RAAF (August 1942 - October 1942) [32]CanadaRoyal Canadian Air Force\nNo. 408 Squadron RCAF\nNo. 420 Squadron RCAFUnited KingdomRoyal Air Force\nNo. 49 Squadron RAF at RAF Scampton (April 1942 – June 1942)\nNo. 50 Squadron RAF at RAF Skellingthorpe (April 1942 – June 1942)\nNo. 61 Squadron RAF at RAF Hemswell (June 1941 – June 1942)\nNo. 83 Squadron RAF at RAF Scampton (December 1941 – June 1942)\nNo. 97 Squadron RAF at RAF Waddington then RAF Coningsby (February 1941 – February 1942)\nNo. 106 Squadron RAF at RAF Coningsby (February 1942 – June 1942)\nNo. 207 Squadron RAF at RAF Waddington then RAF Bottesford (November 1940 – March 1942)\nNo. 25 Operation Training Unit at RAF Finningley\nNo. 44 Conversion Flight\nNo. 1485 Flight RAF\nNo. 1654 Heavy Conversion Unit\nNo. 1656 Heavy Conversion Unit\nNo. 1660 Heavy Conversion Unit\nNo. 1668 Heavy Conversion Unit\nAirborne Forces Experimental Establishment\nTorpedo Development Unit at RAF Gosport","title":"Operators"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avro_Manchester.png"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thetford_raf-25"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jackson_avro-33"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-15"},{"link_name":"Airfoil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoil"},{"link_name":"NACA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NACA_airfoil"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Selig-39"},{"link_name":"Rolls-Royce Vulture I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Vulture_I"},{"link_name":"0.303 in (7.7 mm)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.303_British"},{"link_name":"Browning machine guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1919_Browning_machine_gun"},{"link_name":"Nash & Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash_%26_Thompson"}],"text":"Orthographic projection of the Avro Manchester Mk I, with profile detail of Mk.IAData from Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57,[22] Avro Aircraft since 1908,[30] Flight[13]General characteristicsCrew: 7\nLength: 70 ft (21 m)\nWingspan: 90 ft 1 in (27.46 m)\nHeight: 19 ft 6 in (5.94 m)\nWing area: 1,131 sq ft (105.1 m2)\nAirfoil: root: NACA 23018; tip: NACA 23012[33]\nEmpty weight: 31,200 lb (14,152 kg)\nMax takeoff weight: 50,000 lb (22,680 kg)\nPowerplant: 2 × Rolls-Royce Vulture I X-24 liquid-cooled piston engine, 1,760 hp (1,310 kW) each\nPropellers: 3-bladed constant-speed feathering propellersPerformanceMaximum speed: 265 mph (426 km/h, 230 kn) at 17,000 ft (5,200 m)\nRange: 1,200 mi (1,900 km, 1,000 nmi) with maximum bomb load of 10,350 lb (4,695 kg)\nService ceiling: 19,200 ft (5,900 m)ArmamentGuns: 8 × 0.303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns, (in Nash & Thompson nose (2), dorsal (2) and tail (4) turrets)\nBombs: 10,350 lb (4,695 kg) bomb load","title":"Specifications (Manchester Mk I)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-75258-769-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-75258-769-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-86126-651-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86126-651-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-84037-376-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84037-376-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-85605-751-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85605-751-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-85780-028-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85780-028-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89747-130-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89747-130-X"}],"text":"Chant, Christopher. Lancaster: The History of Britain's Most Famous World War II Bomber. Bath, UK: Parragon, 2003. ISBN 0-75258-769-2.\nHolmes, Harry. Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company. Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press Ltd, Second edition, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-651-0.\nHolmes, Harry. Avro Lancaster (Combat Legend series). Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 2002. ISBN 1-84037-376-8.\nJackson, Robert. Aircraft of World War II. Enderby, UK: Silverdale Books, 2006. ISBN 1-85605-751-8.\nKirby, Robert. Avro Manchester: The Legend Behind the Manchester. Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85780-028-1.\nMackay, R.S.G. Lancaster in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1982. ISBN 0-89747-130-X.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"The forward section of a Manchester Mark I at Waddington, Lincolnshire, showing the nose with the bomb-aimer's window, the forward gun-turret and the cockpit, September 1941","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Avro_Manchester_Mk_I_of_No._207_Squadron_RAF_at_Waddington%2C_Lincolnshire%2C_12_September_1941._CH3879.jpg/220px-Avro_Manchester_Mk_I_of_No._207_Squadron_RAF_at_Waddington%2C_Lincolnshire%2C_12_September_1941._CH3879.jpg"},{"image_text":"Avro Manchester Mk IA","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Avro_Manchester.jpg/220px-Avro_Manchester.jpg"},{"image_text":"Interior view of a Manchester MK I","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Inside_207_Squadron_Avro_Manchester_WWII_IWM_CH_3884.jpg/220px-Inside_207_Squadron_Avro_Manchester_WWII_IWM_CH_3884.jpg"},{"image_text":"Orthographic projection of the Avro Manchester Mk I, with profile detail of Mk.IA","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Avro_Manchester.png/330px-Avro_Manchester.png"}]

[{"title":"Flying Officer Leslie Thomas Manser VC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Manser"},{"title":"Avro Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lancaster"},{"title":"Handley Page Halifax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Halifax"},{"title":"Heinkel He 177","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_177"},{"title":"Vickers Warwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Warwick"},{"title":"List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aircraft_of_the_Royal_Air_Force"},{"title":"List of aircraft of World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aircraft_of_World_War_II"},{"title":"List of bomber aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bomber_aircraft"}]

[{"reference":"\"ADF Serials - Avro Manchester\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.adf-serials.com.au/manchester.htm","url_text":"\"ADF Serials - Avro Manchester\""}]},{"reference":"Lednicer, David. \"The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage\". m-selig.ae.illinois.edu. Retrieved 16 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html","url_text":"\"The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage\""}]},{"reference":"\"Avro Manchester – Details and Performance of Our Heaviest Twin-engined Bomber\". Flight. 4 June 1942. pp. 555–557. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305154103/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1942/1942%20-%201181.html","url_text":"\"Avro Manchester – Details and Performance of Our Heaviest Twin-engined Bomber\""},{"url":"http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1942/1942%20-%201181.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]

[{"Link":"http://www.rafbombercommand.com/personals_1_earlydays.html#stories_earlydays.html","external_links_name":"\"Before the Lancs\""},{"Link":"http://www.adf-serials.com.au/manchester.htm","external_links_name":"\"ADF Serials - Avro Manchester\""},{"Link":"https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html","external_links_name":"\"The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305154103/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1942/1942%20-%201181.html","external_links_name":"\"Avro Manchester – Details and Performance of Our Heaviest Twin-engined Bomber\""},{"Link":"http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1942/1942%20-%201181.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121208073605/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/manchester.html","external_links_name":"Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary – Avro Manchester"},{"Link":"http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.asp?aircraft_id=691","external_links_name":"History, Specifications and Pictures of the Avro Manchester"},{"Link":"http://www.lancaster-archive.com/","external_links_name":"The Lancaster & Manchester Bomber Archive"},{"Link":"http://www.britishpathe.com/video/r-a-fs-new-bomber","external_links_name":"1941 British Pathe news report on the newly introduced Avro Manchester"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007535120905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2005008418","external_links_name":"United States"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletproof_hosting

Bulletproof hosting

["1 History","2 Difficulties","2.1 Web hosting reseller","3 Admissible abuses","4 Impacts","4.1 Counterinitiatives against BPH","5 Notable closed services","6 See also","7 References","8 Bibliography"]

Internet service for use by cyber-criminals A former NATO-bunker in the Netherlands, which housed bulletproof hosting provider CyberBunker. Bulletproof hosting (BPH) is technical infrastructure service provided by an Internet hosting service that is resilient to complaints of illicit activities, which serves criminal actors as a basic building block for streamlining various cyberattacks. BPH providers allow online gambling, illegal pornography, botnet command and control servers, spam, copyrighted materials, hate speech and misinformation, despite takedown court orders and law enforcement subpoenas, allowing such material in their acceptable use policies. BPH providers usually operate in jurisdictions which have lenient laws against such conduct. Most non-BPH service providers prohibit transferring materials over their network that would be in violation of their terms of service and the local laws of the incorporated jurisdiction, and oftentimes any abuse reports would result in takedowns to avoid their autonomous system's IP address block being blacklisted by other providers and by Spamhaus. History BPH first became the subject of research in 2006 when security researchers from VeriSign revealed the Russian Business Network, an internet service provider that hosted a phishing group, was responsible for about $150 million in phishing-related scams. RBN also become known for identity thefts, child pornography, and botnets. The following year, McColo, the web hosting provider responsible for more than 75% of global spam was shut down and de-peered by Global Crossing and Hurricane Electric after the public disclosure by then-Washington Post reporter Brian Krebs on his Security Fix blog on that newspaper. Difficulties Since any abuse reports to the BPH will be disregarded, in most cases, the whole IP block ("netblock") assigned to the BPH's autonomous system will be blacklisted by other providers and third party spam filters. Additionally, BPH also have difficulty in finding network peering points for establishing Border Gateway Protocol sessions, since routing a BPH provider's network can affect the reputation of upstream autonomous systems and transit provider. This makes it difficult for BPH services to provide stable network connectivity, and in extreme cases, they can be completely de-peered; therefore BPH providers evade AS's reputation based fortification such as BGP Ranking and ASwatch through unconventional methodologies. Web hosting reseller According to a report, due to their mounting difficulties, BPH providers engage in establishing reseller relationships with lower-end hosting providers; although these providers are not complicit in supporting the illegitimate activities, they tend to be lenient on abuse reports and do not actively engage in fraud detection. Therefore, BPH conceals itself behind lower-end hosting providers, leveraging their better reputation and simultaneously operating both bulletproof and legitimate resells through the sub-allocated network blocks. However, if the BPH services are caught, providers of BPH migrate their clients to a newer internet infrastructure—newer lower-end AS, or IP space—effectively making the blacklisted IP addresses of the previous AS ephemeral; thus continuing to engage in criminal conduct by modifying the DNS server's resource records of the listening services and making it point to the newer IP addresses belonging to the current AS's IP space. Due to privacy concerns, the customary modes of contact for BPH providers include ICQ, Skype, and XMPP (or Jabber). Admissible abuses Most BPH providers promise immunity against copyright infringement and court order takedown notices, notably Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), Electronic Commerce Directive (ECD) and law enforcement subpoenas. They also allow users to operate phishing, scams (such as high-yield investment program), botnet masters and unlicensed online pharmacy websites. In these cases, the BPH providers (known as "offshore providers") operate in jurisdictions which do not have any extradition treaty or mutual legal assistance treaty (MLAT) signed with the five eye countries, particularly the United States. However, most BPH providers have a zero-tolerance policy towards child pornography and terrorism, although a few allow cold storage of such material given forbidden open-accessibility via the public internet. Prevalent jurisdictions for incorporation and location of the data centers for BPH providers include Russia (being more permissive), Ukraine, China, Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, Belize, Panama and the Seychelles. Impacts BPH services act as vital network infrastructure providers for activities such as cybercrime and online illicit economies, and the well-established working model of the cybercrime economies surrounds upon tool development and skill-sharing among peers. The development of exploits, such as zero-day vulnerabilities, are done by a very small community of highly-skilled actors, who encase them in convenient tools which are usually bought by low-skilled actors (known as script kiddies), who make use of BPH providers to carry out cyberattacks, usually targeting low-profile unpretentious network services and individuals. According to a report produced by Carnegie Mellon University for the United States Department of Defense, low-profile amateur actors are also potent in causing harmful consequences, especially to small businesses, inexperienced internet users, and miniature servers. Criminal actors also run specialized computer programs on BPH providers knowns as port scanners which scan the entire IPv4 address space for open ports, services run on those open ports, and the version of their service daemons, searching for vulnerable versions for exploitation. One such notable vulnerability scanned by the port scanners is Heartbleed, which affected millions of internet servers. Furthermore, BPH clients also host click fraud, adware (such as DollarRevenue), and money laundering recruitment sites, which lure untried internet users into honey trapping and causing financial losses to the individuals while unrestrictedly keeping their illicit sites online, despite court orders and takedown attempts by law enforcement. Counterinitiatives against BPH The Spamhaus Project is an international nonprofit organization that monitors cyber threats and provides realtime blacklist reports (known as the "Badness Index") on malicious ASs, netblocks, and registrars that are involved in spam, phishing, or cybercrime activities. The Spamhaus team works closely with law enforcement agencies such as National Cyber-Forensics and Training Alliance (NCFTA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the data compiled by Spamhaus is used by the majority of the ISPs, email service providers, corporations, educational institutes, governments and uplink gateways of military networks. Spamhaus publishes various data feeds that list netblocks of the criminal actors, and is designed for use by gateways, firewalls and routing equipments to filter out (or "nullroute") traffic originating from these netblocks: Spamhaus Don't Route Or Peer List (DROP) lists netblocks allocated by an established Regional Internet Registry (RIR) or National Internet Registry (NIR) that are used by criminal actors, and doesn't include abused IP address spaces sub-allocated netblocks of a reputable AS. Spamhaus Domain Block List (DBL) lists domain names with poor reputation in DNSBL format. Spamhaus Botnet Controller List (BCL) lists single IPv4 addresses of botnet masters. Notable closed services The following are some of the notable defunct BPH providers: CyberBunker, taken down in September 2019. McColo, taken down in November 2008. Russian Business Network (RBN), taken down in November 2007. Atrivo, taken down in September 2008. 3FN, taken down by FTC in June 2009. Proxiez, taken down in May 2010. See also Freedom Hosting Fast flux Security theater References ^ a b c McCoy, Mi & Wang 2017, p. 805. ^ a b Konte, Feamster & Perdisci 2015, p. 625. ^ Han, Kumar & Durumic 2021, p. 4. ^ "Host of Internet Spam Groups Is Cut Off". The Washington Post. 12 November 2008. Archived from the original on 22 June 2020. Retrieved 4 December 2021. ^ Han, Kumar & Durumic 2021, p. 5-6. ^ Kerbs, Brian (13 October 2007). "Shadowy Russian Firm Seen as Conduit for Cybercrime". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 15 September 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2022. ^ Warren, Peter (15 November 2007). "Hunt for Russia's Web Criminals". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 November 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2022. ^ Stone-Gross, Brett; Kruegel, Christopher; Almeroth, Kevin; Moser, Andreas (11 December 2009). FIRE: FInding Rogue nEtworks. Annual Computer Security Applications Conference. Proceedings of the ... Annual Computer Security Applications Conference. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. p. 231. doi:10.1109/ACSAC.2009.29. ISBN 978-1-4244-5327-6. ISSN 1063-9527. ^ Krebs, Brain (12 November 2008). "Host of Internet Spam Groups Is Cut Off". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2022. ^ Krebs, Brain. "Major Source of Online Scams and Spams Knocked Offline". Archived from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2022. ^ a b Spamhaus Research Team (19 December 2019). "Bulletproof hosting – there's a new kid in town". The Spamhaus Project. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2021. ^ a b McCoy, Mi & Wang 2017, p. 806. ^ McCoy, Mi & Wang 2017, p. 811. ^ Goncharov, Max (15 July 2015). "Criminal Hideouts for Lease: Bulletproof Hosting Services" (PDF). Trend Micro. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2021. Retrieved 5 December 2021. ^ Leporini 2015, p. 5. ^ Clayton & Moore 2008, p. 209. ^ Konte, Feamster & Jung 2008, p. 10. ^ Kopp, Strehle & Hohlfeld 2021, p. 2432. ^ Caesar, Ed (27 July 2020). "The Cold War Bunker That Became Home to a Dark-Web Empire". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 5 December 2021. ^ Thomas, Elise (8 August 2019). "Inside the bulletproof hosting providers that keep the world's worst websites in business". ABC News. Archived from the original on 4 September 2021. Retrieved 5 November 2021. ^ Richardson, Ronny; North, Max M. (1 January 2017). "Ransomware: Evolution, Mitigation and Prevention". International Management Review. 13 (1). Kennesaw State University: 13. ^ Collier & Hutchings 2021, p. 1. ^ Collier & Hutchings 2021, p. 1-2. ^ Bradbury 2010, p. 17. ^ Collier & Hutchings 2021, p. 2. ^ Mead, Nancy R.; Hough, Eric; Stehney, Theodore R. (31 October 2005). Security Quality Requirements Engineering (SQUARE) Methodology (Report). Carnegie Mellon University. doi:10.1184/R1/6583673.v1. Archived from the original on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 6 December 2021. ^ Durumeric, Zakir; Bailey, Michael; Halderman, J. Alex (August 2014). An internet-wide view of internet-wide scanning. USENIX conference on Security Symposium. USENIX. pp. 65–66. Archived from the original on 2021-12-06. Retrieved 2021-12-06. ^ Heo, Hawnjo; Shin, Seungwon (May 2018). Who is knocking on the Telnet Port: A Large-Scale Empirical Study of Network Scanning. Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security. pp. 625–626. doi:10.1145/3196494.3196537. Archived from the original on 2021-12-06. Retrieved 2021-12-06. ^ Watson, David (2007). "The evolution of web application attacks". Network Security. 2007 (11): 7–12. doi:10.1016/S1353-4858(08)70039-4. ISSN 1353-4858. Archived from the original on 2019-04-10. Retrieved 2021-12-06. ^ Nandi O. Leslie; Richard E. Harang; Lawrence P. Knachel; Alexander Kott (30 June 2017). "Statistical models for the number of successful cyber intrusions". The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation. 15 (1). United States: United States Army Research Laboratory: 49–63. arXiv:1901.04531. doi:10.1177/1548512917715342. S2CID 58006624. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021. ^ Grauer, Yael (17 January 2016). "Security News This Week: Tim Cook Demands That the White House Defend Encryption". Wired. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021. ^ "Corporate Documents: About Spamhaus". Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021. ^ "The Spamhaus Don't Route Or Peer Lists". The Spamhaus Project. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021. ^ "The Domain Block List (DBL)". The Spamhaus Project. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021. ^ "Spamhaus Botnet Controller List". The Spamhaus Project. Archived from the original on 26 August 2020. Retrieved 22 December 2021. ^ Krebs, Brian (28 September 2019). "German Cops Raid 'Cyberbunker 2.0', Arrest 7 in Child Porn, Dark Web Market Sting". Krebs on Security. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2021. ^ "Major Source of Online Scams and Spams Knocked Offline" Archived 2021-09-30 at the Wayback Machine, The Washington Post, November 2008. ^ "Security Fix - Russian Business Network: Down, But Not Out". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2016-09-26. Retrieved 2016-10-07. ^ "Scammer-Heavy U.S. ISP Grows More Isolated" Archived 2008-09-06 at the Wayback Machine, The Washington Post, September 2009. ^ "The Fallout from the 3FN Takedown" Archived 2011-08-10 at the Wayback Machine, The Washington Post, June 2009. ^ "ISP shuttered for hosting 'witches' brew' of spam, child porn" Archived 2017-08-10 at the Wayback Machine, The Register, May 2010 ^ "Rogue ISP ordered to liquidate, pay FTC $1.08 million" Archived 2012-05-02 at the Wayback Machine, Ars Technica, May 2010. ^ 'Bulletproof' ISP for crimeware gangs knocked offline Archived 2017-08-10 at the Wayback Machine, , The Register, May 2010. Bibliography McCoy, Damon; Mi, Xianghang; Wang, Xiofeng (26 June 2017). "Under the Shadow of Sunshine: Understanding and Detecting Bulletproof Hosting on Legitimate Service Provider Networks". 2017 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP). New York University. pp. 805–823. doi:10.1109/SP.2017.32. ISBN 978-1-5090-5533-3. S2CID 1593958. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help) Han, Catherine; Kumar, Deepak; Durumic, Zakir (2021). "On the Infrastructure Providers that Support Misinformation" (PDF). Stanford University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 August 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021. Konte, Maria; Feamster, Nick; Perdisci, Roberto (17 August 2015). "ASwatch: An AS Reputation System to Expose Bulletproof Hosting ASes". SIGCOMM Association for Computing Machinery. 45 (4). New York, United States. doi:10.1145/2829988.2787494. ISSN 0146-4833. Leporini, Dino (2015). Architectures and protocols powering illegal content streaming over the Internet. University of Pisa. Amsterdam, Netherlands: International Broadcasting Convention. p. 7. doi:10.1049/ibc.2015.0013. ISBN 978-1-78561-185-8. Clayton, Richard; Moore, Tyler (22 December 2008). "The Impact of Incentives on Notice and Take-down". Managing Information Risk and the Economics of Security. Boston: Springer Publishing. pp. 199–223. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09762-6_10. ISBN 978-0-387-09761-9. Kopp, Daniel; Strehle, Eric; Hohlfeld, Oliver (November 2021). "CyberBunker 2.0 - A Domain and Traffic Perspective on a Bulletproof Hoster". Proceedings of the 2021 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. Association for Computing Machinery, Brandenburg University of Technology. pp. 2432–2434. arXiv:2109.06858. doi:10.1145/3460120.3485352. ISBN 9781450384544. S2CID 237503582. Collier, Benjamin; Hutchings, Alice (15 April 2021). "Cybercrime is (often) boring: maintaining the infrastructure of cybercrime economies". The British Journal of Criminology. 61 (5). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/bjc/azab026. hdl:20.500.11820/68a9a01b-f7c3-4fcb-9128-66caf04a4684. Bradbury, Danny (15 October 2010). "Digging up the hacking underground". Infosecurity. 7 (5): 14–17. doi:10.1016/S1754-4548(10)70084-X. ISSN 1754-4548. Konte, M.; Feamster, N.; Jung, J. (January 2008). "SAC 025: SSAC Advisory on Fast Flux Hosting and DNS" (PDF). Security and Stability Advisory Committee (SSAC) (1). Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CyberBunker.jpg"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"CyberBunker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CyberBunker"},{"link_name":"technical infrastructure service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"Internet hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"illicit activities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fraud"},{"link_name":"criminal actors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackers"},{"link_name":"cyberattacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberattack"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoyMiWang2017805-1"},{"link_name":"online gambling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_gambling"},{"link_name":"illegal pornography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_pornography"},{"link_name":"botnet command and control servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botnet#Client%E2%80%93server_model"},{"link_name":"spam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_spam"},{"link_name":"copyrighted materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright"},{"link_name":"hate speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_speech"},{"link_name":"misinformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation"},{"link_name":"takedown court orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notice_and_take_down"},{"link_name":"law enforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement"},{"link_name":"subpoenas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena"},{"link_name":"acceptable use policies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptable_use_policy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKonteFeamsterPerdisci2015625-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanKumarDurumic20214-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"terms of service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terms_of_service"},{"link_name":"incorporated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporation_(business)"},{"link_name":"abuse reports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spam_reporting"},{"link_name":"autonomous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_system_(Internet)"},{"link_name":"IP address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"},{"link_name":"blacklisted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacklist_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Spamhaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spamhaus_Project"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanKumarDurumic20215-6-5"}],"text":"Internet service for use by cyber-criminalsA former NATO-bunker in the Netherlands, which housed bulletproof hosting provider CyberBunker.Bulletproof hosting (BPH) is technical infrastructure service provided by an Internet hosting service that is resilient to complaints of illicit activities, which serves criminal actors as a basic building block for streamlining various cyberattacks.[1] BPH providers allow online gambling, illegal pornography, botnet command and control servers, spam, copyrighted materials, hate speech and misinformation, despite takedown court orders and law enforcement subpoenas, allowing such material in their acceptable use policies.[2][3][4]BPH providers usually operate in jurisdictions which have lenient laws against such conduct. Most non-BPH service providers prohibit transferring materials over their network that would be in violation of their terms of service and the local laws of the incorporated jurisdiction, and oftentimes any abuse reports would result in takedowns to avoid their autonomous system's IP address block being blacklisted by other providers and by Spamhaus.[5]","title":"Bulletproof hosting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VeriSign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VeriSign"},{"link_name":"Russian Business Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Business_Network"},{"link_name":"identity thefts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"McColo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McColo"},{"link_name":"Global Crossing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Crossing"},{"link_name":"Hurricane Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Electric"},{"link_name":"Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"Brian Krebs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Krebs"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"BPH first became the subject of research in 2006 when security researchers from VeriSign revealed the Russian Business Network, an internet service provider that hosted a phishing group, was responsible for about $150 million in phishing-related scams. RBN also become known for identity thefts, child pornography, and botnets.[6][7][8] The following year, McColo, the web hosting provider responsible for more than 75% of global spam was shut down and de-peered by Global Crossing and Hurricane Electric after the public disclosure by then-Washington Post reporter Brian Krebs on his Security Fix blog on that newspaper.[9][10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IP block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_system_(Internet)#Assignment"},{"link_name":"autonomous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_system_(Internet)"},{"link_name":"third party spam filters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-spam_techniques"},{"link_name":"network peering points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peering#Peering_and_BGP"},{"link_name":"Border Gateway Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol"},{"link_name":"upstream autonomous systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstream_(networking)"},{"link_name":"transit provider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_transit"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sp019-11"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoyMiWang2017805-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKonteFeamsterPerdisci2015625-2"}],"text":"Since any abuse reports to the BPH will be disregarded, in most cases, the whole IP block (\"netblock\") assigned to the BPH's autonomous system will be blacklisted by other providers and third party spam filters. Additionally, BPH also have difficulty in finding network peering points for establishing Border Gateway Protocol sessions, since routing a BPH provider's network can affect the reputation of upstream autonomous systems and transit provider.[11] This makes it difficult for BPH services to provide stable network connectivity, and in extreme cases, they can be completely de-peered;[1] therefore BPH providers evade AS's reputation based fortification such as BGP Ranking and ASwatch through unconventional methodologies.[2]","title":"Difficulties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"reseller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reseller"},{"link_name":"lower-end","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-end_market"},{"link_name":"fraud detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud_detection"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoyMiWang2017805-1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoyMiWang2017806-12"},{"link_name":"DNS server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System"},{"link_name":"resource records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Resource_records"},{"link_name":"listening services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_sockets#listen"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoyMiWang2017806-12"},{"link_name":"ICQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICQ"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"XMPP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMPP"},{"link_name":"Jabber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabber.org"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoyMiWang2017811-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-max15-14"}],"sub_title":"Web hosting reseller","text":"According to a report, due to their mounting difficulties, BPH providers engage in establishing reseller relationships with lower-end hosting providers; although these providers are not complicit in supporting the illegitimate activities, they tend to be lenient on abuse reports and do not actively engage in fraud detection.[1] Therefore, BPH conceals itself behind lower-end hosting providers, leveraging their better reputation and simultaneously operating both bulletproof and legitimate resells through the sub-allocated network blocks.[12] However, if the BPH services are caught, providers of BPH migrate their clients to a newer internet infrastructure—newer lower-end AS, or IP space—effectively making the blacklisted IP addresses of the previous AS ephemeral; thus continuing to engage in criminal conduct by modifying the DNS server's resource records of the listening services and making it point to the newer IP addresses belonging to the current AS's IP space.[12] Due to privacy concerns, the customary modes of contact for BPH providers include ICQ, Skype, and XMPP (or Jabber).[13][14]","title":"Difficulties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"copyright infringement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement"},{"link_name":"court order takedown notices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notice_and_take_down"},{"link_name":"Digital Millennium Copyright Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act"},{"link_name":"Electronic Commerce Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Commerce_Directive"},{"link_name":"law enforcement subpoenas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena"},{"link_name":"phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing"},{"link_name":"scams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud"},{"link_name":"high-yield investment program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-yield_investment_program"},{"link_name":"botnet masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botnet#Client%E2%80%93server_model"},{"link_name":"online pharmacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_pharmacy"},{"link_name":"offshore providers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshore_company"},{"link_name":"extradition treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extradition_treaty"},{"link_name":"mutual legal assistance treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_legal_assistance_treaty"},{"link_name":"five eye countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Eyes"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeporini20155-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClaytonMoore2008209-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKonteFeamsterJung200810-17"},{"link_name":"child pornography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_pornography"},{"link_name":"terrorism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism"},{"link_name":"cold storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage"},{"link_name":"internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoppStrehleHohlfeld20212432-18"},{"link_name":"incorporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporation_(business)"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Moldova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Belize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belize"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama"},{"link_name":"Seychelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Most BPH providers promise immunity against copyright infringement and court order takedown notices, notably Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), Electronic Commerce Directive (ECD) and law enforcement subpoenas. They also allow users to operate phishing, scams (such as high-yield investment program), botnet masters and unlicensed online pharmacy websites. In these cases, the BPH providers (known as \"offshore providers\") operate in jurisdictions which do not have any extradition treaty or mutual legal assistance treaty (MLAT) signed with the five eye countries, particularly the United States.[15][16][17] However, most BPH providers have a zero-tolerance policy towards child pornography and terrorism, although a few allow cold storage of such material given forbidden open-accessibility via the public internet.[18]Prevalent jurisdictions for incorporation and location of the data centers for BPH providers include Russia (being more permissive),[19] Ukraine, China, Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, Belize, Panama and the Seychelles.[20][21]","title":"Admissible abuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online illicit economies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_market"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollierHutchings20211-22"},{"link_name":"tool development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development"},{"link_name":"skill-sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_exchange"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollierHutchings20211-2-23"},{"link_name":"exploits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"zero-day vulnerabilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day_(computing)"},{"link_name":"highly-skilled actors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hat_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"convenient tools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Script_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"script kiddies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Script_kiddie"},{"link_name":"cyberattacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberattacks"},{"link_name":"network services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_service"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury201017-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollierHutchings20212-25"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"small businesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_business"},{"link_name":"inexperienced internet users","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newbie"},{"link_name":"servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"port scanners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_scanner"},{"link_name":"IPv4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4"},{"link_name":"address space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"},{"link_name":"open ports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_(computer_networking)"},{"link_name":"version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_versioning"},{"link_name":"service daemons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daemon_(computing)"},{"link_name":"vulnerable versions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)#Vulnerability_disclosure_date"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Heartbleed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartbleed"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"click fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Click_fraud"},{"link_name":"adware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adware"},{"link_name":"DollarRevenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DollarRevenue"},{"link_name":"money laundering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_laundering"},{"link_name":"honey trapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_trapping"},{"link_name":"court orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_orders"},{"link_name":"law enforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"BPH services act as vital network infrastructure providers for activities such as cybercrime and online illicit economies,[22] and the well-established working model of the cybercrime economies surrounds upon tool development and skill-sharing among peers.[23] The development of exploits, such as zero-day vulnerabilities, are done by a very small community of highly-skilled actors, who encase them in convenient tools which are usually bought by low-skilled actors (known as script kiddies), who make use of BPH providers to carry out cyberattacks, usually targeting low-profile unpretentious network services and individuals.[24][25] According to a report produced by Carnegie Mellon University for the United States Department of Defense, low-profile amateur actors are also potent in causing harmful consequences, especially to small businesses, inexperienced internet users, and miniature servers.[26]Criminal actors also run specialized computer programs on BPH providers knowns as port scanners which scan the entire IPv4 address space for open ports, services run on those open ports, and the version of their service daemons, searching for vulnerable versions for exploitation.[27] One such notable vulnerability scanned by the port scanners is Heartbleed, which affected millions of internet servers.[28] Furthermore, BPH clients also host click fraud, adware (such as DollarRevenue), and money laundering recruitment sites, which lure untried internet users into honey trapping and causing financial losses to the individuals while unrestrictedly keeping their illicit sites online, despite court orders and takedown attempts by law enforcement.[29]","title":"Impacts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Spamhaus Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spamhaus_Project"},{"link_name":"international nonprofit organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_company_limited_by_guarantee"},{"link_name":"blacklist reports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacklist_(computing)"},{"link_name":"registrars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name_registrar"},{"link_name":"National Cyber-Forensics and Training Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cyber-Forensics_and_Training_Alliance"},{"link_name":"Federal Bureau of Investigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation"},{"link_name":"ISPs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider"},{"link_name":"email service providers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mailbox_provider"},{"link_name":"corporations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation"},{"link_name":"educational institutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_institution"},{"link_name":"uplink gateways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screened_subnet"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"data feeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_feed"},{"link_name":"gateways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"firewalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)"},{"link_name":"routing equipments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Networking_hardware"},{"link_name":"filter out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_filter"},{"link_name":"nullroute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_(networking)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sp019-11"},{"link_name":"Regional Internet Registry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Internet_Registry"},{"link_name":"National Internet Registry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Internet_Registry"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"DNSBL format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System-based_blackhole_list"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Counterinitiatives against BPH","text":"The Spamhaus Project is an international nonprofit organization that monitors cyber threats and provides realtime blacklist reports (known as the \"Badness Index\") on malicious ASs, netblocks, and registrars that are involved in spam, phishing, or cybercrime activities. The Spamhaus team works closely with law enforcement agencies such as National Cyber-Forensics and Training Alliance (NCFTA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the data compiled by Spamhaus is used by the majority of the ISPs, email service providers, corporations, educational institutes, governments and uplink gateways of military networks.[30][31][32] Spamhaus publishes various data feeds that list netblocks of the criminal actors, and is designed for use by gateways, firewalls and routing equipments to filter out (or \"nullroute\") traffic originating from these netblocks:[11]Spamhaus Don't Route Or Peer List (DROP) lists netblocks allocated by an established Regional Internet Registry (RIR) or National Internet Registry (NIR) that are used by criminal actors, and doesn't include abused IP address spaces sub-allocated netblocks of a reputable AS.[33]\nSpamhaus Domain Block List (DBL) lists domain names with poor reputation in DNSBL format.[34]\nSpamhaus Botnet Controller List (BCL) lists single IPv4 addresses of botnet masters.[35]","title":"Impacts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CyberBunker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CyberBunker"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"McColo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McColo"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Russian Business Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Business_Network"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"The following are some of the notable defunct BPH providers:CyberBunker, taken down in September 2019.[36]\nMcColo, taken down in November 2008.[37]\nRussian Business Network (RBN), taken down in November 2007.[38]\nAtrivo, taken down in September 2008.[39]\n3FN, taken down by FTC in June 2009.[40][41][42]\nProxiez, taken down in May 2010.[43]","title":"Notable closed services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Under the Shadow of Sunshine: Understanding and Detecting Bulletproof Hosting on Legitimate Service Provider Networks\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7958611"},{"link_name":"New York 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University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210825043611/https://zakird.com/papers/misinfo-infra-preprint.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"ASwatch: An AS Reputation System to Expose Bulletproof Hosting ASes\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2829988.2787494"},{"link_name":"New York, United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/2829988.2787494","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F2829988.2787494"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0146-4833","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0146-4833"},{"link_name":"Architectures and protocols powering illegal content streaming over the 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Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandenburg_University_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2109.06858","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/2109.06858"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/3460120.3485352","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F3460120.3485352"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781450384544","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450384544"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"237503582","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237503582"},{"link_name":"\"Cybercrime is (often) boring: maintaining the infrastructure of cybercrime economies\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//academic.oup.com/bjc/article/61/5/1407/6226588"},{"link_name":"The British Journal of Criminology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_British_Journal_of_Criminology"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/bjc/azab026","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjc%2Fazab026"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"20.500.11820/68a9a01b-f7c3-4fcb-9128-66caf04a4684","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2F68a9a01b-f7c3-4fcb-9128-66caf04a4684"},{"link_name":"\"Digging up the hacking underground\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S175445481070084X"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/S1754-4548(10)70084-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS1754-4548%2810%2970084-X"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1754-4548","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1754-4548"},{"link_name":"\"SAC 025: SSAC Advisory on Fast Flux Hosting and DNS\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/sac-025-en.pdf"},{"link_name":"Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICANN"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20211122051539/https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/sac-025-en.pdf"}],"text":"McCoy, Damon; Mi, Xianghang; Wang, Xiofeng (26 June 2017). \"Under the Shadow of Sunshine: Understanding and Detecting Bulletproof Hosting on Legitimate Service Provider Networks\". 2017 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP). New York University. pp. 805–823. doi:10.1109/SP.2017.32. ISBN 978-1-5090-5533-3. S2CID 1593958. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)\nHan, Catherine; Kumar, Deepak; Durumic, Zakir (2021). \"On the Infrastructure Providers that Support Misinformation\" (PDF). Stanford University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 August 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.\nKonte, Maria; Feamster, Nick; Perdisci, Roberto (17 August 2015). \"ASwatch: An AS Reputation System to Expose Bulletproof Hosting ASes\". SIGCOMM Association for Computing Machinery. 45 (4). New York, United States. doi:10.1145/2829988.2787494. ISSN 0146-4833.\nLeporini, Dino (2015). Architectures and protocols powering illegal content streaming over the Internet. University of Pisa. Amsterdam, Netherlands: International Broadcasting Convention. p. 7. doi:10.1049/ibc.2015.0013. ISBN 978-1-78561-185-8.\nClayton, Richard; Moore, Tyler (22 December 2008). \"The Impact of Incentives on Notice and Take-down\". Managing Information Risk and the Economics of Security. Boston: Springer Publishing. pp. 199–223. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09762-6_10. ISBN 978-0-387-09761-9.\nKopp, Daniel; Strehle, Eric; Hohlfeld, Oliver (November 2021). \"CyberBunker 2.0 - A Domain and Traffic Perspective on a Bulletproof Hoster\". Proceedings of the 2021 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. Association for Computing Machinery, Brandenburg University of Technology. pp. 2432–2434. arXiv:2109.06858. doi:10.1145/3460120.3485352. ISBN 9781450384544. S2CID 237503582.\nCollier, Benjamin; Hutchings, Alice (15 April 2021). \"Cybercrime is (often) boring: maintaining the infrastructure of cybercrime economies\". The British Journal of Criminology. 61 (5). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/bjc/azab026. hdl:20.500.11820/68a9a01b-f7c3-4fcb-9128-66caf04a4684.\nBradbury, Danny (15 October 2010). \"Digging up the hacking underground\". Infosecurity. 7 (5): 14–17. doi:10.1016/S1754-4548(10)70084-X. ISSN 1754-4548.\nKonte, M.; Feamster, N.; Jung, J. (January 2008). \"SAC 025: SSAC Advisory on Fast Flux Hosting and DNS\" (PDF). Security and Stability Advisory Committee (SSAC) (1). Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[{"image_text":"A former NATO-bunker in the Netherlands, which housed bulletproof hosting provider CyberBunker.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/CyberBunker.jpg/320px-CyberBunker.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Freedom Hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Hosting"},{"title":"Fast flux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_flux"},{"title":"Security theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_theater"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_transmission

Serial communication

["1 Cables","2 Serial buses","3 Serial versus parallel","4 Examples of architectures","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Type of data transfer This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Serial communication" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Serial and parallel data transmission of 010010112. Standard bit sequence is least-significant-bit-first (D0 to D7 in acending order). D0 is received first via serial transmission. All bits are received simultaneously via parallel transmission. In telecommunication and data transmission, serial communication is the process of sending data one bit at a time, sequentially, over a communication channel or computer bus. This is in contrast to parallel communication, where several bits are sent as a whole, on a link with several parallel channels. Standard character structure for asynchronous data communication consisting of 10 elements for a 7-bit ASCII character Serial communication is used for all long-haul communication and most computer networks, where the cost of cable and synchronization difficulties make parallel communication impractical. Serial computer buses have become more common even at shorter distances, as improved signal integrity and transmission speeds in newer serial technologies have begun to outweigh the parallel bus's advantage of simplicity (no need for serializer and deserializer, or SerDes) and to outstrip its disadvantages (clock skew, interconnect density). The migration from PCI to PCI Express is an example. Cables Many serial communication systems were originally designed to transfer data over relatively large distances through some sort of data cable. Practically all long-distance communication transmits data one bit at a time, rather than in parallel, because it reduces the cost of the cable. The cables that carry this data (other than "the" serial cable) and the computer ports they plug into are usually referred to with a more specific name, to reduce confusion. Keyboard and mouse cables and ports are almost invariably serial—such as PS/2 port, Apple Desktop Bus and USB. The cables that carry digital video are also mostly serial—such as coax cable plugged into a HD-SDI port, a webcam plugged into a USB port or FireWire port, Ethernet cable connecting an IP camera to a Power over Ethernet port, FPD-Link, digital telephone lines (ex. ISDN), etc. Other such cables and ports, transmitting data one bit at a time, include Serial ATA, Serial SCSI, Ethernet cable plugged into Ethernet ports, the Display Data Channel using previously reserved pins of the VGA connector or the DVI port or the HDMI port. Serial buses RS-232 connector (D-Sub DB-25 variant) Many communication systems were generally designed to connect two integrated circuits on the same printed circuit board, connected by signal traces on that board (rather than external cables). Integrated circuits are more expensive when they have more pins. To reduce the number of pins in a package, many ICs use a serial bus to transfer data when speed is not important. Some examples of such low-cost lower-speed serial buses include RS-232, DALI, SPI, CAN bus, I²C, UNI/O, and 1-Wire. Higher-speed serial buses include USB, SATA and PCI Express. Serial versus parallel The communication links, across which computers (or parts of computers) talk to one another, may be either serial or parallel. A parallel link transmits several streams of data simultaneously along multiple channels (e.g., wires, printed circuit tracks, or optical fibers); whereas, a serial link transmits only a single stream of data. The rationale for parallel communication was the added benefit of having Direct Memory Access to the 8-bit or 16-bit registry addresses at a time where mapping direct data lanes was more convenient and faster than synchronizing data serially. Although a serial link may seem inferior to a parallel one, since it can transmit less data per clock cycle, it is often the case that serial links can be clocked considerably faster than parallel links in order to achieve a higher data rate. Several factors allow serial to be clocked at a higher rate: Clock skew between different channels is not an issue (for unclocked asynchronous serial communication links). A serial connection requires fewer interconnecting cables (e.g., wires/fibers) and hence occupies less space. The extra space allows for better isolation of the channel from its surroundings. Crosstalk is less of an issue, because there are fewer conductors in proximity. Budgets for power use, power dissipation, cable cost, component cost, IC die area, PC board area, ESD protection, etc. can be focused on a single link. In many cases, serial is cheaper to implement than parallel. Many ICs have serial interfaces, as opposed to parallel ones, so that they have fewer pins and are therefore less expensive. Examples of architectures ARINC 818 Avionics Digital Video Bus Atari SIO (Joe Decuir credits his work on Atari SIO as the basis of USB) Binary Synchronous Communications BSC - Binary Synchronous Communications CAN Control Area Network Vehicle Bus ccTalk Used in the money transaction and point-of-sale industry CoaXPress industrial camera protocol over Coax DMX512 control of theatrical lighting Ethernet Fibre Channel (high-speed, for connecting computers to mass storage devices) FireWire HDMI HyperTransport InfiniBand (very high speed, broadly comparable in scope to PCI) I²C multidrop serial bus MIDI control of electronic musical instruments MIL-STD-1553A/B Morse code telegraphy PCI Express Profibus RS-232 (low-speed, implemented by serial ports) RS-422 multidrop serial bus RS-423 RS-485 multidrop multimaster serial bus SDI-12 industrial sensor protocol SERCOM Serial ATA Serial Attached SCSI Shift Register with serial-in and serial-out configuration SONET and SDH (high speed telecommunication over optical fibers) SpaceWire Spacecraft communication network SPI T-1, E-1 and variants (high speed telecommunication over copper pairs) Universal Serial Bus (for connecting peripherals to computers) UNI/O multidrop serial bus 1-Wire multidrop serial bus See also 8N1 Asynchronous serial communication Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling Computer bus Data transmission Federal Standard 1037C High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) List of device bandwidths MIL-STD-188 Serial Peripheral Interface Bus Serial port Synchronous serial communication Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) References ^ Mackenzie, Charles E. (1980). Coded Character Sets, History and Development (PDF). The Systems Programming Series (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 247–253. ISBN 978-0-201-14460-4. LCCN 77-90165. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 26, 2016. Retrieved December 29, 2022. External links Serial Interface Tutorial for Robotics (contains many practical examples) Serial interfaces listing (with pinouts) Wiki: Serial Ports Visual studio 2008 coding for Serial communication Introduction to I²C and SPI protocols Serial communication introduction Serial Port Programming in Linux vteTechnical and de facto standards for wired computer busesGeneral System bus Front-side bus Back-side bus Daisy chain Control bus Address bus Bus contention Bus mastering Network on a chip Plug and play List of bus bandwidths Standards SS-50 bus S-100 bus Multibus Unibus VAXBI MBus STD Bus SMBus Q-Bus Europe Card Bus ISA STEbus Zorro II Zorro III CAMAC FASTBUS LPC HP Precision Bus EISA VME VXI VXS NuBus TURBOchannel MCA SBus VLB HP GSC bus InfiniBand Ethernet UPA PCI PCI Extended (PCI-X) PXI PCI Express (PCIe) AGP Compute Express Link (CXL) Direct Media Interface (DMI) RapidIO Intel QuickPath Interconnect NVLink HyperTransport Infinity Fabric Intel Ultra Path Interconnect Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI) SpaceWire Storage ST-506 ESDI IPI SMD Parallel ATA (PATA) Bus and Tag DSSI HIPPI Serial ATA (SATA) SCSI Parallel SAS ESCON Fibre Channel SSA SATAe PCI Express (via AHCI or NVMe logical device interface) Peripheral Apple Desktop Bus Atari SIO DCB Commodore bus HP-IL HIL MIDI RS-232 RS-422 RS-423 RS-485 Lightning DMX512-A IEEE-488 (GPIB) IEEE-1284 (parallel port) IEEE-1394 (FireWire) UNI/O 1-Wire I²C (ACCESS.bus, PMBus, SMBus) I3C SPI D²B Parallel SCSI Profibus USB Camera Link External PCIe Thunderbolt Audio ADAT Lightpipe AES3 Intel HD Audio I²S MADI McASP S/PDIF TOSLINK Portable PC Card ExpressCard Embedded Multidrop bus CoreConnect AMBA (AXI) Wishbone SLIMbus Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category vteLine coding (digital baseband transmission)Main articles Unipolar encoding Bipolar encoding On-off keying Mark and space Basic line codes Return to zero (RZ) Non-return-to-zero, level (NRZ/NRZ-L) Non-return-to-zero, inverted (NRZ-I) Non-return-to-zero, space (NRZ-S) Manchester Differential Manchester/biphase (Bi-φ) Extended line codes Conditioned diphase 4B3T 4B5B 2B1Q Alternate mark inversion Modified AMI code Coded mark inversion MLT-3 encoding Hybrid ternary code 6b/8b encoding 8b/10b encoding 64b/66b encoding Eight-to-fourteen modulation Delay/Miller encoding TC-PAM Optical line codes Carrier-suppressed return-to-zero Alternate-phase return-to-zero See also: Baseband Baud Bit rate Digital signal Digital transmission Ethernet physical layer Pulse modulation methods Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) Pulse-code modulation (PCM) Serial communication Category:Line codes

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Higher-speed serial buses include USB, SATA and PCI Express.","title":"Serial buses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Direct Memory Access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Memory_Access"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Clock skew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_skew"},{"link_name":"asynchronous serial communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_serial_communication"},{"link_name":"Crosstalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalk"},{"link_name":"ICs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"}],"text":"The communication links, across which computers (or parts of computers) talk to one another, may be either serial or parallel. A parallel link transmits several streams of data simultaneously along multiple channels (e.g., wires, printed circuit tracks, or optical fibers); whereas, a serial link transmits only a single stream of data. The rationale for parallel communication was the added benefit of having Direct Memory Access to the 8-bit or 16-bit registry addresses at a time where mapping direct data lanes was more convenient and faster than synchronizing data serially.[citation needed]Although a serial link may seem inferior to a parallel one, since it can transmit less data per clock cycle, it is often the case that serial links can be clocked considerably faster than parallel links in order to achieve a higher data rate. Several factors allow serial to be clocked at a higher rate:Clock skew between different channels is not an issue (for unclocked asynchronous serial communication links).\nA serial connection requires fewer interconnecting cables (e.g., wires/fibers) and hence occupies less space. The extra space allows for better isolation of the channel from its surroundings.\nCrosstalk is less of an issue, because there are fewer conductors in proximity.\nBudgets for power use, power dissipation, cable cost, component cost, IC die area, PC board area, ESD protection, etc. can be focused on a single link.In many cases, serial is cheaper to implement than parallel. Many ICs have serial interfaces, as opposed to parallel ones, so that they have fewer pins and are therefore less expensive.","title":"Serial versus parallel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ARINC 818","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARINC_818"},{"link_name":"Atari SIO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_SIO"},{"link_name":"Binary Synchronous Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_Synchronous_Communications"},{"link_name":"CAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAN_bus"},{"link_name":"ccTalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CcTalk"},{"link_name":"CoaXPress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoaXPress"},{"link_name":"DMX512","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMX512"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"Fibre Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel"},{"link_name":"FireWire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FireWire"},{"link_name":"HDMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDMI"},{"link_name":"HyperTransport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyperTransport"},{"link_name":"InfiniBand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfiniBand"},{"link_name":"PCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect"},{"link_name":"I²C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C2%B2C"},{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"link_name":"MIL-STD-1553A/B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIL-STD-1553"},{"link_name":"Morse code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code"},{"link_name":"telegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy"},{"link_name":"PCI Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express"},{"link_name":"Profibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profibus"},{"link_name":"RS-232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"serial ports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port"},{"link_name":"RS-422","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-422"},{"link_name":"RS-423","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-423"},{"link_name":"RS-485","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-485"},{"link_name":"SDI-12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDI-12"},{"link_name":"SERCOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SERCOM"},{"link_name":"Serial ATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_ATA"},{"link_name":"Serial Attached SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Attached_SCSI"},{"link_name":"Shift Register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_Register"},{"link_name":"SONET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_Optical_Networking"},{"link_name":"SDH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_Optical_Networking"},{"link_name":"SpaceWire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceWire"},{"link_name":"SPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bus"},{"link_name":"T-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-carrier"},{"link_name":"E-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-carrier"},{"link_name":"Universal Serial Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus"},{"link_name":"UNI/O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNI/O"},{"link_name":"1-Wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Wire"}],"text":"ARINC 818 Avionics Digital Video Bus\nAtari SIO (Joe Decuir credits his work on Atari SIO as the basis of USB)\nBinary Synchronous Communications BSC - Binary Synchronous Communications\nCAN Control Area Network Vehicle Bus\nccTalk Used in the money transaction and point-of-sale industry\nCoaXPress industrial camera protocol over Coax\nDMX512 control of theatrical lighting\nEthernet\nFibre Channel (high-speed, for connecting computers to mass storage devices)\nFireWire\nHDMI\nHyperTransport\nInfiniBand (very high speed, broadly comparable in scope to PCI)\nI²C multidrop serial bus\nMIDI control of electronic musical instruments\nMIL-STD-1553A/B\nMorse code telegraphy\nPCI Express\nProfibus\nRS-232 (low-speed, implemented by serial ports)\nRS-422 multidrop serial bus\nRS-423\nRS-485 multidrop multimaster serial bus\nSDI-12 industrial sensor protocol\nSERCOM\nSerial ATA\nSerial Attached SCSI\nShift Register with serial-in and serial-out configuration\nSONET and SDH (high speed telecommunication over optical fibers)\nSpaceWire Spacecraft communication network\nSPI\nT-1, E-1 and variants (high speed telecommunication over copper pairs)\nUniversal Serial Bus (for connecting peripherals to computers)\nUNI/O multidrop serial bus\n1-Wire multidrop serial bus","title":"Examples of architectures"}]

[{"image_text":"Serial and parallel data transmission of 010010112. Standard bit sequence is least-significant-bit-first (D0 to D7 in acending order).[1] D0 is received first via serial transmission. All bits are received simultaneously via parallel transmission.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Serial_and_Parallel_Data_Transmission.svg/300px-Serial_and_Parallel_Data_Transmission.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Standard character structure for asynchronous data communication consisting of 10 elements for a 7-bit ASCII character","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/MIL-STD-188-100_char_struct_for_async_comms_1972-11-15.svg/400px-MIL-STD-188-100_char_struct_for_async_comms_1972-11-15.svg.png"},{"image_text":"RS-232 connector (D-Sub DB-25 variant)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/DB25_Diagram.svg/220px-DB25_Diagram.svg.png"}]

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[{"reference":"Mackenzie, Charles E. (1980). Coded Character Sets, History and Development (PDF). The Systems Programming Series (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 247–253. ISBN 978-0-201-14460-4. LCCN 77-90165. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 26, 2016. Retrieved December 29, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://textfiles.meulie.net/bitsaved/Books/Mackenzie_CodedCharSets.pdf","url_text":"Coded Character Sets, History and Development"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley_Publishing_Company,_Inc.","url_text":"Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-14460-4","url_text":"978-0-201-14460-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/77-90165","url_text":"77-90165"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160526172151/https://textfiles.meulie.net/bitsaved/Books/Mackenzie_CodedCharSets.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_person

Natural person

["1 Definitions","2 Legal consequences","3 Crime","4 By country","4.1 Germany","5 See also","6 References"]

Real human being as opposed to a non-human legal person In jurisprudence, a natural person (also physical person in some Commonwealth countries, or natural entity) is a person (in legal meaning, i.e., one who has its own legal personality) that is an individual human being, distinguished from the broader category of a legal person, which may be a private (i.e., business entity or non-governmental organization) or public (i.e., government) organization. Historically, a human being was not necessarily considered a natural person in some jurisdictions where slavery existed (subject of a property right) rather than a person. Definitions According to Maria Helena Diniz, an individual or natural person "is the human being considered as a subject of rights and obligations". Every human being is endowed with legal personality and, therefore, is a subject of law. According to Sílvio de Salvo Venosa, "legal personality is a projection of the intimate, psychic personality of each person; it is a social projection of the psychic personality, with legal consequences". However, and in addition, the law also gives personality to other entities, formed by groups of people or assets: these are called legal person. Legal consequences In many cases, fundamental human rights are implicitly granted only to natural persons. For example, the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states a person cannot be denied the right to vote based on their sex, or Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees equality rights, apply to natural persons only. Another example of the distinction between natural and legal persons is that a natural person can hold public office, but a corporation cannot. A corporation or non-governmental organization can, however, file a lawsuit or own property as a legal person. Crime Usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. In the U.S., animals that are not persons under U.S. law cannot commit crimes. By country Germany In Germany, legal entities (Rechtssubjekt) such as natural persons (Natürliche Person) have the capacity to be bearers of rights and obligations; they possess legal capacity. The point in time at which this legal capacity begins and ends is disputed in German case law  and jurisprudence . According to section 1 of the German Civil Code (BGB), a person acquires legal capacity on completion of their birth.: § 1  However, in certain conditions, fetuses also have certain legal rights, for example, that of becoming an heir.: § 1923 (2)  The question of whether a fetus may have legal capacity as well has been left open by the Federal Court of Justice, although there are indications of a positive response. The German Civil Code grants the fetus, which does not have full legal capacity, essential rights, which are subject to the condition of subsequent live birth.: § 1  The question of whether the fetus can have rights before birth and possibly from the beginning of pregnancy, in particular a right to life, is highly controversial. See also Legal person Personality rights Juridical person Natural person in French law Person (Catholic canon law) Great ape personhood References ^ https://bdtcc.unipe.edu.br/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/artigo-thaise-1-1-1-1.pdf Archived 17 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine ^ VENOSA, Sílvio de Salvo. Direito Civil: Parte Geral. 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2005, p. 149. ^ Simpson, Sally S (2002). Corporate Crime, Law, and Social Control. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-58083-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023. ^ People v. Frazier, 173 Cal. App. 4th 613 Archived 29 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine (2009). In this case, the California Court of Appeal explained: "Despite the physical ability to commit vicious and violent acts, dogs do not possess the legal ability to commit crimes." ^ a b c "German Civil Code BGB". Translated by Langenscheidt Translation Service; Neil Mussett. Bonn: Bundesamt für Justiz. 2022. Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 9 December 2022. § 1: The legal capacity of a human being begins on the completion of birth.§ 1923: (1) Only a person who is alive at the time of the devolution of an inheritance may be an heir.(2) A person who is not yet alive at the time of the devolution of an inheritance, but has already been conceived, is deemed to have been born before the devolution of an inheritance. ^ Zeising, Michael: Der Nasciturus im Zivilverfahren Archived 7 November 2023 at the Wayback Machine (2004) p. 18; with further sources. (in German) Authority control databases: National Germany Japan Czech Republic

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"jurisprudence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_countries"},{"link_name":"legal personality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_personality"},{"link_name":"individual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual"},{"link_name":"human being","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_being"},{"link_name":"legal person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person"},{"link_name":"business entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_business_entity"},{"link_name":"non-governmental organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organization"},{"link_name":"government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government"}],"text":"In jurisprudence, a natural person (also physical person in some Commonwealth countries, or natural entity) is a person (in legal meaning, i.e., one who has its own legal personality) that is an individual human being, distinguished from the broader category of a legal person, which may be a private (i.e., business entity or non-governmental organization) or public (i.e., government) organization. Historically, a human being was not necessarily considered a natural person in some jurisdictions where slavery existed (subject of a property right) rather than a person.","title":"Natural person"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maria Helena Diniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Helena_Diniz"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"legal person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person"}],"text":"According to Maria Helena Diniz, an individual or natural person \"is the human being considered as a subject of rights and obligations\". Every human being is endowed with legal personality and, therefore, is a subject of law.[1]According to Sílvio de Salvo Venosa, \"legal personality is a projection of the intimate, psychic personality of each person; it is a social projection of the psychic personality, with legal consequences\".[2] However, and in addition, the law also gives personality to other entities, formed by groups of people or assets: these are called legal person.","title":"Definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"human rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights"},{"link_name":"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section_15_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms"},{"link_name":"lawsuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawsuit"}],"text":"In many cases, fundamental human rights are implicitly granted only to natural persons. For example, the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states a person cannot be denied the right to vote based on their sex, or Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees equality rights, apply to natural persons only. Another example of the distinction between natural and legal persons is that a natural person can hold public office, but a corporation cannot.A corporation or non-governmental organization can, however, file a lawsuit or own property as a legal person.","title":"Legal consequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime"},{"link_name":"legal persons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person"},{"link_name":"crimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_crime"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes.[3] In the U.S., animals that are not persons under U.S. law cannot commit crimes.[4]","title":"Crime"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"legal entities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_entities"},{"link_name":"legal capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_capacity"},{"link_name":"German case law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_case_law&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsprechung"},{"link_name":"jurisprudence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_jurisprudence&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtswissenschaft"},{"link_name":"German Civil Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Civil_Code"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BfJ-2022-5"},{"link_name":"§ 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bgb/englisch_bgb.html#p0030"},{"link_name":"heir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heir"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BfJ-2022-5"},{"link_name":"§ 1923 (2)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgb/__1923.html"},{"link_name":"Federal Court of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeising-2004-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BfJ-2022-5"},{"link_name":"§ 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bgb/englisch_bgb.html#p0030"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Germany","text":"In Germany, legal entities (Rechtssubjekt) such as natural persons (Natürliche Person) have the capacity to be bearers of rights and obligations; they possess legal capacity. The point in time at which this legal capacity begins and ends is disputed in German case law [de] and jurisprudence [de].According to section 1 of the German Civil Code (BGB), a person acquires legal capacity on completion of their birth.[5]: § 1  However, in certain conditions, fetuses also have certain legal rights, for example, that of becoming an heir.[5]: § 1923 (2)  The question of whether a fetus may have legal capacity as well has been left open by the Federal Court of Justice, although there are indications of a positive response.[6] The German Civil Code grants the fetus, which does not have full legal capacity, essential rights, which are subject to the condition of subsequent live birth.[5]: § 1  The question of whether the fetus can have rights before birth and possibly from the beginning of pregnancy, in particular a right to life, is highly controversial.[citation needed]","title":"By country"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain

Philip II of Spain

["1 Early life: 1527–1544","2 Domestic policy","3 Economy","4 Foreign policy","4.1 Italy","4.2 France","4.3 Mediterranean","5 Strait of Magellan","6 Revolt in the Netherlands","7 King of Portugal","8 Relations with England and Ireland","8.1 King of England and Ireland","8.2 After Mary I's death","9 Death","10 Legacy","11 Titles, honours and styles","12 Heraldry","13 Family","13.1 First marriage","13.2 Second marriage","13.3 Third marriage","13.4 Fourth marriage","14 Ancestry","15 Male-line family tree","16 See also","17 Notes","18 References","19 Further reading","19.1 Economic and cultural history","20 External links"]

King of Spain (1556–1598) and Portugal (1580–1598) Philip IIPortrait by Sofonisba Anguissola (1565)King of Spain (more...) Reign16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598PredecessorCharles ISuccessorPhilip IIIKing of Portugal (more...) Reign12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598Acclamation16 April 1581, TomarPredecessorHenry or Anthony (disputed)SuccessorPhilip III of SpainKing of England and Ireland (jure uxoris) Reign25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558PredecessorMary ISuccessorElizabeth ICo-monarchMary IBorn21 May 1527Palacio de Pimentel, Valladolid, Crown of CastileDied13 September 1598(1598-09-13) (aged 71)El Escorial, San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Crown of CastileBurialEl EscorialSpouses Maria Manuela of Portugal ​ ​(m. 1543; died 1545)​ Mary I of England ​ ​(m. 1554; died 1558)​ Elisabeth of Valois ​ ​(m. 1559; died 1568)​ Anna of Austria ​ ​(m. 1570; died 1580)​ Issuemore... Carlos, Prince of Asturias Isabella Clara Eugenia, Lady of the Netherlands Catalina Micaela, Duchess of Savoy Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias Diego, Prince of Asturias Philip III of Spain HouseHabsburgFatherCharles V, Holy Roman EmperorMotherIsabella of PortugalReligionRoman CatholicismSignature Philip II (21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598), also known as Philip the Prudent (Spanish: Felipe el Prudente), was King of Spain from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until his death in 1598. He was also jure uxoris King of England and Ireland from his marriage to Queen Mary I in 1554 until her death in 1558. He was also Duke of Milan from 1540. From 1555, he was Lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. The son of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal, Philip inherited his father's Spanish Empire in 1556 and succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1580 following a dynastic crisis. The Spanish conquests of the Inca Empire and of the Philippines, named in his honor by Ruy López de Villalobos, were completed during his reign. Under Philip II, Spain reached the height of its influence and power, sometimes called the Spanish Golden Age, and ruled territories in every continent then known to Europeans. Philip led a highly debt-leveraged regime, seeing state defaults in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly the cause of the declaration of independence that created the Dutch Republic in 1581. Philip finished building the royal palace El Escorial in 1584. Deeply devout, Philip saw himself as the defender of Catholic Europe against the Ottoman Empire and the Protestant Reformation. In 1584, Philip signed the Treaty of Joinville funding the French Catholic League over the following decade in its civil war against the French Huguenots. In 1588, he sent an armada to invade Protestant England, with the strategic aim of overthrowing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism there, but his fleet was defeated in a skirmish at Gravelines (northern France) and then destroyed by storms as it circled the British Isles to return to Spain. The following year Philip's naval power was able to recover after the failed invasion of the English Armada into Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597. The Anglo-Spanish War carried on until 1604, six years after Philip's death. Under Philip, an average of about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, rising to as many as 20,000 in crisis years. Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 men left Spain to fight in Italy and the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands). Early life: 1527–1544 The Baptism of Philip II in Valladolid, Castile. Historical ceiling preserved in Palacio de Pimentel (Valladolid) A member of the House of Habsburg, Philip was the son of Emperor Charles V, who was also king of Castile and Aragon, and Isabella of Portugal. He was born in the Castilian capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio de Pimentel, which was owned by Don Bernardino Pimentel (the first Marqués de Távara). The culture and courtly life of Castile were an important influence in his early life. He was entrusted to the royal governess Leonor de Mascareñas, and tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo, the future archbishop of Toledo. Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arts and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Though Philip had good command over Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese, he never managed to equal his father as a polyglot. While Philip was also an archduke of Austria, he was seen as a foreigner in the Holy Roman Empire. The feeling was mutual. Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish; he had been born in Castile and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred to live in the Spanish kingdoms. This ultimately impeded his succession to the imperial throne. In April 1528, when Philip was eleven months old, he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the Cortes of Castile. From that time until the death of his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in the royal court of Castile under the care of his mother and one of her Portuguese ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was devotedly attached. Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga, the son of his governor. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, his secretary from 1541. Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens, a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars. Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. His political training had begun a year previously under his father, who had found his son studious, grave, and prudent beyond his years, and having decided to train and initiate him in the government of the Spanish kingdoms. The king-emperor's interactions with his son during his stay in Castile convinced him of Philip's precocity in statesmanship, so he determined to leave in his hands the regency of the Spanish kingdoms in 1543. Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen. Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general, the Duke of Alba. Philip was also left with extensive written instructions that emphasised "piety, patience, modesty, and distrust". These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed and cautious. Personally, Philip spoke softly and had an icy self-mastery; in the words of one of his ministers, "he had a smile that was cut by a sword". Domestic policy This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Philip II of Spain" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) After living in the Netherlands in the early years of his reign, Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The Spanish Empire was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a personal union of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the House of Habsburg. In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords. Philip carried several titles as heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire, including Prince of Asturias. The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was Navarre, a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly with Castilian troops (1512), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513). War across Navarre continued until 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King Henry II of Navarre—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne III of Navarre. The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre and a prince of independent Béarn, as well as lord of a large part of southern France. However, the French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541. Philip, in the prime of his life, by Anthonis Mor In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (Cortes, The Three States) and the Diputación for breach of the realm specific laws (fueros)—violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session. In November 1592, the Parliament (Cortes) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm-specific laws, so the Attorney General (Justicia) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his secretary Antonio Pérez taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in Pamplona at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the Santa Maria Cathedral. A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled. Philip II wearing the order of the garter by Jooris van der Straeten, c. 1554 Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large Morisco population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the Morisco Revolt broke out in the southern Kingdom of Granada in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces. Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to France, for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the New World proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy. Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the "Spanish Golden Age", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola, who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist. Economy Portrait of Philip II on 1/5 Philipsdaalder, struck 1566, Guelders, Low Countries Charles V had left his son Philip with a debt of about 36 million ducats and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, known as Neapolitan sums). Lenders had no power over the King and could not force him to repay his loans. These defaults were just the beginning of Spain's economic troubles as its kings would default six more times in the next 65 years. Aside from reducing state revenues for overseas expeditions, the domestic policies of Philip II further burdened the Spanish kingdoms and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline, as maintained by some historians. The Spanish kingdoms were subject to different assemblies: the Cortes in Castile, the assembly in Navarre, and one each for the four kingdoms of Aragon, which preserved traditional rights and laws from the time when they were separate kingdoms. This made the Spanish kingdoms and its possessions difficult to rule, unlike France, which while divided into regional states, had a single Estates General. The lack of a viable supreme assembly led to power defaulting into Philip II's hands, especially as manager and final arbiter of the constant conflict between different authorities. To deal with the difficulties arising from this situation, authority was administered by local agents appointed by the crown and viceroys carrying out crown instructions. Philip II felt it necessary to be involved in the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for state affairs, finance, war, and the Inquisition. Philip II played groups against each other, leading to a system of checks and balances that managed affairs inefficiently, even to the extent of damaging state business, as in the Perez affair. Following a fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to move his Court to Lisbon, an act that could have curbed centralisation and bureaucracy domestically as well as relaxed rule in the Empire as a whole. Instead, with the traditional Royal and Primacy seat of Toledo now essentially obsolete, he moved his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid. Except for a brief period under Philip III of Spain, Madrid has remained the capital of Spain. It was around this time that Philip II converted the Royal Alcázar of Madrid into a royal palace; the works, which lasted from 1561 until 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the Netherlands, Italy, and France. King Philip II ruled at a critical turning point in European history toward modernity whereas his father Charles V had been forced to an itinerant rule as a medieval king. He mainly directed state affairs, even when not at Court. Indeed, when his health began failing, he worked from his quarters at the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial that he had built in 1584, a palace built as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world. But Philip did not enjoy the supremacy that King Louis XIV of France would in the next century, nor was such a rule necessarily possible at his time. The inefficiencies of the Spanish state and the restrictively regulated industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries. Further, the dispersal of the Moriscos from Granada—motivated by the fear they might support a Muslim invasion—had serious negative effects on the economy, particularly in that region. Foreign policy Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the Ottoman Empire and against the forces of the Protestant Reformation. He never relented from his fight against heresy, defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories. These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands, where Protestantism had taken deep root. Following the Revolt of the Netherlands in 1568, Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession. It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the Cologne War. This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life. Philip's constant involvement and focus in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and caused economic difficulties for the Crown and even bankruptcies. Personal guidon of Philip II In 1588, the English defeated Philip's Spanish Armada, thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism. But war with England continued for the next sixteen years, in a complex series of struggles that included France, Ireland and the main battle zone, the Low Countries. It would not end until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Earlier, however, after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father, Philip did achieve a decisive victory against the Turks at Lepanto in 1571, with the allied fleet of the Holy League, which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother, John of Austria. He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of Portugal. The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called relaciones geográficas. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern Philip's overseas possessions more effectively. Italy Main article: Italian Wars Charles V abdicated the throne of Naples to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially a Papal fief) on 2 October by Pope Julius III. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne of Sicily is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom on 18 November 1554 by Julius. In 1556, Philip decided to invade the Papal States and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to Pope Paul IV's anti-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the Church. In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote: I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far the Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that the population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at the root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the Apostolic See, in whose name, and that of the College of Cardinals, his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in the past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve! In response to the invasion, Pope Paul IV called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Viceroy of Naples met Cardinal Carlo Carafa and signed the Treaty of Cave as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the Papal States and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms. Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the Italian Wars. A Spanish advance into France from the Low Countries led to their important victory at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557). The French were defeated again at the Battle of Gravelines (1558). The resulting Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 secured Piedmont to the Duchy of Savoy, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa. Both Genoa and Savoy were allies of Spain and, although Savoy subsequently declared its neutrality between France and Spain, Genoa remained a crucial financial ally for Philip during his entire reign. The treaty also confirmed Philip's control over Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Therefore, all of southern Italy was under Spanish rule as part of the Crown of Aragon. In the north, Milan was a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire held by Philip. Attached to the Kingdom of Naples, the State of Presidi in Tuscany gave Philip the possibility to monitor maritime traffic to southern Italy, whilst the grant of the Duchy of Siena to the new Grand Duchy of Tuscany, ensured it would remain a Spanish ally. The Council of Italy was set up by Philip in order to co-ordinate his rule over the states of Milan, Naples and Sicily. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy in Italy. It marked also the beginning of a period of peace between the Pope and Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged. By the end of the wars in 1559, Habsburg Spain had been established as the premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers, with Spain dominating the peninsula. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth of Valois, later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, Isabella Clara Eugenia. France Main article: French Wars of Religion The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise, and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from Constantine I and Charlemagne, justifying his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his continuing efforts to depose Henry IV of France. Philip signed the Treaty of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556. Based on the terms of the treaty, the territory of Franche-Comté in Burgundy was to be relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years. Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over Franche-Comté. During the War of the Portuguese Succession, the pretender António fled to France following his defeats and, as Philip's armies had not yet occupied the Azores, he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi, a Florentine exile in the service of France. The naval Battle of Terceira took place on 26 July 1582, in the sea near the Azores, off São Miguel Island, as part of the War of the Portuguese Succession and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António. The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of Louis XIV. A marble bust of Philip II of Spain by Pompeo Leoni, Metropolitan Museum of Art The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the Battle of the Azores between the Portuguese loyal to the claimant António, supported by French and English troops, and the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán. Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire. Philip financed the Catholic League during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars (1589–1598), ordering Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma into France in an effort to unseat Henry IV, and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter, Isabella Clara Eugenia, on the French throne. Elisabeth of Valois, Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip and in France the Salic law remained in effect. However, the Parlement of Paris, in power of the Catholic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the legitimate sovereign" of France. Philip's interventions in the fighting—sending the Duke of Parma to end Henry IV's siege of Paris in 1590 and the siege of Rouen in 1592—contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues's cause against a Protestant monarchy. In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces. French victory at the Battle of Fontaine-Française in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. They captured Ham and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks. The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking Doullens, Cambrai, and Le Catelet; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens. On 24 April 1596, the Spanish also conquered Calais. Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598. The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith—matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king. Mediterranean Further information: Ottoman–Habsburg wars Titian; after the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, Philip offers his short-lived heir Fernando to Glory in this allegory. Standard of the tercios morados of the Spanish army under Philip II In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent. Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy. In 1558, Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured the Balearic Islands, especially inflicting great damage on Menorca and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and Venice, became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people. In 1560, Philip II organised a Holy League between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Papal States, the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta. The joint fleet was assembled at Messina and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria. On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of Djerba, which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between Algiers and Tripoli. As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the Battle of Djerba. The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. Álvaro de Sande, attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis. In 1565 the Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta, which laid siege to several forts on the island, taking some of them. The Spanish sent a relief force, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island. The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, by the Holy League under the command of Philip's half brother, Don John of Austria. A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, reconquered Tunis from the Ottomans in 1573. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to recapture Tunis with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans. Strait of Magellan Further information: Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of Magellan Armour of Philip II During Philip's reign Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. To end navigation by rival powers in the Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy Francisco de Toledo ordered Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores. In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: Nombre de Jesús, and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe. The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers. The new colonies suffered from high death rates, likely as a consequence of executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples and diseases which were rife. A contributing cause for failure of the settlement may have been poor morale, an issue that plagued the venture almost from the beginning. This can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait. Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels. In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe, Puerto del Hambre, or "Port Famine". Most of the settlers had died from cold or starvation. When Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan caused Chiloé Archipelago to assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions. Valdivia and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia. Revolt in the Netherlands Main article: Eighty Years' War Philip II berating William of Orange, by Cornelis Kruseman Philip's rule in the Seventeen Provinces known collectively as the Netherlands faced many difficulties, leading to open warfare in 1568. He appointed his half-sister Margaret of Parma as Governor of the Netherlands, when he left the low countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to adjust policy to the advice of Cardinal Granvelle, who was greatly disliked in the Netherlands, after he insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip's taxation demands and the incessant persecution of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as the Iconoclast Fury; in response to growing Protestant influence, the army of the Iron Duke (Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba) went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn executed in Brussels' central square, further alienating the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in Mechelen, Naarden, Zutphen and Haarlem. In 1571, Alba erected at Antwerp a bronze statue of himself trampling the rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted-down cannon looted by the Spanish troops after the Battle of Jemmingen in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images of the Spanish patron Saint James "the Moorslayer" riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip had it removed and destroyed. In 1572, a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, William the Silent, Prince of Orange, invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, Holland and Zeeland. Because of the Spanish repulse in the Siege of Alkmaar (1573) led by his equally brutal son Fadrique, Alba resigned his command, replaced by Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands, in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have fallen short of 50,000. Under Requesens, the Army of Flanders reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying Louis of Nassau's German mercenary army at the Battle of Mookerheyde on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg. Rampant inflation and the loss of treasure fleets from the New World prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so-called Spanish Fury at Antwerp in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens. Philip sent in Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Farnese defeated the rebels at the Battle of Gembloux (1578), and he captured many rebel towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), and Antwerp (1585). Reward letter of Philip II to the family of Balthasar Gerards, assassin of William the Silent, 1590 The States General of the northern provinces, united in the 1579 Union of Utrecht, passed an Act of Abjuration in 1581 declaring that they no longer recognised Philip as their king. The southern Netherlands (what is now Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish rule. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard, after Philip had offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to anyone who killed him, calling him a "pest on the whole of Christianity and the enemy of the human race". The Dutch forces continued to fight on under Orange's son Maurice of Nassau, who received modest help from the Queen of England in 1585. The Dutch gained an advantage over the Spanish because of their growing economic strength, in contrast to Philip's burgeoning economic troubles. The war came to an end in 1648, when the Dutch Republic was recognised by the Spanish Crown as independent; the eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered war crimes. King of Portugal Main article: Iberian Union Anthony I of Portugal In 1578 young King Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir without descendants, triggering a succession crisis. His granduncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as king, but Henry had no descendants either, having taken holy orders. When Henry died two years after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of Manuel I claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza; António, Prior of Crato; and Philip II of Spain. António was acclaimed King of Portugal in many cities and towns throughout the country, but members of the Council of Governors of Portugal who had supported Philip escaped to the Spanish kingdoms and declared him to be the legal successor of Henry. In 1580, Philip II marched into Portugal and defeated Prior António's troops in the Battle of Alcântara. The Portuguese suffered 4,000 killed, wounded, or captured, while the Spanish sustained only 500 casualties. The troops commanded by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba imposed subjection to Philip before entering Lisbon, where he seized an immense treasure. Philip II of Spain assumed the Portuguese throne and was crowned Philip I of Portugal on 17 July 1580 (recognized as king by the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar) and a near sixty-year personal union under the rule of the Philippine Dynasty began. This gave Philip control of the extensive Portuguese Empire. When Philip left for Madrid in 1583, he made his nephew Albert of Austria his viceroy in Lisbon. In Madrid he established a Council of Portugal to advise him on Portuguese affairs, giving prominent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish courts, and allowing Portugal to maintain autonomous law, currency, and government. This followed on the well-established pattern of rule by councils. Spanish Empire of Philip II, III and IV including all charted and claimed territories, maritime claims (mare clausum) and other features Relations with England and Ireland King of England and Ireland Titian's portrait of Philip as prince (1551), aged about 24, dressed in a lavishly decorated set of armour Irish groat with Philip's and Mary's initials and portraits Philip's father arranged his marriage to 37-year-old Queen Mary I of England, Charles' maternal first cousin. His father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, to him. Their marriage at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner and the House of Commons petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring Edward Courtenay. Under the terms of the Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain, Philip was to enjoy Mary I's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including Acts of Parliament, were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty also provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. The Privy Council instructed that Philip and Mary should be joint signatories of royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of king and stated that he "shall aid her Highness ... in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions". In other words, Philip was to co-reign with his wife. As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish. Philip and Mary I of England, 1558 Acts making it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed by the Parliament of Ireland and England. Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together. The coat of arms of England was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign. During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the loss of Calais, England's last remaining possession in France. Philip's wife had succeeded to the Kingdom of Ireland, but the title of King of Ireland had been created in 1542 by Mary's father, Henry VIII, after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Pope Paul IV rectified this by issuing a papal bull recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland. King's County and Philipstown in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556. The couple's joint royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol. However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman Catholic Church in England. With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne (including the ancient English claims to the French throne) and ceased to be king of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France. Philip's great-grandson, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, married Princess Henrietta of England in 1661; in 1807, the Jacobite claim to the British throne passed to the descendants of their child Anne Marie d'Orléans. After Mary I's death Further information: Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581 Upon Mary's death, the throne went to Elizabeth I. Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a Valois alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that Mary, Queen of Scots, the Catholic great-granddaughter of Henry VII, was the rightful monarch. For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of privateering against Spain's merchant shipping and started threatening the Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. In one instance, English ships attacked a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the Treaty of Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to the anti-Spanish rebels in the Netherlands. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League of France, Philip considered it an act of war by England. The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, to rendezvous with the Army of Flanders and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the English Channel, already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English Royal Navy; it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk), but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged. However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters. The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a counter-armada the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost. Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although Cádiz was sacked by an Anglo-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the Dunkirkers, who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping. Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597. The 1596 Armada was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The 1597 Armada was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland. Death Philip II died in El Escorial, near Madrid, on 13 September 1598, of cancer. He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, Philip III. Legacy Main article: Cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain Philip's dominions in 1598 Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power. However, in spite of the great and increasing quantities of gold and silver flowing into his coffers from the American mines, the riches of the Portuguese spice trade, and the enthusiastic support of the Habsburg dominions for the Counter-Reformation, he would never succeed in suppressing Protestantism or defeating the Dutch rebellion. Early in his reign, the Dutch might have laid down their weapons if he had desisted in trying to suppress Protestantism, but his devotion to Catholicism would not permit him to do so. He was a devout Catholic and exhibited the typical 16th century disdain for religious heterodoxy; he said, "Before suffering the slightest damage to religion in the service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, because I do not wish nor do I desire to be the ruler of heretics." As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy through an intensification of the Inquisition, students were barred from studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the kingdom were banned. In addition to the banning of books, Philip II authorized the burning of at least 70,000 volumes. Even a highly respected churchman like Archbishop Bartolome Carranza of Toledo was jailed by the Inquisition for 17 years, for publishing ideas that seemed sympathetic in some degree with Protestantism. Such strict enforcement of orthodox belief was successful, and Spain avoided the religiously inspired strife tearing apart other European dominions. Although he was deeply dedicated to rooting out heretical titles, he collected forbidden books for his own royal library at the El Escorial. His library contained 40,000 volumes (1,800 of which were Arabic titles) and several thousand manuscripts. The banned books were protected in a room on an upper floor of the library. He was passionate about rare books he personally collected from far and wide and researched and recorded information about previous owners. The School of Salamanca flourished under his reign. Martín de Azpilcueta, highly honoured at Rome by several popes and looked on as an oracle of learning, published his Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium (Rome, 1568), long a classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice. Francisco Suárez, generally regarded as the greatest scholastic after Thomas Aquinas and regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, was writing and lecturing, not only in Spain but also in Rome (1580–1585), where Pope Gregory XIII attended the first lecture that he gave. Luis de Molina published his De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia (1588), wherein he put forth the doctrine attempting to reconcile the omniscience of God with human free will that came to be known as Molinism, thereby contributing to what was one of the most important intellectual debates of the time; Molinism became the de facto Jesuit doctrine on these matters, and is still advocated today by William Lane Craig and Alvin Plantinga, among others. Statue of Philip II at the Sabatini Gardens in Madrid (F. Castro, 1753) Because Philip II was the most powerful European monarch in an era of war and religious conflict, evaluating both his reign and the man himself has become a controversial historical subject. Even before his death in 1598, his supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, full of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and despotic monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism. This dichotomy, further developed into the so-called Spanish Black Legend and White Legend, was helped by King Philip himself. Philip prohibited any biographical account of his life to be published while he was alive, and he ordered that all his private correspondence be burned shortly before he died. Moreover, Philip did nothing to defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious secretary Antonio Pérez, who published incredible calumnies against his former master; this allowed Pérez's tales to spread all around Europe unchallenged. That way, the popular image of the King that survives to today was created on the eve of his death, at a time when many European princes and religious leaders were turned against Spain as a pillar of the Counter-Reformation. This means that many histories depict Philip from deeply prejudiced points of view, usually negative. However, some historians classify this anti-Spanish analysis as part of the Black Legend. In a more recent example of popular culture, Philip II's portrayal in Fire Over England (1937) is not entirely unsympathetic; he is shown as a very hardworking, intelligent, religious, somewhat paranoid ruler whose prime concern is his country, but who had no understanding of the English, despite his former co-monarchy there. Even in countries that remained Catholic, primarily France and the Italian states, fear and envy of Spanish success and domination created a wide receptiveness for the worst possible descriptions of Philip II. Although some efforts have been made to separate legend from reality, that task has proved extremely difficult, since many prejudices are rooted in the cultural heritage of European countries. Spanish-speaking historians tend to assess his political and military achievements, sometimes deliberately avoiding issues such as the King's inflexible Catholicism. English-speaking historians tend to show Philip II as a fanatical, despotical, criminal, imperialist monster, minimising his military victories (Battle of Lepanto, Battle of Saint Quentin, etc.) to mere anecdotes, and magnifying his defeats (namely the Armada) even though at the time those defeats did not result in great political or military changes in the balance of power in Europe. Moreover, it has been noted that objectively assessing Philip's reign would necessitate a re-analysis of the reign of his greatest opponents, namely England's Queen Elizabeth I and the Dutch William the Silent, who are popularly regarded as great heroes in their home nations; if Philip II is to be shown to the English or Dutch public in a more favourable light, Elizabeth and William would lose their cold-blooded, fanatical enemy, thus decreasing their own patriotic accomplishments. He ended French Valois ambitions in Italy and brought about the Habsburg ascendency in Europe. He secured the Portuguese kingdom and empire. He succeeded in increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch, and French privateers, overcoming multiple financial crises and consolidating Spain's overseas empire. Although clashes would be ongoing, he ended the major threat posed to Europe by the Ottoman Navy. Historian Geoffrey Parker offers a management-psychological explanation, as summarized by Tonio Andrade and William Reger: One might have expected that Philip—being a dedicated, persistent, and hard-working man, and being the head of Western Europe's wealthiest and largest empire—would have succeeded in his aims. He didn't. His endeavors were doomed by his own character, or at least that's how Parker sees it. Drawing on studies in management science and organizational psychology, Parker argues that a successful manager of a large organization must keep attention on the big picture, must have a good strategy for dealing with copious information, must know how to delegate, and must be flexible. Philip failed on all counts. He was a micromanager who got bogged down in details, refusing to delegate and trying to read every dispatch that came to his desk. He obsessed and dithered, so that by the time his decisions were made and his orders reached the men meant to carry them out, the situation on the ground had changed. Philip was also inflexible, unwilling to abandon ineffective policies. Most pernicious of all was Philip's tendency toward messianic thinking, a belief that he was doing God's work and that heaven would support him with miracles. Titles, honours and styles Cannon with arms of Philip II as King of Spain and jure uxoris King of England and France Portrait of Philip II as King of Portugal by Sánchez Coello, c. 1580 Heir titles Prince of Gerona: 21 May 1527 – 16 January 1556 Prince of Asturias 1528–1556 King of Castile as Philip II: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598 King of Castile, of León, of Granada, of Toledo, of Galicia, of Seville, of Cordoba, of Murcia, of Jaen, of the Algarves, of Algeciras, of Gibraltar, of the Canary Islands, of the Indias, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea; Lord of Molina Lord of Biscay King of Aragon as Philip I: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598 King of Aragón King of the Two Sicilies King of Naples, of Jerusalem (from 25 July 1554) King of Sicily. Duke of Athens, of Neopatria King of Valencia King of Majorca King of Sardinia and of Corsica, Margrave of Oristano, Count of Goceano King of Navarre Count of Barcelona, of Roussillon, of Cerdanya King of Portugal as Philip I: 12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598 King of Portugal and the Algarves of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India, etc. King of England de jure uxoris as Philip I: 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558 King of England, France (titular); Defender of the Faith King of Ireland Imperial and Habsburg patrimonial titles: Duke of Milan: 11 October 1540 (secret donation) / 25 July 1554 (public investiture) – 13 September 1598 Imperial vicar of Siena: since 30 May 1554 Archduke of Austria Princely Count of Habsburg and of Tyrol Prince of Swabia Burgundian titles Lord of the Netherlands: 25 October 1555 – 13 September 1598 Duke of Lothier, of Brabant, of Limburg, of Luxemburg, of Guelders. Count of Flanders, of Artois, of Hainaut, of Holland, of Zeeland, of Namur, of Zutphen. Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Lord of Frisia, Salins, Mechelen, the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen Count Palatine of Burgundy from 10 June 1556; Count of Charolais from 21 September 1558 Duke of Burgundy Dominator in Asia, Africa Honours Knight of the Golden Fleece: 1531 – 13 September 1598 Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece: 23 October 1555 – 13 September 1598 Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598 Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598 Grand Master of the Order of Santiago: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598 Grand Master of the Order of Montesa: 8 December 1587 – 13 September 1598 Philip continued his father's style of "Majesty" (Latin: Maiestas; Spanish: Majestad) in preference to that of "Highness" (Celsitudo; Alteza). In diplomatic texts, he continued the use of the title "Most Catholic" (Rex Catholicissimus; Rey Católico) first bestowed by Pope Alexander VI on Ferdinand and Isabella in 1496. Following the Act of Parliament sanctioning his marriage with Mary, the couple was styled "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, France, Naples, Jerusalem, and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Spain and Sicily, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Milan, Burgundy and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol". Upon his inheritance of Spain in 1556, they became "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, both the Sicilies, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol". His coinage typically bore the obverse inscription "PHS·D:G·HISP·Z·REX" (Latin: "Philip, by the grace of God King of Spain et cetera"), followed by the local title of the mint ("DVX·BRA" for Duke of Brabant, "C·HOL" for Count of Holland, "D·TRS·ISSV" for Lord of Overissel, etc.). The reverse would then bear a motto such as "PACE·ET·IVSTITIA" ("For Peace and Justice") or "DOMINVS·MIHI·ADIVTOR" ("The Lord is my helper"). A medal struck in 1583 bore the inscriptions "PHILIPP II HISP ET NOVI ORBIS REX" ("Philip II, King of Spain and the New World") and "NON SUFFICIT ORBIS" ("The world is not enough"). Heraldry Heraldry of Philip II of Spain Common versions 1556–1558(as Spanish monarch) 1558–1580 1580–1598 Spanish realms versions Kingdom of Navarre Kingdom of Galicia 1558–1580 1580–1598 1580–1598 1558–1580 1580–1598 Burgundian variants Free County of Burgundy 1556–1580 1580–1598 Italian Variants Duchy of Milan Kingdom of Sardinia Naples and Sicily 1554–1558 1558–1580 1580–1598 1580–1598 1554–1598 Ornamented versions Coat of arms at his investiture as Knight of theOrder of the Garter(in 1554) Coat of arms(with the Eagle of St John as supporter)1558–1580 / 1580–1598 Coat of arms as Spanish monarch and kingjure uxoris of England(with symbols of the Crown of Castile and León anda cap of maintenance with the crest of England imperially crowned in the top)1556–1558 Coat of arms with supporters, crest and motto(with symbols of the Crowns of Castile and León and Aragon in the top)1558–1580 Coat of arms with supporters, crest and motto(with symbols of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile and León and of the Kingdom of Portugal in the top)1580–1598 Coat of arms with supporters (a lion and a griffin) and crest(with symbols of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile and León and of the Kingdom of Portugal in the top)1580–1598 Family Philip was married four times and had children with three of his wives. He also had two long-term relationships with Isabel Osorio and Eufrasia de Guzmán. Maria Manuela of Portugal (1527–1545) Mary I of England (1516–1558), by Antonis Mor Elisabeth of Valois (1545–1568), by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz Anna of Austria (1549–1580), by Sofonisba Anguissola First marriage Philip's first wife was his double first cousin, Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal. She was a daughter of Philip's maternal uncle, John III of Portugal, and paternal aunt, Catherine of Austria. They were married at Salamanca on 12 November 1543. The marriage produced one son in 1545, after which Maria died four days later due to haemorrhage: Carlos, Prince of Asturias (8 July 1545 – 24 July 1568), died unmarried at the age of 23 and without issue. Second marriage Philip's second wife was his first cousin once removed, Queen Mary I of England. The marriage, which took place on 25 July 1554 at Winchester Cathedral, was political. By this marriage, Philip became jure uxoris King of England and Ireland, although the couple was apart more than together as they ruled their respective countries. The marriage produced no children, although there was a false pregnancy, and Mary died in 1558, ending Philip's reign in England and Ireland. Third marriage Philip's third wife was Elisabeth of Valois, the eldest daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. The original ceremony was conducted by proxy (the Duke of Alba standing in for Philip) at Notre Dame prior to Elisabeth's departure from France. The actual ceremony was conducted in Guadalajara upon her arrival in Spain. During their marriage (1559–1568) they conceived five daughters, though only two of the girls survived. Elisabeth died a few hours after the loss of her last child. Their children were: Miscarried twin daughters (August 1564) Isabella Clara Eugenia (12 August 1566 – 1 December 1633, aged 67), married Albert VII, Archduke of Austria Catherine Michaela (10 October 1567 – 6 November 1597, aged 30), married Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and had issue Joan (3 October 1568) died shortly after birth. Fourth marriage Philip's fourth and final wife was his niece, Anna of Austria. Pope Pius V initially refused to grant Philip the dispensation needed to marry Anna, citing biblical prohibitions and the danger of birth defects. The pope reluctantly gave his permission when Philip threatened to abandon the Holy League in their fight against the Ottoman Turks. By contemporary accounts, this was a convivial and satisfactory marriage (1570–1580) for both Philip and Anna. This marriage produced four sons and one daughter. Anna died of heart failure 8 months after giving birth to Maria in 1580. Their children were: Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias (4 December 1571 – 18 October 1578, aged six) Charles Laurence (12 August 1573 – 30 June 1575, aged one) Diego Félix (15 August 1575 – 21 November 1582, aged seven) Philip III of Spain (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621, aged 42) Maria (14 February 1580 – 5 August 1583, aged three). Cenotaph of Philip and three of his four wives at El Escorial Philip and his niece Anna banqueting with family and courtiers, by Alonso Sánchez Coello Ancestry Ancestors of Philip II of Spain 8. Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor 4. Philip I, King of Castile 9. Mary, Duchess of Burgundy 2. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 10. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon (= 14) 5. Joanna, Queen of Castile 11. Isabella I, Queen of Castile (= 15) 1. Philip II of Spain 12. Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu 6. Manuel I, King of Portugal 13. Beatrice of Portugal 3. Isabella of Portugal 14. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon (= 10) 7. Maria of Aragon 15. Isabella I, Queen of Castile (= 11) Male-line family tree vteHouse of Habsburg   Original line AlbertCount of Habsburgc. 1188–1239 Rudolf Iof Germanyc. 1218–1291 Albert Iof Germany1255–1308Hartmann1263–1281Rudolf IIDuke of Austria1270–1290 Rudolf Iof Bohemia1281–1307Frederickthe Fairc. 1289–1330Leopold IDuke of Austria1290–1326Albert IIDuke of Austria1298–1358Henrythe Friendly1299–1327OttoDuke of Austria1301–1339JohnParricidac. 1290–1312/1313   Albertinian line  Leopoldian line Rudolf IVDuke of Austria1339–1365Frederick IIIDuke of Austria1347–1362Albert IIIDuke of Austria1349–1395Leopold IIIDuke of Austria1351–1386Frederick IIDuke of Austria1327–1344Leopold IIDuke of Austria1328–1344 Albert IVDuke of Austria1377–1404WilliamDuke of Austriac. 1370–1406Leopold IVDuke of Austria1371–1411ErnestDuke of Austria1377–1424Frederick IVDuke of Austria1382–1439 Albert IIof Germany1397–1439Frederick IIIHRE1415–1493Albert VIArchduke of Austria1418–1463SigismundArchduke of Austria1427–1496 Ladislausthe Posthumous1440–1457Maximilian IHRE1459–1519 Philip Iof Castile1478–1506   Spanish / Iberian line  Austrian / HRE line Charles VHRE1500–1558Ferdinand IHRE1503–1564 Philip IIof Spain1527–1598Maximilian IIHRE1527–1576Ferdinand IIArchduke of Austria1529–1595Charles IIArchduke of Austria1540–1590 CarlosPrince of Asturias1545–1568Philip IIIof Spain1578–1621Rudolf IIHRE1552–1612Ernestof Austria1553–1595MatthiasHRE1557–1619Maximilian IIIArchduke of Austria1558–1618Albert VIIArchduke of Austria1559–1621WenceslausArchduke of Austria1561–1578AndrewMargrave of Burgau1558–1600CharlesMargrave of Burgau1560–1618Ferdinand IIHRE1578–1637Maximilian Ernestof Austria1583–1616Leopold VArchduke of Austria1586–1632Charlesof Austria1590–1624 Philip IVof Spain1605–1665Charlesof Austria1607–1632Ferdinandof Austria1609–1641John-Charlesof Austria1605–1619Ferdinand IIIHRE1608–1657Leopold Wilhelmof Austria1614–1662Ferdinand CharlesArchduke of Austria1628–1662Sigismund FrancisArchduke of Austria1630–1665 Balthasar CharlesPrince of Asturias1629–1646Charles IIof Spain1661–1700Ferdinand IVKing of the Romans1633–1654Leopold IHRE1640–1705Charles Josephof Austria1649–1664 Joseph IHRE1678–1711Charles VIHRE1685–1740 Notes: ^ "Habsburg family tree". Habsburg family website. 28 October 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023. See also Library of the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial Descendants of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile The empire on which the sun never sets List of Spanish monarchs Royal Armoury of Madrid Ruy Gómez de Silva, 1st Prince of Éboli Notes ^ He was titled as Philip II (Spanish: Felipe II) in Spain, while in Portugal and his Italian kingdoms he ruled as Philip I (Portuguese: Filipe I). ^ Spain was a composite monarchy, and besides being the second Philip to rule Castile, he was the first to rule Aragon, and the fourth to rule Navarre. ^ This appreciation is noted by Martin Hume in his aforementioned work ("Philip II of Spain", London 1897), pointing out how difficult is to show Philip II in a more favorable light to his fellow Englishmen because of that. ^ With the incorporation of Portugal to the Monarchy the title changed to East and West Indies, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean sea. References ^ Geoffrey Parker. The Grand Strategy of Philip II (2000) ^ Garret Mattingly. The Armada pp. 22, 66. ISBN 0-395-08366-4. ^ Rowse, A. L. (1969). Tudor Cornwall: Portrait of a Society. C. Scribner, p. 400 ^ "One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and by the end of 1589 Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort the American treasure ships home." The Mariner's Mirror, Volumes 76–77. Society for Nautical Research, 1990 ^ Kamen, Henry (2014). Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. Routledge. p. 150. ^ "BIEN DE INTERÉS CULTURAL: PALACIO CONDES RIVADAVIA PALACIO DE PIMENTEL". Junta de Castilla y León. Retrieved 12 January 2023. ^ James Boyden. Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopaedia of the Early Modern World. ^ Encyclopedia of World Biography (2004). ^ Parker, Geoffrey, The Dutch Revolt (1977, rev. ed. 1985). London: Penguin, p. 41. ^ Parker, The Dutch Revolt, p. 42. ^ Drelichman, Mauricio; Voth, Hans-Joachim (2014). Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4843-0. ^ Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization (4th ed.). Oxford : Oxford University Press. p. 488. ISBN 978-0-19-923663-3. ^ Elliott, J. H. (2002). Imperial Spain 1469–1716 (Repr. ed.). London : Penguin Books. pp. 285–291. ISBN 0-14-100703-6. ^ As Philip wrote in 1566 to Luis de Requesens: "You can assure his Holiness that rather than suffer the least injury to religion and the service of God, I would lose all my states and a hundred lives if I had them, for I do not intend to rule over heretics." Pettegree 2002, p. 214. ^ Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 935–936 and notes. ^ Royall Tyler, ed. (1954). "Spain: September 1556". Calendar of State Papers, Spain. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 19 April 2013. ^ Salvador Miranda (2010). "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church". Florida International University. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2010. ^ Richard L. Kagan (2009). Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain. JHU Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-1421401652. ^ Jan Glete p. 156 ^ Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas p. 122 ^ Knecht, French Civil Wars p. 272 ^ Goubert, Pierre (2002). The Course of French History. Routledge. p. 103. ^ Lytle Schurz, William (1922), "The Spanish Lake", The Hispanic American Historical Review, 5 (2): 181–194, doi:10.1215/00182168-5.2.181, JSTOR 2506024 ^ "Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes". Memoria Chilena (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. Retrieved 30 September 2014. ^ Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, según Amancio Landín, uno de sus más reputados biógrafos, nació en Pontevedra, hacia 1532. Julio Guillén—el marino-académico—, por su parte, dice que es posible fuera Colegial Mayor en la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, ciudad que fue—asegura—cuna del gran marino español. Este, no ha dejado aclarada la duda sobre su origen geográfico, pues afirmó ser natural de ambos lugares. ^ Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro (1895). Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan. Translated by Clements R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society. ^ a b c Martinic 1977, p. 119. ^ Martinic 1977, p. 121. ^ "History of the Strait of Magellan". 7 April 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2019. ^ Wilson, Derek (2013). "3. The Triumph of Desire". A Brief History of Circumnavigators. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 978-1-4721-1329-0. ^ Urbina C., M. Ximena (2013). "Expediciones a las costas de la Patagonia Occidental en el periodo colonial". Magallania (in Spanish). 41 (2): 51–84. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442013000200002. Retrieved 27 January 2016. ^ Urbina C., María Ximena (2017). "La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares" . Magallania. 45 (2): 11–36. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011. Retrieved 27 December 2019. ^ a b Henk van Nierop, Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt (Princeton University Press, 2009), 69–70. ^ Henk van Nierop, Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt (Princeton University Press, 2009), 177. ^ a b Goodwin, Robert (2015). Spain: The Centre of the World 1519–1682. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 179–180. ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count". necrometrics.com. ^ Sharp Hume, Martín Andrew. The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence. p. 372. ^ Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1997), 160. ^ James Tracy, The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588 (Oxford University Press, 2008), 141. ^ Black, Jeremy (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0521470339. ^ "Victimario Histórico Militar". ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). 500 Great Military Leaders. Vol. 1 & 2. p. 19. ^ Parker, Geoffrey, The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries' Wars, London: Cambridge University Press, 1972 ISBN 0-521-08462-8, p. 35. ^ Kamen, Henry, The Duke of Alba, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004. ^ Hatton, Barry, Queen of the Sea: A History of Lisbon, London: C. Hurst & Co., 2018, p. 89. ^ Adams, George Burton; Stephens, H. Morse, eds. (1901). "An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain". Select Documents of English Constitutional History. MacMillan. p. 284 – via Internet Archive. ^ a b c Louis Adrian Montrose, The subject of Elizabeth: authority, gender, and representation, University of Chicago Press, 2006 ^ Berenguer, Gonzalo Velasco (2023). Habsburg England: Politics and Religion in the Reign of Philip I (1554–1558). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-53621-0. ^ A. F. Pollard, The History of England – From the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth (1547–1603), Read Books, 2007 ^ Wim de Groot, The Seventh Window: The King's Window Donated by Philip II and Mary Tudor to Sint Janskerk in Gouda (1557), Uitgeverij Verloren, 2005 ^ Robert Dudley Edwards, Ireland in the age of the Tudors: the destruction of Hiberno-Norman civilisation, Taylor & Francis, 1977 ^ Treason Act 1554 ^ Richard Marks, Ann Payne, British Museum, British Library; British heraldry from its origins to c. 1800; British Museum Publications Ltd., 1978 ^ The Numismatist, American Numismatic Association, 1971 ^ Francois Velde (25 July 2003). "Text of 1555 Bull". Heraldica.org. Retrieved 22 August 2012. ^ Grant, R. G. (2017). 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History. p. 296. ^ Tucker, Spencer (2011). Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 183. ^ Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón. Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51 ^ Koenigsberger, Helmut Georg (2012), Philip II, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, retrieved 31 January 2012 ^ The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition on YouTube (at 21:27 – 21:40). BBC. ^ a b c Murray, Stuart (2009). The library: an illustrated history. New York, NY: Skyhorse Pub. ISBN 978-1-60239-706-4. ^ Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. ISBN 84-239-9736-7 In the introduction to this work, Felipe is mentioned as the most powerful European monarch by resources and army, depicting Europe at the time as a world full of unsolved issues and religious conflicts ^ Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo (6th ed.). Espasa Calpe, Madrid. ISBN 84-239-9736-7. Yet again, the several points of view towards his reign are mentioned in the Introduction. ^ Kamen, Henry. Felipe de España, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1997. Cultural depictions of the King are mentioned, although Kamen tends to place himself with those favouring the King. ^ Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. ISBN 84-239-9736-7. He discusses the lack of correspondence of the king because he ordered it burned, thus avoiding any chance of getting further into Philip's private life. ^ Vid. Marañón, Gregorio. Antonio Pérez: el hombre, el drama, la época. Madrid, Espasa Calpe, 1951, 2 vols. Judiciously argued review on the harm Perez did to the king, analyzing the king's responsibility on the assassination of Escobedo. ^ Johonnot, James. "Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada". Authorama.com. Retrieved 22 August 2012. ^ Hume, Martin. Philip II of Spain, London, 1897. Martin tried to resurrect the prejudiced views concerning the king, as did Carl Bratli in his Filip of Spanien (Koebenhaven, 1909). By contrast, Ludwig Pfandl, in Felipe II. Bosquejo de una vida y un tiempo, Munich, 1938, assessed Philip's personality negatively. ^ In Felipe II (Madrid, 1943), W. T. Walsh depicts Felipe's reign as prosperous and successful. Fernández Álvarez, in España y los españoles en la Edad Moderna (Salamanca, 1979), points out how White Legend supporters flourished during the 1940s and 1950s, and how they omitted the darkest issues of Philip's reign. ^ Those kinds of adjectives can be read in M. Van Durme's 1953 El Cardenal Granvela. ^ Cabrera de Córdoba, Felipe II rey de España, ed. RAH, 1877, criticizes how Felipe's victories are minimised by English historians, and points out the small consequences of defeats such as the Armada. ^ Tonio Andrade and William Reger, eds., "Geoffrey Parker and Early Modern History" in The Limits of Empire: European Imperial Formations in Early Modern World History: Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Parker (Routledge, 2016), p. xxiii. ^ Not usually included in lists of monarchs, although legally recognized as co-monarch, as his reign ended de facto with Mary's death. ^ Rocquet, Claude-Henri. Bruegel; or The Workshop of Dreams. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1991. ISBN 0226723429. ^ a b Waller, Maureen. Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England. St. Martin's Press (New York), 2006. ISBN 0-312-33801-5. ^ See, inter alia, "Amberes Archived 3 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine" (in Spanish) and Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins. ^ Cremades, Checa. Felipe II. Op. cit. in "The Place of Tudor England". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th Series, Vol. 12. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003. ISBN 0521815614. ^ Parker, Geoffrey (2016). "6 Incest, Blind Faith, and Conquest: The Spanish Hapsburgs and Their Enemies". In Lacey, Jim (ed.). Great Strategic Rivalries: From the Classical World to the Cold War (illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0190620462. ^ Parker, Geoffrey (2014). Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (unabridged ed.). Yale University Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0300196535. ^ a b Armstrong, Edward (1911). "Charles V. (Roman Emperor)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ a b c d Stephens, Henry Morse (1903). The story of Portugal. G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 139, 279. ISBN 9780722224731. Retrieved 23 October 2018. ^ a b Wurzbach, Constantin von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Philipp I. der Schöne von Oesterreich" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich (in German). Vol. 7. p. 112 – via Wikisource. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Joanna" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ a b "Maria (D.). Rainha de Portugal". Portugal - Dicionário Histórico, Corográfico, Heráldico, Biográfico, Bibliográfico, Numismático e Artístico (in Portuguese). Vol. IV. pp. 823–824. Further reading Boyden, James M. The Courtier and the King: Ruy Gómez De Silva, Philip II, and the Court of Spain (University of California Press, 1995). Elliott, J. H. Imperial Spain: 1469–1716 (1966). Elliott, John H. "The decline of Spain". Past & Present 20 (1961): 52–75. Grierson, Edward. The Fatal Inheritance: Philip II and the Spanish Netherlands (1969). Gwynn, Aubrey. "A Catholic King: Philip II of Spain". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, vol. 22, no. 85 (1933), pp. 48–64. Hume, M. A. S. Philip II. of Spain (1903). Israel, Jonathan. "King Philip II of Spain as a symbol of 'Tyranny'". Co-herencia 15.28 (2018): 137–154. Kamen, Henry. Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1999), a major scholarly biography. Online free to borrow Kelsey, Harry. Philip of Spain, King of England: The Forgotten Sovereign (London, I.B. Tauris, 2011). Koenigsberger, H. G. The Habsburgs and Europe, 1516–1660 (1971). Online free to borrow López, Anna Santamaría. "'Great Faith is Necessary to Drink from this Chalice': Philip II in the Court of Mary Tudor, 1554–58." in Early Modern Dynastic Marriages and Cultural Transfer ed. by Joan-Lluis Palos and Magdalena S. Sanchez (2017) pp: 115–138. Lynch, John. Spain Under the Habsburgs: vol I: Empire and Absolutism: 1516–1598 (1965) Lynch, John. "Philip II and the Papacy". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 11 (1961): 23–42. Martinic, Mateo (1977). Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello. Merriman, R. B. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (4 vols, 1918). Vol. 4 has in-depth coverage of Philip II. Parker, Geoffrey. Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (2014), a major scholarly biography. Parker, Geoffrey. The Grand Strategy of Philip II (Yale University Press, 1998). online review Parker, Geoffrey. Philip II (1995), short scholarly biography Parker, Geoffrey. The World is Not Enough: The Imperial Vision of Philip II of Spain (Baylor University Press, 2001). Parker, Geoffrey. "The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (2002): 167–221. Patterson, Benton Rain. With the Heart of a King: Elizabeth I of England, Philip II of Spain & the Fight for a Nation's Soul & Crown (2007). Petrie, Charles. Philip II of Spain (1963), short scholarly biography. Pettegree, Andrew (2002). Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20704-X.. Pierson, Peter. Philip II of Spain (1975). Prescott, William Hickling. A History of the Reign of Philip II, London, Boston, Philadelphia. 1855–1902. Redworth, Glyn. "Philip (1527–1598)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edition, May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2011. Rodriguez-Salgado, M. J. "The Court of Philip II of Spain". In Princes, Patronage, and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, cc. 1450–1650. Edited by Ronald G. Asch and Adolf M. Birke. (Oxford University Press, 1991). ISBN 0-19-920502-7. Samson, Alexander. Mary and Philip: The Marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain (Manchester University Press, 2020) excerpt. Samson, Alexander. "Power Sharing: The Co-monarchy of Philip and Mary", in Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, ed. by Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2010), pp. 159–172. Thomas, Hugh. World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II (Penguin UK, 2014); World Without End: Spain, Philip II, and the First Global Empire (Random House, 2015) popular history. Waxman, Matthew C. "Strategic Terror: Philip II and Sixteenth-Century Warfare". War in History, vol. 4, no. 3 (1997): 339–347. Williams, Patrick. Philip II (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2017), a scholarly biography; excerpt Economic and cultural history Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2 vols., 1976) vol. 1 free to borrow Clouse, Michele L. Medicine, Government and Public Health in Philip II's Spain: Shared Interests, Competing Authorities (Ashgate, 2013). Conklin, James. "The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II". Journal of Political Economy 106.3 (1998): 483–513, statistical Drelichman, Mauricio, and Hans-Joachim Voth. Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II (Princeton University Press, 2016). Goodman, David. "Philip II's Patronage of Science and Engineering". British Journal for the History of Science 16.1 (1983): 49–66. Henriques, Antonio, and Nuno Pedro G. Palma. "Comparative European Institutions and the Little Divergence, 1385–1800" Archived 19 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. (2019), economics Kagan, Richard L. "Philip II and the Art of the Cityscape". Journal of Interdisciplinary History 17.1 (1986): 115–135. Lazure, Guy. "Possessing the Sacred: Monarchy and Identity in Philip II's Relic Collection at the Escorial". Renaissance Quarterly 60.1 (2007): 58–93. Matthews, P. G. "Portraits of Philip II of Spain as King of England". Burlington Magazine 142.1162 (2000): 13–19. Miller, Stephanie R. "A Tale of Two Portraits: Titian's Seated Portraits of Philip II". Visual Resources 28.1 (2012): 103–116. Samson, Alexander. "Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554". Sixteenth Century Journal (2005): 761–784. Scully, Robert E. "'In the Confident Hope of a Miracle': The Spanish Armada and Religious Mentalities in the Late Sixteenth Century". Catholic Historical Review 89.4 (2003): 643–670. Wilkinson-Zerner, Catherine. Juan de Herrera: Architect to Philip II of Spain (Yale University Press, 1993). External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Felipe II de España. Wikiquote has quotations related to Philip II of Spain. Letters of Philip II, King of Spain 1592–1597, online edition at Brigham Young University "Philip II. of Spain" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. XVIII (9th ed.). 1885. pp. 743–746. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Philip II" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Portraits of Philip II, King of Spain at the National Portrait Gallery, London Philip II of Spain House of HabsburgBorn: 21 May 1527 Died: 13 September 1598 Regnal titles Preceded byMary Ias sole monarch King of England and Ireland (jure uxoris) 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558 Succeeded byElizabeth I Preceded byEmperor Charles V Duke of Brabant, Limburg, Lothier and Luxemburg;Marquis of Namur; Count Palatine of Burgundy;Count of Artois, Flanders and Hainaut 16 January 1556 – 6 May 1598 Succeeded byIsabella Clara EugeniaAlbert Count of Charolais 21 September 1558 – 6 May 1598 Duke of Guelders;Count of Zutphen, Holland and Zeeland 16 January 1556 – 26 July 1581 Dutch Republic King of Naples and Sicily 1554–1598 Succeeded byPhilip III King of Spain and Sardinia 1556–1598 Preceded byHenry King of Portugal 1581–1598 VacantTitle last held byFrancesco II Sforza Duke of Milan 1540–1598 Spanish royalty VacantTitle last held byCharles I Prince of Asturias 1528–1556 Succeeded byCarlos Prince of Girona 1527–1556 Articles related to Philip II of Spain vteMonarchs of SpainList of monarchs | Monarchs' family treeDynastic union Isabella I & Ferdinand V Joanna & Philip I Personal union Charles I Philip II Philip III Philip IV Charles II Real union Philip V Louis I Philip V Ferdinand VI Charles III Charles IV Joseph Ferdinand VII Isabella II Amadeo Alfonso XII Alfonso XIII Juan Carlos I Felipe VI vteMonarchs of AragonHouse of Jiménez Ramiro I Sancho Peter I Alfonso I Ramiro II Petronilla House of Barcelona Alfonso II Peter II James I Peter III Alfonso III James II Alfonso IV Peter IV John I Martin House of Trastámara Ferdinand I Alfonso V John II Ferdinand II Joanna House of Habsburg Charles I Philip I Philip II Philip III Charles II Charles III House of Bourbon Philip IV vteMonarchs of CastileHouse of Jiménez Ferdinand I Sancho II Alfonso VI Urraca House of Burgundy Alfonso VII Sancho III Alfonso VIII Henry I Berengaria Ferdinand III Alfonso X Sancho IV Ferdinand IV Alfonso XI Peter House of Trastámara Henry II John I Henry III John II Henry IV Isabella I & Ferdinand V Joanna & Philip I House of Habsburg Charles I Philip II Philip III Philip IV Charles II House of Bourbon Philip V vteMonarchs of NavarreHouse of Íñiguez Íñigo Arista García Íñiguez Fortún Garcés House of Jiménez Sancho I Jimeno Garcés García Sánchez I Sancho II García Sánchez II Sancho III García Sánchez III Sancho IV Sancho VA Peter IA Alfonso IA García Ramírez Sancho VI Sancho VII House of Champagne Theobald I Theobald II Henry I Joan I House of Capet Philip IF Louis IF John IF Philip IIF Charles IF Joan II House of Évreux Philip III Charles II Charles III Blanche I House of Trastámara John IIA Charles IV Blanche II Eleanor House of Foix Francis Phoebus Catherine House of Albret John III House of Albret - Lower Navarre Henry II Joan III House of Bourbon - Lower Navarre Antoine Henry IIIF Louis IIF Louis IIIF Louis IVF Louis VF Louis VIF Charles VF House of Trastámara - Upper Navarre Ferdinand IA Joan IIIS House of Habsburg - Upper Navarre Charles IVS Philip IVS Philip VS Philip VIS Charles VS House of Bourbon - Upper Navarre Philip VIIS Louis IIS Ferdinand IIS Charles VIS Charles VIIS Ferdinand IIIS Isabella IS AAlso King of Aragon. FAlso King of France. SAlso King/Queen of Spain. vteSpanish EmpireTimeline–immersed Catholic Monarchs Conquest of the Americas, Asia and the Pacific Treaty of Tordesillas Italian Wars Habsburgs Golden Age War of the League of Cognac Encomiendas New Laws in favour of the indigenous Expulsion of the Moriscos Ottoman–Habsburg wars French Wars of Religion Bruneian–Spanish conflict Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) Piracy in the Caribbean Eighty Years' War Spanish–Moro conflict Thirty Years' War Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) Portuguese Restoration War War of the Spanish Succession Queen Anne's War Bourbons Bourbon Reforms War of Jenkins' Ear Treaty of Madrid (1750) Seven Years' War Nootka Convention Napoleonic invasion Third Treaty of San Ildefonso Independence of Spanish continental Americas Adams–Onís Treaty Liberal constitution Carlist Wars Spanish–American War German–Spanish Treaty (1899) Spanish Civil War Independence of Morocco Independence of Equatorial Guinea Western Sahara conflict TerritoriesEurope Spain Crown of Castille Crown of Aragon Union with Portugal Gibraltar Southern Italy (Kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia) Milan Union with Holy Roman Empire Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France Franche-Comté Pyrénées-Orientales Asia Philippines Pacific Islands (Guam, Mariana, Caroline, Micronesia, Palau) Northern Taiwan Tidore North America New Spain (Coastal Alaska, Central United States (Spanish Louisiana), Western United States (Spanish Texas), Florida, Mexico , Central America (Captaincy General of Yucatan), Spanish Caribbean) Central America Captaincy General of Guatemala Cuba Dominican Republic Puerto Rico Trinidad Jamaica Haiti Aruba Curazao Bonaire Belize South America New Granada (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, part of Guyana, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon) Peru (Peru, Acre, Chile) Río de la Plata (Argentina, Paraguay, Charcas (Bolivia), Banda Oriental (Uruguay), Misiones Orientales, Malvinas) Africa Equatorial Guinea Northern Africa (Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis, Peñón of Algiers, Oran, Béjaïa, Ifni and Cape Juby) Antarctica Terra Australis Administration Archivo de Indias Council of the Indies Cabildo Exequatur Laws of the Indies Papal bull Royal Decree of Graces Trial of residence School of Salamanca Administrative subdivisionsViceroyalties Columbian New Spain New Granada Perú Río de la Plata Captaincies General Chile Cuba Guatemala Philippines Provincias Internas Puerto Rico Santo Domingo Venezuela Yucatán Governorates Castilla de Oro Cuba La Florida La Luisiana New Andalusia (1501–1513) New Andalusia New Castile New Navarre New Spain New Toledo Paraguay Río de la Plata Terra Australis Audiencias Bogotá Buenos Aires Caracas Charcas Concepción Cusco Guadalajara Guatemala Lima Manila Mexico Panamá Quito Santiago Santo Domingo EconomyCurrencies Dollar (Peso) Real Maravedí Escudo Columnario Doubloon Trade Manila galleon Spanish treasure fleet Casa de Contratación Spanish Road Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas Barcelona Trading Company Consulate of the Sea Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires MilitaryArmies Tercio Army of Flanders Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia Indian auxiliaries Spanish Armada Ships of the line Royalists Legión Strategists Duke of Alba Antonio de Leyva Martín de Goiti Alfonso d'Avalos García de Toledo Osorio Duke of Savoy Álvaro de Bazán the Elder John of Austria Charles Bonaventure de Longueval Pedro de Zubiaur Ambrosio Spinola Blas de Lezo Bernardo de Gálvez Mariners Christopher Columbus Pinzón brothers Ferdinand Magellan Juan Sebastián Elcano Juan de la Cosa Juan Ponce de León Miguel López de Legazpi Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Sebastián de Ocampo Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca Alonso de Ojeda Vasco Núñez de Balboa Alonso de Salazar Andrés de Urdaneta Antonio de Ulloa Ruy López de Villalobos Diego Columbus Alonso de Ercilla Nicolás de Ovando Juan de Ayala Sebastián Vizcaíno Juan Fernández Luis Fajardo Felipe González de Ahedo Conquistadors Hernán Cortés Francisco Pizarro Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada Hernán Pérez de Quesada Francisco Vázquez de Coronado Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar Pedro de Valdivia Gaspar de Portolà Pere Fages i Beleta Joan Orpí Pedro de Alvarado Martín de Ursúa Diego de Almagro Pánfilo de Narváez Diego de Mazariegos Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor García López de Cárdenas Notable battlesOld WorldWon Comuneros Bicocca Rome (1527) Landriano Pavia Tunis Mühlberg St. Quentin Gravelines Malta Lepanto Antwerp Azores Mons Gembloux Ostend English Armada Cape Celidonia White Mountain Breda Nördlingen Valenciennes Ceuta Bitonto Bailén Vitoria Tetouan Alhucemas Lost Capo d'Orso Vienna (1529) Preveza Siege of Castelnuovo Algiers Ceresole Balearic Islands (1558) Djerba Tunis Spanish Armada Leiden Rocroi Downs Montes Claros Passaro Manila Bay Trafalgar Somosierra Annual Mactan New WorldWon Tenochtitlan Cajamarca Cusco Bogotá savanna Penco Mataquito Guadalupe Island Recife San Juan (1595) Bahia Colonia del Sacramento Comuneros (Paraguay) Cartagena de Indias Cuerno Verde Túpac Amaru II Túpac Katari Pensacola Newfoundland San Juan (1797) Lost La Noche Triste Iguape Tucapel Guiana Curalaba Comuneros (New Granada) Trinidad (1797) Chacabuco Boyacá Carabobo Pichincha Ayacucho Guam Santiago de Cuba Asomante Spanish conquests Canary Islands The Americas Aztec Maya Chiapas Yucatán Guatemala Petén El Salvador Honduras Nicaragua Chibchan Nations Colombia Chile Inca Philippines Other civil topics Spanish missions in the Americas Architecture Mesoamerican Codices Cusco painting tradition Indochristian painting in New Spain Quito painting tradition Tapada limeña Academia Antártica Colonial universities in Hispanic America Colonial universities in the Philippines General Archive of the Indies Colonial Spanish Horse Mustang Castas Criollos in the colonial society Old inquisition Slavery in Spanish Empire Asiento Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others) Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649 vteMonarchs of PortugalHouse of Burgundy (1139–1383) Afonso I Sancho I Afonso II Sancho II Afonso III Denis I Afonso IV Peter I Ferdinand I Beatrice I House of Aviz (1385–1580) John I Edward I Afonso V John II Manuel I John III Sebastian I Henry I Anthony I House of Habsburg (1581–1640) Philip I Philip II Philip III House of Braganza (1640–1910) John IV Afonso VI Peter II John V Joseph I Maria I with Peter III John VI Peter IV Maria II Miguel I Maria II with Ferdinand II Peter V Luís I Carlos I Manuel II Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics. vteEnglish, Scottish and British monarchsMonarchs of England until 1603Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Sweyn Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I & VI Charles I The Protectorate Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Charles II James II & VII William III & II and Mary II Anne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Debated or disputed rulers are in italics. vteMonarchs of Naples Charles I* Charles II Robert Joanna I with Louis I Charles III Ladislaus (1st reign) Louis II Ladislaus (2nd reign) Joanna II René I Alfonso I* Ferdinand I Alfonso II Ferdinand II Frederick Louis III Ferdinand III* Joanna III* Charles IV* Philip I* Philip II* Philip III* Charles V* Charles VI* Charles VII* Ferdinand IV* (1st reign) Parthenopean Republic Ferdinand IV* (2nd reign) Joseph I Joachim I Ferdinand IV* (3rd reign) *Also Monarch of Sicily vteMonarchs of SicilyCounty of Sicily (1071–1130) Roger I Simon Roger II Kingdom of Sicily (1130–1816) Roger II William I William II Tancred Roger III William III Constance I Henry I Frederick I Henry II Conrad I Conrad II Manfred Charles I Constance II Peter I James I Frederick II Peter II Louis Frederick III Maria Martin I Martin II Ferdinand I Alfonso I John Ferdinand II Joanna Charles II Philip I Philip II Philip III Charles III Philip IV Victor Amadeus Charles IV Charles V Ferdinand III vteMonarchs of LuxembourgCounty of Luxemburg (963–1354)Elder House of Luxembourg (963–1136) Siegfried (963–998) Henry I (998–1026) Henry II (1026–1047) Giselbert (1047–1059) Conrad I (1059–1086) Henry III (1086–1096) William I (1096–1131) Conrad II (1131–1136) House of Namur (1136–1189) Henry IV (1136–1189) House of Hohenstaufen (1196–1197) Otto (1196–1197) House of Namur (1197–1247) Ermesinde (1197–1247), with Theobald (1197–1214), and then Waleran (1214–1226) House of Limburg (1247–1354) Henry V (1247–1281) Henry VI (1281–1288) Henry VII (1288–1313) John I (1313–1346) Charles I (1346–1353) Wenceslaus I (1353–1354) Duchy of Luxemburg (1354–1794)House of Limburg (1354–1443) Wenceslaus I (1354–1383) Wenceslaus II (1383–1388) Jobst (1388–1411) Elisabeth (1411–1443) with Anthony (1411–1415), and then John II (1418–1425) House of Valois-Burgundy (1443–1482) Philip I (1443–1467) Charles II (1467–1477) Mary I (1477–1482) and Maximilian I (1477–1482) House of Habsburg (1482–1700) Philip II (1482–1506) Charles III (1506–1556) Philip III (1556–1598) Isabella Clara Eugenia (1598–1621) and Albert (1598–1621) Philip IV (1621–1665) Charles IV (1665–1700) House of Bourbon (1700–1712) Philip V (1700–1712) House of Wittelsbach (1712–1713) Maximilian II (1712–1713) House of Habsburg (1713–1780) Charles V (1713–1740) Mary II (1740–1780) House of Habsburg-Lorraine (1780–1794) Joseph (1780–1790) Leopold (1790–1792) Francis (1792–1794) Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (since 1815)House of Orange-Nassau (1815–1890) William I (1815–1840) William II (1840–1849) William III (1849–1890) House of Nassau-Weilburg (1890–present) Adolphe (1890–1905) William IV (1905–1912) Marie-Adélaïde (1912–1919) Charlotte (1919–1964) Jean (1964–2000) Henri (since 2000) vteInfantes of SpainThe generations indicate descent from Carlos I, under whom the crowns of Castile and Aragon were united, forming the Kingdom of Spain. Previously, the title Infante had been largely used in the different realms.1st generation Felipe II 2nd generation Carlos, Prince of Asturias Fernando, Prince of Asturias Diego, Prince of Asturias Felipe III 3rd generation Felipe IV Infante Carlos Infante Fernando Infante Alonso 4th generation Baltasar Carlos, Prince of Asturias Felipe Próspero, Prince of Asturias Carlos II 5th generation None 6th generation None 7th generation Luis I Infante Felipe Pedro Fernando VI Carlos III Felipe I, Duke of Parma Infante Luis, Count of Chinchón 8th generation Infante Felipe, Duke of Calabria Carlos IV Fernando I of the Two Sicilies Infante Gabriel Infante Antonio Pascual Infante Francisco Javier Fernando I, Duke of Parma1 9th generation Fernando VII Infante Carlos, Count of Molina Infante Francisco de Paula Infante Pedro Carlos, Infante of Portugal1 Luis I of Etruria2 10th generation Infante Antonio, Duke of Montpensier2 Infante Carlos, Count of Montemolin1 Infante Juan, Count of Montizón1 Infante Fernando1 Francisco de Asís, King Consort of Spain1 Infante Enrique, Duke of Seville1 Infante Sebastián, Infante of Portugal1 Carlos II, Duke of Parma1 11th generation Alfonso XII Infante Gaetan, Count of Girgenti2 Infante Luis Fernando2 Infante Antonio, Duke of Galliera1 Infante Carlos, Duke of Madrid Infante Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime1 Carlos III, Duke of Parma1 12th generation Infante Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies2 Infante Ferdinand of Bavaria2 Infante Alfonso, Duke of Galliera1 Infante Luis Fernando of Orléans1 Infante Jaime, Duke of Madrid1 Roberto I, Duke of Parma1 13th generation Alfonso, Prince of Asturias Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona Infante Gonzalo Infante Alfonso, Duke of Calabria1 Infante Álvaro, Duke of Galliera 14th generation Juan Carlos I Infante Alfonso Infante Carlos, Duke of Calabria1 15th generation Felipe VI 16th generation None 1 title granted by Royal Decree 2 consort to an Infanta naturalized as a Spanish Infante vteAustrian archdukesGenerations are numbered by male-line descent from the first archdukes. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919.1st generation Frederick V Albert VI Sigismund 2nd generation Maximilian I 3rd generation Philip I of Castile 4th generation Charles I Ferdinand I 5th generation Philip II of SpainS Maximilian II Ferdinand II Charles II 6th generation Charles, Prince of AsturiasS Ferdinand, Prince of AsturiasS Diego, Prince of AsturiasSP Philip III of SpainSP Rudolf V Ernest Matthias Maximilian III Albert VII Wenceslaus Ferdinand III Maximilian Ernest Leopold V Charles, Bishop of Wroclaw 7th generation Philip IV of SpainSP CharlesSP FerdinandSP AlonsoSP Ferdinand IV Leopold Wilhelm Ferdinand Charles Sigismund Francis 8th generation Balthasar Charles, Prince of AsturiasSP Philip Prospero, Prince of AsturiasS Charles II of SpainS Ferdinand IV of Hungary Leopold VI Charles Joseph 9th generation Joseph I Leopold Joseph Charles III 11th generation Joseph IIT Charles JosephT Leopold VIIT FerdinandT Maximilian Franz, Archbishop-Elector of CologneT 12th generation Emperor Francis IT Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of TuscanyT CharlesT Alexander LeopoldT JosephT Anton VictorT JohnT Rainer JosephT LouisT Cardinal RudolfT Francis IV, Duke of ModenaM Ferdinand Karl JosephM MaximilianM Karl Ambrosius, Primate of HungaryM 13th generation Emperor Ferdinand I Joseph Franz Franz Karl Leopold II, Grand Duke of TuscanyT Albrecht Karl Ferdinand Frederick Ferdinand Wilhelm Franz Stephen Joseph Karl Leopold Ludwig Ernest Sigismund Rainer Ferdinand Heinrich Anton Francis V, Duke of ModenaM Ferdinand Karl ViktorM 14th generation Emperor Franz Joseph I Maximilian I of Mexico Karl Ludwig Ludwig Viktor Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of TuscanyT Karl SalvatorT Ludwig SalvatorT John SalvatorT Friedrich Charles Stephen Eugen Joseph August Archduke Ladislaus Philipp 15th generation Crown Prince Rudolf Franz Ferdinand Otto Ferdinand Karl Leopold FerdinandT Josef FerdinandT Peter FerdinandT Leopold SalvatorT Franz SalvatorT Albrecht Franz Karl Albrecht Leo Karl Wilhelm Joseph Francis 16th generation Emperor Charles I Maximilian HabsburgTuscany GottfriedT RainerT Leopold MariaT AntonT Franz JosephT Karl PiusT Franz Karl SalvatorT Hubert SalvatorT Palatinesof Hungary Joseph Árpád Géza 17th generationDescent ofCharles I Crown Prince Otto Robert Felix Carl Ludwig Rudolf Tuscany DominicT Palatines Eduard 18th generationCharles Karl Georg LorenzB Karl Philipp Simeon 19th generationCharles Ferdinand Zvonimir Károly AmedeoB S: also an infante of Spain P: also an infante of Portugal T: also a prince of Tuscany M: also a prince of Modena B: also a prince of Belgium vtePrinces and Princesses of Asturias Henry (1388–90) Maria (1402–05) John (1405–06) Catherine (1423–24) Eleanor (1424–25) Henry (1425–54) Joanna (1462–64) Alfonso (1464–68) Isabella (1468–70) Isabella (1470–78) John (1478–97) Isabella (1497–98) Michael (1498–1500) Joanna (1502–04) Charles (1504–16) Philip (1527–56) Charles (1556–68) Ferdinand (1571–78) Diego (1578–82) Philip (1582–98) Philip (1605–21) Balthasar Charles (1629–1646) Philip Prospero (1657–1661) Charles (1661–1665) Louis (1709–24) Ferdinand (1724–46) Charles (1759–88) Ferdinand (1788–1808) Isabella (1830–33) Isabella (1851–57) Alfonso (1857–68) Emanuele Filiberto (1871–73) Isabella (1875–80) Mercedes (1881–1904) Alfonso (1907–38) Felipe (1977–2014) Leonor (2014– ) vtePrinces and Princesses of Girona Infanta Leonor (2014-present) Infante Felipe (1977-2014) Infante Alfonso (1907–1931) Infante Charles (1661-1665) Infante Philip Prospero (1657-1661) Infante Balthasar Charles (1629–1646) Philip IV (1605-1621) Infante Philip (1582-1598) Infante Diego (1578-1582) Infante Ferdinand (1571–1578) Infante Charles (1556-1568) Philip II (1527-1556) Infante Charles (1504-1516) Infanta Joanna (1509-1516) Infante John (1509) Infanta Joanna (1502-1509) Infante Michael of Portugal (1498-1500) Infante John (1479-1497) Infante Ferdinand (1461-1479) Infante Charles (1458-1461) Infante Alfonso (1416) Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF National Norway Chile Spain France BnF data Catalonia Germany Italy Israel Belgium 2 United States Sweden Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Netherlands Poland Portugal Vatican Academics CiNii Artists RKD Artists ULAN People Netherlands Deutsche Biographie Trove Other RISM SNAC IdRef Te Papa (New Zealand)

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"King of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"King of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"King of Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Naples"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sicilian_monarchs"},{"link_name":"jure uxoris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jure_uxoris"},{"link_name":"King of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_England"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Irish_monarchs"},{"link_name":"his marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_of_Mary_I_of_England_and_Philip_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Mary I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_I"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Duke of Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Milan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Seventeen Provinces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Emperor Charles V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Charles_V"},{"link_name":"Isabella of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal,_Holy_Roman_Empress"},{"link_name":"Spanish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire"},{"link_name":"Portuguese throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"of the Inca Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Ruy López de Villalobos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos"},{"link_name":"Spanish Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age"},{"link_name":"debt-leveraged regime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt"},{"link_name":"state defaults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_default"},{"link_name":"declaration of independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Abjuration"},{"link_name":"Dutch Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Republic"},{"link_name":"El Escorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Escorial"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Protestant Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Joinville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville"},{"link_name":"Catholic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)"},{"link_name":"Huguenots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenots"},{"link_name":"armada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Armada"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I"},{"link_name":"English Armada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Armada"},{"link_name":"1596","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada"},{"link_name":"1597","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Spanish War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Low Countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Philip II[note 1] (21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598), also known as Philip the Prudent (Spanish: Felipe el Prudente), was King of Spain[note 2] from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until his death in 1598. He was also jure uxoris King of England and Ireland from his marriage to Queen Mary I in 1554 until her death in 1558.[1] He was also Duke of Milan from 1540.[2] From 1555, he was Lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands.The son of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal, Philip inherited his father's Spanish Empire in 1556 and succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1580 following a dynastic crisis. The Spanish conquests of the Inca Empire and of the Philippines, named in his honor by Ruy López de Villalobos, were completed during his reign. Under Philip II, Spain reached the height of its influence and power, sometimes called the Spanish Golden Age, and ruled territories in every continent then known to Europeans. Philip led a highly debt-leveraged regime, seeing state defaults in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly the cause of the declaration of independence that created the Dutch Republic in 1581. Philip finished building the royal palace El Escorial in 1584.Deeply devout, Philip saw himself as the defender of Catholic Europe against the Ottoman Empire and the Protestant Reformation. In 1584, Philip signed the Treaty of Joinville funding the French Catholic League over the following decade in its civil war against the French Huguenots. In 1588, he sent an armada to invade Protestant England, with the strategic aim of overthrowing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism there, but his fleet was defeated in a skirmish at Gravelines (northern France) and then destroyed by storms as it circled the British Isles to return to Spain. The following year Philip's naval power was able to recover after the failed invasion of the English Armada into Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597. The Anglo-Spanish War carried on until 1604, six years after Philip's death.[3][4]Under Philip, an average of about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, rising to as many as 20,000 in crisis years. Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 men left Spain to fight in Italy and the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands).[5]","title":"Philip II of Spain"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bautizo_Felipe_II_grande.jpg"},{"link_name":"Valladolid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valladolid"},{"link_name":"Palacio de Pimentel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacio_de_Pimentel"},{"link_name":"House of Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"Emperor Charles V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Charles_V"},{"link_name":"Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Isabella of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal,_Holy_Roman_Empress"},{"link_name":"Valladolid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valladolid"},{"link_name":"Palacio de Pimentel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacio_de_Pimentel"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Leonor de Mascareñas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonor_de_Mascare%C3%B1as"},{"link_name":"Juan Martínez Siliceo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Mart%C3%ADnez_Siliceo"},{"link_name":"archbishop of Toledo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Toledo"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"polyglot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyglot"},{"link_name":"archduke of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JBE-9"},{"link_name":"Cortes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortes_Generales"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_people"},{"link_name":"María","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_of_Austria,_Holy_Roman_Empress"},{"link_name":"Juana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_of_Austria,_Princess_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Rui Gomes da Silva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruy_G%C3%B3mez_de_Silva"},{"link_name":"Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_de_Requesens_y_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga"},{"link_name":"Antonio Pérez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_(statesman)"},{"link_name":"secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(Ancient_Regime_in_Spain)"},{"link_name":"Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga_y_Requesens"},{"link_name":"commendador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commendador"},{"link_name":"Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba"},{"link_name":"Italian Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_War_of_1542%E2%80%931546"},{"link_name":"Siege of Perpignan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Perpignan_(1542)"},{"link_name":"Dauphin of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_France"},{"link_name":"Aragonese Cortes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortes_of_Aragon#Early_Cortes"},{"link_name":"Monzón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monz%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"regency of the Spanish kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_regents"},{"link_name":"Duke of Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Milan"},{"link_name":"Francisco de los Cobos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_los_Cobos"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The Baptism of Philip II in Valladolid, Castile. Historical ceiling preserved in Palacio de Pimentel (Valladolid)A member of the House of Habsburg, Philip was the son of Emperor Charles V, who was also king of Castile and Aragon, and Isabella of Portugal. He was born in the Castilian capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio de Pimentel,[6] which was owned by Don Bernardino Pimentel (the first Marqués de Távara). The culture and courtly life of Castile were an important influence in his early life. He was entrusted to the royal governess Leonor de Mascareñas, and tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo, the future archbishop of Toledo. Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arts and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Though Philip had good command over Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese, he never managed to equal his father as a polyglot. While Philip was also an archduke of Austria, he was seen as a foreigner in the Holy Roman Empire. The feeling was mutual. Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish; he had been born in Castile and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred to live in the Spanish kingdoms. This ultimately impeded his succession to the imperial throne.[7]In April 1528, when Philip was eleven months old, he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the Cortes of Castile. From that time until the death of his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in the royal court of Castile under the care of his mother and one of her Portuguese ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was devotedly attached. Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga, the son of his governor. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, his secretary from 1541.Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens, a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars. Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. His political training had begun a year previously under his father, who had found his son studious, grave, and prudent beyond his years, and having decided to train and initiate him in the government of the Spanish kingdoms. The king-emperor's interactions with his son during his stay in Castile convinced him of Philip's precocity in statesmanship, so he determined to leave in his hands the regency of the Spanish kingdoms in 1543. Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen.Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general, the Duke of Alba. Philip was also left with extensive written instructions that emphasised \"piety, patience, modesty, and distrust\". These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed and cautious. Personally, Philip spoke softly and had an icy self-mastery; in the words of one of his ministers, \"he had a smile that was cut by a sword\".[8]","title":"Early life: 1527–1544"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Spanish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire"},{"link_name":"personal union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_union"},{"link_name":"House of Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"several titles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_titles_and_honours_of_the_Heir_Apparent_to_the_Spanish_Throne#Titles_held_by_the_heir_apparent_to_the_Spanish_Throne"},{"link_name":"heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heirs_to_the_Spanish_throne"},{"link_name":"Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Asturias"},{"link_name":"Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre#Spanish_conquest"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand II of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"War across Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Iberian_Navarre"},{"link_name":"Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(1526)#Madrid"},{"link_name":"Henry II of Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_Navarre"},{"link_name":"Jeanne III of Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanne_III_of_Navarre"},{"link_name":"Béarn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscounty_of_B%C3%A9arn"},{"link_name":"Francis I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_I_of_France"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Antonio_Moro.jpg"},{"link_name":"Anthonis Mor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthonis_Mor"},{"link_name":"realm specific laws (fueros)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fueros_of_Navarre"},{"link_name":"November 1592","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortes_of_Tarazona_(1592)"},{"link_name":"secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(Ancient_Regime_in_Spain)"},{"link_name":"Antonio Pérez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_(statesman)"},{"link_name":"Pamplona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamplona"},{"link_name":"Santa Maria Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamplona_Cathedral"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jooris_van_der_Straeten_-_Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain.jpg"},{"link_name":"order of the garter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_garter"},{"link_name":"Jooris van der Straeten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jooris_van_der_Straeten"},{"link_name":"Morisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morisco"},{"link_name":"Morisco Revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morisco_Revolt"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Granada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Granada_(Crown_of_Castile)"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France"},{"link_name":"New World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World"},{"link_name":"Spanish Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age"},{"link_name":"Sofonisba Anguissola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofonisba_Anguissola"}],"text":"After living in the Netherlands in the early years of his reign,[9] Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The Spanish Empire was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a personal union of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the House of Habsburg. In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords.[10]Philip carried several titles as heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire, including Prince of Asturias. The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was Navarre, a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly with Castilian troops (1512), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513). War across Navarre continued until 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King Henry II of Navarre—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne III of Navarre. The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre and a prince of independent Béarn, as well as lord of a large part of southern France. However, the French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541.Philip, in the prime of his life, by Anthonis MorIn his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (Cortes, The Three States) and the Diputación for breach of the realm specific laws (fueros)—violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session.In November 1592, the Parliament (Cortes) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm-specific laws, so the Attorney General (Justicia) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his secretary Antonio Pérez taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in Pamplona at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the Santa Maria Cathedral. A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.Philip II wearing the order of the garter by Jooris van der Straeten, c. 1554Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large Morisco population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the Morisco Revolt broke out in the southern Kingdom of Granada in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces.Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to France, for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the New World proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy.Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the \"Spanish Golden Age\", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola, who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist.","title":"Domestic policy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koning_Spanje_Filips_II_1-5_Philipsdaalder_1566.jpg"},{"link_name":"ducats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducat"},{"link_name":"Neapolitan sums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neapolitan_sums"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Cortes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortes_Generales"},{"link_name":"Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navarre"},{"link_name":"Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Estates General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estates_General_(France)"},{"link_name":"Inquisition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition"},{"link_name":"Perez affair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_(statesman)"},{"link_name":"Valladolid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valladolid"},{"link_name":"Lisbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon"},{"link_name":"Primacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Toledo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid"},{"link_name":"Philip III of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Royal Alcázar of Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Alc%C3%A1zar_of_Madrid"},{"link_name":"modernity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernity"},{"link_name":"El Escorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Escorial"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France"},{"link_name":"Moriscos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morisco"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Portrait of Philip II on 1/5 Philipsdaalder, struck 1566, Guelders, Low CountriesCharles V had left his son Philip with a debt of about 36 million ducats and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, known as Neapolitan sums).[11] Lenders had no power over the King and could not force him to repay his loans. These defaults were just the beginning of Spain's economic troubles as its kings would default six more times in the next 65 years.[12] Aside from reducing state revenues for overseas expeditions, the domestic policies of Philip II further burdened the Spanish kingdoms and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline, as maintained by some historians.[13]The Spanish kingdoms were subject to different assemblies: the Cortes in Castile, the assembly in Navarre, and one each for the four kingdoms of Aragon, which preserved traditional rights and laws from the time when they were separate kingdoms. This made the Spanish kingdoms and its possessions difficult to rule, unlike France, which while divided into regional states, had a single Estates General. The lack of a viable supreme assembly led to power defaulting into Philip II's hands, especially as manager and final arbiter of the constant conflict between different authorities. To deal with the difficulties arising from this situation, authority was administered by local agents appointed by the crown and viceroys carrying out crown instructions. Philip II felt it necessary to be involved in the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for state affairs, finance, war, and the Inquisition.Philip II played groups against each other, leading to a system of checks and balances that managed affairs inefficiently, even to the extent of damaging state business, as in the Perez affair. Following a fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to move his Court to Lisbon, an act that could have curbed centralisation and bureaucracy domestically as well as relaxed rule in the Empire as a whole. Instead, with the traditional Royal and Primacy seat of Toledo now essentially obsolete, he moved his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid. Except for a brief period under Philip III of Spain, Madrid has remained the capital of Spain. It was around this time that Philip II converted the Royal Alcázar of Madrid into a royal palace; the works, which lasted from 1561 until 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the Netherlands, Italy, and France.King Philip II ruled at a critical turning point in European history toward modernity whereas his father Charles V had been forced to an itinerant rule as a medieval king. He mainly directed state affairs, even when not at Court. Indeed, when his health began failing, he worked from his quarters at the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial that he had built in 1584, a palace built as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world. But Philip did not enjoy the supremacy that King Louis XIV of France would in the next century, nor was such a rule necessarily possible at his time. The inefficiencies of the Spanish state and the restrictively regulated industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries. Further, the dispersal of the Moriscos from Granada—motivated by the fear they might support a Muslim invasion—had serious negative effects on the economy,[citation needed] particularly in that region.","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Protestant Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation"},{"link_name":"heresy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Revolt of the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Cologne War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne_War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Guidon_of_King_Philip_II_of_Spain.svg"},{"link_name":"Spanish Armada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Armada"},{"link_name":"war with England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)"},{"link_name":"Low Countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries"},{"link_name":"Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571)"},{"link_name":"Holy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)"},{"link_name":"John of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Union"},{"link_name":"relaciones geográficas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaciones_geogr%C3%A1ficas"}],"text":"Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the Ottoman Empire and against the forces of the Protestant Reformation. He never relented from his fight against heresy, defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories.[14] These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands, where Protestantism had taken deep root. Following the Revolt of the Netherlands in 1568, Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession. It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the Cologne War. This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life. Philip's constant involvement and focus in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and caused economic difficulties for the Crown and even bankruptcies.Personal guidon of Philip IIIn 1588, the English defeated Philip's Spanish Armada, thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism. But war with England continued for the next sixteen years, in a complex series of struggles that included France, Ireland and the main battle zone, the Low Countries. It would not end until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Earlier, however, after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father, Philip did achieve a decisive victory against the Turks at Lepanto in 1571, with the allied fleet of the Holy League, which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother, John of Austria. He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of Portugal.The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called relaciones geográficas. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern Philip's overseas possessions more effectively.","title":"Foreign policy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"throne of Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples"},{"link_name":"Pope Julius III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Julius_III"},{"link_name":"throne of Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Papal States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States"},{"link_name":"Pope Paul IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV"},{"link_name":"Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Francisco de Vargas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_Vargas_y_Mexia"},{"link_name":"Apostolic See","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See"},{"link_name":"College of Cardinals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Cardinals"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Pope Paul IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV"},{"link_name":"Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba"},{"link_name":"Carlo Carafa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Carafa"},{"link_name":"Cave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave,_Lazio"},{"link_name":"Papal States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fiuRebiba-19"},{"link_name":"Italian Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Wars"},{"link_name":"Battle of St. Quentin (1557)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Gravelines (1558)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis"},{"link_name":"Piedmont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Corsica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsica"},{"link_name":"Republic of Genoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan"},{"link_name":"Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia"},{"link_name":"Crown of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"State of Presidi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Presidi"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany"},{"link_name":"Council of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Franco-Habsburg wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French-Habsburg_rivalry"},{"link_name":"Habsburg Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Spain"},{"link_name":"Henry II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_France"},{"link_name":"Francis II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_II_of_France"},{"link_name":"French Wars of Religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion"},{"link_name":"Elisabeth of Valois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois"},{"link_name":"Isabella Clara Eugenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia"}],"sub_title":"Italy","text":"Charles V abdicated the throne of Naples to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially a Papal fief) on 2 October by Pope Julius III. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne of Sicily is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom on 18 November 1554 by Julius.[15] In 1556, Philip decided to invade the Papal States and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to Pope Paul IV's anti-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the Church.In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote:I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far the Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that the population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at the root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the Apostolic See, in whose name, and that of the College of Cardinals, his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in the past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve![16]In response to the invasion, Pope Paul IV called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Viceroy of Naples met Cardinal Carlo Carafa and signed the Treaty of Cave as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the Papal States and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms.[17]Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the Italian Wars. A Spanish advance into France from the Low Countries led to their important victory at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557). The French were defeated again at the Battle of Gravelines (1558). The resulting Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 secured Piedmont to the Duchy of Savoy, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa. Both Genoa and Savoy were allies of Spain and, although Savoy subsequently declared its neutrality between France and Spain, Genoa remained a crucial financial ally for Philip during his entire reign. The treaty also confirmed Philip's control over Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Therefore, all of southern Italy was under Spanish rule as part of the Crown of Aragon. In the north, Milan was a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire held by Philip. Attached to the Kingdom of Naples, the State of Presidi in Tuscany gave Philip the possibility to monitor maritime traffic to southern Italy, whilst the grant of the Duchy of Siena to the new Grand Duchy of Tuscany, ensured it would remain a Spanish ally. The Council of Italy was set up by Philip in order to co-ordinate his rule over the states of Milan, Naples and Sicily. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy in Italy. It marked also the beginning of a period of peace between the Pope and Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged.By the end of the wars in 1559, Habsburg Spain had been established as the premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers, with Spain dominating the peninsula. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth of Valois, later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, Isabella Clara Eugenia.","title":"Foreign policy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"House of Bourbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bourbon"},{"link_name":"House of Guise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Guise"},{"link_name":"Constantine I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne"},{"link_name":"Henry IV of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Vaucelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Vaucelles"},{"link_name":"Franche-Comté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundy"},{"link_name":"War of the Portuguese Succession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Portuguese_Succession"},{"link_name":"António","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio,_Prior_of_Crato"},{"link_name":"Azores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azores"},{"link_name":"Filippo Strozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_di_Piero_Strozzi"},{"link_name":"Florentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence"},{"link_name":"Battle of Terceira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Terceira"},{"link_name":"São Miguel Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_Island"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PhilipIIbust.JPG"},{"link_name":"marble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble"},{"link_name":"bust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)"},{"link_name":"Pompeo Leoni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeo_Leoni"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Azores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Azores"},{"link_name":"Álvaro de Bazán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n,_1st_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz"},{"link_name":"Portugal into the Spanish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Union"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Catholic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)"},{"link_name":"Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma"},{"link_name":"Henry IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France"},{"link_name":"Isabella Clara Eugenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia"},{"link_name":"Elisabeth of Valois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois"},{"link_name":"Salic law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salic_law"},{"link_name":"Parlement of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"siege of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Paris,_1590"},{"link_name":"siege of Rouen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Rouen_(1591)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Battle of Fontaine-Française","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fontaine-Fran%C3%A7aise"},{"link_name":"Spanish Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Ham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham,_Belgium"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Doullens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Doullens"},{"link_name":"Cambrai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambrai"},{"link_name":"Le Catelet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Le_Catelet_(1595)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"conquered Calais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_(1596)"},{"link_name":"Amiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiens"},{"link_name":"reconquer Amiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Amiens_(1597)"},{"link_name":"Peace of Vervins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Vervins"},{"link_name":"Edict of Nantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes"}],"sub_title":"France","text":"The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise, and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from Constantine I and Charlemagne, justifying his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his continuing efforts to depose Henry IV of France.[18]Philip signed the Treaty of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556. Based on the terms of the treaty, the territory of Franche-Comté in Burgundy was to be relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years. Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over Franche-Comté.During the War of the Portuguese Succession, the pretender António fled to France following his defeats and, as Philip's armies had not yet occupied the Azores, he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi, a Florentine exile in the service of France. The naval Battle of Terceira took place on 26 July 1582, in the sea near the Azores, off São Miguel Island, as part of the War of the Portuguese Succession and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António. The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of Louis XIV.[19]A marble bust of Philip II of Spain by Pompeo Leoni, Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the Battle of the Azores between the Portuguese loyal to the claimant António, supported by French and English troops, and the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán. Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire.[20]Philip financed the Catholic League during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars (1589–1598), ordering Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma into France in an effort to unseat Henry IV, and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter, Isabella Clara Eugenia, on the French throne. Elisabeth of Valois, Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip and in France the Salic law remained in effect. However, the Parlement of Paris, in power of the Catholic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was \"the legitimate sovereign\" of France. Philip's interventions in the fighting—sending the Duke of Parma to end Henry IV's siege of Paris in 1590 and the siege of Rouen in 1592—contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues's cause against a Protestant monarchy.In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces.[21]French victory at the Battle of Fontaine-Française in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. They captured Ham and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks.[citation needed] The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking Doullens, Cambrai, and Le Catelet; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens.[22] On 24 April 1596, the Spanish also conquered Calais. Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598.The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith—matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king.","title":"Foreign policy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ottoman–Habsburg wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg"},{"link_name":"Titian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian"},{"link_name":"Battle of Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto"},{"link_name":"Fernando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"link_name":"allegory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tercio_-_Morados_Viejos.svg"},{"link_name":"Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_(flag)"},{"link_name":"tercios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tercio"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Suleiman the Magnificent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent"},{"link_name":"Piyale Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piyale_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Balearic Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balearic_Islands"},{"link_name":"Menorca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menorca"},{"link_name":"Hayreddin Barbarossa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Republic of Genoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa"},{"link_name":"Papal States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Knights of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller"},{"link_name":"Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messina"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Andrea Doria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Andrea_Doria"},{"link_name":"Andrea Doria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Doria"},{"link_name":"Djerba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djerba"},{"link_name":"Algiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers"},{"link_name":"Tripoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya"},{"link_name":"Turgut Reis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turgut_Reis"},{"link_name":"Battle of Djerba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba"},{"link_name":"Álvaro de Sande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Sande"},{"link_name":"a large expedition to Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(1565)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto"},{"link_name":"Holy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)"},{"link_name":"John of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Uluç Ali Reis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali_Reis"},{"link_name":"Tunis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Mediterranean","text":"Further information: Ottoman–Habsburg warsTitian; after the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, Philip offers his short-lived heir Fernando to Glory in this allegory.Standard of the tercios morados of the Spanish army under Philip IIIn the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent. Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.In 1558, Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured the Balearic Islands, especially inflicting great damage on Menorca and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and Venice, became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of \"Turkish invincibility\" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people.In 1560, Philip II organised a Holy League between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Papal States, the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta. The joint fleet was assembled at Messina and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of Djerba, which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between Algiers and Tripoli. As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the Battle of Djerba. The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. Álvaro de Sande, attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis. In 1565 the Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta, which laid siege to several forts on the island, taking some of them. The Spanish sent a relief force, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island.The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, by the Holy League under the command of Philip's half brother, Don John of Austria. A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, reconquered Tunis from the Ottomans in 1573. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to recapture Tunis with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.[citation needed]","title":"Foreign policy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of Magellan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_colonization_attempt_of_the_Strait_of_Magellan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_armor_DSC02246.JPG"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"mare clausum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare_clausum"},{"link_name":"Strait of Magellan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lytle-25"},{"link_name":"Francisco de Toledo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_Toledo"},{"link_name":"Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Sarmiento_de_Gamboa"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MCLEstrecho-26"},{"link_name":"Nombre de Jesús","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nombre_de_Jes%C3%BAs_(Patagonia)"},{"link_name":"Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_del_Hambre"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119-29"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119-29"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977121-30"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Thomas Cavendish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Chiloé Archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilo%C3%A9_Archipelago"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Urbina2013-33"},{"link_name":"Valdivia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdivia"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Urbina2017-34"}],"text":"Further information: Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of MagellanArmour of Philip IIDuring Philip's reign Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships.[23] To end navigation by rival powers in the Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy Francisco de Toledo ordered Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores.[24]In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: Nombre de Jesús, and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe. The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers.[25][26] The new colonies suffered from high death rates, likely as a consequence of executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples and diseases which were rife.[27] A contributing cause for failure of the settlement may have been poor morale, an issue that plagued the venture almost from the beginning. [27] This can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait.[27] Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels.[28]In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe, Puerto del Hambre, or \"Port Famine\". Most of the settlers had died from cold or starvation.[29] When Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement.[30] The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan caused Chiloé Archipelago to assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions.[31] Valdivia and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia.[32]","title":"Strait of Magellan"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_berating_William_the_Silent_Prince_of_Orange_by_Cornelis_Kruseman.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cornelis Kruseman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis_Kruseman"},{"link_name":"Seventeen Provinces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"open warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Margaret of Parma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_of_Parma"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Granvelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Granvelle"},{"link_name":"persecution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition_of_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Iconoclast Fury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Revolt#1566_%E2%80%94_Iconoclasm_and_repression"},{"link_name":"Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba"},{"link_name":"Lamoral, Count of Egmont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamoral,_Count_of_Egmont"},{"link_name":"Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_de_Montmorency,_Count_of_Horn"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"central square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand-Place"},{"link_name":"Mechelen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Fury_at_Mechelen"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nierop69-70-35"},{"link_name":"Naarden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_of_Naarden"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Zutphen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zutphen"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nierop69-70-35"},{"link_name":"Haarlem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haarlem"},{"link_name":"Antwerp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp"},{"link_name":"Battle of Jemmingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jemmingen"},{"link_name":"Saint James \"the Moorslayer\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Matamoros"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goodwin-37"},{"link_name":"William the Silent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_the_Silent"},{"link_name":"Prince of Orange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Orange"},{"link_name":"Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Holland"},{"link_name":"Zeeland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Zeeland"},{"link_name":"Siege of Alkmaar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Alkmaar"},{"link_name":"Fadrique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_4th_Duke_of_Alba"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goodwin-37"},{"link_name":"Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_de_Requesens_y_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Flemish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flemish_people"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Army of Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Flanders"},{"link_name":"Louis of Nassau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_of_Nassau"},{"link_name":"Battle of Mookerheyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mookerheyde"},{"link_name":"Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_of_Nassau-Dillenburg"},{"link_name":"treasure fleets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet"},{"link_name":"New World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World"},{"link_name":"Spanish Fury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Fury"},{"link_name":"Antwerp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma"},{"link_name":"Spanish Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Battle of Gembloux (1578)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Maastricht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_(1579)"},{"link_name":"Tournai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournai"},{"link_name":"Oudenaarde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudenaarde"},{"link_name":"Dunkirk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunkirk"},{"link_name":"Bruges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges"},{"link_name":"Ghent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Ghent_(1583%E2%80%931584)"},{"link_name":"Antwerp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beloningsbrief_van_koning_Filips_II_van_Spanje_aan_Balthasar_Gerards,_1590.jpg"},{"link_name":"Balthasar Gerards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balthasar_Gerards"},{"link_name":"William the Silent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_the_Silent"},{"link_name":"States General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Union of Utrecht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Utrecht"},{"link_name":"Act of Abjuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Abjuration"},{"link_name":"southern Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"William the Silent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_the_Silent"},{"link_name":"Balthasar Gérard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balthasar_G%C3%A9rard"},{"link_name":"Maurice of Nassau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_of_Nassau"},{"link_name":"end in 1648","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia"},{"link_name":"Dutch Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Republic"},{"link_name":"war crimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"Philip II berating William of Orange, by Cornelis KrusemanPhilip's rule in the Seventeen Provinces known collectively as the Netherlands faced many difficulties, leading to open warfare in 1568. He appointed his half-sister Margaret of Parma as Governor of the Netherlands, when he left the low countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to adjust policy to the advice of Cardinal Granvelle, who was greatly disliked in the Netherlands, after he insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip's taxation demands and the incessant persecution of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as the Iconoclast Fury; in response to growing Protestant influence, the army of the Iron Duke (Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba) went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn executed in Brussels' central square, further alienating the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in Mechelen,[33] Naarden,[34] Zutphen[33] and Haarlem. In 1571, Alba erected at Antwerp a bronze statue of himself trampling the rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted-down cannon looted by the Spanish troops after the Battle of Jemmingen in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images of the Spanish patron Saint James \"the Moorslayer\" riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip had it removed and destroyed.[35]In 1572, a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, William the Silent, Prince of Orange, invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, Holland and Zeeland. Because of the Spanish repulse in the Siege of Alkmaar (1573) led by his equally brutal son Fadrique,[35] Alba resigned his command, replaced by Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands,[36] in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have fallen short of 50,000.[37] Under Requesens, the Army of Flanders reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying Louis of Nassau's German mercenary army at the Battle of Mookerheyde on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg.Rampant inflation and the loss of treasure fleets from the New World prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so-called Spanish Fury at Antwerp in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens.[38] Philip sent in Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Farnese defeated the rebels at the Battle of Gembloux (1578),[39] and he captured many rebel towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), and Antwerp (1585).[40]Reward letter of Philip II to the family of Balthasar Gerards, assassin of William the Silent, 1590The States General of the northern provinces, united in the 1579 Union of Utrecht, passed an Act of Abjuration in 1581 declaring that they no longer recognised Philip as their king. The southern Netherlands (what is now Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish rule. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard, after Philip had offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to anyone who killed him, calling him a \"pest on the whole of Christianity and the enemy of the human race\". The Dutch forces continued to fight on under Orange's son Maurice of Nassau, who received modest help from the Queen of England in 1585. The Dutch gained an advantage over the Spanish because of their growing economic strength, in contrast to Philip's burgeoning economic troubles. The war came to an end in 1648, when the Dutch Republic was recognised by the Spanish Crown as independent; the eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered war crimes.[41]","title":"Revolt in the Netherlands"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anthony_I_of_Portugal.jpg"},{"link_name":"Anthony I of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_I_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Sebastian of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Battle of Alcácer Quibir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alc%C3%A1cer_Quibir"},{"link_name":"succession crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1580_Portuguese_succession_crisis"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_I_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Manuel I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanta_Catarina,_Duchess_of_Braganza"},{"link_name":"António, Prior of Crato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio,_Prior_of_Crato"},{"link_name":"King of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Battle of Alcântara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alc%C3%A2ntara_(1580)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Portuguese Cortes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Cortes"},{"link_name":"Tomar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomar"},{"link_name":"personal union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_union"},{"link_name":"Philippine Dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Dynasty"},{"link_name":"Portuguese Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Empire"},{"link_name":"Albert of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Council of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"rule by councils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysynodial_System"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ImperioDeFelipeII.svg"}],"text":"Anthony I of PortugalIn 1578 young King Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir without descendants, triggering a succession crisis. His granduncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as king, but Henry had no descendants either, having taken holy orders. When Henry died two years after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of Manuel I claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza; António, Prior of Crato; and Philip II of Spain. António was acclaimed King of Portugal in many cities and towns throughout the country, but members of the Council of Governors of Portugal who had supported Philip escaped to the Spanish kingdoms and declared him to be the legal successor of Henry.In 1580, Philip II marched into Portugal and defeated Prior António's troops in the Battle of Alcântara. The Portuguese suffered 4,000 killed, wounded, or captured, while the Spanish sustained only 500 casualties.[42] The troops commanded by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba[43] imposed subjection to Philip before entering Lisbon, where he seized an immense treasure.[44] Philip II of Spain assumed the Portuguese throne and was crowned Philip I of Portugal on 17 July 1580[45] (recognized as king by the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar) and a near sixty-year personal union under the rule of the Philippine Dynasty began. This gave Philip control of the extensive Portuguese Empire. When Philip left for Madrid in 1583, he made his nephew Albert of Austria his viceroy in Lisbon. In Madrid he established a Council of Portugal to advise him on Portuguese affairs, giving prominent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish courts, and allowing Portugal to maintain autonomous law, currency, and government. This followed on the well-established pattern of rule by councils.Spanish Empire of Philip II, III and IV including all charted and claimed territories, maritime claims (mare clausum) and other features","title":"King of Portugal"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Relations with England and Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_II.jpg"},{"link_name":"portrait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_in_Armour"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_%26_Mary_Irish_groat_602446.jpg"},{"link_name":"groat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groat_(coin)"},{"link_name":"Mary I of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_of_Mary_I_of_England_and_Philip_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Winchester Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchester_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Stephen Gardiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gardiner"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England"},{"link_name":"Edward Courtenay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Courtenay,_1st_Earl_of_Devon"},{"link_name":"Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_for_the_Marriage_of_Queen_Mary_to_Philip_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Acts of Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Parliament"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_England"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Montrose-49"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Montrose-49"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pollard-51"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Groot-52"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Felipe_of_Spain_and_MariaTudor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Parliament of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Edwards-53"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Montrose-49"},{"link_name":"coat of arms of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_England"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marks-55"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ANA-56"},{"link_name":"loss of Calais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_(1558)"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"King of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Ireland_Act_1542"},{"link_name":"Henry VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII"},{"link_name":"Pope Paul IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV"},{"link_name":"papal bull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"King's County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Offaly"},{"link_name":"Philipstown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daingean"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church in England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England"},{"link_name":"English claims to the French throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_claims_to_the_French_throne"},{"link_name":"Philippe I, Duke of Orléans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_I,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans"},{"link_name":"Princess Henrietta of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Henrietta_of_England"},{"link_name":"Jacobite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobitism"},{"link_name":"Anne Marie d'Orléans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Marie_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans"}],"sub_title":"King of England and Ireland","text":"Titian's portrait of Philip as prince (1551), aged about 24, dressed in a lavishly decorated set of armourIrish groat with Philip's and Mary's initials and portraitsPhilip's father arranged his marriage to 37-year-old Queen Mary I of England, Charles' maternal first cousin. His father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, to him. Their marriage at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner and the House of Commons petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring Edward Courtenay.Under the terms of the Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain, Philip was to enjoy Mary I's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including Acts of Parliament, were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty also provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. The Privy Council instructed that Philip and Mary should be joint signatories of royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of king and stated that he \"shall aid her Highness ... in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions\".[46] In other words, Philip was to co-reign with his wife.[47][48] As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish.[47][49][50]Philip and Mary I of England, 1558Acts making it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed by the Parliament of Ireland[51] and England.[52] Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together.[47] The coat of arms of England was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign.[53][54] During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the loss of Calais, England's last remaining possession in France.Philip's wife had succeeded to the Kingdom of Ireland, but the title of King of Ireland had been created in 1542 by Mary's father, Henry VIII, after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Pope Paul IV rectified this by issuing a papal bull recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland.[55] King's County and Philipstown in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556. The couple's joint royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol.However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman Catholic Church in England. With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne (including the ancient English claims to the French throne) and ceased to be king of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France.Philip's great-grandson, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, married Princess Henrietta of England in 1661; in 1807, the Jacobite claim to the British throne passed to the descendants of their child Anne Marie d'Orléans.","title":"Relations with England and Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dominios_de_Felipe_II.svg"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Valois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Valois"},{"link_name":"Henry VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII"},{"link_name":"Anne Boleyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Boleyn"},{"link_name":"Mary, Queen of Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots"},{"link_name":"Henry VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England"},{"link_name":"privateering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privateer"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Nonsuch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nonsuch"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Joinville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville"},{"link_name":"Catholic League of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)"},{"link_name":"Spanish Armada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Armada"},{"link_name":"Army of Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Flanders"},{"link_name":"English Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channel"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"counter-armada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Armada"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Cádiz was sacked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_C%C3%A1diz"},{"link_name":"Dunkirkers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunkirkers"},{"link_name":"1596 Armada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada"},{"link_name":"1597 Armada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)"}],"sub_title":"After Mary I's death","text":"Further information: Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581Upon Mary's death, the throne went to Elizabeth I. Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a Valois alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that Mary, Queen of Scots, the Catholic great-granddaughter of Henry VII, was the rightful monarch.For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of privateering against Spain's merchant shipping and started threatening the Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. In one instance, English ships attacked a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the Treaty of Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to the anti-Spanish rebels in the Netherlands. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League of France, Philip considered it an act of war by England.The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, to rendezvous with the Army of Flanders and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the English Channel, already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English Royal Navy; it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),[56] but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.[57] However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a counter-armada the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.[58] Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although Cádiz was sacked by an Anglo-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the Dunkirkers, who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597. The 1596 Armada was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The 1597 Armada was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.","title":"Relations with England and Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"El Escorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Escorial"},{"link_name":"cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Philip III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain"}],"text":"Philip II died in El Escorial, near Madrid, on 13 September 1598, of cancer.[59] He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, Philip III.","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png"},{"link_name":"Counter-Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Inquisition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-63"},{"link_name":"Bartolome Carranza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolome_Carranza"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-63"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-63"},{"link_name":"School of Salamanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Salamanca"},{"link_name":"Martín de Azpilcueta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta"},{"link_name":"Francisco Suárez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez"},{"link_name":"Thomas Aquinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas"},{"link_name":"Pope Gregory XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII"},{"link_name":"Luis de Molina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_de_Molina"},{"link_name":"omniscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omniscience"},{"link_name":"free will","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will"},{"link_name":"Molinism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molinism"},{"link_name":"Jesuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuit"},{"link_name":"William Lane Craig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lane_Craig"},{"link_name":"Alvin Plantinga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Felipe_II_de_Espa%C3%B1a_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sabatini Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabatini_Gardens"},{"link_name":"F. Castro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felipe_de_Castro"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Spanish Black Legend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Black_Legend"},{"link_name":"White Legend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Legend"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(Ancient_Regime_in_Spain)"},{"link_name":"Antonio Pérez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_(statesman)"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Counter-Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Black Legend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Legend"},{"link_name":"Fire Over England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_Over_England"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Battle of Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Saint Quentin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)"},{"link_name":"Armada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Armada"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I"},{"link_name":"William the Silent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_the_Silent"},{"link_name":"[note 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Parker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)"},{"link_name":"Tonio Andrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonio_Andrade"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"text":"Philip's dominions in 1598Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power. However, in spite of the great and increasing quantities of gold and silver flowing into his coffers from the American mines, the riches of the Portuguese spice trade, and the enthusiastic support of the Habsburg dominions for the Counter-Reformation, he would never succeed in suppressing Protestantism or defeating the Dutch rebellion. Early in his reign, the Dutch might have laid down their weapons if he had desisted in trying to suppress Protestantism,[citation needed] but his devotion to Catholicism would not permit him to do so. He was a devout Catholic and exhibited the typical 16th century disdain for religious heterodoxy; he said, \"Before suffering the slightest damage to religion in the service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, because I do not wish nor do I desire to be the ruler of heretics.\"[60]As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy through an intensification of the Inquisition, students were barred from studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the kingdom were banned. In addition to the banning of books, Philip II authorized the burning of at least 70,000 volumes.[61] Even a highly respected churchman like Archbishop Bartolome Carranza of Toledo was jailed by the Inquisition for 17 years, for publishing ideas that seemed sympathetic in some degree with Protestantism. Such strict enforcement of orthodox belief was successful, and Spain avoided the religiously inspired strife tearing apart other European dominions.Although he was deeply dedicated to rooting out heretical titles, he collected forbidden books for his own royal library at the El Escorial. His library contained 40,000 volumes (1,800 of which were Arabic titles) and several thousand manuscripts.[61] The banned books were protected in a room on an upper floor of the library. He was passionate about rare books he personally collected from far and wide and researched and recorded information about previous owners.[61]The School of Salamanca flourished under his reign. Martín de Azpilcueta, highly honoured at Rome by several popes and looked on as an oracle of learning, published his Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium (Rome, 1568), long a classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.Francisco Suárez, generally regarded as the greatest scholastic after Thomas Aquinas and regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, was writing and lecturing, not only in Spain but also in Rome (1580–1585), where Pope Gregory XIII attended the first lecture that he gave. Luis de Molina published his De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia (1588), wherein he put forth the doctrine attempting to reconcile the omniscience of God with human free will that came to be known as Molinism, thereby contributing to what was one of the most important intellectual debates of the time; Molinism became the de facto Jesuit doctrine on these matters, and is still advocated today by William Lane Craig and Alvin Plantinga, among others.Statue of Philip II at the Sabatini Gardens in Madrid (F. Castro, 1753)Because Philip II was the most powerful European monarch in an era of war and religious conflict,[62] evaluating both his reign and the man himself has become a controversial historical subject.[63] Even before his death in 1598, his supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, full of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and despotic monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism.[64] This dichotomy, further developed into the so-called Spanish Black Legend and White Legend, was helped by King Philip himself. Philip prohibited any biographical account of his life to be published while he was alive, and he ordered that all his private correspondence be burned shortly before he died.[65] Moreover, Philip did nothing to defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious secretary Antonio Pérez, who published incredible calumnies against his former master; this allowed Pérez's tales to spread all around Europe unchallenged.[66] That way, the popular image of the King that survives to today was created on the eve of his death, at a time when many European princes and religious leaders were turned against Spain as a pillar of the Counter-Reformation. This means that many histories depict Philip from deeply prejudiced points of view, usually negative.[67]However, some historians classify this anti-Spanish analysis as part of the Black Legend. In a more recent example of popular culture, Philip II's portrayal in Fire Over England (1937) is not entirely unsympathetic; he is shown as a very hardworking, intelligent, religious, somewhat paranoid ruler whose prime concern is his country, but who had no understanding of the English, despite his former co-monarchy there.Even in countries that remained Catholic, primarily France and the Italian states, fear and envy of Spanish success and domination created a wide receptiveness for the worst possible descriptions of Philip II. Although some efforts have been made to separate legend from reality,[68] that task has proved extremely difficult, since many prejudices are rooted in the cultural heritage of European countries. Spanish-speaking historians tend to assess his political and military achievements, sometimes deliberately avoiding issues such as the King's inflexible Catholicism.[69] English-speaking historians tend to show Philip II as a fanatical, despotical, criminal, imperialist monster,[70] minimising his military victories (Battle of Lepanto, Battle of Saint Quentin, etc.) to mere anecdotes, and magnifying his defeats (namely the Armada[71]) even though at the time those defeats did not result in great political or military changes in the balance of power in Europe. Moreover, it has been noted that objectively assessing Philip's reign would necessitate a re-analysis of the reign of his greatest opponents, namely England's Queen Elizabeth I and the Dutch William the Silent, who are popularly regarded as great heroes in their home nations; if Philip II is to be shown to the English or Dutch public in a more favourable light, Elizabeth and William would lose their cold-blooded, fanatical enemy, thus decreasing their own patriotic accomplishments.[note 3]He ended French Valois ambitions in Italy and brought about the Habsburg ascendency in Europe. He secured the Portuguese kingdom and empire. He succeeded in increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch, and French privateers, overcoming multiple financial crises and consolidating Spain's overseas empire. Although clashes would be ongoing, he ended the major threat posed to Europe by the Ottoman Navy.Historian Geoffrey Parker offers a management-psychological explanation, as summarized by Tonio Andrade and William Reger:One might have expected that Philip—being a dedicated, persistent, and hard-working man, and being the head of Western Europe's wealthiest and largest empire—would have succeeded in his aims. He didn't. His endeavors were doomed by his own character, or at least that's how Parker sees it. Drawing on studies in management science and organizational psychology, Parker argues that a successful manager of a large organization must keep attention on the big picture, must have a good strategy for dealing with copious information, must know how to delegate, and must be flexible. Philip failed on all counts. He was a micromanager who got bogged down in details, refusing to delegate and trying to read every dispatch that came to his desk. He obsessed and dithered, so that by the time his decisions were made and his orders reached the men meant to carry them out, the situation on the ground had changed. Philip was also inflexible, unwilling to abandon ineffective policies. Most pernicious of all was Philip's tendency toward messianic thinking, a belief that he was doing God's work and that heaven would support him with miracles.[72]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cannon_with_arms_of_Philip_II_as_King_of_England_and_Ireland.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alonso_S%C3%A1nchez_Coello_-_Felipe_II_como_Rey_de_Portugal.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sánchez Coello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonso_S%C3%A1nchez_Coello"},{"link_name":"Prince of Gerona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Gerona"},{"link_name":"Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Asturias"},{"link_name":"King of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Castilian_monarchs"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Lord of Biscay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_of_Biscay"},{"link_name":"King of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Aragonese_monarchs"},{"link_name":"King of Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Naples"},{"link_name":"King of Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Sicily"},{"link_name":"Duke of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"Neopatria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Neopatras"},{"link_name":"King of Valencia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Valencian_monarchs"},{"link_name":"King of Majorca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Majorcan_monarchs"},{"link_name":"King of Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sardinian_monarchs"},{"link_name":"King of Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Navarrese_monarchs"},{"link_name":"Count of Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_of_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"King of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Portuguese_monarchs"},{"link_name":"King of England de jure uxoris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_England"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Defender of the Faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidei_Defensor"},{"link_name":"King of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Duke of Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dukes_of_Milan"},{"link_name":"Lord of the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_of_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"of Lothier, of Brabant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukes_of_Brabant"},{"link_name":"of Limburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukes_of_Limburg"},{"link_name":"of Luxemburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counts,_Dukes_and_Grand_Dukes_of_Luxembourg"},{"link_name":"of Guelders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukes_of_Guelders"},{"link_name":"of Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counts_of_Flanders"},{"link_name":"of Artois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counts_of_Artois"},{"link_name":"of Hainaut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counts_of_Hainaut"},{"link_name":"of Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_of_Holland"},{"link_name":"of Zeeland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_of_Zeeland"},{"link_name":"of Namur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_of_Namur"},{"link_name":"of Zutphen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_of_Zutphen"},{"link_name":"Count Palatine of Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_counts_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"Count of Charolais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charolais_(county)"},{"link_name":"Duke of Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Golden Fleece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Knights_of_the_Golden_Fleece"},{"link_name":"Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Master_of_the_Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brug-78"},{"link_name":"Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Grand_Masters_of_the_Order_of_Calatrava"},{"link_name":"Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Grand_Masters_of_the_Order_of_Alcantara"},{"link_name":"Grand Master of the Order of Santiago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Grand_Masters_of_the_Order_of_Santiago"},{"link_name":"Grand Master of the Order of Montesa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Montesa"},{"link_name":"Majesty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majesty"},{"link_name":"Highness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highness"},{"link_name":"Most Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rex_Catholicismus"},{"link_name":"Pope Alexander VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand and Isabella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs"},{"link_name":"Act of Parliament sanctioning his marriage with Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_for_the_Marriage_of_Queen_Mary_to_Philip_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_claims_to_the_French_throne"},{"link_name":"Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Defenders of the Faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidei_Defensor"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan"},{"link_name":"Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"Brabant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant"},{"link_name":"Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg"},{"link_name":"Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_of_Flanders"},{"link_name":"Tyrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Tyrol"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-waller-79"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-waller-79"},{"link_name":"obverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obverse"},{"link_name":"reverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obverse_and_reverse"},{"link_name":"The Lord is my helper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"}],"text":"Cannon with arms of Philip II as King of Spain and jure uxoris King of England and FrancePortrait of Philip II as King of Portugal by Sánchez Coello, c. 1580Heir titles\nPrince of Gerona: 21 May 1527 – 16 January 1556\nPrince of Asturias 1528–1556\nKing of Castile as Philip II: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598\nKing of Castile, of León, of Granada, of Toledo, of Galicia, of Seville, of Cordoba, of Murcia, of Jaen, of the Algarves, of Algeciras, of Gibraltar, of the Canary Islands, of the Indias, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea;[note 4] Lord of Molina\nLord of Biscay\nKing of Aragon as Philip I: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598\nKing of Aragón\nKing of the Two Sicilies\nKing of Naples, of Jerusalem (from 25 July 1554)\nKing of Sicily. Duke of Athens, of Neopatria\nKing of Valencia\nKing of Majorca\nKing of Sardinia and of Corsica, Margrave of Oristano, Count of Goceano\nKing of Navarre\nCount of Barcelona, of Roussillon, of Cerdanya\nKing of Portugal as Philip I: 12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598\nKing of Portugal and the Algarves of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India, etc.\nKing of England de jure uxoris as Philip I: 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558[73]\nKing of England, France (titular); Defender of the Faith\nKing of Ireland\nImperial and Habsburg patrimonial titles:\nDuke of Milan: 11 October 1540 (secret donation) / 25 July 1554 (public investiture) – 13 September 1598\nImperial vicar of Siena: since 30 May 1554\nArchduke of Austria\nPrincely Count of Habsburg and of Tyrol\nPrince of Swabia\nBurgundian titles\nLord of the Netherlands: 25 October 1555 – 13 September 1598\nDuke of Lothier, of Brabant, of Limburg, of Luxemburg, of Guelders. Count of Flanders, of Artois, of Hainaut, of Holland, of Zeeland, of Namur, of Zutphen. Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Lord of Frisia, Salins, Mechelen, the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen\nCount Palatine of Burgundy from 10 June 1556; Count of Charolais from 21 September 1558\nDuke of Burgundy\nDominator in Asia, Africa\nHonours\nKnight of the Golden Fleece: 1531 – 13 September 1598\nGrand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece:[74] 23 October 1555 – 13 September 1598\nGrand Master of the Order of Calatrava: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598\nGrand Master of the Order of Alcantara: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598\nGrand Master of the Order of Santiago: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598\nGrand Master of the Order of Montesa: 8 December 1587 – 13 September 1598Philip continued his father's style of \"Majesty\" (Latin: Maiestas; Spanish: Majestad) in preference to that of \"Highness\" (Celsitudo; Alteza). In diplomatic texts, he continued the use of the title \"Most Catholic\" (Rex Catholicissimus; Rey Católico) first bestowed by Pope Alexander VI on Ferdinand and Isabella in 1496.Following the Act of Parliament sanctioning his marriage with Mary, the couple was styled \"Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, France, Naples, Jerusalem, and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Spain and Sicily, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Milan, Burgundy and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol\".[75] Upon his inheritance of Spain in 1556, they became \"Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, both the Sicilies, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol\".[75]His coinage typically bore the obverse inscription \"PHS·D:G·HISP·Z·REX\" (Latin: \"Philip, by the grace of God King of Spain et cetera\"), followed by the local title of the mint (\"DVX·BRA\" for Duke of Brabant, \"C·HOL\" for Count of Holland, \"D·TRS·ISSV\" for Lord of Overissel, etc.). The reverse would then bear a motto such as \"PACE·ET·IVSTITIA\" (\"For Peace and Justice\") or \"DOMINVS·MIHI·ADIVTOR\" (\"The Lord is my helper\").[76] A medal struck in 1583 bore the inscriptions \"PHILIPP II HISP ET NOVI ORBIS REX\" (\"Philip II, King of Spain and the New World\") and \"NON SUFFICIT ORBIS\" (\"The world is not enough\").[77]","title":"Titles, honours and styles"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Heraldry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Isabel Osorio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_Osorio"},{"link_name":"Eufrasia de Guzmán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrasia_de_Guzm%C3%A1n"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maria_Manuela,_Princess_of_Portugal_and_Asturias_-_El_Prado.jpg"},{"link_name":"Maria Manuela of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Manuela,_Princess_of_Portugal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anthonis_Mor_001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mary I of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Antonis Mor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonis_Mor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Isabel_de_Valois2..jpg"},{"link_name":"Elisabeth of Valois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois"},{"link_name":"Juan Pantoja de la Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Pantoja_de_la_Cruz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_reina_Ana_de_Austria,_por_Sofonisba_Anguissola.jpg"},{"link_name":"Anna of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_of_Austria,_Queen_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Sofonisba Anguissola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofonisba_Anguissola"}],"text":"Philip was married four times and had children with three of his wives. He also had two long-term relationships with Isabel Osorio and Eufrasia de Guzmán.Maria Manuela of Portugal (1527–1545)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMary I of England (1516–1558), by Antonis Mor\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tElisabeth of Valois (1545–1568), by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAnna of Austria (1549–1580), by Sofonisba Anguissola","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Manuela,_Princess_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"John III of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Catherine of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Austria,_Queen_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Salamanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamanca"},{"link_name":"Carlos, Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos,_Prince_of_Asturias"}],"sub_title":"First marriage","text":"Philip's first wife was his double first cousin, Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal. She was a daughter of Philip's maternal uncle, John III of Portugal, and paternal aunt, Catherine of Austria. They were married at Salamanca on 12 November 1543. The marriage produced one son in 1545, after which Maria died four days later due to haemorrhage:Carlos, Prince of Asturias (8 July 1545 – 24 July 1568), died unmarried at the age of 23 and without issue.","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mary I of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Winchester Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchester_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"jure uxoris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jure_uxoris"},{"link_name":"King of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"false pregnancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_pregnancy"}],"sub_title":"Second marriage","text":"Philip's second wife was his first cousin once removed, Queen Mary I of England. The marriage, which took place on 25 July 1554 at Winchester Cathedral, was political. By this marriage, Philip became jure uxoris King of England and Ireland, although the couple was apart more than together as they ruled their respective countries. The marriage produced no children, although there was a false pregnancy, and Mary died in 1558, ending Philip's reign in England and Ireland.","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Elisabeth of Valois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois"},{"link_name":"Henry II of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_France"},{"link_name":"Catherine de' Medici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici"},{"link_name":"Duke of Alba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba"},{"link_name":"Notre Dame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"Guadalajara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalajara_(province)"},{"link_name":"Isabella Clara Eugenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia"},{"link_name":"Albert VII, Archduke of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Catherine Michaela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalina_Micaela_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I,_Duke_of_Savoy"}],"sub_title":"Third marriage","text":"Philip's third wife was Elisabeth of Valois, the eldest daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. The original ceremony was conducted by proxy (the Duke of Alba standing in for Philip) at Notre Dame prior to Elisabeth's departure from France. The actual ceremony was conducted in Guadalajara upon her arrival in Spain. During their marriage (1559–1568) they conceived five daughters, though only two of the girls survived. Elisabeth died a few hours after the loss of her last child. Their children were:Miscarried twin daughters (August 1564)\nIsabella Clara Eugenia (12 August 1566 – 1 December 1633, aged 67), married Albert VII, Archduke of Austria\nCatherine Michaela (10 October 1567 – 6 November 1597, aged 30), married Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and had issue\nJoan (3 October 1568) died shortly after birth.","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anna of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_of_Austria,_Queen_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Holy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"link_name":"Diego Félix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"link_name":"Philip III of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cenotafio_de_Felipe_II_y_su_familia.jpg"},{"link_name":"El Escorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Escorial"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S%C3%A1nchez_Coello_Royal_feast.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alonso Sánchez Coello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonso_S%C3%A1nchez_Coello"}],"sub_title":"Fourth marriage","text":"Philip's fourth and final wife was his niece, Anna of Austria. Pope Pius V initially refused to grant Philip the dispensation needed to marry Anna, citing biblical prohibitions and the danger of birth defects. The pope reluctantly gave his permission when Philip threatened to abandon the Holy League in their fight against the Ottoman Turks.[78][79] By contemporary accounts, this was a convivial and satisfactory marriage (1570–1580) for both Philip and Anna. This marriage produced four sons and one daughter. Anna died of heart failure 8 months after giving birth to Maria in 1580.[citation needed]Their children were:Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias (4 December 1571 – 18 October 1578, aged six)\nCharles Laurence (12 August 1573 – 30 June 1575, aged one)\nDiego Félix (15 August 1575 – 21 November 1582, aged seven)\nPhilip III of Spain (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621, aged 42)\nMaria (14 February 1580 – 5 August 1583, aged three).Cenotaph of Philip and three of his four wives at El Escorial\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPhilip and his niece Anna banqueting with family and courtiers, by Alonso Sánchez Coello","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BLKO-Philip-86"},{"link_name":"Philip I, King of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_I,_King_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911-Charles_V-84"},{"link_name":"Mary, Duchess of Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BLKO-Philip-86"},{"link_name":"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand II, King of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_King_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911-Joanna-87"},{"link_name":"Joanna, Queen of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna,_Queen_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911-Charles_V-84"},{"link_name":"Isabella I, Queen of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I,_Queen_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1911-Joanna-87"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Viseu"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stephens1903-85"},{"link_name":"Manuel I, King of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_I,_King_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stephens1903-85"},{"link_name":"Beatrice of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatrice_of_Portugal,_Duchess_of_Viseu"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stephens1903-85"},{"link_name":"Isabella of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal,_Holy_Roman_Empress"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand II, King of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_King_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Portugal-Maria-88"},{"link_name":"Maria of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_of_Aragon,_Queen_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stephens1903-85"},{"link_name":"Isabella I, Queen of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I,_Queen_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Portugal-Maria-88"}],"text":"Ancestors of Philip II of Spain 8. Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor[82] 4. Philip I, King of Castile[80] 9. Mary, Duchess of Burgundy[82] 2. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 10. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon[83] (= 14) 5. Joanna, Queen of Castile[80] 11. Isabella I, Queen of Castile[83] (= 15) 1. Philip II of Spain 12. Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu[81] 6. Manuel I, King of Portugal[81] 13. Beatrice of Portugal[81] 3. Isabella of Portugal 14. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon[84] (= 10) 7. Maria of Aragon[81] 15. Isabella I, Queen of Castile[84] (= 11)","title":"Ancestry"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Male-line family tree"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"composite monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_monarchy"},{"link_name":"Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-74"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-76"}],"text":"^ He was titled as Philip II (Spanish: Felipe II) in Spain, while in Portugal and his Italian kingdoms he ruled as Philip I (Portuguese: Filipe I).\n\n^ Spain was a composite monarchy, and besides being the second Philip to rule Castile, he was the first to rule Aragon, and the fourth to rule Navarre.\n\n^ This appreciation is noted by Martin Hume in his aforementioned work (\"Philip II of Spain\", London 1897), pointing out how difficult is to show Philip II in a more favorable light to his fellow Englishmen because of that.\n\n^ With the incorporation of Portugal to the Monarchy the title changed to East and West Indies, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean sea.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The decline of Spain\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/650136"},{"link_name":"\"A Catholic King: Philip II of Spain\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/30094971"},{"link_name":"Philip II. of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Oz1EAQAAMAAJ&dq=Philip+ii+spain&pg=PA43"},{"link_name":"\"King Philip II of Spain as a symbol of 'Tyranny'\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//publicaciones.eafit.edu.co/index.php/co-herencia/article/download/5023/4145"},{"link_name":"Kamen, Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Kamen"},{"link_name":"Online free to borrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/philipofspain00kame"},{"link_name":"Online free to borrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/search.php?query=%22%27%27The%20Habsburgs%20and%20Europe%2C%201516-1660%27%27"},{"link_name":"\"Philip II and the Papacy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/3678749"},{"link_name":"Martinic, Mateo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mateo_Martinic"},{"link_name":"Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html"},{"link_name":"The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/riseofspanishemp04merruoft"},{"link_name":"Parker, Geoffrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)"},{"link_name":"online review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070310203214/http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/macpherson.html"},{"link_name":"\"The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/3679344"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-631-20704-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20704-X"},{"link_name":"\"Philip (1527–1598)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/22097"},{"link_name":"Rodriguez-Salgado, M. J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Jos%C3%A9_Rodriguez-Salgado"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-920502-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-920502-7"},{"link_name":"excerpt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/Mary-Philip-marriage-Habsburg-European/dp/1526142236/"},{"link_name":"\"Strategic Terror: Philip II and Sixteenth-Century Warfare\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/26004392"},{"link_name":"excerpt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/Philip-II-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333630424/"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&action=edit&section=29"},{"link_name":"Braudel, Fernand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Braudel"},{"link_name":"vol. 1 free to borrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/mediterraneanthe01brau"},{"link_name":"\"The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//core.ac.uk/download/pdf/322623625.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Comparative European Institutions and the Little Divergence, 1385–1800\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ehes.org/EHES_171.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200719061314/http://www.ehes.org/EHES_171.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"\"Philip II and the Art of the Cityscape\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/204127"},{"link_name":"\"Possessing the Sacred: Monarchy and Identity in Philip II's Relic Collection at the Escorial\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=historypub"},{"link_name":"\"Portraits of Philip II of Spain as King of England\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/888764"},{"link_name":"\"Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.academia.edu/download/31290156/ChangingPlaces.pdf"},{"link_name":"dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"\"'In the Confident Hope of a Miracle': The Spanish Armada and Religious Mentalities in the Late Sixteenth Century\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/25026461"}],"text":"Boyden, James M. The Courtier and the King: Ruy Gómez De Silva, Philip II, and the Court of Spain (University of California Press, 1995).\nElliott, J. H. Imperial Spain: 1469–1716 (1966).\nElliott, John H. \"The decline of Spain\". Past & Present 20 (1961): 52–75.\nGrierson, Edward. The Fatal Inheritance: Philip II and the Spanish Netherlands (1969).\nGwynn, Aubrey. \"A Catholic King: Philip II of Spain\". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, vol. 22, no. 85 (1933), pp. 48–64.\nHume, M. A. S. Philip II. of Spain (1903).\nIsrael, Jonathan. \"King Philip II of Spain as a symbol of 'Tyranny'\". Co-herencia 15.28 (2018): 137–154.\nKamen, Henry. Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1999), a major scholarly biography. Online free to borrow\nKelsey, Harry. Philip of Spain, King of England: The Forgotten Sovereign (London, I.B. Tauris, 2011).\nKoenigsberger, H. G. The Habsburgs and Europe, 1516–1660 (1971). Online free to borrow\nLópez, Anna Santamaría. \"'Great Faith is Necessary to Drink from this Chalice': Philip II in the Court of Mary Tudor, 1554–58.\" in Early Modern Dynastic Marriages and Cultural Transfer ed. by Joan-Lluis Palos and Magdalena S. Sanchez (2017) pp: 115–138.\nLynch, John. Spain Under the Habsburgs: vol I: Empire and Absolutism: 1516–1598 (1965)\nLynch, John. \"Philip II and the Papacy\". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 11 (1961): 23–42.\nMartinic, Mateo (1977). Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello.\nMerriman, R. B. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (4 vols, 1918). Vol. 4 has in-depth coverage of Philip II.\nParker, Geoffrey. Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (2014), a major scholarly biography.\nParker, Geoffrey. The Grand Strategy of Philip II (Yale University Press, 1998). online review\nParker, Geoffrey. Philip II (1995), short scholarly biography\nParker, Geoffrey. The World is Not Enough: The Imperial Vision of Philip II of Spain (Baylor University Press, 2001).\nParker, Geoffrey. \"The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain\". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (2002): 167–221.\nPatterson, Benton Rain. With the Heart of a King: Elizabeth I of England, Philip II of Spain & the Fight for a Nation's Soul & Crown (2007).\nPetrie, Charles. Philip II of Spain (1963), short scholarly biography.\nPettegree, Andrew (2002). Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20704-X..\nPierson, Peter. Philip II of Spain (1975).\nPrescott, William Hickling. A History of the Reign of Philip II, London, Boston, Philadelphia. 1855–1902.\nRedworth, Glyn. \"Philip (1527–1598)\", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edition, May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2011.\nRodriguez-Salgado, M. J. \"The Court of Philip II of Spain\". In Princes, Patronage, and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, cc. 1450–1650. Edited by Ronald G. Asch and Adolf M. Birke. (Oxford University Press, 1991). ISBN 0-19-920502-7.\nSamson, Alexander. Mary and Philip: The Marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain (Manchester University Press, 2020) excerpt.\nSamson, Alexander. \"Power Sharing: The Co-monarchy of Philip and Mary\", in Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, ed. by Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2010), pp. 159–172.\nThomas, Hugh. World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II (Penguin UK, 2014); World Without End: Spain, Philip II, and the First Global Empire (Random House, 2015) popular history.\nWaxman, Matthew C. \"Strategic Terror: Philip II and Sixteenth-Century Warfare\". War in History, vol. 4, no. 3 (1997): 339–347.\nWilliams, Patrick. Philip II (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2017), a scholarly biography; excerpt\nEconomic and cultural history[edit]\nBraudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2 vols., 1976) vol. 1 free to borrow\nClouse, Michele L. Medicine, Government and Public Health in Philip II's Spain: Shared Interests, Competing Authorities (Ashgate, 2013).\nConklin, James. \"The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II\". Journal of Political Economy 106.3 (1998): 483–513, statistical\nDrelichman, Mauricio, and Hans-Joachim Voth. Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II (Princeton University Press, 2016).\nGoodman, David. \"Philip II's Patronage of Science and Engineering\". British Journal for the History of Science 16.1 (1983): 49–66.\nHenriques, Antonio, and Nuno Pedro G. Palma. \"Comparative European Institutions and the Little Divergence, 1385–1800\" Archived 19 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. (2019), economics\nKagan, Richard L. \"Philip II and the Art of the Cityscape\". Journal of Interdisciplinary History 17.1 (1986): 115–135.\nLazure, Guy. \"Possessing the Sacred: Monarchy and Identity in Philip II's Relic Collection at the Escorial\". Renaissance Quarterly 60.1 (2007): 58–93.\nMatthews, P. G. \"Portraits of Philip II of Spain as King of England\". Burlington Magazine 142.1162 (2000): 13–19.\nMiller, Stephanie R. \"A Tale of Two Portraits: Titian's Seated Portraits of Philip II\". Visual Resources 28.1 (2012): 103–116.\nSamson, Alexander. \"Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554\"[dead link]. Sixteenth Century Journal (2005): 761–784.\nScully, Robert E. \"'In the Confident Hope of a Miracle': The Spanish Armada and Religious Mentalities in the Late Sixteenth Century\". Catholic Historical Review 89.4 (2003): 643–670.\nWilkinson-Zerner, Catherine. Juan de Herrera: Architect to Philip II of Spain (Yale University Press, 1993).","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"The Baptism of Philip II in Valladolid, Castile. Historical ceiling preserved in Palacio de Pimentel (Valladolid)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Bautizo_Felipe_II_grande.jpg/220px-Bautizo_Felipe_II_grande.jpg"},{"image_text":"Philip, in the prime of his life, by Anthonis Mor","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Antonio_Moro.jpg/220px-Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Antonio_Moro.jpg"},{"image_text":"Philip II wearing the order of the garter by Jooris van der Straeten, c. 1554","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Jooris_van_der_Straeten_-_Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain.jpg/220px-Jooris_van_der_Straeten_-_Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain.jpg"},{"image_text":"Portrait of Philip II on 1/5 Philipsdaalder, struck 1566, Guelders, Low Countries","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Koning_Spanje_Filips_II_1-5_Philipsdaalder_1566.jpg/300px-Koning_Spanje_Filips_II_1-5_Philipsdaalder_1566.jpg"},{"image_text":"Personal guidon of Philip II","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Guidon_of_King_Philip_II_of_Spain.svg/220px-Guidon_of_King_Philip_II_of_Spain.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A marble bust of Philip II of Spain by Pompeo Leoni, Metropolitan Museum of Art","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/PhilipIIbust.JPG/220px-PhilipIIbust.JPG"},{"image_text":"Titian; after the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, Philip offers his short-lived heir Fernando to Glory in this allegory.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg/220px-Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg"},{"image_text":"Standard of the tercios morados of the Spanish army under Philip II","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Tercio_-_Morados_Viejos.svg/220px-Tercio_-_Morados_Viejos.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Armour of Philip II","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Philip_II_of_Spain_armor_DSC02246.JPG/200px-Philip_II_of_Spain_armor_DSC02246.JPG"},{"image_text":"Philip II berating William of Orange, by Cornelis Kruseman","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Philip_II_of_Spain_berating_William_the_Silent_Prince_of_Orange_by_Cornelis_Kruseman.jpg/220px-Philip_II_of_Spain_berating_William_the_Silent_Prince_of_Orange_by_Cornelis_Kruseman.jpg"},{"image_text":"Reward letter of Philip II to the family of Balthasar Gerards, assassin of William the Silent, 1590","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Beloningsbrief_van_koning_Filips_II_van_Spanje_aan_Balthasar_Gerards%2C_1590.jpg/220px-Beloningsbrief_van_koning_Filips_II_van_Spanje_aan_Balthasar_Gerards%2C_1590.jpg"},{"image_text":"Anthony I of Portugal","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Anthony_I_of_Portugal.jpg/170px-Anthony_I_of_Portugal.jpg"},{"image_text":"Spanish Empire of Philip II, III and IV including all charted and claimed territories, maritime claims (mare clausum) and other features","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/ImperioDeFelipeII.svg/220px-ImperioDeFelipeII.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Titian's portrait of Philip as prince (1551), aged about 24, dressed in a lavishly decorated set of armour","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Philip_II.jpg/220px-Philip_II.jpg"},{"image_text":"Irish groat with Philip's and Mary's initials and portraits","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Philip_%26_Mary_Irish_groat_602446.jpg/220px-Philip_%26_Mary_Irish_groat_602446.jpg"},{"image_text":"Philip and Mary I of England, 1558","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Felipe_of_Spain_and_MariaTudor.jpg/220px-Felipe_of_Spain_and_MariaTudor.jpg"},{"image_text":"Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Dominios_de_Felipe_II.svg/350px-Dominios_de_Felipe_II.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Philip's dominions in 1598","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/300px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png"},{"image_text":"Statue of Philip II at the Sabatini Gardens in Madrid (F. Castro, 1753)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Felipe_II_de_Espa%C3%B1a_01.jpg/170px-Felipe_II_de_Espa%C3%B1a_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cannon with arms of Philip II as King of Spain and jure uxoris King of England and France","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/14/Cannon_with_arms_of_Philip_II_as_King_of_England_and_Ireland.jpg/220px-Cannon_with_arms_of_Philip_II_as_King_of_England_and_Ireland.jpg"},{"image_text":"Portrait of Philip II as King of Portugal by Sánchez Coello, c. 1580","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Alonso_S%C3%A1nchez_Coello_-_Felipe_II_como_Rey_de_Portugal.jpg/220px-Alonso_S%C3%A1nchez_Coello_-_Felipe_II_como_Rey_de_Portugal.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Coat_of_Arms_of_Leonor%2C_Princess_of_Asturias.svg/75px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Leonor%2C_Princess_of_Asturias.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Library of the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_the_Monastery_of_San_Lorenzo_de_El_Escorial"},{"title":"Descendants of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descendants_of_Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon_and_Isabella_I_of_Castile"},{"title":"The empire on which the sun never sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_empire_on_which_the_sun_never_sets"},{"title":"List of Spanish monarchs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_monarchs"},{"title":"Royal Armoury of Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Armoury_of_Madrid"},{"title":"Ruy Gómez de Silva, 1st Prince of Éboli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruy_G%C3%B3mez_de_Silva,_1st_Prince_of_%C3%89boli"}]

[{"reference":"\"Habsburg family tree\". Habsburg family website. 28 October 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://habsburg.org/family-history/extended-family-tree/?lang=en","url_text":"\"Habsburg family tree\""}]},{"reference":"Kamen, Henry (2014). Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. Routledge. p. 150.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Kamen","url_text":"Kamen, Henry"}]},{"reference":"\"BIEN DE INTERÉS CULTURAL: PALACIO CONDES RIVADAVIA PALACIO DE PIMENTEL\". Junta de Castilla y León. Retrieved 12 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://servicios.jcyl.es/pweb/datos.do?numero=16049&tipo=Inmueble&ruta=","url_text":"\"BIEN DE INTERÉS CULTURAL: PALACIO CONDES RIVADAVIA PALACIO DE PIMENTEL\""}]},{"reference":"Drelichman, Mauricio; Voth, Hans-Joachim (2014). Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4843-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xfWKAQAAQBAJ","url_text":"Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4843-0","url_text":"978-1-4008-4843-0"}]},{"reference":"Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization (4th ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. p. 488. ISBN 978-0-19-923663-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923663-3","url_text":"978-0-19-923663-3"}]},{"reference":"Elliott, J. H. (2002). Imperial Spain 1469–1716 (Repr. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books. pp. 285–291. ISBN 0-14-100703-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-100703-6","url_text":"0-14-100703-6"}]},{"reference":"Royall Tyler, ed. (1954). \"Spain: September 1556\". Calendar of State Papers, Spain. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 19 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/spain/vol13/pp275-280","url_text":"\"Spain: September 1556\""}]},{"reference":"Salvador Miranda (2010). \"The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church\". Florida International University. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175609/http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1555-ii.htm","url_text":"\"The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_International_University","url_text":"Florida International University"},{"url":"http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1555-ii.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Richard L. Kagan (2009). Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain. JHU Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-1421401652.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lV9Xdn3c6IoC&pg=PA135","url_text":"Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1421401652","url_text":"978-1421401652"}]},{"reference":"Goubert, Pierre (2002). The Course of French History. Routledge. p. 103.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lytle Schurz, William (1922), \"The Spanish Lake\", The Hispanic American Historical Review, 5 (2): 181–194, doi:10.1215/00182168-5.2.181, JSTOR 2506024","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-5.2.181","url_text":"10.1215/00182168-5.2.181"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506024","url_text":"2506024"}]},{"reference":"\"Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes\". Memoria Chilena (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. Retrieved 30 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-641.html","url_text":"\"Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Chile","url_text":"Biblioteca Nacional de Chile"}]},{"reference":"Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, según Amancio Landín, uno de sus más reputados biógrafos, nació en Pontevedra, hacia 1532. Julio Guillén—el marino-académico—, por su parte, dice que es posible fuera Colegial Mayor en la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, ciudad que fue—asegura—cuna del gran marino español. Este, no ha dejado aclarada la duda sobre su origen geográfico, pues afirmó ser natural de ambos lugares.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080922103737/http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/10105.htm","url_text":"Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes"},{"url":"http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/10105.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro (1895). Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan. Translated by Clements R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/narrativesofvoya00sarm","url_text":"Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the Strait of Magellan\". 7 April 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogpatagonia.australis.com/history-strait-of-magellan/","url_text":"\"History of the Strait of Magellan\""}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Derek (2013). \"3. The Triumph of Desire\". A Brief History of Circumnavigators. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 978-1-4721-1329-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XDGeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT40","url_text":"\"3. The Triumph of Desire\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4721-1329-0","url_text":"978-1-4721-1329-0"}]},{"reference":"Urbina C., M. Ximena (2013). \"Expediciones a las costas de la Patagonia Occidental en el periodo colonial\". Magallania (in Spanish). 41 (2): 51–84. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442013000200002. Retrieved 27 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-22442013000200002&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt","url_text":"\"Expediciones a las costas de la Patagonia Occidental en el periodo colonial\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magallania","url_text":"Magallania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0718-22442013000200002","url_text":"10.4067/S0718-22442013000200002"}]},{"reference":"Urbina C., María Ximena (2017). \"La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares\" [John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defense of Valdivia, indian rumors, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares]. Magallania. 45 (2): 11–36. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011. Retrieved 27 December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-22442017000200011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=es","url_text":"\"La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magallania","url_text":"Magallania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0718-22442017000200011","url_text":"10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011"}]},{"reference":"Goodwin, Robert (2015). Spain: The Centre of the World 1519–1682. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 179–180.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count\". necrometrics.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Ne1566","url_text":"\"Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count\""}]},{"reference":"Sharp Hume, Martín Andrew. The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence. p. 372.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Black, Jeremy (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0521470339.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521470339","url_text":"978-0521470339"}]},{"reference":"\"Victimario Histórico Militar\".","urls":[{"url":"http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario9.htm","url_text":"\"Victimario Histórico Militar\""}]},{"reference":"Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). 500 Great Military Leaders. Vol. 1 & 2. p. 19.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Adams, George Burton; Stephens, H. Morse, eds. (1901). \"An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain\". Select Documents of English Constitutional History. MacMillan. p. 284 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/documentsofengli00adamiala#page/282/mode/2up","url_text":"\"An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain\""}]},{"reference":"Berenguer, Gonzalo Velasco (2023). Habsburg England: Politics and Religion in the Reign of Philip I (1554–1558). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-53621-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://brill.com/display/title/56814","url_text":"Habsburg England: Politics and Religion in the Reign of Philip I (1554–1558)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-53621-0","url_text":"978-90-04-53621-0"}]},{"reference":"Francois Velde (25 July 2003). \"Text of 1555 Bull\". Heraldica.org. Retrieved 22 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/ireland_docs.htm#bull1555","url_text":"\"Text of 1555 Bull\""}]},{"reference":"Grant, R. G. (2017). 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History. p. 296.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Tucker, Spencer (2011). Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 183.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Koenigsberger, Helmut Georg (2012), Philip II, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, retrieved 31 January 2012","urls":[{"url":"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456081/Philip-II","url_text":"Philip II"}]},{"reference":"Murray, Stuart (2009). The library: an illustrated history. New York, NY: Skyhorse Pub. ISBN 978-1-60239-706-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-706-4","url_text":"978-1-60239-706-4"}]},{"reference":"Johonnot, James. \"Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada\". Authorama.com. Retrieved 22 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.authorama.com/ten-great-events-in-history-8.html","url_text":"\"Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada\""}]},{"reference":"Parker, Geoffrey (2016). \"6 Incest, Blind Faith, and Conquest: The Spanish Hapsburgs and Their Enemies\". In Lacey, Jim (ed.). Great Strategic Rivalries: From the Classical World to the Cold War (illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0190620462.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=na4SDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA232","url_text":"\"6 Incest, Blind Faith, and Conquest: The Spanish Hapsburgs and Their Enemies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190620462","url_text":"978-0190620462"}]},{"reference":"Parker, Geoffrey (2014). Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (unabridged ed.). Yale University Press. p. 164. 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Vol. 7. p. 112 – via Wikisource.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantin_von_Wurzbach","url_text":"Wurzbach, Constantin von"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/de:BLK%C3%96:Habsburg,_Philipp_I._der_Sch%C3%B6ne_von_Oesterreich","url_text":"\"Habsburg, Philipp I. der Schöne von Oesterreich\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographisches_Lexikon_des_Kaiserthums_Oesterreich","url_text":"Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource","url_text":"Wikisource"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Joanna\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackers_on_Planet_Earth

Hackers on Planet Earth

["1 Structure","2 Conferences","2.1 HOPE: Hackers on Planet Earth","2.2 Beyond HOPE","2.3 H2K","2.4 H2K2","2.5 The Fifth HOPE","2.6 HOPE Number Six","2.7 The Last HOPE","2.8 The Next HOPE","2.9 HOPE Number Nine","2.10 HOPE X","2.11 HOPE XI","2.12 The Circle of HOPE (HOPE 12)","2.13 HOPE 2020","2.14 2021 canceled plan","2.15 A New HOPE","2.16 HOPE XV","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Coordinates: 40°44′59″N 73°59′26″W / 40.74972°N 73.99056°W / 40.74972; -73.99056Conference series "H.O.P.E." redirects here. For other uses, see Hope (disambiguation). "H2K" redirects here. For the esports team, see H2k-Gaming. This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Hackers on Planet Earth" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) HOPE (Hackers On Planet Earth)The Last HOPE, 2008GenreHacker conventionFrequencyBi-annuallyVenueNew York City, U.S. (was typically Hotel Pennsylvania)Location(s)Queens, New York City, U.S.Coordinates40°44′59″N 73°59′26″W / 40.74972°N 73.99056°W / 40.74972; -73.99056InauguratedAugust 13–14, 1994Most recentJuly 20–23, 2022Organized by2600: The Hacker QuarterlyPeopleEmmanuel GoldsteinSponsor2600Websitehope.net Part of a series onComputer hacking History Phreaking Cryptovirology Hacking of consumer electronics List of hackers Hacker culture and ethic Hackathon Hacker Manifesto Hackerspace Hacktivism Maker culture Types of hackers Black hat Grey hat White hat Conferences Black Hat Briefings Chaos Communication Congress DEF CON Hackers on Planet Earth Security BSides ShmooCon Summercon Computer crime Crimeware List of computer criminals Script kiddie Hacking tools Exploit forensics-focused operating systems Payload Social engineering Vulnerability Practice sites HackThisSite Zone-H Malware Rootkit Backdoor Trojan horse Virus Worm Spyware Ransomware Logic bomb Botnet Keystroke logging HIDS Web shell RCE Computer security Application security Cloud computing security Network security Groups Anonymous Chaos Computer Club Homebrew Computer Club (defunct) Legion of Doom (defunct) LulzSec (defunct) Masters of Deception (defunct) Red team / Blue team Publications 2600: The Hacker Quarterly Hacker News Nuts and Volts Phrack vte The Hackers on Planet Earth (HOPE) conference series is a hacker convention sponsored by the security hacker magazine 2600: The Hacker Quarterly that until 2020 was typically held at Hotel Pennsylvania, in Manhattan, New York City. Usually occurring biennially in the summer, there have been fourteen conferences to date. HOPE 2020, originally planned to be held at St. John's University, was instead held as a nine-day virtual event from July 25 to August 2, 2020. The most recent conference, "A New HOPE", was held at St. John's University in Queens from July 22 to 24, 2022. HOPE XV is scheduled for July 12-14, 2024 at St. John's University. HOPE features talks, workshops, demonstrations, tours, and movie screenings. HOPE was significantly inspired by the quadrennial Hack-Tic events in the Netherlands which also inspired the annual Chaos Communication Congress (C3) held in Germany. Summercon was an additional influential predecessor. Structure HOPE has been held at Hotel Pennsylvania in New York City every time except once since 1994. The event is always structured in a similar way. It consists of three days and three nights of activities, including talks, workshops, and performances. It also features hackerspace villages, a film festival, lock picking villages, a wide variety of vendors, art installations, live video, vintage computers, robots, an amateur/ham radio station, electronics workshops, and book signings. The closing ceremony is a regular part of the event, celebrating the event, the organizers, and volunteers, but also features performances. Since 2006, monochrom's Johannes Grenzfurthner is a regular performer at the closing ceremony. Conferences HOPE: Hackers on Planet Earth Held August 13–14, 1994 at the Hotel Pennsylvania, the first HOPE conference marked 2600: The Hacker Quarterly's 10th anniversary. Over 1,000 people attended, including speakers from around the world. Access to a 28.8 kbit/s local network was provided. This conference was visited and covered in the second episode of the "Your Radio Playhouse" show, later renamed This American Life. Beyond HOPE The August 8–10, 1997 Beyond HOPE conference was held at the Puck Building, in Manhattan, New York City. Attendance doubled, with 2,000 attendees. Bell Technology Group helped to support the hackers. The hacker group L0pht Heavy Industries presented a panel discussion that covered some of their recent projects, accomplishments, emerging trends and shortcomings in technologies, and a deep dive into Windows NT password internals. A TAP reunion and a recorded live broadcast of Off the Hook took place. A 10 Mbit/s local network was provided to attendees. H2K The July 14–15, 2000 HOPE returned to the Hotel Pennsylvania, where subsequent conferences have been held. The conference ran 24 hours a day, bringing in 2,300 attendees. Jello Biafra gave a keynote speech. In a cultural exchange between the punk rock icon/free speech activist and the hacker community, Jello drew connections between the two communities, despite his lack of computer experience. The EFF also raised thousands of dollars. The conference provided a working Ethernet and a T1 link to the internet. H2K2 H2K2, July 12–14, 2002, had a theme focused on U.S. Homeland Security Advisory System. H2K2 included two tracks of scheduled speakers, with a third track reserved for last-minute and self-scheduled speakers, a movie room, retrocomputing, musical performances, a State of the World Address by Jello Biafra, keynotes by Aaron McGruder and Siva Vaidhyanathan and discussions on the DMCA and DeCSS. Freedom Downtime premiered on Friday evening (July 14). The conference provided wireless 802.11b coverage and wired Ethernet, an open computer area for access to a 24-hour link to the Internet at "T-1ish" speeds, made available by the DataHaven Project and an internal network. The Fifth HOPE The Fifth HOPE, July 9–11, 2004, had a theme on propaganda, and commemorated the anniversaries of both the H.O.P.E. conferences and Off the Hook (with a live broadcast of the show from the conference, Beyond H.O.P.E.). Keynotes speakers were Kevin Mitnick, Steve Wozniak, and Jello Biafra. There was also a presentation by "members" of the Phone Losers of America who celebrated their tenth anniversary. The Cult of the Dead Cow hacker collective celebrated its twentieth anniversary at the conference. The conference provided access to a four-layer public network with two T1 lines, plus backup links to the internet via a public terminal cluster, various wired connections, a WiFi network on three floors and a video network. HOPE Number Six Fyodor (Insecure.Org) in a picture taken by Jacob Appelbaum at the HOPE Number 6 conference. HOPE Number Six, July 21–23, 2006, included talks from Richard Stallman and Jello Biafra. Kevin Mitnick was scheduled to be at the conference but was unable to appear: while on vacation in Colombia an illness prevented his timely return to the U.S. HOPE Number Six had a 100-megabit Internet connection; the conference organizers claimed it was the fastest Internet connection to-date at any U.S. hacker conference. The event's theme was based on the number six and The Prisoner (a designation shared by the titular "prisoner,"). Notable occurrences: Steve Rambam, a private investigator heading Pallorium, Inc., an online investigative service, was scheduled to lead a panel discussion titled "Privacy is Dead... Get Over It." A few minutes before the start of the panel, Rambam was arrested by the FBI on charges that he unlawfully interfered with an ongoing case Federal prosecutors filed against a former Brooklyn assistant New York district attorney indicted in January 2003 on a count of money-laundering. The charges were eventually dropped and the talk was subsequently held in November 2006, long after the conference. Jello Biafra began his talk by referring to the arrest of Steve Rambam, noting the convention had been more "spook heavy" than usual. He then announced a "special message" to "any Federal agents that may be in the audience", and mooned the convention. The Last HOPE The "Last HOPE" took place July 18–20, 2008 at the Hotel Pennsylvania. A change from past years was the use of an Internet forum to facilitate community participation in the planning of the event. The conference name referred to the expectation that this would be the final H.O.P.E. conference due to the scheduled demolition of its venue, the Hotel Pennsylvania. The Save Hotel Pennsylvania Foundation was created to work toward keeping the building from being demolished by its then-new owner, Vornado Realty Trust. The "Next HOPE" was scheduled for Summer 2010. At the closing ceremony it was revealed that the use of the word "last" could also refer to the previous event, or one that had ended (referring to The Last HOPE itself). Steven Levy gave the keynote address. Kevin Mitnick, Steve Rambam, Jello Biafra, and Adam Savage of MythBusters were featured speakers. Descriptions and audio of the talks can be found at thelasthope.org The Next HOPE The 8th HOPE convention, "The Next HOPE", took place on July 16–18, 2010. The Next HOPE was held at the Hotel Pennsylvania, as the plans by Vornado to demolish the hotel are on hold. HOPE Number Nine Vermin Supreme, The Yes Men and monochrom's Johannes Grenzfurthner at HOPE 2012HOPE Number Nine occurred July 13–15, 2012 at Hotel Pennsylvania in Manhattan. Keynote presentations for HOPE Number Nine were given by The Yes Men (with Andy Bichelbaum as principal speaker and Vermin Supreme also participating) and NSA whistleblower William Binney. Chris Kubecka, principal speaker of a presentation about internet censorship was served a cease and desist letter in an attempt to censor the presentation by Unisys and threatened with termination for a presentation titled "The Internet is for Porn! How High Heels and Fishnet Have Driven Internet Innovation and Information Security". Unisys demanded all information regarding the presentation be removed from the internet, but the Streisand effect occurred, with the censorship attempt posted on thousands of websites instead. A first for the conference, a ghost speaker @JK47theweapon had to deliver most of the presentation due to legal threats against Kubecka. Prior to beginning, the MC invited "any hangers on or associates of the law firm of Baker & McKenzie" to speak to the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF). Baker & McKenzie is the law firm of Unisys Netherlands which threatened to terminate its employee by letter for giving a presentation about internet censorship. HOPE X The badge used at HOPE X. It was a patch evocative of a police shield, with the 2600 logo prominent at the bottom. HOPE X took place from July 18–20, 2014 at Hotel Pennsylvania. The keynote speakers were Daniel Ellsberg and Edward Snowden; also featured was noted former NSA official and whistleblower Thomas Drake. The theme of the conference was "dissent", and whistle-blowing was a topic of a good number of talks. But the conference also featured critical talks about the state of hackdom, for example Johannes Grenzfurthner of monochrom spoke about the problems of rockstar martyrdom within the hacker scene and the creation of hacker cult figures (like Snowden, Appelbaum or Assange) by unreflective members of the community or the media. Notable changes included a massive increase in available bandwidth. Previous conferences had a 50 Mbit connection; HOPE X had a 10 Gbit fibre optic connection provided by Hurricane Electric. This geometric increase in bandwidth made possible live streaming of all conference talks in real time. The Ellsberg/Snowden keynote was seen in over 120 countries. This also was the first year all conference areas were fully connected to the conference network, albeit with the Workshop floor with slightly limited connectivity (a 1 Gbit connection, as compared to the 10 Gbit backbone of the other conference spaces). Five different wireless networks were provided to conference attendees. The hammocks on the mezzanine level, which provided a place for some attendees to sleep if they were unable to procure a place to otherwise do so, were replaced by inflatable furniture in a dedicated "Chill Space" area. Mezzanine space was also explicitly dedicated to attendee meetups in the form of villages, similar to assemblies at Chaos Communication Congresses and villages at hacker camps, specifically "Village Zone A" (primarily a soldering and electronics workshop), "Village Zone B", "Lockpickers Village", and "Noisy Square". Workshop tracks were published in the schedule and the conference took nearly all the hotel's available meeting space. HOPE XI HOPE XI (The Eleventh HOPE) took place from July 22–24, 2016 at Hotel Pennsylvania. Cory Doctorow was the keynote speaker. Like last time, HOPE XI was provided Internet transit by Hurricane Electric at 111 Eighth Avenue over a fiber connection leased from RCN Corporation. Aruba Networks sponsored 50 wireless access points which were used to provide 3 wireless networks for attendees, two of which were secured with either WPA or PSK, another network for the NOC, and one for the press and speakers. Network connectivity was fully provided for in all areas, which came into use throughout the conference as many talks were filled to capacity and attendees either watched streams on their own devices or in designated overflow and viewing areas. The Circle of HOPE (HOPE 12) The 12th HOPE conference, "The Circle of HOPE", occurred July 20–22, 2018. Speakers included Chelsea Manning, Barrett Brown, Richard Stallman, Jason Scott, Matt Blaze, Micah Lee, and Steve Rambam, among many others. The conference was marked by protests from alt-right activists. HOPE 2020 A conference was originally planned for July 31-August 2, 2020 at a new venue, St. John's University in Queens. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic it was changed to a nine-day virtual event from July 25 to August 2, 2020. In addition to a longer schedule for talks, most of the originally planned events will be streamed, including workshops and musical performances. Keynote speakers are Libby Liu of the Open Technology Fund (OTF), Flavio Aggio of the World Health Organization (WHO), Idalin Bobé of TechActivist.org, Tiffany Rad of Anatrope Inc, Yeshimabeit Milner of Data for Black Lives, Jaron Lanier, Cindy Cohn, Cory Doctorow, and Richard Thieme. Conference participants communicated primarily using the first year appearance of HOPE's own Matrix chat server. 2021 canceled plan An in-person HOPE conference was planned for summer 2021, breaking from the typical biennial conference interval, but was cancelled due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. A New HOPE The 2600 van, on display at A New HOPE The 14th conference, A New Hope, was held at St. John's University in Queens, New York City from 22-24 July 2022. The event was a hybrid event, combining a virtual online event with the in-person event in New York, using Matrix combined with video streaming of the talks. The keynote was a conversation between Facebook whistleblower Sophie Zhang and Yan Zhu. Further notable occurrences: Munira Mohamed & Chris Weiland, activist citizens: talk entitled "Hacking Local Politics: How We Banned Facial Recognition in Minneapolis" Cory Doctorow, author and EFF activist: talk entitled "Seize the Means of Computation" Marcia K Wilbur, developer, maker, advocate and author: Hosted "AIOT Village" complete with 3D printer, robotics materials (arduino), raspberry pi units and much more. HOPE XV The 15th conference will be held at St. John's University in Queens, New York City from 12-14 July 2024. Cory Doctorow is planned to deliver the keynote lecture. Johannes Grenzfurthner is hosting the US premiere of his documentary Hacking at Leaves at the conference. See also Chaos Communication Congress Chaos Communication Camp DEF CON ToorCon Portal: New York City References ^ "2600: The Hacker Quarterly". 2600.com. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "Radio Statler HOPEX". Archived from the original on September 25, 2018. Retrieved July 26, 2018. ^ "Announcing HOPE X (2600 News)". 2600.com. Archived from the original on November 5, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ a b The Latest News on HOPE ^ a b c "HOPE 2020 UPDATE". 2600.com. May 19, 2020. Retrieved June 27, 2020. ^ " Frequently Asked Questions". www.hope.net. Retrieved July 26, 2022. ^ "HOPE XV Officially Announced". 2600. December 12, 2023. Retrieved March 26, 2024. ^ "Wikileaks: The Ballet". Boing Boing. July 22, 2010. Retrieved March 16, 2019. ^ "The Next HOPE Conference Wrap Up". Control Geek. Retrieved March 16, 2019. ^ "hope94.hope.net". Hope94.hope.net. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "Small-scale stories on the nature of small-scale sin". Chicago Public Media. November 24, 1995. Retrieved May 13, 2015. ^ "Off The Hook August 1997". 2600. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "beyond.hope.net". Beyond.hope.net. August 10, 1997. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "h2k.net/". H2k.net/. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "dhp.com". dhp.com. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "h2k2.net". H2k2.net. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "PublicTerminalCluster - the Fifth HOPE Wiki". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved July 2, 2004. ^ "WiFi - the Fifth HOPE Wiki". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved July 2, 2004. ^ "VideoNetwork - the Fifth HOPE Wiki". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved July 2, 2004. ^ "The Fifth HOPE". The Fifth HOPE. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "HOPE Number Six". HOPE Number Six. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "hopenumbersix.net/". Hopenumbersix.net/. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ Krebs (July 24, 2006). "FBI Charges HOPE Speaker with Witness Tampering, Obstructing Justice". Washington Post - Security Fix. Archived from the original on November 10, 2006. ^ Krebs, Brian (July 25, 2006). "Agents Arrest Background Specialist at Hackers Forum". The Washington Post. p. D05. ^ Krebs, Brian (July 22, 2006). "HOPE Speaker Arrested by the Feds". Washington Post - Security Fix. Archived from the original on November 10, 2006. ^ United States of America vs. Steven Rombom, Order of Dismissal of Magistrate's Complaint; October 13, 2006. ^ "Final HOPE talk held". 2600 News. November 17, 2006. Archived from the original on January 17, 2007. ^ "Hacker event closes with social engineering, Jello". Computerworld.com. July 25, 2006. Archived from the original on October 31, 2007. ^ "Savethehotelpenn.blogspot.com". savethehotelpenn.blogspot.com. May 29, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "July 18-20, 2008 - Hotel Pennsylvania - New York City". The Last HOPE. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "TheLastHOPE/Talks - HOPE". wiki.hope.net. Archived from the original on May 2, 2010. Retrieved January 17, 2022. ^ "thelasthope.org". thelasthope.org. July 20, 2008. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ a b "The Next HOPE". The Next HOPE. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ HOPE Number 9 on Twitter ^ "hopenumbernine.net". hopenumbernine.net. Retrieved July 17, 2014. ^ "Speakers". HOPE Number Nine. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "Unisys-medewerkster krijgt toch fiat censuurlezing---update". WebWereld. Retrieved December 8, 2015. ^ "HOPE Number Nine (2012): The Internet is for Porn! Internet Innovation and Information Security". YouTube. July 13, 2014. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved November 3, 2017. ^ "Presentation Video". Vimeo.com. July 14, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ "IT Company Unisys Prohibits Employee From Presenting On The Topic Of Censorship. Presentation Shows Just How The Internet Economy Relies On Pornography And How Censorship Would Affect That, 12 July 2012". Vrritti.com. July 12, 2012. Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2013. ^ Cameron, Dell (July 17, 2014). "The Hope X hacker conference sets its cursor on NYC this weekend". The Daily Dot. ^ "HOPE X". 2600.com. Retrieved July 18, 2014. ^ Johannes Grenzfurthner"Fuckhacker's rant "Fuckhackerfucks" at HOPE 2014 ^ HOPE XI ^ Cory Doctorow to Keynote at The Eleventh HOPE Archived March 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine ^ "HOPE 11 NOC NOC". noc.hope.net. Retrieved July 26, 2016. ^ panopta.com. "HOPE XI Network Reports". status.noc.hope.net. Archived from the original on July 27, 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2016. ^ The Circle Of HOPE Speakers ^ "Dear alt-right morons and other miscreants: Disrupt DEF CON, and the goons will 'ave you". The Register. ^ "A New HOPE is on the Horizon". 2600. January 24, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2022. External links HOPE website

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hope (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"H2k-Gaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H2k-Gaming"},{"link_name":"conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security_conference"},{"link_name":"security hacker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_hacker"},{"link_name":"2600: The Hacker Quarterly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2600:_The_Hacker_Quarterly"},{"link_name":"Hotel Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2600_magazine-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-forums-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"St. John's University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s_University_(New_York_City)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HOPE_at_St._John's-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HOPE_2020_Update-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Hack-Tic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hack-Tic"},{"link_name":"Chaos Communication Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_Communication_Congress"},{"link_name":"Summercon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summercon"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Conference series\"H.O.P.E.\" redirects here. For other uses, see Hope (disambiguation).\"H2K\" redirects here. For the esports team, see H2k-Gaming.The Hackers on Planet Earth (HOPE) conference series is a hacker convention sponsored by the security hacker magazine 2600: The Hacker Quarterly that until 2020 was typically held at Hotel Pennsylvania, in Manhattan, New York City.[1]Usually occurring biennially in the summer, there have been fourteen conferences to date.[2][3] HOPE 2020, originally planned to be held at St. John's University,[4] was instead held as a nine-day virtual event from July 25 to August 2, 2020.[5] The most recent conference, \"A New HOPE\", was held at St. John's University in Queens from July 22 to 24, 2022.[6] HOPE XV is scheduled for July 12-14, 2024 at St. John's University.[7] HOPE features talks, workshops, demonstrations, tours, and movie screenings.HOPE was significantly inspired by the quadrennial Hack-Tic events in the Netherlands which also inspired the annual Chaos Communication Congress (C3) held in Germany. Summercon was an additional influential predecessor.[citation needed]","title":"Hackers on Planet Earth"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lock picking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_picking"},{"link_name":"vintage computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrocomputing"},{"link_name":"amateur/ham radio station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"monochrom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochrom"},{"link_name":"Johannes Grenzfurthner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Grenzfurthner"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"HOPE has been held at Hotel Pennsylvania in New York City every time except once since 1994. The event is always structured in a similar way. It consists of three days and three nights of activities, including talks, workshops, and performances. It also features hackerspace villages, a film festival, lock picking villages, a wide variety of vendors, art installations, live video, vintage computers, robots, an amateur/ham radio station, electronics workshops, and book signings.[citation needed]The closing ceremony is a regular part of the event, celebrating the event, the organizers, and volunteers, but also features performances. Since 2006, monochrom's Johannes Grenzfurthner is a regular performer at the closing ceremony.[8][9]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"This American Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_American_Life"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"HOPE: Hackers on Planet Earth","text":"Held August 13–14, 1994 at the Hotel Pennsylvania, the first HOPE conference marked 2600: The Hacker Quarterly's 10th anniversary. Over 1,000 people attended, including speakers from around the world. Access to a 28.8 kbit/s local network was provided.[10] This conference was visited and covered in the second episode of the \"Your Radio Playhouse\" show, later renamed This American Life.[11]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Puck Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puck_Building"},{"link_name":"Bell Technology Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Technology_Group"},{"link_name":"L0pht Heavy Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L0pht"},{"link_name":"Off the Hook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off_the_Hook_(radio_program)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Beyond HOPE","text":"The August 8–10, 1997 Beyond HOPE conference was held at the Puck Building, in Manhattan, New York City. Attendance doubled, with 2,000 attendees. Bell Technology Group helped to support the hackers. The hacker group L0pht Heavy Industries presented a panel discussion that covered some of their recent projects, accomplishments, emerging trends and shortcomings in technologies, and a deep dive into Windows NT password internals. A TAP reunion and a recorded live broadcast of Off the Hook took place.[12] \nA 10 Mbit/s local network was provided to attendees.[13]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jello Biafra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jello_Biafra"},{"link_name":"punk rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_rock"},{"link_name":"EFF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"T1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Signal_1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"H2K","text":"The July 14–15, 2000 HOPE returned to the Hotel Pennsylvania, where subsequent conferences have been held. The conference ran 24 hours a day, bringing in 2,300 attendees. Jello Biafra gave a keynote speech. In a cultural exchange between the punk rock icon/free speech activist and the hacker community, Jello drew connections between the two communities, despite his lack of computer experience. The EFF also raised thousands of dollars. The conference provided a working Ethernet and a T1 link to the internet.[14]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Homeland Security Advisory System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_System"},{"link_name":"retrocomputing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrocomputing"},{"link_name":"Aaron McGruder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_McGruder"},{"link_name":"Siva Vaidhyanathan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siva_Vaidhyanathan"},{"link_name":"DMCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act"},{"link_name":"DeCSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeCSS"},{"link_name":"Freedom Downtime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Downtime"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"H2K2","text":"H2K2, July 12–14, 2002, had a theme focused on U.S. Homeland Security Advisory System. H2K2 included two tracks of scheduled speakers, with a third track reserved for last-minute and self-scheduled speakers, a movie room, retrocomputing, musical performances, a State of the World Address by Jello Biafra, keynotes by Aaron McGruder and Siva Vaidhyanathan and discussions on the DMCA and DeCSS. Freedom Downtime premiered on Friday evening (July 14). The conference provided wireless 802.11b coverage and wired Ethernet, an open computer area for access to a 24-hour link to the Internet at \"T-1ish\" speeds, made available by the DataHaven Project[15] and an internal network.[16]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kevin Mitnick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Mitnick"},{"link_name":"Steve Wozniak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Wozniak"},{"link_name":"Phone Losers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phone_Losers_of_America"},{"link_name":"Cult of the Dead Cow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_of_the_Dead_Cow"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"The Fifth HOPE","text":"The Fifth HOPE, July 9–11, 2004, had a theme on propaganda, and commemorated the anniversaries of both the H.O.P.E. conferences and Off the Hook (with a live broadcast of the show from the conference, Beyond H.O.P.E.). Keynotes speakers were Kevin Mitnick, Steve Wozniak, and Jello Biafra. There was also a presentation by \"members\" of the Phone Losers of America who celebrated their tenth anniversary. The Cult of the Dead Cow hacker collective celebrated its twentieth anniversary at the conference. The conference provided access to a four-layer public network with two T1 lines, plus backup links to the internet via a public terminal cluster, various wired connections, a WiFi network on three floors and a video network.[17][18][19][20]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fyodor_Hope6_Appelbaum_1100x1100.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fyodor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Lyon"},{"link_name":"Jacob Appelbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Appelbaum"},{"link_name":"Richard Stallman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"The Prisoner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Prisoner"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"FBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"mooned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jello_biafra_mooning.jpg"}],"sub_title":"HOPE Number Six","text":"Fyodor (Insecure.Org) in a picture taken by Jacob Appelbaum at the HOPE Number 6 conference.HOPE Number Six, July 21–23, 2006, included talks from Richard Stallman and Jello Biafra.[21] \nKevin Mitnick was scheduled to be at the conference but was unable to appear: while on vacation in Colombia an illness prevented his timely return to the U.S. HOPE Number Six had a 100-megabit Internet connection; the conference organizers claimed it was the fastest Internet connection to-date at any U.S. hacker conference. The event's theme was based on the number six and The Prisoner (a designation shared by the titular \"prisoner,\").[22]\nNotable occurrences:Steve Rambam, a private investigator heading Pallorium, Inc., an online investigative service, was scheduled to lead a panel discussion titled \"Privacy is Dead... Get Over It.\" A few minutes before the start of the panel, Rambam was arrested by the FBI on charges that he unlawfully interfered with an ongoing case Federal prosecutors filed against a former Brooklyn assistant New York district attorney indicted in January 2003 on a count of money-laundering.[23][24][25] The charges were eventually dropped[26] and the talk was subsequently held in November 2006, long after the conference.[27]\nJello Biafra began his talk by referring to the arrest of Steve Rambam, noting the convention had been more \"spook heavy\" than usual.[28] He then announced a \"special message\" to \"any Federal agents that may be in the audience\", and mooned the convention.","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_forum"},{"link_name":"Vornado Realty Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vornado_Realty_Trust"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Steven Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Levy"},{"link_name":"Adam Savage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Savage"},{"link_name":"MythBusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MythBusters"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"The Last HOPE","text":"The \"Last HOPE\" took place July 18–20, 2008 at the Hotel Pennsylvania. A change from past years was the use of an Internet forum to facilitate community participation in the planning of the event.The conference name referred to the expectation that this would be the final H.O.P.E. conference due to the scheduled demolition of its venue, the Hotel Pennsylvania. The Save Hotel Pennsylvania Foundation was created to work toward keeping the building from being demolished by its then-new owner, Vornado Realty Trust.[29]\nThe \"Next HOPE\" was scheduled for Summer 2010. At the closing ceremony it was revealed that the use of the word \"last\" could also refer to the previous event, or one that had ended (referring to The Last HOPE itself).Steven Levy gave the keynote address. Kevin Mitnick, Steve Rambam, Jello Biafra, and Adam Savage of MythBusters were featured speakers. Descriptions and audio of the talks can be found at thelasthope.org[30][31][32]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thenexthopeorg-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thenexthopeorg-33"},{"link_name":"Vornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vornado,_Inc."}],"sub_title":"The Next HOPE","text":"The 8th HOPE convention, \"The Next HOPE\", took place on July 16–18, 2010.[33] The Next HOPE was held at the Hotel Pennsylvania,[33] as the plans by Vornado to demolish the hotel are on hold.","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vermin_Supreme,_The_Yes_Men_and_monochrom%27s_Johannes_Grenzfurthner_at_HOPE_2012.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vermin Supreme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermin_Supreme"},{"link_name":"The Yes Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yes_Men"},{"link_name":"monochrom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochrom"},{"link_name":"Johannes Grenzfurthner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Grenzfurthner"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Twitter-Hope9-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"The Yes Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yes_Men"},{"link_name":"Andy Bichelbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Servin"},{"link_name":"Vermin Supreme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermin_Supreme"},{"link_name":"William Binney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Binney_(U.S._intelligence_official)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Chris Kubecka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Kubecka"},{"link_name":"Unisys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unisys"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Streisand effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streisand_effect"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Baker & McKenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_%26_McKenzie"},{"link_name":"Unisys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unisys"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"HOPE Number Nine","text":"Vermin Supreme, The Yes Men and monochrom's Johannes Grenzfurthner at HOPE 2012HOPE Number Nine occurred July 13–15, 2012 at Hotel Pennsylvania in Manhattan.[34][35]Keynote presentations for HOPE Number Nine were given by The Yes Men (with Andy Bichelbaum as principal speaker and Vermin Supreme also participating) and NSA whistleblower William Binney.[36] Chris Kubecka, principal speaker of a presentation about internet censorship was served a cease and desist letter in an attempt to censor the presentation by Unisys and threatened with termination[37] for a presentation titled \"The Internet is for Porn! How High Heels and Fishnet Have Driven Internet Innovation and Information Security\".[38] Unisys demanded all information regarding the presentation be removed from the internet, but the Streisand effect occurred, with the censorship attempt posted on thousands of websites instead. A first for the conference, a ghost speaker @JK47theweapon had to deliver most of the presentation due to legal threats against Kubecka. Prior to beginning, the MC invited \"any hangers on or associates of the law firm of Baker & McKenzie\" to speak to the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF).[39] Baker & McKenzie is the law firm of Unisys Netherlands which threatened to terminate its employee by letter for giving a presentation about internet censorship.[40]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HOPE_X_Badge.jpg"},{"link_name":"Daniel Ellsberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Ellsberg"},{"link_name":"Edward Snowden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Snowden"},{"link_name":"NSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"Thomas Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Andrews_Drake"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"dissent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissent"},{"link_name":"whistle-blowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistle-blowing"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Johannes Grenzfurthner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Grenzfurthner"},{"link_name":"monochrom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochrom"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Mbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabit"},{"link_name":"Gbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabit"},{"link_name":"Hurricane Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Electric"},{"link_name":"backbone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbone_network"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"HOPE X","text":"The badge used at HOPE X. It was a patch evocative of a police shield, with the 2600 logo prominent at the bottom.HOPE X took place from July 18–20, 2014 at Hotel Pennsylvania. The keynote speakers were Daniel Ellsberg and Edward Snowden; also featured was noted former NSA official and whistleblower Thomas Drake.[41] The theme of the conference was \"dissent\", and whistle-blowing was a topic of a good number of talks.[42] But the conference also featured critical talks about the state of hackdom, for example Johannes Grenzfurthner of monochrom spoke about the problems of rockstar martyrdom within the hacker scene and the creation of hacker cult figures (like Snowden, Appelbaum or Assange) by unreflective members of the community or the media.[43]Notable changes included a massive increase in available bandwidth. Previous conferences had a 50 Mbit connection; HOPE X had a 10 Gbit fibre optic connection provided by Hurricane Electric. This geometric increase in bandwidth made possible live streaming of all conference talks in real time. The Ellsberg/Snowden keynote was seen in over 120 countries. This also was the first year all conference areas were fully connected to the conference network, albeit with the Workshop floor with slightly limited connectivity (a 1 Gbit connection, as compared to the 10 Gbit backbone of the other conference spaces). Five different wireless networks were provided to conference attendees. The hammocks on the mezzanine level, which provided a place for some attendees to sleep if they were unable to procure a place to otherwise do so, were replaced by inflatable furniture in a dedicated \"Chill Space\" area. Mezzanine space was also explicitly dedicated to attendee meetups in the form of villages, similar to assemblies at Chaos Communication Congresses and villages at hacker camps, specifically \"Village Zone A\" (primarily a soldering and electronics workshop), \"Village Zone B\", \"Lockpickers Village\", and \"Noisy Square\". Workshop tracks were published in the schedule and the conference took nearly all the hotel's available meeting space.[citation needed]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Cory Doctorow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cory_Doctorow"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Internet transit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_transit"},{"link_name":"111 Eighth Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/111_Eighth_Avenue"},{"link_name":"RCN Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCN_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Aruba Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruba_Networks"},{"link_name":"wireless access points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"},{"link_name":"wireless networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network"},{"link_name":"PSK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-shared_key"},{"link_name":"NOC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_operations_center"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"HOPE XI","text":"HOPE XI (The Eleventh HOPE) took place from July 22–24, 2016 at Hotel Pennsylvania.[44] Cory Doctorow was the[45] keynote speaker. Like last time, HOPE XI was provided Internet transit by Hurricane Electric at 111 Eighth Avenue over a fiber connection leased from RCN Corporation.[46] Aruba Networks sponsored 50 wireless access points which were used to provide 3 wireless networks for attendees, two of which were secured with either WPA or PSK, another network for the NOC, and one for the press and speakers.[47]Network connectivity was fully provided for in all areas, which came into use throughout the conference as many talks were filled to capacity and attendees either watched streams on their own devices or in designated overflow and viewing areas.[citation needed]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chelsea Manning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_Manning"},{"link_name":"Barrett Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrett_Brown"},{"link_name":"Richard Stallman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman"},{"link_name":"Jason Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Scott"},{"link_name":"Matt Blaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Blaze"},{"link_name":"Micah Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micah_Lee"},{"link_name":"Steve Rambam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve_Rambam&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"alt-right","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt-right"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"The Circle of HOPE (HOPE 12)","text":"The 12th HOPE conference, \"The Circle of HOPE\", occurred July 20–22, 2018. Speakers included Chelsea Manning, Barrett Brown, Richard Stallman, Jason Scott, Matt Blaze, Micah Lee, and Steve Rambam, among many others.[48] The conference was marked by protests from alt-right activists.[49]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St. John's University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s_University_(New_York_City)"},{"link_name":"Queens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HOPE_at_St._John's-4"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HOPE_2020_Update-5"},{"link_name":"Libby Liu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libby_Liu"},{"link_name":"Open Technology Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Technology_Fund"},{"link_name":"World Health Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization"},{"link_name":"Yeshimabeit Milner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshimabeit_Milner"},{"link_name":"Jaron Lanier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaron_Lanier"},{"link_name":"Cindy Cohn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cindy_Cohn"},{"link_name":"Cory Doctorow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cory_Doctorow"},{"link_name":"Richard Thieme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Thieme"},{"link_name":"Matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(protocol)"}],"sub_title":"HOPE 2020","text":"A conference was originally planned for July 31-August 2, 2020 at a new venue, St. John's University in Queens.[4] Due to the COVID-19 pandemic it was changed to a nine-day virtual event from July 25 to August 2, 2020.[5] In addition to a longer schedule for talks, most of the originally planned events will be streamed, including workshops and musical performances. Keynote speakers are Libby Liu of the Open Technology Fund (OTF), Flavio Aggio of the World Health Organization (WHO), Idalin Bobé of TechActivist.org, Tiffany Rad of Anatrope Inc, Yeshimabeit Milner of Data for Black Lives, Jaron Lanier, Cindy Cohn, Cory Doctorow, and Richard Thieme. Conference participants communicated primarily using the first year appearance of HOPE's own Matrix chat server.","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HOPE_2020_Update-5"}],"sub_title":"2021 canceled plan","text":"An in-person HOPE conference was planned for summer 2021, breaking from the typical biennial conference interval, but was cancelled due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.[5]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_New_HOPE_2600_van.jpg"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"whistleblower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistleblower"},{"link_name":"Sophie Zhang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Zhang_(whistleblower)"},{"link_name":"Yan Zhu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_Zhu"}],"sub_title":"A New HOPE","text":"The 2600 van, on display at A New HOPEThe 14th conference, A New Hope, was held at St. John's University in Queens, New York City from 22-24 July 2022.[50] The event was a hybrid event, combining a virtual online event with the in-person event in New York, using Matrix combined with video streaming of the talks.The keynote was a conversation between Facebook whistleblower Sophie Zhang and Yan Zhu.Further notable occurrences:Munira Mohamed & Chris Weiland, activist citizens: talk entitled \"Hacking Local Politics: How We Banned Facial Recognition in Minneapolis\"\nCory Doctorow, author and EFF activist: talk entitled \"Seize the Means of Computation\"\nMarcia K Wilbur, developer, maker, advocate and author: Hosted \"AIOT Village\" complete with 3D printer, robotics materials (arduino), raspberry pi units and much more.","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hacking at Leaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacking_at_Leaves"}],"sub_title":"HOPE XV","text":"The 15th conference will be held at St. John's University in Queens, New York City from 12-14 July 2024.Cory Doctorow is planned to deliver the keynote lecture.\nJohannes Grenzfurthner is hosting the US premiere of his documentary Hacking at Leaves at the conference.","title":"Conferences"}]

[{"image_text":"Fyodor (Insecure.Org) in a picture taken by Jacob Appelbaum at the HOPE Number 6 conference.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fyodor_Hope6_Appelbaum_1100x1100.jpg/220px-Fyodor_Hope6_Appelbaum_1100x1100.jpg"},{"image_text":"Vermin Supreme, The Yes Men and monochrom's Johannes Grenzfurthner at HOPE 2012","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Vermin_Supreme%2C_The_Yes_Men_and_monochrom%27s_Johannes_Grenzfurthner_at_HOPE_2012.jpg/220px-Vermin_Supreme%2C_The_Yes_Men_and_monochrom%27s_Johannes_Grenzfurthner_at_HOPE_2012.jpg"},{"image_text":"The badge used at HOPE X. It was a patch evocative of a police shield, with the 2600 logo prominent at the bottom.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/HOPE_X_Badge.jpg/220px-HOPE_X_Badge.jpg"},{"image_text":"The 2600 van, on display at A New HOPE","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/A_New_HOPE_2600_van.jpg/220px-A_New_HOPE_2600_van.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Chaos Communication Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_Communication_Congress"},{"title":"Chaos Communication Camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_Communication_Camp"},{"title":"DEF CON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEF_CON"},{"title":"ToorCon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ToorCon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"title":"Portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"},{"title":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:New_York_City"}]

[{"reference":"\"2600: The Hacker Quarterly\". 2600.com. Retrieved December 8, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.2600.com/","url_text":"\"2600: The Hacker Quarterly\""}]},{"reference":"\"Radio Statler HOPEX\". Archived from the original on September 25, 2018. Retrieved July 26, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180925083703/http://radio.hope.net/index.html","url_text":"\"Radio Statler HOPEX\""},{"url":"https://radio.hope.net/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Announcing HOPE X (2600 News)\". 2600.com. Archived from the original on November 5, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131105141440/http://www.2600.com/?q=content%2Fannouncing-hope-x-and-100-more-hours-hope-video-are-now-online","url_text":"\"Announcing HOPE X (2600 News)\""},{"url":"https://www.2600.com/content/announcing-hope-x-and-100-more-hours-hope-video-are-now-online","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"HOPE 2020 UPDATE\". 2600.com. May 19, 2020. Retrieved June 27, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.2600.com/content/hope-2020-update","url_text":"\"HOPE 2020 UPDATE\""}]},{"reference":"\"[A New HOPE] Frequently Asked Questions\". www.hope.net. Retrieved July 26, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hope.net/faq.html","url_text":"\"[A New HOPE] Frequently Asked Questions\""}]},{"reference":"\"HOPE XV Officially Announced\". 2600. December 12, 2023. 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Archived from the original on November 10, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061110134517/http://blog.washingtonpost.com/securityfix/2006/07/fbi_charges_hope_speaker_with_1.html","url_text":"\"FBI Charges HOPE Speaker with Witness Tampering, Obstructing Justice\""},{"url":"http://blog.washingtonpost.com/securityfix/2006/07/fbi_charges_hope_speaker_with_1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Krebs, Brian (July 25, 2006). \"Agents Arrest Background Specialist at Hackers Forum\". The Washington Post. p. D05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/24/AR2006072401196.html","url_text":"\"Agents Arrest Background Specialist at Hackers Forum\""}]},{"reference":"Krebs, Brian (July 22, 2006). \"HOPE Speaker Arrested by the Feds\". Washington Post - Security Fix. Archived from the original on November 10, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061110134513/http://blog.washingtonpost.com/securityfix/2006/07/fbi_arrest_private_eye_speaker.html","url_text":"\"HOPE Speaker Arrested by the Feds\""},{"url":"http://blog.washingtonpost.com/securityfix/2006/07/fbi_arrest_private_eye_speaker.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Final HOPE talk held\". 2600 News. November 17, 2006. Archived from the original on January 17, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070117173525/http://www.2600.com/news/view/article/3975","url_text":"\"Final HOPE talk held\""},{"url":"http://www.2600.com/news/view/article/3975","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Hacker event closes with social engineering, Jello\". Computerworld.com. July 25, 2006. 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Presentation Shows Just How The Internet Economy Relies On Pornography And How Censorship Would Affect That, 12 July 2012\""},{"url":"http://vrritti.com/2012/07/12/it-company-unisys-prohibits-employee-from-presenting-on-the-topic-of-censorship-presentation-shows-just-how-the-internet-economy-relies-on-pornography-and-how-censorship-would-affect-that/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cameron, Dell (July 17, 2014). \"The Hope X hacker conference sets its cursor on NYC this weekend\". The Daily Dot.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dailydot.com/politics/best-speakers-events-hope-x-2014/","url_text":"\"The Hope X hacker conference sets its cursor on NYC this weekend\""}]},{"reference":"\"HOPE X\". 2600.com. Retrieved July 18, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://x.hope.net/","url_text":"\"HOPE X\""}]},{"reference":"\"HOPE 11 NOC NOC\". noc.hope.net. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Rushkoff

Douglas Rushkoff

["1 Biography","1.1 Background","1.2 Influences","1.3 Influence","1.4 Awards and appointments","2 Themes","2.1 General","2.2 Technology and cyberculture","2.3 Religion","2.4 Currency","2.5 Social media","2.6 Wealth and Power","3 Bibliography","3.1 Articles","3.2 Books","3.3 Book chapters","3.4 Fiction works","3.5 Graphic novels","3.6 Documentaries","3.7 Radio","4 References","5 External links"]

American media theorist, writer, columnist, lecturer, graphic novelist and documentarian Douglas RushkoffDouglas Rushkoff at 2023 SXSWBorn (1961-02-18) February 18, 1961 (age 63)New York City, USOccupationMedia theorist, writer, columnist, lecturer, graphic novelist, documentarianEducationPrinceton University (BA)California Institute of the Arts (MA)American Film InstituteUtrecht University (PhD)SubjectAmerican mediaSpouseBarbara KligmanChildren1Websiterushkoff.com Douglas Mark Rushkoff (born February 18, 1961) is an American media theorist, writer, columnist, lecturer, graphic novelist, and documentarian. He is best known for his association with the early cyberpunk culture and his advocacy of open-source solutions to social problems. Rushkoff is most frequently regarded as a media theorist and is known for coining terms and concepts including viral media (or media virus), digital native, and social currency. He has written ten books on media, technology and culture. He wrote the first syndicated column on cyberculture for The New York Times Syndicate, as well as regular columns for The Guardian of London, Arthur, Discover, and the online magazines Daily Beast, and TheFeature. Rushkoff is currently Professor of Media Theory and Digital Economics at the City University of New York, Queens College. He has previously lectured at The New School University in Manhattan and the Interactive Telecommunications Program at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, where he created the Narrative Lab. In 2012, Rushkoff was declared the sixth most influential thinker in the world by MIT Technology Review, following Steven Pinker, David Graeber, Nobel prize-winner Daniel Kahneman, Thilo Sarrazin, and Richard Florida. Biography Background Rushkoff was born in New York City, New York, and is the son of Sheila, a psychiatric social worker, and Marvin Rushkoff, a hospital administrator. His older brother, Bennett, has served as an administrative law judge in Washington, D.C.. He graduated from Princeton University in 1983. He moved to Los Angeles and completed a Master of Fine Arts in Directing from the California Institute of the Arts. Later he took up a post-graduate fellowship from the American Film Institute. He was a PhD candidate at Utrecht University's New Media Program, writing a dissertation on new media literacies, which was approved in June, 2012. Rushkoff emerged in the early 1990s as an active member of the cyberpunk movement, developing friendships and collaborations with people including Timothy Leary, RU Sirius, Paul Krassner, Robert Anton Wilson, Ralph Abraham, Terence McKenna, Genesis P-Orridge, Ralph Metzner, Grant Morrison, Mark Pesce, Erik Davis, and other writers, artists and philosophers interested in the intersection of technology, society and culture. Cyberia, his first book on cyberculture, was inspired by the San Francisco rave scene of the early 1990s. The initially planned publication was scrapped, however; in Rushkoff's words, "in 1992 Bantam canceled the book because they thought by 1993 the internet would be over." It was eventually published in 1994. As his books became more accepted, and his concepts of the "media virus" and "social contagion" became mainstream ideas, Rushkoff was invited to deliver commentaries on National Public Radio's All Things Considered, and to make documentaries for the PBS series Frontline. In 2002, Rushkoff was awarded the Marshall McLuhan Award by the Media Ecology Association for his book Coercion, and became a member and sat on the board of directors of that organization. This allied him with the "media ecologists", a continuation of what is known as the Toronto School of media theorists including Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Neil Postman. Simultaneously, Rushkoff continued to develop his relationship with counterculture figures, collaborating with Genesis P-Orridge as a keyboardist for Psychic TV, and credited with composing music for the album Hell Is Invisible... Heaven Is Her/e. Rushkoff taught classes in media theory and in media subversion for New York University's Interactive Telecommunications Program, participated in activist pranks with the Yes Men and eToy, contributed to numerous books and documentaries on psychedelics, and spoke or appeared at many events sponsored by counterculture publisher Disinformation. Influences References to media ecologist and Toronto School of Communication founder Marshall McLuhan appear throughout Rushkoff's work as a focus on media over content, the effects of media on popular culture and the level at which people participate when consuming media. Rushkoff worked with both Robert Anton Wilson and Timothy Leary on developing philosophical systems to explain consciousness, its interaction with technology, and social evolution of the human species, and references both consistently in his work. Leary, along with John Barlow and Terence McKenna characterized the mid-1990s as techno-utopian, and saw the rapid acceleration of culture, emerging media and the unchecked advancement of technology as completely positive. Rushkoff's own unbridled enthusiasm for cyberculture was tempered by the dotcom boom, when the non-profit character of the Internet was rapidly overtaken by corporations and venture capital. Rushkoff often cites two events in particular – the day Netscape became a public company in 1995, and the day AOL bought Time Warner in 2000 – as pivotal moments in his understanding of the forces at work in the evolution of new media. Rushkoff spent several years exploring Judaism as a primer for media literacy, going so far as to publish a book inviting Jews to restore the religion to its "open source" roots. He founded a movement for progressive Judaism called Reboot, but subsequently left when he felt its funders had become more concerned with marketing and publicity of Judaism than its actual improvement and evolution. Disillusioned by the failure of the open source model to challenge entrenched and institutional hierarchies from religion to finance, he became a colleague of Mark Crispin Miller and Naomi Klein, appearing with them at Smith College as well as in numerous documentaries decrying the corporatization of public space and consciousness. He has dedicated himself most recently to the issues of media literacy, participatory government, and the development of local and complementary currencies. He wrote a book and film called Life Inc., which traces the development of corporatism and centralized currency from the Renaissance to today, and hosted a radio show called The Media Squat on WFMU from 2008 to 2009, concerned with reclaiming commerce and culture from corporate domination. Influence In September 2020, Rushkoff commented on the release of the documentary The Social Dilemma. This was partly based on the prompting from his fanbase that expressed that the ideas in the film were direct quotations from his books and films. Rushkoff speculated at the possibility that the programmers interviewed in the film have read something from himself, or other writers such as Nicholas Carr, Sherry Turkle, Andrew Keen, Howard Rheingold, Richard Barbrook, Tim Wu, or even the singer Raffi. He acknowledged that while their work and analogies are being quoted without acknowledgement of their source, that these quotations serve as memes themselves and are indicative of their sustaining value beyond their original authors. Jaron Lanier, who was a subject in Rushkoff's Cyberia years before, is one of the people included in the documentary. Rushkoff also acknowledged he got a call from the Center for Humane Technology stating that they are starting a new organization called Team Humanity, which is a direct wordplay from Rushkoff's podcast Team Human. Rushkoff asked his fanbase to not act negatively toward this appropriation, and to be inclusive of this new community in order to open up a new dialogue between the groups. Awards and appointments Douglas Rushkoff has served on the board of directors of the Media Ecology Association, The Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics, and is a founding member of Technorealism, as well as of the advisory board of The National Association for Media Literacy Education, MeetUp.com and HyperWords He is the winner of the first Neil Postman Award for Career Achievement in Public Intellectual Activity, given by the Media Ecology Association, in 2004. Themes General Douglas Rushkoff's philosophy developed from a techno-utopian view of new media to a more nuanced critique of cyberculture discourse and the impact of media on society. Viewing everything except for intention as media, he frequently explores the themes of how to make media interactive, how to help people (especially children) effectively analyze and question the media they consume, as well as how to cultivate intention and agency. He has theorized on such media as religion, culture, politics, and money. Technology and cyberculture Up to the late-1990s, Douglas Rushkoff's philosophy towards technology could be characterized as media-deterministic. Cyberculture and new media were supposed to promote democracy and allow people to transcend the ordinary. In Cyberia, Rushkoff states the essence of mid-1990s culture as being the fusion of rave psychedelia, chaos theory and early computer networks. The promise of the resulting "counter culture" was that media would change from being passive to active, that we would embrace the social over content, and that empowers the masses to create and react. This idea also comes up in the concept of the media virus, which Rushkoff details in the 1994 publication of Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture. This significant work adopts organic metaphors to show that media, like viruses, are mobile, easily duplicated and presented as non-threatening. Technologies can make our interaction with media an empowering experience if we learn to decode the capabilities offered to us by our media. Unfortunately, people often stay one step behind our media capabilities. Ideally, emerging media and technologies have the potential to enlighten, to aid grassroots movements, to offer an alternative to the traditional "top-down" media, to connect diverse groups and to promote the sharing of information. Rushkoff does not limit his writings to the effect of technology on adults, and in Playing the Future turns his attention to the generation of people growing up who understand the language of media like natives, guarded against coercion. These "screenagers", a term originated by Rushkoff, have the chance to mediate the changing landscape more effectively than digital immigrants. With Coercion (1999), Rushkoff realistically examines the potential benefits and dangers inherent in cyberculture and analyzes market strategies that work to make people act on instinct (and buy!) rather than reflect rationally. The book wants readers to learn to "read" the media they consume and interpret what is really being communicated. Religion In Nothing Sacred: The Truth About Judaism, Rushkoff explores the medium of religion and intellectually deconstructs the Bible and the ways that he says religion fails to provide true connectivity and transformative experiences. Currency Most recently, Douglas Rushkoff has turned his critical lens to the medium of currency. One of the most important concepts that he creates and develops is the notion of social currency, or the degree to which certain content and media can facilitate and/or promote relationships and interactions between members of a community. Rushkoff mentions jokes, scandals, blogs, ambiance, i.e. anything that would engender "water cooler" talk, as social currency. In his book, Life, Inc. and his dissertation "Monopoly Moneys," Rushkoff takes a look at physical currency and the history of corporatism. Beginning with an overview of how money has been gradually centralized throughout time, and pondering the reasons and consequences of such a fact, he goes on to demonstrate how our society has become defined by and controlled by corporate culture. Social media Rushkoff has long been skeptical of social media. On February 25, 2013, he announced in a CNN op-ed that he was leaving Facebook, citing concerns about the company's use of his personal data. In 2023, he announced his departure from X and other social media platforms, explaining, "And Twitter has no tolerance for ambiguity. It's missing the moderated, the emotional, the poetic...the whole human experience." Wealth and Power In his most recent work, Survival of the Richest: Escape Fantasies of the Tech Billionaires (2022), Rushkoff explored the calculus some of the extremely wealthy make in the recognition that their often single-minded pursuit of greater profits and better technology are creating an increasingly unstable world. In a 2022 talk for House of SpeakEasy’s Seriously Entertaining program, Rushkoff explained the billionaires’ mindset as coming down to this essential question: “How much money and technology do I need to insulate myself from the reality I’m creating by earning money and using technology in this way?” He argues that treating people better in the present may be the most surefire way to avoid widespread catastrophe in the future. Bibliography Articles "Team Human vs. Team AI," Strategy+Business, February 5, 2019. Books 2022. Survival of the Richest ISBN 978-0-393-88106-6 2019. Team Human ISBN 978-0-393-65169-0 2016. Throwing Rocks at the Google Bus ISBN 978-1617230172 2013. Present Shock: When Everything Happens Now ISBN 978-1591844761 2010. Program or be Programmed: Ten Commands for a Digital Age Paperback ISBN 978-1-935928-15-7 Ebook ISBN 978-1-935928-16-4 2009. Life, Inc.: How the World Became A Corporation and How To Take It Back ISBN 978-1-4000-6689-6 2009. Foreword: The Opportunity for Renaissance, pp. 273–281, in Be The Media, David Mathison, editor 2005. Get Back in the Box: Innovation from the Inside Out ISBN 978-0-06-075869-1 2003. Open Source Democracy A Demos Essay 2003. Nothing Sacred: The Truth About Judaism ISBN 978-1-4000-5139-7 1999. Coercion: Why We Listen to What "They" Say ISBN 978-1-57322-829-9 1996. Playing the Future: What We Can Learn From Digital Kids ISBN 978-1-57322-764-3 (Published in the UK in 1997 as "Children of Chaos: Surviving the End of the World as We Know it" ISBN 0-00-654879-2) 1995. Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture ISBN 978-0-345-39774-4 1994. The GenX Reader (Editor, contributor) ISBN 978-0345390462 1994. Cyberia: Life in the Trenches of Cyberspace ISBN 978-1-903083-24-6 1991. Free Rides: How To Get High Without Drugs ISBN 978-0385303316 Book chapters Douglas Rushkoff (2019). "Chapter 8: Survival of the richest". In Extinction Rebellion (ed.). This Is Not a Drill: An Extinction Rebellion Handbook. Penguin Books. pp. 58–64. ISBN 9780141991443. Fiction works 2002. Exit Strategy (aka Bull) ISBN 978-1-887128-90-2 1997. Ecstasy Club ISBN 978-1-57322-702-5 Graphic novels 2016. Aleister and Adolf with Michael Avon Oeming ISBN 978-1-50670-104-2 2012. A.D.D. – Adolescent Demo Division ISBN 978-1-78116-019-0 2005–2008. Testament ISBN 978-1-4012-1063-2 2004. Club Zero-G ISBN 978-0-9729529-3-4 Documentaries 2014. Generation Like. PBS Frontline. 2008. American Music: OFF THE RECORD Dir. Benjamin Meade, Cosmic Cowboy Studio. 2009–2010. Digital Nation, Life on the Virtual Frontier. Web site and documentary, PBS Frontline. 2009. Life Inc. The Movie 2004. The Persuaders. This Frontline documentary examines the psychological techniques behind popular marketing and advertising trends, determines how these methods influence how we view ourselves and desires, and postulates on the future implications of these persuasive approaches at work. 2001. Merchants of Cool, a groundbreaking, award-winning Frontline documentary which explores the people, marketing techniques and ideologies behind popular culture for teenagers. This video attempts to answer whether or not teen popular culture is reflective of its population or manufactured by big business and related groups. Radio The Media Squat (creator and host): freeform, bottom-up, open source WFMU radio which examines similarly open source, bottom-up solutions to some of the problems engendered by our relentlessly top-down society. Team Human Podcast (creator and host): a weekly interview show focused on themes of inspecting and subverting technology's effect on human behaviour. The format of the show is typically started with a monologue from Rushkoff and then an interview with a guest. References ^ a b Rushkoff, Douglas (2002-07-25). "Signs of the times | Technology". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ Rushkoff, Douglas (2009-03-30). "Crowdsourcing The Bank Recovery". Arthur Magazine. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Science and Technology News, Science Articles". Discover Magazine. 2007-01-21. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Douglas Rushkoff". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Media Studies :: Academics :: All Courses". Newschool.edu. Archived from the original on 2011-05-30. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "ITP Research 2005 » Narrative Lab". Interactive Telecommunications Program. Archived from the original on 2012-07-12. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ Emerging Technology from the arXiv. "World's Most Influential Thinkers Revealed". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 2 April 2023. ^ Frick, Karin; Guertler, Detlef; Gloor, Peter A. (2013). "Coolhunting for the World's Thought Leaders". arXiv:1308.1160 . ^ "Rushkoff, Douglas 1961– - Dictionary definition of Rushkoff, Douglas 1961–". Encyclopedia.com. ^ "Princeton Alumni Weekly: Search & Archives". Paw.princeton.edu. 2009-07-15. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ Salamon, Julie (1992). The Devil's Candy. Hachette Books. p. 138. ISBN 9780786741830. ^ "NewMediaStudies.nl". Let.uu.nl. 1999-02-22. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Dissertation approved". Twitter. 2012-06-25. Retrieved 2012-06-25. ^ "Open Source Reality: Douglas Rushkoff Examines the Effects of Open Source | EDUCAUSE". Educause.edu. 2008-07-01. Archived from the original on 2016-05-16. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ Foord, Michael (1905-10-14). "Douglas Rushkoff – Cyberia". Voidspace.org.uk. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "An Open Letter from the friend's of Dr. Timothy Leary". Seric.com. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Digital Nation|Frontline: digital nation: interviews: douglas rushkoff". PBS. 2009-03-24. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Mediamatic Review: J. Marshall – Media Virus – D. Rushkoff". Mediamatic.nl. 1996-10-01. Archived from the original on September 29, 2008. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "National Public Radio". NPR. Retrieved 2012-05-03. ^ "Frontline: Merchants of Cool: interviews: Douglas Rushkoff". PBS. 27 February 2001. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Past MEA Award Recipients". Media-ecology.org. 2001-02-26. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Douglas Rushkoff Discography and Music at CD Universe". Cduniverse.com. 2009-03-08. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Core77 / industrial design magazine + resource / Design.EDU". Core77.com. 2005-01-08. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Book". The Yes Men. Archived from the original on 2009-03-08. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ Priluck, Jill (2009-01-04). "Etoy: 'This Means War'". Wired. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "disinformation | Douglas Rushkoff". Disinfo.com. Archived from the original on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ a b "Digital Minds Blog: Media Resistance – An Interview with Douglas Rushkoff". Digitalmindsblog.blogspot.com. 2008-03-26. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Robert Anton Wilson – Maybe Logic: Robert Anton Wilson, Valerie Corral, Paul Krassner, Tom Robbins, Douglas Rushkoff, R.U. Sirius, Douglass Smith, Lance Bauscher, Cody McClintock, Robert Dofflemyer, Katherine Covell: Movies & TV". Amazon. 30 May 2006. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "The Thing That I Call Doug". EDGE. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Mindjack Magazine: Coercion by Douglas Rushkoff". Mindjack.com. 1999-10-01. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "A Conversation with Douglas Rushkoff". Zeek. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Smith College: The Community Responds to Tragedy". Smith.edu. Archived from the original on 2008-12-02. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "frontline: the persuaders". PBS. 2004-11-09. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ a b "National Advisory Council – NAMLE – National Association for Media Literacy Education – Advancing Media Literacy Education in America". NAMLE. Archived from the original on 2009-11-08. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ Newitz, Annalee (2008-09-11). "DIY Currencies – Dual Perspectives". Portfolio.com. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ rushkoff (2009-05-11). "Life Inc: The Movie". Boing Boing. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "WFMU's Beware of the Blog: New Podcast: The Media Squat with Douglas Rushkoff". Blog.wfmu.org. 2009-03-25. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ Rushkoff, Douglas (2020-09-16). They've Joined Team Human! On Netflix's The Social Dilemma. Retrieved 2022-03-24. ^ "Organization of the Media Ecology Association". Media-ecology.org. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Who is the CCLE?". Cognitiveliberty.org. Archived from the original on 2009-10-08. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Technorealism FAQ". Technorealism.org. 1998-03-12. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "About Meetup". Meetup.com. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "The Hyperwords Company". Hyperwords.net. Archived from the original on 2009-07-17. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Past MEA Award Recipients". Media-ecology.org. 2001-02-26. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Team Human vs. Team AI". strategy+business. February 2, 2019. ^ "Archives: 1998-1999". The Austin Chronicle. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Cyberia Summary – Douglas Rushkoff – Magill Book Reviews". Enotes.com. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ Boyd, Andrew. "Truth is a Virus ." Culture Jamming 101 . 2002. Retrieved on May 3, 2009. ^ "Barbrook". Firstmonday.org. Archived from the original on 2009-10-16. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Douglas Rushkoff : Children Of Chaos (Playing The Future) : Lost In Translation". Spikemagazine.com. 1999-02-22. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Screenager". World Wide Words. 1998-01-10. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "Douglas Rushkoff Interview // wishtank magazine". Wishtank.org. Archived from the original on 2008-05-26. Retrieved 2009-07-25. ^ "You are Facebook's product, not its customer // Wired". wired.com. 2011-09-11. Retrieved 2011-09-11. ^ "Why I'm quitting Facebook // CNN". CNN.com. 2013-02-25. Retrieved 2013-02-25. ^ "Why I'm Finally Leaving X And Probably All Social Media // Medium". Medium.com. 2023-10-28. Retrieved 2023-10-31. ^ Seriously Entertaining: Douglas Rushkoff on "Life, Liberty & Other Pursuits", 18 October 2022, retrieved 2023-02-15 External links Official website Appearances on C-SPAN Works by Douglas Rushkoff at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Douglas Rushkoff at Internet Archive Works by Douglas Rushkoff at Open Library Douglas Rushkoff interviewed on the TV show Triangulation on the TWiT.tv network vtePsychic TV Genesis P-Orridge Alex Fergusson Fred Giannelli Bobby Bones John Balance Dave Ball David Tibet Douglas Rushkoff Drew McDowall Rose McDowall Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson Larry Thrasher Monte Cazazza Peter Christopherson William Breeze Paula P-Orridge Lady Jaye Breyer P-Orridge Marc Almond Andy Chatterley Danny Hyde Richard Norris Conrad Black Stephen Kent Daniel Ash Z'EV Studio albums Force the Hand of Chance (1982) Dreams Less Sweet (1983) A Pagan Day (1984) Those Who Do Not (1984) Mouth of the Night (1985) The Magickal Mystery D Tour EP (1986) Allegory and Self (1988) At Stockholm (1990) Jack the Tab/Tekno Acid Beat (1990) Jack the Tab – Acid Tablets Volume One Tekno Acid Beat Towards Thee Infinite Beat (1990) Beyond Thee Infinite Beat (1990) Direction ov Travel (1991) Ultrahouse The L.A. Connection (1991) Cold Dark Matter (1992) Peak Hour (1993) A Hollow Cost (1994) AL – OR – AL (1994) Cathedral Engine (1994) Sugarmorphoses (1994) Ultradrug (1994) Sirens (Ultradrug – Thee Sequel) (1995) Breathe (1995) Trip/Reset (1996) Cold Blue Torch (1996) Hell Is Invisible... Heaven Is Her/e (2007) Snakes (2014) Alienist (2016) Themes series Themes (1982) Themes 2 (1985) Video Time's Up Live (2001) Black Joy (2004) Songs "Just Drifting" "Roman P" "Godstar" "Magick Defends Itself" "Tune In (Turn On The Acid House)" "Ultrahouse The Twelve Inch Mixes" "Re-Mind" "E-Lusive" "Snowflake/Illusive" Related Discography Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Spain France BnF data Germany Italy Israel Belgium United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Greece Korea Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii Artists MusicBrainz People Trove Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"media theorist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_theorist"},{"link_name":"cyberpunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberpunk"},{"link_name":"open-source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_model"},{"link_name":"media theorist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_theory"},{"link_name":"viral media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_marketing"},{"link_name":"digital native","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_native"},{"link_name":"social currency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_currency"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cyberculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberculture"},{"link_name":"The New York Times Syndicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian2002-1"},{"link_name":"Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Discover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discover_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"online magazines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_magazine"},{"link_name":"Daily Beast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Beast"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"TheFeature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheFeature"},{"link_name":"City University of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_University_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"The New School University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_School"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"New York University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University"},{"link_name":"Tisch School of the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisch_School_of_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"thinker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual"},{"link_name":"MIT Technology Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Technology_Review"},{"link_name":"Steven Pinker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pinker"},{"link_name":"David Graeber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Graeber"},{"link_name":"Nobel prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_prize"},{"link_name":"Daniel Kahneman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman"},{"link_name":"Thilo Sarrazin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thilo_Sarrazin"},{"link_name":"Richard Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Florida"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Douglas Mark Rushkoff (born February 18, 1961) is an American media theorist, writer, columnist, lecturer, graphic novelist, and documentarian. He is best known for his association with the early cyberpunk culture and his advocacy of open-source solutions to social problems.Rushkoff is most frequently regarded as a media theorist and is known for coining terms and concepts including viral media (or media virus), digital native, and social currency. [citation needed] He has written ten books on media, technology and culture. He wrote the first syndicated column on cyberculture for The New York Times Syndicate, as well as regular columns for The Guardian of London,[1] Arthur,[2] Discover,[3] and the online magazines Daily Beast,[4] and TheFeature.Rushkoff is currently Professor of Media Theory and Digital Economics at the City University of New York, Queens College. He has previously lectured at The New School University in Manhattan[5] and the Interactive Telecommunications Program at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, where he created the Narrative Lab.[6] In 2012, Rushkoff was declared the sixth most influential thinker in the world by MIT Technology Review, following Steven Pinker, David Graeber, Nobel prize-winner Daniel Kahneman, Thilo Sarrazin, and Richard Florida.[7][8]","title":"Douglas Rushkoff"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reff1-9"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Master of Fine Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Fine_Arts"},{"link_name":"California Institute of the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Institute_of_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"post-graduate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postgraduate_education"},{"link_name":"American Film Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Film_Institute"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Utrecht University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_University"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Timothy Leary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Leary"},{"link_name":"RU Sirius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._U._Sirius"},{"link_name":"Paul Krassner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Krassner"},{"link_name":"Robert Anton Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Anton_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Ralph Abraham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Abraham_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Terence McKenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence_McKenna"},{"link_name":"Genesis P-Orridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_P-Orridge"},{"link_name":"Ralph Metzner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Metzner"},{"link_name":"Grant Morrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant_Morrison"},{"link_name":"Mark Pesce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Pesce"},{"link_name":"Erik Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Davis"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"rave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rave"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"All Things Considered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Things_Considered"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Marshall McLuhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan"},{"link_name":"board of directors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_directors"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Marshall McLuhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan"},{"link_name":"Walter Ong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_J._Ong"},{"link_name":"Neil Postman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Postman"},{"link_name":"Psychic TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychic_TV"},{"link_name":"Hell Is Invisible... Heaven Is Her/e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell_Is_Invisible..._Heaven_Is_Her/e"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Yes Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yes_Men"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Background","text":"Rushkoff was born in New York City, New York, and is the son of Sheila, a psychiatric social worker, and Marvin Rushkoff, a hospital administrator.[9] His older brother, Bennett, has served as an administrative law judge in Washington, D.C.. He graduated from Princeton University in 1983.[10] He moved to Los Angeles and completed a Master of Fine Arts in Directing from the California Institute of the Arts. Later he took up a post-graduate fellowship from the American Film Institute.[11] He was a PhD candidate at Utrecht University's New Media Program, writing a dissertation on new media literacies,[12] which was approved in June, 2012.[13]Rushkoff emerged in the early 1990s as an active member of the cyberpunk movement, developing friendships and collaborations with people including Timothy Leary, RU Sirius, Paul Krassner, Robert Anton Wilson, Ralph Abraham, Terence McKenna, Genesis P-Orridge, Ralph Metzner, Grant Morrison, Mark Pesce, Erik Davis, and other writers, artists and philosophers interested in the intersection of technology, society and culture.[14][15][16]Cyberia, his first book on cyberculture, was inspired by the San Francisco rave scene of the early 1990s. The initially planned publication was scrapped, however; in Rushkoff's words, \"in 1992 Bantam canceled the book because they thought by 1993 the internet would be over.\"[17] It was eventually published in 1994.As his books became more accepted, and his concepts of the \"media virus\"[18] and \"social contagion\" became mainstream ideas, Rushkoff was invited to deliver commentaries on National Public Radio's All Things Considered,[19] and to make documentaries for the PBS series Frontline.[20]In 2002, Rushkoff was awarded the Marshall McLuhan Award by the Media Ecology Association for his book Coercion, and became a member and sat on the board of directors of that organization.[21] This allied him with the \"media ecologists\", a continuation of what is known as the Toronto School of media theorists including Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Neil Postman.Simultaneously, Rushkoff continued to develop his relationship with counterculture figures, collaborating with Genesis P-Orridge as a keyboardist for Psychic TV, and credited with composing music for the album Hell Is Invisible... Heaven Is Her/e.[22] Rushkoff taught classes in media theory and in media subversion for New York University's Interactive Telecommunications Program,[23] participated in activist pranks with the Yes Men[24] and eToy,[25] contributed to numerous books and documentaries on psychedelics, and spoke or appeared at many events sponsored by counterculture publisher Disinformation.[26]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marshall McLuhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan"},{"link_name":"popular culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blogspot1-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"social evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution"},{"link_name":"John Barlow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Perry_Barlow"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"venture capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_capital"},{"link_name":"public company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_company"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Time Warner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Warner"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian2002-1"},{"link_name":"Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"media literacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_literacy"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blogspot1-27"},{"link_name":"Mark Crispin Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Crispin_Miller"},{"link_name":"Naomi Klein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naomi_Klein"},{"link_name":"Smith College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_College"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-namle1-34"},{"link_name":"complementary currencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complementary_currencies"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"corporatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatism"},{"link_name":"radio show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_programming"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Influences","text":"References to media ecologist and Toronto School of Communication founder Marshall McLuhan appear throughout Rushkoff's work as a focus on media over content, the effects of media on popular culture and the level at which people participate when consuming media.[27]Rushkoff worked with both Robert Anton Wilson[28] and Timothy Leary on developing philosophical systems to explain consciousness, its interaction with technology, and social evolution of the human species, and references both consistently in his work.\nLeary, along with John Barlow and Terence McKenna characterized the mid-1990s as techno-utopian, and saw the rapid acceleration of culture, emerging media and the unchecked advancement of technology as completely positive.[29]\nRushkoff's own unbridled enthusiasm for cyberculture was tempered by the dotcom boom, when the non-profit character of the Internet was rapidly overtaken by corporations and venture capital. Rushkoff often cites two events in particular – the day Netscape became a public company in 1995,[30] and the day AOL bought Time Warner in 2000[1] – as pivotal moments in his understanding of the forces at work in the evolution of new media.Rushkoff spent several years exploring Judaism as a primer for media literacy, going so far as to publish a book inviting Jews to restore the religion to its \"open source\" roots.[31] He founded a movement for progressive Judaism called Reboot, but subsequently left when he felt its funders had become more concerned with marketing and publicity of Judaism than its actual improvement and evolution.[27]\nDisillusioned by the failure of the open source model to challenge entrenched and institutional hierarchies from religion to finance, he became a colleague of Mark Crispin Miller and Naomi Klein, appearing with them at Smith College[32] as well as in numerous documentaries decrying the corporatization of public space and consciousness.[33]\nHe has dedicated himself most recently to the issues of media literacy,[34] participatory government, and the development of local and complementary currencies.[35] He wrote a book and film called Life Inc.,[36] which traces the development of corporatism and centralized currency from the Renaissance to today, and hosted a radio show called The Media Squat on WFMU from 2008 to 2009, concerned with reclaiming commerce and culture from corporate domination.[37]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Social Dilemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Social_Dilemma"},{"link_name":"Nicholas Carr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_G._Carr"},{"link_name":"Sherry Turkle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherry_Turkle"},{"link_name":"Andrew Keen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Keen"},{"link_name":"Howard Rheingold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Rheingold"},{"link_name":"Richard Barbrook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Barbrook"},{"link_name":"Tim Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Wu"},{"link_name":"Raffi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffi"},{"link_name":"Jaron Lanier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaron_Lanier"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Influence","text":"In September 2020, Rushkoff commented on the release of the documentary The Social Dilemma. This was partly based on the prompting from his fanbase that expressed that the ideas in the film were direct quotations from his books and films. Rushkoff speculated at the possibility that the programmers interviewed in the film have read something from himself, or other writers such as Nicholas Carr, Sherry Turkle, Andrew Keen, Howard Rheingold, Richard Barbrook, Tim Wu, or even the singer Raffi. He acknowledged that while their work and analogies are being quoted without acknowledgement of their source, that these quotations serve as memes themselves and are indicative of their sustaining value beyond their original authors. Jaron Lanier, who was a subject in Rushkoff's Cyberia years before, is one of the people included in the documentary. Rushkoff also acknowledged he got a call from the Center for Humane Technology stating that they are starting a new organization called Team Humanity, which is a direct wordplay from Rushkoff's podcast Team Human. Rushkoff asked his fanbase to not act negatively toward this appropriation, and to be inclusive of this new community in order to open up a new dialogue between the groups.[38]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-namle1-34"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Awards and appointments","text":"Douglas Rushkoff has served on the board of directors of the Media Ecology Association,[39] The Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics,[40] and is a founding member of Technorealism,[41] as well as of the advisory board of The National Association for Media Literacy Education,[34] MeetUp.com[42] and HyperWords[43]He is the winner of the first Neil Postman Award for Career Achievement in Public Intellectual Activity, given by the Media Ecology Association, in 2004.[44]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"General","text":"Douglas Rushkoff's philosophy developed from a techno-utopian view of new media to a more nuanced critique of cyberculture discourse and the impact of media on society. Viewing everything except for intention as media, he frequently explores the themes of how to make media interactive, how to help people (especially children) effectively analyze and question the media they consume, as well as how to cultivate intention and agency. He has theorized on such media as religion, culture, politics, and money.[45]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"chaos theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory"},{"link_name":"computer networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networking"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Technology and cyberculture","text":"Up to the late-1990s, Douglas Rushkoff's philosophy towards technology could be characterized as media-deterministic. Cyberculture and new media were supposed to promote democracy and allow people to transcend the ordinary.[46]In Cyberia, Rushkoff states the essence of mid-1990s culture as being the fusion of rave psychedelia, chaos theory and early computer networks. The promise of the resulting \"counter culture\" was that media would change from being passive to active, that we would embrace the social over content, and that empowers the masses to create and react.[47]This idea also comes up in the concept of the media virus, which Rushkoff details in the 1994 publication of Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture. This significant work adopts organic metaphors to show that media, like viruses, are mobile, easily duplicated and presented as non-threatening.[48] Technologies can make our interaction with media an empowering experience if we learn to decode the capabilities offered to us by our media. Unfortunately, people often stay one step behind our media capabilities. Ideally, emerging media and technologies have the potential to enlighten, to aid grassroots movements, to offer an alternative to the traditional \"top-down\" media, to connect diverse groups and to promote the sharing of information.[49]Rushkoff does not limit his writings to the effect of technology on adults, and in Playing the Future turns his attention to the generation of people growing up who understand the language of media like natives, guarded against coercion.[50] These \"screenagers\", a term originated by Rushkoff,[51] have the chance to mediate the changing landscape more effectively than digital immigrants.With Coercion (1999), Rushkoff realistically examines the potential benefits and dangers inherent in cyberculture and analyzes market strategies that work to make people act on instinct (and buy!) rather than reflect rationally. The book wants readers to learn to \"read\" the media they consume and interpret what is really being communicated.[citation needed]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Religion","text":"In Nothing Sacred: The Truth About Judaism, Rushkoff explores the medium of religion and intellectually deconstructs the Bible and the ways that he says religion fails to provide true connectivity and transformative experiences.[52]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"currency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency"},{"link_name":"social currency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_currency"},{"link_name":"corporatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatism"},{"link_name":"money","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money"},{"link_name":"corporate culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_culture"}],"sub_title":"Currency","text":"Most recently, Douglas Rushkoff has turned his critical lens to the medium of currency. One of the most important concepts that he creates and develops is the notion of social currency, or the degree to which certain content and media can facilitate and/or promote relationships and interactions between members of a community. Rushkoff mentions jokes, scandals, blogs, ambiance, i.e. anything that would engender \"water cooler\" talk, as social currency.In his book, Life, Inc. and his dissertation \"Monopoly Moneys,\" Rushkoff takes a look at physical currency and the history of corporatism. Beginning with an overview of how money has been gradually centralized throughout time, and pondering the reasons and consequences of such a fact, he goes on to demonstrate how our society has become defined by and controlled by corporate culture.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"Social media","text":"Rushkoff has long been skeptical of social media.[53] On February 25, 2013, he announced in a CNN op-ed that he was leaving Facebook, citing concerns about the company's use of his personal data.[54] In 2023, he announced his departure from X and other social media platforms, explaining, \"And Twitter has no tolerance for ambiguity. It's missing the moderated, the emotional, the poetic...the whole human experience.\"[55]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Wealth and Power","text":"In his most recent work, Survival of the Richest: Escape Fantasies of the Tech Billionaires (2022), Rushkoff explored the calculus some of the extremely wealthy make in the recognition that their often single-minded pursuit of greater profits and better technology are creating an increasingly unstable world. In a 2022 talk for House of SpeakEasy’s Seriously Entertaining program,[56] Rushkoff explained the billionaires’ mindset as coming down to this essential question: “How much money and technology do I need to insulate myself from the reality I’m creating by earning money and using technology in this way?” He argues that treating people better in the present may be the most surefire way to avoid widespread catastrophe in the future.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Team Human vs. Team AI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.strategy-business.com/article/Team-Human-vs-Team-AI?gko=4d55d"},{"link_name":"Strategy+Business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy%2BBusiness"}],"sub_title":"Articles","text":"\"Team Human vs. Team AI,\" Strategy+Business, February 5, 2019.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-393-88106-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-88106-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-393-65169-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-65169-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1617230172","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1617230172"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1591844761","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1591844761"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-935928-15-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-935928-15-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-935928-16-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-935928-16-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4000-6689-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6689-6"},{"link_name":"David Mathison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Mathison"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-06-075869-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-075869-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4000-5139-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-5139-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-57322-829-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57322-829-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-57322-764-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57322-764-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-00-654879-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-654879-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-345-39774-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-39774-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0345390462","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0345390462"},{"link_name":"Cyberia: Life in the Trenches of Cyberspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberia_(book)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-903083-24-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903083-24-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0385303316","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385303316"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"2022. Survival of the Richest ISBN 978-0-393-88106-6\n2019. Team Human ISBN 978-0-393-65169-0\n2016. Throwing Rocks at the Google Bus ISBN 978-1617230172\n2013. Present Shock: When Everything Happens Now ISBN 978-1591844761\n2010. Program or be Programmed: Ten Commands for a Digital Age Paperback ISBN 978-1-935928-15-7 Ebook ISBN 978-1-935928-16-4\n2009. Life, Inc.: How the World Became A Corporation and How To Take It Back ISBN 978-1-4000-6689-6\n2009. Foreword: The Opportunity for Renaissance, pp. 273–281, in Be The Media, David Mathison, editor\n2005. Get Back in the Box: Innovation from the Inside Out ISBN 978-0-06-075869-1\n2003. Open Source Democracy A Demos Essay\n2003. Nothing Sacred: The Truth About Judaism ISBN 978-1-4000-5139-7\n1999. Coercion: Why We Listen to What \"They\" Say ISBN 978-1-57322-829-9\n1996. Playing the Future: What We Can Learn From Digital Kids ISBN 978-1-57322-764-3 (Published in the UK in 1997 as \"Children of Chaos: Surviving the End of the World as We Know it\" ISBN 0-00-654879-2)\n1995. Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture ISBN 978-0-345-39774-4\n1994. The GenX Reader (Editor, contributor) ISBN 978-0345390462\n1994. Cyberia: Life in the Trenches of Cyberspace ISBN 978-1-903083-24-6\n1991. Free Rides: How To Get High Without Drugs ISBN 978-0385303316","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Extinction Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780141991443","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141991443"}],"sub_title":"Book chapters","text":"Douglas Rushkoff (2019). \"Chapter 8: Survival of the richest\". In Extinction Rebellion (ed.). This Is Not a Drill: An Extinction Rebellion Handbook. Penguin Books. pp. 58–64. ISBN 9780141991443.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-887128-90-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-887128-90-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-57322-702-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57322-702-5"}],"sub_title":"Fiction works","text":"2002. Exit Strategy (aka Bull) ISBN 978-1-887128-90-2\n1997. Ecstasy Club ISBN 978-1-57322-702-5","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Avon Oeming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Avon_Oeming"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-50670-104-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-50670-104-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-78116-019-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78116-019-0"},{"link_name":"Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testament_(comics)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4012-1063-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4012-1063-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9729529-3-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9729529-3-4"}],"sub_title":"Graphic novels","text":"2016. Aleister and Adolf with Michael Avon Oeming ISBN 978-1-50670-104-2\n2012. A.D.D. – Adolescent Demo Division ISBN 978-1-78116-019-0\n2005–2008. Testament ISBN 978-1-4012-1063-2\n2004. Club Zero-G ISBN 978-0-9729529-3-4","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digital Nation, Life on the Virtual Frontier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Nation"},{"link_name":"Frontline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontline_(U.S._TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Frontline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontline_(U.S._TV_series)"}],"sub_title":"Documentaries","text":"2014. Generation Like. PBS Frontline.\n2008. American Music: OFF THE RECORD Dir. Benjamin Meade, Cosmic Cowboy Studio.\n2009–2010. Digital Nation, Life on the Virtual Frontier. Web site and documentary, PBS Frontline.\n2009. Life Inc. The Movie\n2004. The Persuaders. This Frontline documentary examines the psychological techniques behind popular marketing and advertising trends, determines how these methods influence how we view ourselves and desires, and postulates on the future implications of these persuasive approaches at work.\n2001. Merchants of Cool, a groundbreaking, award-winning Frontline documentary which explores the people, marketing techniques and ideologies behind popular culture for teenagers. This video attempts to answer whether or not teen popular culture is reflective of its population or manufactured by big business and related groups.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bottom-up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design#Management_and_organization"}],"sub_title":"Radio","text":"The Media Squat (creator and host): freeform, bottom-up, open source WFMU radio which examines similarly open source, bottom-up solutions to some of the problems engendered by our relentlessly top-down society.\nTeam Human Podcast (creator and host): a weekly interview show focused on themes of inspecting and subverting technology's effect on human behaviour. The format of the show is typically started with a monologue from Rushkoff and then an interview with a guest.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[]

[{"reference":"Douglas Rushkoff (2019). \"Chapter 8: Survival of the richest\". In Extinction Rebellion (ed.). This Is Not a Drill: An Extinction Rebellion Handbook. Penguin Books. pp. 58–64. ISBN 9780141991443.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_Rebellion","url_text":"Extinction Rebellion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141991443","url_text":"9780141991443"}]},{"reference":"Rushkoff, Douglas (2002-07-25). \"Signs of the times | Technology\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2009-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2002/jul/25/onlinesupplement.newmedia","url_text":"\"Signs of the times | Technology\""}]},{"reference":"Rushkoff, Douglas (2009-03-30). \"Crowdsourcing The Bank Recovery\". Arthur Magazine. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountains

Rocky Mountains

["1 Etymology","2 Geography","3 Geology","4 Ecology and climate","5 History","5.1 Indigenous people","5.2 European exploration","5.3 Settlement","6 Economy","6.1 Industry and development","6.2 Tourism","7 Hazards","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]

Coordinates: 43°44′28″N 110°48′07″W / 43.741°N 110.802°W / 43.741; -110.802Major mountain range in western North America "Rocky Mountain" redirects here. For other uses, see Rocky Mountain (disambiguation). "Rockies" and "The Rockies" redirect here. For other uses, see Rockies (disambiguation). Rocky MountainsThe Rockies (en), Les montagnes Rocheuses (fr), Montañas Rocosas, Rocallosas (es)Moraine Lake and the Valley of the Ten Peaks, Banff National Park, Alberta, CanadaHighest pointPeakMount ElbertElevation14,440 feet (4401.2 m)Coordinates39°07′03.9″N 106°26′43.2″W / 39.117750°N 106.445333°W / 39.117750; -106.445333 (Mount Elbert)DimensionsLength4,828 km (3,000 mi)(straight-line distance)Area777,000 km2 (300,000 sq mi)Geography CountriesCanadaUnited StatesProvinces/StatesBritish ColumbiaAlbertaWashingtonIdahoMontanaWyomingUtahColoradoNew MexicoRange coordinates43°44′28″N 110°48′07″W / 43.741°N 110.802°W / 43.741; -110.802Parent rangeNorth American CordilleraGeologyAge of rockPrecambrian and CretaceousType of rockIgneoussedimentarymetamorphic The Rocky Mountains, also known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range and the largest mountain system in North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) in straight-line distance from the northernmost part of western Canada, to New Mexico in the southwestern United States. Depending on differing definitions between Canada and the U.S., its northern terminus is located either in northern British Columbia's Terminal Range south of the Liard River and east of the Trench, or in the northeastern foothills of the Brooks Range/British Mountains that face the Beaufort Sea coasts between the Canning River and the Firth River across the Alaska-Yukon border. Its southernmost point is near the Albuquerque area adjacent to the Rio Grande rift and north of the Sandia–Manzano Mountain Range. Being the easternmost portion of the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are distinct from the tectonically younger Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, which both lie farther to its west. The Rockies formed 55 million to 80 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began sliding underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a broad belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks and valleys. At the end of the last ice age, humans began inhabiting the mountain range. After explorations of the range by Europeans, such as Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and Anglo-Americans, such as the Lewis and Clark Expedition, natural resources such as minerals and fur drove the initial economic exploitation of the mountains, although the range itself never experienced a dense population. Most of the highest summits of the Rocky Mountains are in Colorado, with that state having an average elevation in excess of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). Public parks and forest lands protect much of the mountain range, and they are popular tourist destinations, especially for hiking, camping, mountaineering, fishing, hunting, mountain biking, snowmobiling, skiing, and snowboarding. Etymology The Santa Fe Mountains at the southern end of the Rockies as seen from the Sandia Crest in New Mexico The summits of the Teton Range in Wyoming The name of the mountains is a translation of an Amerindian Algonquian name, specifically Cree ᐊᓯᐣᐘᑎ asin-wati (originally transcribed as-sin-wati), literally "rocky mountain". The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, where they were called "Montagnes de Roche". Another name given to the place by the Cree is ᐊᓭᓂᐓᒉ Aseniwuche. Geography See also: List of rivers of the Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains are the easternmost portion of the expansive North American Cordillera. They are often defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia: 13  south to the headwaters of the Pecos River, a tributary of the Rio Grande, in New Mexico. The Rockies vary in width from 110 to 480 kilometres (70 to 300 miles). The Rocky Mountains contain the highest peaks in central North America. The range's highest peak is Mount Elbert in Colorado at 4,401 metres (14,440 feet) above sea level. Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 3,954 m (12,972 ft), is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. Mount Robson in British Columbia The eastern edge of the Rockies rises dramatically above the Interior Plains of central North America, including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, the Front Range of Colorado, the Wind River Range and Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming, the Absaroka-Beartooth ranges and Rocky Mountain Front of Montana and the Clark Range of Alberta. Central ranges of the Rockies include the La Sal Range along the Utah-Colorado border, the Abajo Mountains and Henry Mountains of Southeastern Utah, the Uinta Range of Utah and Wyoming, and the Teton Range of Wyoming and Idaho. The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the San Juan Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, the Bitterroots along the Idaho-Montana border, and the Sawtooths in central Idaho. The Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these subranges from distinct ranges further to the west. In Canada, the western edge of the Rockies is formed by the huge Rocky Mountain Trench, which runs the length of British Columbia from its beginning as the Kechika Valley on the south bank of the Liard River, to the middle Lake Koocanusa valley in northwestern Montana. The Canadian Rockies are defined by Canadian geographers as everything south of the Liard River and east of the Rocky Mountain Trench, and do not extend into Yukon, Northwest Territories or central British Columbia. They are divided into three main groups: the Muskwa Ranges, Hart Ranges (collectively called the Northern Rockies) and Continental Ranges. Other more northerly mountain ranges of the eastern Canadian Cordillera continue beyond the Liard River valley, including the Selwyn, Mackenzie and Richardson Mountains in Yukon as well as the British Mountains/Brooks Range in Alaska, but those are not officially recognized as part of the Rockies by the Geological Survey of Canada, although the Geological Society of America definition does consider them parts of the Rocky Mountains system as the "Arctic Rockies". The Continental Divide of the Americas is in the Rocky Mountains and designates the line at which waters flow either to the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans. Triple Divide Peak (2,440 m or 8,020 ft) in Glacier National Park is so named because water falling on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, which has its outlet on the Beaufort Sea of the Arctic Ocean. Human population is not very dense in the Rockies, with an average of four people per square kilometer and few cities with over 50,000 people. However, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The forty-year statewide increases in population range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah and Colorado. The populations of several mountain towns and communities have doubled in the forty years 1972–2012. Jackson, Wyoming, increased 260%, from 1,244 to 4,472 residents, in those forty years. The Front Range of the Rocky Mountains near Denver, Colorado Geology See also: Geology of the Rocky Mountains The rocks in the Rocky Mountains were formed before the mountains were raised by tectonic forces. The oldest rock is Precambrian metamorphic rock that forms the core of the North American continent. There is also Precambrian sedimentary argillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers of limestone and dolomite.: 76  Glaciers, such as Jackson Glacier in Glacier National Park, Montana, as shown here, have dramatically shaped the Rocky Mountains. In the southern Rockies, near present-day Colorado, these ancestral rocks were disturbed by mountain building approximately 300 Ma, during the Pennsylvanian. This mountain-building produced the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. They consisted largely of Precambrian metamorphic rock forced upward through layers of the limestone laid down in the shallow sea. The mountains eroded throughout the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, leaving extensive deposits of sedimentary rock. Terranes began colliding with the western edge of North America in the Mississippian (approximately 350 million years ago), causing the Antler orogeny. For 270 million years, the focus of the effects of plate collisions were near the edge of the North American plate boundary, far to the west of the Rocky Mountain region. It was not until 80 Ma that these effects began reaching the Rockies. The current Rocky Mountains arose in the Laramide orogeny from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to pushing a rug on a hardwood floor:: 78  the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the terranes and subduction are the foot pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the Canadian Shield in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.: 78  Further south, an unusual subduction may have caused the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States, where the Farallon plate dove at a shallow angle below the North American plate. This low angle moved the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than the normal 300 to 500 kilometres (200 to 300 mi). Scientists hypothesize that the shallow angle of the subducting plate increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous thrusts piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the broad, high Rocky Mountain range. Tilted slabs of sedimentary rock in Roxborough State Park near Denver The current southern Rockies were forced upwards through the layers of Pennsylvanian and Permian sedimentary remnants of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. Such sedimentary remnants were often tilted at steep angles along the flanks of the modern range; they are now visible in many places throughout the Rockies, and are shown along the Dakota Hogback, an early Cretaceous sandstone formation running along the eastern flank of the modern Rockies. Just after the Laramide orogeny, the Rockies were like Tibet: a high plateau, probably 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) above sea level. In the last sixty million years, erosion stripped away the high rocks, revealing the ancestral rocks beneath, and forming the current landscape of the Rockies.: 80–81  Periods of glaciation occurred from the Pleistocene Epoch (1.8 million – 70,000 years ago) to the Holocene Epoch (fewer than 11,000 years ago). These ice ages left their mark on the Rockies, forming extensive glacial landforms, such as U-shaped valleys and cirques. Recent glacial episodes included the Bull Lake Glaciation, which began about 150,000 years ago, and the Pinedale Glaciation, which perhaps remained at full glaciation until 15,000–20,000 years ago. All of these geological processes exposed a complex set of rocks at the surface. For example, volcanic rock from the Paleogene and Neogene periods (66 million – 2.6 million years ago) occurs in the San Juan Mountains and in other areas. Millennia of severe erosion in the Wyoming Basin transformed intermountain basins into a relatively flat terrain. The Tetons and other north-central ranges contain folded and faulted rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age draped above cores of Proterozoic and Archean igneous and metamorphic rocks ranging in age from 1.2 billion (e.g., Tetons) to more than 3.3 billion years (Beartooth Mountains). Ecology and climate Main article: Ecology of the Rocky Mountains There are a wide range of environmental factors in the Rocky Mountains. The Rockies range in latitude between the Liard River in British Columbia (at 59° N) and the Rio Grande in New Mexico (at 35° N). Prairie occurs at or below 550 metres (1,800 ft), while the highest peak in the range is Mount Elbert at 4,400 metres (14,440 ft). Precipitation ranges from 250 millimetres (10 in) per year in the southern valleys to 1,500 millimetres (60 in) per year locally in the northern peaks. Average January temperatures can range from −7 °C (20 °F) in Prince George, British Columbia, to 6 °C (43 °F) in Trinidad, Colorado. Therefore, there is no single monolithic ecosystem for the entire Rocky Mountain Range. Great Sand Dunes of Colorado Instead, ecologists divide the Rockies into a number of biotic zones. Each zone is defined by whether it can support trees and the presence of one or more indicator species. Two zones that do not support trees are the Plains and the Alpine tundra. The Great Plains lie to the east of the Rockies and is characterized by prairie grasses (below roughly 550 m or 1,800 ft). Alpine tundra occurs in regions above the tree-line for the Rocky Mountains, which varies from 3,700 m (12,000 ft) in New Mexico to 760 m (2,500 ft) at the northern end of the Rockies (near the Yukon). Bighorn sheep (such as this lamb in Alberta) have declined dramatically since European-American settlement of the mountains The U.S. Geological Survey defines ten forested zones in the Rockies. Zones in more southern, warmer, or drier areas are defined by the presence of pinyon pines/junipers, ponderosa pines, or oaks mixed with pines. In more northern, colder, or wetter areas, zones are defined by Douglas firs, Cascadian species (such as western hemlock), lodgepole pines/quaking aspens, or firs mixed with spruce. Near tree-line, zones can consist of white pines (such as whitebark pine or bristlecone pine); or a mixture of white pine, fir, and spruce that appear as shrub-like krummholz. Finally, rivers and canyons can create a unique forest zone in more arid parts of the mountain range. The Rocky Mountains are an important habitat for a great deal of well-known wildlife, such as wolves, elk, moose, mule and white-tailed deer, pronghorn, mountain goats, bighorn sheep, badgers, black bears, grizzly bears, coyotes, lynxes, cougars, and wolverines. North America's largest herds of elk are in the Alberta–British Columbia foothills forests. The status of most species in the Rocky Mountains is unknown, due to incomplete information. European-American settlement of the mountains has adversely impacted native species. Examples of some species that have declined include western toads, greenback cutthroat trout, white sturgeon, white-tailed ptarmigan, trumpeter swan, and bighorn sheep. In the U.S. portion of the mountain range, apex predators such as grizzly bears and wolf packs had been extirpated from their original ranges, but have partially recovered due to conservation measures and reintroduction. Other recovering species include the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon. History Indigenous people Mesa Verde ruins in Colorado Cherokee Trail near Fort Collins, Colorado, from a sketch taken June 7, 1859 Since the last great ice age, the Rocky Mountains were home first to indigenous peoples including the Apache, Arapaho, Bannock, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Coeur d'Alene, Kalispel, Crow Nation, Flathead, Shoshone, Sioux, Ute, Kutenai (Ktunaxa in Canada), Sekani, Dunne-za, and others. Paleo-Indians hunted the now-extinct mammoth and ancient bison (an animal 20% larger than modern bison) in the foothills and valleys of the mountains. Like the modern tribes that followed them, Paleo-Indians probably migrated to the plains in fall and winter for bison and to the mountains in spring and summer for fish, deer, elk, roots, and berries. In Colorado, along with the crest of the Continental Divide, rock walls that Native Americans built for driving game date back 5,400–5,800 years. A growing body of scientific evidence indicates that indigenous people had significant effects on mammal populations by hunting and on vegetation patterns through deliberate burning. European exploration Recent human history of the Rocky Mountains is one of more rapid change. The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado—with a group of soldiers and missionaries marched into the Rocky Mountain region from the south in 1540. In 1610, the Spanish founded the city of Santa Fe, the oldest continuous seat of government in the United States, at the foot of the Rockies in present-day New Mexico. The introduction of the horse, metal tools, rifles, new diseases, and different cultures profoundly changed the Native American cultures. Native American populations were extirpated from most of their historical ranges by disease, warfare, habitat loss (eradication of the bison), and continued assaults on their culture. In 1739, French fur traders Pierre and Paul Mallet, while journeying through the Great Plains, discovered a range of mountains at the headwaters of the Platte River, which local American Indian tribes called the "Rockies", becoming the first Europeans to report on this uncharted mountain range. Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1800 Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1764 – March 11, 1820) became the first European to cross the Rocky Mountains in 1793. He found the upper reaches of the Fraser River and reached the Pacific coast of what is now Canada on July 20 of that year, completing the first recorded transcontinental crossing of North America north of Mexico. He arrived at Bella Coola, British Columbia, where he first reached saltwater at South Bentinck Arm, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) was the first scientific reconnaissance of the Rocky Mountains. Specimens were collected for contemporary botanists, zoologists, and geologists. The expedition was said to have paved the way to (and through) the Rocky Mountains for European-Americans from the East, although Lewis and Clark met at least 11 European-American mountain men during their travels. Mountain men, primarily French, Spanish, and British, roamed the Rocky Mountains from 1720 to 1800 seeking mineral deposits and furs. The fur-trading North West Company established Rocky Mountain House as a trading post in what is now the Rocky Mountain Foothills of present-day Alberta in 1799, and their business rivals the Hudson's Bay Company established Acton House nearby. These posts served as bases for most European activity in the Canadian Rockies in the early 19th century. Among the most notable are the expeditions of David Thompson, who followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. On his 1811 expedition, he camped at the junction of the Columbia River and the Snake River and erected a pole and notice claiming the area for the United Kingdom and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a fort at the site. By the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which established the 49th parallel north as the international boundary west from Lake of the Woods to the "Stony Mountains"; the UK and the US agreed to what has since been described as "joint occupancy" of lands further west to the Pacific Ocean. Resolution of the territorial and treaty issues, the Oregon dispute, was deferred until a later time. In 1819, Spain ceded their rights north of the 42nd Parallel to the United States, though these rights did not include possession and also included obligations to Britain and Russia concerning their claims in the same region. Settlement Aspen, Colorado silver mining in 1898 After 1802, fur traders and explorers ushered in the first widespread American presence in the Rockies south of the 49th parallel. The more famous of these include William Henry Ashley, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, John Colter, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Andrew Henry, and Jedediah Smith. On July 24, 1832, Benjamin Bonneville led the first wagon train across the Rocky Mountains by using South Pass in the present State of Wyoming. Similarly, in the wake of Mackenzie's 1793 expedition, fur trading posts were established west of the Northern Rockies in a region of the northern Interior Plateau of British Columbia which came to be known as New Caledonia, beginning with Fort McLeod (today's community of McLeod Lake) and Fort Fraser, but ultimately focused on Stuart Lake Post (today's Fort St. James). Negotiations between the United Kingdom and the United States over the next few decades failed to settle upon a compromise boundary and the Oregon Dispute became important in geopolitical diplomacy between the British Empire and the new American Republic. In 1841, James Sinclair, Chief Factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, guided some 200 settlers from the Red River Colony west to bolster settlement around Fort Vancouver in an attempt to retain the Columbia District for Britain. The party crossed the Rockies into the Columbia Valley, a region of the Rocky Mountain Trench near present-day Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia, then traveled south. Despite such efforts, in 1846, Britain ceded all claim to Columbia District lands south of the 49th parallel to the United States; as resolution to the Oregon boundary dispute by the Oregon Treaty. The Saltair Pavilion on the Great Salt Lake in 1900 Thousands passed through the Rocky Mountains on the Oregon Trail beginning in the 1840s. The Mormons began settling near the Great Salt Lake in 1847. From 1859 to 1864, gold was discovered in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and British Columbia, sparking several gold rushes bringing thousands of prospectors and miners to explore every mountain and canyon and to create the Rocky Mountains' first major industry. The Idaho gold rush alone produced more gold than the California and Alaska gold rushes combined and was important in the financing of the Union Army during the American Civil War. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, and Yellowstone National Park was established as the world's first national park in 1872. Meanwhile, a transcontinental railroad in Canada was originally promised in 1871. Though political complications pushed its completion to 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway eventually followed the Kicking Horse and Rogers Passes to the Pacific Ocean. Canadian railway officials also convinced Parliament to set aside vast areas of the Canadian Rockies as Jasper, Banff, Yoho, and Waterton Lakes National Parks, laying the foundation for a tourism industry which thrives to this day. Glacier National Park (MT) was established with a similar relationship to tourism promotions by the Great Northern Railway. While settlers filled the valleys and mining towns, conservation and preservation ethics began to take hold. U.S. President Harrison established several forest reserves in the Rocky Mountains in 1891–1892. In 1905, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt extended the Medicine Bow Forest Reserve to include the area now managed as Rocky Mountain National Park. Economic development began to center on mining, forestry, agriculture, and recreation, as well as on the service industries that support them. Tents and camps became ranches and farms, forts and train stations became towns, and some towns became cities. Economy Industry and development Drilling rig for natural gas near the Wind River Range Economic resources of the Rocky Mountains are varied and abundant. Minerals found in the Rocky Mountains include significant deposits of copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, silver, tungsten, and zinc. The Wyoming Basin and several smaller areas contain significant reserves of coal, natural gas, oil shale, and petroleum. For example, the Climax mine, near Leadville, Colorado, was the largest producer of molybdenum in the world. Molybdenum is used in heat-resistant steel in such things as cars and planes. The Climax mine employed over 3,000 workers. The Coeur d'Alene mine of northern Idaho produces silver, lead, and zinc. Canada's largest coal mines are near Fernie, British Columbia and Sparwood, British Columbia; additional coal mines exist near Hinton, Alberta, and in the Northern Rockies surrounding Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia. Abandoned mines with their wakes of mine tailings and toxic wastes dot the Rocky Mountain landscape. In one major example, eighty years of zinc mining profoundly polluted the river and bank near Eagle River in north-central Colorado. High concentrations of the metal carried by spring runoff harmed algae, moss, and trout populations. An economic analysis of mining effects at this site revealed declining property values, degraded water quality, and the loss of recreational opportunities. The analysis also revealed that cleanup of the river could yield $2.3 million in additional revenue from recreation. In 1983, the former owner of the zinc mine was sued by the Colorado Attorney General for the $4.8 million cleanup costs; five years later, ecological recovery was considerable. The Rocky Mountains contain several sedimentary basins that are rich in coalbed methane. Coalbed methane is natural gas that arises from coal, either through bacterial action or through exposure to high temperature. Coalbed methane supplies 7 percent of the natural gas used in the U.S. The largest coalbed methane sources in the Rocky Mountains are in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico and Colorado and the Powder River Basin in Wyoming. These two basins are estimated to contain 38 trillion cubic feet of gas. Coalbed methane can be recovered by dewatering the coal bed, and separating the gas from the water; or injecting water to fracture the coal to release the gas (so-called hydraulic fracturing). Agriculture and forestry are major industries. Agriculture includes dryland and irrigated farming and livestock grazing. Livestock are frequently moved between high-elevation summer pastures and low-elevation winter pastures, a practice known as transhumance. Tourism Castle Geyser in Yellowstone National Park Icefields Parkway See also: List of U.S. Rocky Mountain ski resorts, List of Alberta ski resorts, and List of B.C. ski resorts Every year the scenic areas of the Rocky Mountains draw millions of tourists. The main language of the Rocky Mountains is English. But there are also linguistic pockets of Spanish and indigenous languages. People from all over the world visit the sites to hike, camp, or engage in mountain sports. In the summer season, examples of tourist attractions are: In the United States: Yellowstone National Park Glacier National Park Grand Teton National Park Rocky Mountain National Park Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve Sawtooth National Recreation Area Flathead Lake In Canada, the mountain range contains these national parks: Banff National Park Jasper National Park Kootenay National Park Waterton Lakes National Park Yoho National Park Glacier National Park in Montana and Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta border each other and are collectively known as Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. In the winter, skiing is the main attraction, with dozens of Rocky Mountain ski areas and resorts. The adjacent Columbia Mountains in British Columbia contain major resorts such as Panorama and Kicking Horse, as well as Mount Revelstoke National Park and Glacier National Park. There are numerous provincial parks in the British Columbia Rockies, the largest and most notable being Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park, Mount Robson Provincial Park, Northern Rocky Mountains Provincial Park, Kwadacha Wilderness Provincial Park, Stone Mountain Provincial Park and Muncho Lake Provincial Park. John Denver wrote the song Rocky Mountain High in 1972. The song is one of the two official state songs of Colorado. Hazards Main articles: Hazards of outdoor recreation and Mountaineering § Hazards Encountering bears or mountain lions (cougars) is a concern in the Rocky Mountains. There are other concerns as well, including bugs, wildfires, adverse snow conditions and nighttime cold temperatures. Importantly, there have been notable incidents in the Rocky Mountains, including accidental deaths, due to falls from steep cliffs (a misstep could be fatal in this class 4/5 terrain) and due to falling rocks, over the years, including 1993, 2007 (involving an experienced NOLS leader), 2015 and 2018. Other incidents include a seriously injured backpacker being airlifted near SquareTop Mountain in 2005, and a fatal hiker incident (from an apparent accidental fall) in 2006 that involved state search and rescue. The U.S. Forest Service does not offer updated aggregated records on the official number of fatalities in the Rocky Mountains. See also Canada portalUnited States portalMountains portal Arabian Rocky Mountains Hazards in the Wind River Range List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains Little Rocky Mountains, mountain range in north-central Montana Rocky Mountains subalpine zone Southern Rocky Mountains Notes References ^ "MOUNT ELBERT". NGS Data Sheet. National Geodetic Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce. 2019. Retrieved June 20, 2023. ^ "Rocky Mountains, or Rockies". Encyclopædia Britannica Kids. ^ "Rocky Mountains | Location, Map, History, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved July 2, 2020. ^ a b Madole, Richard F.; Bradley, William C.; Loewenherz, Deborah S.; Ritter, Dale F.; Rutter, Nathaniel W.; Thorn, Colin E. (1987). "Rocky Mountains". In Graf, William L. (ed.). Geomorphic Systems of North America. Decade of North American Geology. Vol. 2 (Centennial Special ed.). Geological Society of America (published January 1, 1987). pp. 211–257. doi:10.1130/DNAG-CENT-v2.211. ISBN 9780813754147. Retrieved June 22, 2021. ^ Ak rigg, G.P.V.; Akrigg, Helen B. (1997). British Columbia Place Names (3rd ed.). Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-7748-0636-7. Retrieved September 2, 2015. ^ Mardon, Ernest G.; Mardon, Austin A. (2010). Community Place Names of Alberta (3rd ed.). Edmonton, AB: Golden Meteorite Press. p. 283. ISBN 978-1-897472-17-0. Retrieved September 2, 2015. ^ a b Gadd, Ben (1995). Handbook of the Canadian Rockies. Corax Press. ISBN 9780969263111. ^ Cannings, Richard (2007). The Rockies: A Natural History. Greystone/David Suzuki Foundation. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-55365-285-4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o  This article incorporates public domain material from Stohlgren, TJ. "Rocky Mountains". Status and Trends of the Nation's Biological Resources. United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on September 27, 2006. ^ Chronic, Halka (1980). Roadside Geology of Colorado. Mountain Press Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87842-105-3. ^ a b Blakely, Ron. "Geologic History of Western US". Archived from the original on June 22, 2010. ^ a b English, Joseph M.; Johnston, Stephen T. (2004). "The Laramide Orogeny: What Were the Driving Forces?" (PDF). International Geology Review. 46 (9): 833 838. Bibcode:2004IGRv...46..833E. doi:10.2747/0020-6814.46.9.833. S2CID 129901811. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 7, 2011. ^ a b c Gadd, Ben (2008). Canadian Rockies Geology Road Tours. Corax Press. ISBN 9780969263128. ^  This article incorporates public domain material from Geologic Provinces of the United States: Rocky Mountains. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved December 10, 2006. ^ Lindsey, D.A. (2010). "The geologic story of Colorado's Sangre de Cristo Range" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Circular 1349. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 2, 2017. ^ Pierce, K.L. (1979). History and dynamics of glaciation in the northern Yellowstone National Park area. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey. pp. 1 90. Professional Paper 729-F. ^ "Southern Rocky Mountains". Forest Encyclopedia Network. Archived from the original on October 7, 2011. Retrieved August 22, 2010. ^ "Northern Rocky Mountains". Forest Encyclopedia Network. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved August 22, 2010. ^ a b Sheridan, Scott. "US & Canada: Rocky Mountains (Chapter 14)" (PDF). Geography of the United States and Canada course notes. Kent State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 1, 2006. ^ "Rocky Mountains | mountains, North America". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on August 12, 2017. Retrieved August 12, 2017. ^ "Events in the West (1528–1536)". PBS. 2001. Archived from the original on April 10, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "The West: Events from 1650 to 1800". PBS. Archived from the original on July 6, 2011. ^ "Mackenzie: 1789, 1792–1797". Archived from the original on January 17, 2013. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "First Crossing of North America National Historic Site of Canada". Archived from the original on May 12, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Lewis and Clark Expedition: Scientific Encounters". Archived from the original on April 9, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Rocky Mountain House National Historic Site of Canada". February 28, 2012. Archived from the original on May 13, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Guide to the David Thompson Papers 1806–1845". 2006. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ Oldham, kit (January 23, 2003). "David Thompson plants the British flag at the confluence of the Columbia and Snake rivers on July 9, 1811". Archived from the original on March 26, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Treaties in Force" (PDF). November 1, 2007. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Historical Context and American Policy". Archived from the original on May 13, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Oregon Trail Interpretive Center". Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "The Mormon Trail". Archived from the original on April 5, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "The Transcontinental Railroad". 2012. Archived from the original on April 12, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Yellowstone National Park". April 4, 2012. Archived from the original on July 7, 2015. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Canadian Pacific Railway". Archived from the original on November 20, 2012. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ "Glaciers and Glacier National Park". 2011. Archived from the original on January 17, 2013. Retrieved April 15, 2012. ^ Brandt, E. (1993). "How much is a gray wolf worth?". National Wildlife. 31: 412. ^ "Coal-Bed Gas Resources of the Rocky Mountain Region". USGS. USGS fact sheet 158-02. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. ^ "Rocky Mountain National Park". National Park Foundation. Archived from the original on October 4, 2017. Retrieved August 12, 2017. ^ Brown, Jennifer (March 12, 2007). ""Rocky Mountain High" now 2nd state song". The Denver Post. Retrieved August 29, 2018. ^ "State Songs". Colorado.gov. Retrieved August 29, 2018. ^ Staff (2023). "Rocky Mountain Hiking Trails - Hiker Safety Tips". RockyMountainHikingTrails.com. Archived from the original on April 4, 2023. Retrieved April 4, 2023. ^ Staff (April 24, 2017). "Bear Safety in Wyoming's Wind River Country". WindRiver.org. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2022. ^ Ballou, Dawn (July 27, 2005). "Wind River Range condition update - Fires, trails, bears, Continental Divide". PineDaleOnline News. Archived from the original on April 21, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2022. ^ Staff (1993). "Falling Rock, Loose Rock, Failure to Test Holds, Wyoming, Wind River Range, Seneca Lake". American Alpine Club. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2022. ^ MacDonald, Dougald (August 14, 2007). "Trundled Rock Kills NOLS Leader". Climbing. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2022. ^ Staff (December 9, 2015). "Officials rule Wind River Range climbing deaths accidental". Casper Star-Tribune. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2022. ^ Dayton, Kelsey (August 24, 2018). "Deadly underestimation". WyoFile News. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2022. ^ Funk, Jason (2009). "Squaretop Mountain Rock Climbing". Mountain Project. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2022. ^ Staff (July 22, 2005). "Injured man rescued from Square Top Mtn - Tip-Top Search & Rescue helps 2 injured on the mountain". PineDaleOnline News. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2022. ^ Staff (September 1, 2006). "Incident Reports - September, 2006 - Wind River Search". WildernessDoc.com. Archived from the original on January 27, 2020. Retrieved May 31, 2022. Further reading Further information: Bibliography of the Western United States Baron, Jill (2002). Rocky Mountain futures: an ecological perspective. Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-953-9. Newby, Rick (2004). The Rocky Mountain region. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32817-X. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Rockies (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockies_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"mountain range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_range"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"straight-line distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great-circle_distance"},{"link_name":"western Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Canada"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"southwestern United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_United_States"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Terminal Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_Range"},{"link_name":"Liard River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liard_River"},{"link_name":"the Trench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Trench"},{"link_name":"foothills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foothill"},{"link_name":"Brooks Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks_Range"},{"link_name":"British Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Beaufort Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_Sea"},{"link_name":"Canning River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canning_River_(Alaska)"},{"link_name":"Firth River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firth_River"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Geology-4"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"Rio Grande rift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Grande_rift"},{"link_name":"Sandia–Manzano Mountain Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia%E2%80%93Manzano_Mountains"},{"link_name":"North American Cordillera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Cordillera"},{"link_name":"Cascade Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascade_Range"},{"link_name":"Sierra Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(U.S.)"},{"link_name":"Laramide orogeny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laramide_orogeny"},{"link_name":"North American plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_plate"},{"link_name":"subduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction"},{"link_name":"last ice age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation"},{"link_name":"Sir Alexander Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Alexander_Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"Lewis and Clark Expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition"},{"link_name":"highest summits of the Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_Rocky_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"having an average elevation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_elevation"}],"text":"Major mountain range in western North America\"Rocky Mountain\" redirects here. For other uses, see Rocky Mountain (disambiguation). \"Rockies\" and \"The Rockies\" redirect here. For other uses, see Rockies (disambiguation).The Rocky Mountains, also known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range and the largest mountain system in North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers)[3] in straight-line distance from the northernmost part of western Canada, to New Mexico in the southwestern United States. Depending on differing definitions between Canada and the U.S., its northern terminus is located either in northern British Columbia's Terminal Range south of the Liard River and east of the Trench, or in the northeastern foothills of the Brooks Range/British Mountains that face the Beaufort Sea coasts between the Canning River and the Firth River across the Alaska-Yukon border.[4] Its southernmost point is near the Albuquerque area adjacent to the Rio Grande rift and north of the Sandia–Manzano Mountain Range. Being the easternmost portion of the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are distinct from the tectonically younger Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, which both lie farther to its west.The Rockies formed 55 million to 80 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began sliding underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a broad belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks and valleys. At the end of the last ice age, humans began inhabiting the mountain range. After explorations of the range by Europeans, such as Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and Anglo-Americans, such as the Lewis and Clark Expedition, natural resources such as minerals and fur drove the initial economic exploitation of the mountains, although the range itself never experienced a dense population.Most of the highest summits of the Rocky Mountains are in Colorado, with that state having an average elevation in excess of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). Public parks and forest lands protect much of the mountain range, and they are popular tourist destinations, especially for hiking, camping, mountaineering, fishing, hunting, mountain biking, snowmobiling, skiing, and snowboarding.","title":"Rocky Mountains"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Southern_Terminus_of_the_Rocky_Mountains_from_the_Sandia_Mountains_of_North_Central_NM.jpg"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Sandia Crest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Crest"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Willow_Flats_area_and_Teton_Range_in_Grand_Teton_National_Park.jpg"},{"link_name":"Teton Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teton_Range"},{"link_name":"Wyoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyoming"},{"link_name":"Amerindian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerindian"},{"link_name":"Algonquian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algonquian_languages"},{"link_name":"Cree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cree_language"},{"link_name":"Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Legardeur_de_Saint-Pierre"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Santa Fe Mountains at the southern end of the Rockies as seen from the Sandia Crest in New MexicoThe summits of the Teton Range in WyomingThe name of the mountains is a translation of an Amerindian Algonquian name, specifically Cree ᐊᓯᐣᐘᑎ asin-wati (originally transcribed as-sin-wati), literally \"rocky mountain\". The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, where they were called \"Montagnes de Roche\".[5][6] Another name given to the place by the Cree is ᐊᓭᓂᐓᒉ Aseniwuche.","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of rivers of the Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_Rocky_Mountains"},{"link_name":"North American Cordillera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Cordillera"},{"link_name":"Liard River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liard_River"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gadd1-7"},{"link_name":"Pecos River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pecos_River"},{"link_name":"Rio Grande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Grande"},{"link_name":"Mount Elbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Elbert"},{"link_name":"Mount Robson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Robson"},{"link_name":"Canadian Rockies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Rockies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Robson_Twilight.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mount Robson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Robson"},{"link_name":"Interior Plains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_Plains"},{"link_name":"Sangre de Cristo Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangre_de_Cristo_Mountains"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"Front Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_Range"},{"link_name":"Wind River Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_River_Range"},{"link_name":"Big Horn Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Horn_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Wyoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyoming"},{"link_name":"Absaroka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absaroka_Range"},{"link_name":"Beartooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beartooth_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Front"},{"link_name":"Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana"},{"link_name":"Clark Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Range_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"La Sal Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Sal_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah"},{"link_name":"Abajo Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abajo_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Henry Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Uinta Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uinta_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Teton Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teton_Range"},{"link_name":"Wasatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasatch_Range"},{"link_name":"Salt Lake City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_Lake_City"},{"link_name":"San Juan Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Bitterroots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitterroot_Range"},{"link_name":"Sawtooths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawtooth_Range_(Idaho)"},{"link_name":"Great Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Basin"},{"link_name":"Columbia River Plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_River_Plateau"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain Trench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Trench"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Kechika Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kechika_River"},{"link_name":"Liard River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liard_River"},{"link_name":"Lake Koocanusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Koocanusa"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Liard River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liard_River"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain Trench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Trench"},{"link_name":"Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon"},{"link_name":"Northwest Territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Territories"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Muskwa Ranges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskwa_Ranges"},{"link_name":"Hart Ranges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_Ranges"},{"link_name":"Northern Rockies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Rockies"},{"link_name":"Continental Ranges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Ranges"},{"link_name":"Canadian Cordillera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Cordillera"},{"link_name":"Selwyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selwyn_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Richardson Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richardson_Mountains"},{"link_name":"British Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Brooks Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks_Range"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Geological Survey of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_Survey_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Geological Society of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Geology-4"},{"link_name":"Continental Divide of the Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Divide_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic"},{"link_name":"Triple Divide Peak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Divide_Peak_(Montana)"},{"link_name":"Glacier National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)"},{"link_name":"Hudson Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Bay"},{"link_name":"Athabasca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athabasca_River"},{"link_name":"Mackenzie River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River"},{"link_name":"Beaufort Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_Sea"},{"link_name":"Jackson, Wyoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson,_Wyoming"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mountains_from_westlands.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mountains_from_westlands.jpg"},{"link_name":"Denver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver"}],"text":"See also: List of rivers of the Rocky MountainsThe Rocky Mountains are the easternmost portion of the expansive North American Cordillera. They are often defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia[7]: 13  south to the headwaters of the Pecos River, a tributary of the Rio Grande, in New Mexico. The Rockies vary in width from 110 to 480 kilometres (70 to 300 miles). The Rocky Mountains contain the highest peaks in central North America. The range's highest peak is Mount Elbert in Colorado at 4,401 metres (14,440 feet) above sea level. Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 3,954 m (12,972 ft), is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies.Mount Robson in British ColumbiaThe eastern edge of the Rockies rises dramatically above the Interior Plains of central North America, including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, the Front Range of Colorado, the Wind River Range and Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming, the Absaroka-Beartooth ranges and Rocky Mountain Front of Montana and the Clark Range of Alberta.[citation needed]Central ranges of the Rockies include the La Sal Range along the Utah-Colorado border, the Abajo Mountains and Henry Mountains of Southeastern Utah, the Uinta Range of Utah and Wyoming, and the Teton Range of Wyoming and Idaho.The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the San Juan Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, the Bitterroots along the Idaho-Montana border, and the Sawtooths in central Idaho. The Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these subranges from distinct ranges further to the west. In Canada, the western edge of the Rockies is formed by the huge Rocky Mountain Trench, which runs the length of British Columbia from its beginning as the Kechika Valley on the south bank of the Liard River, to the middle Lake Koocanusa valley in northwestern Montana.[8]The Canadian Rockies are defined by Canadian geographers as everything south of the Liard River and east of the Rocky Mountain Trench, and do not extend into Yukon, Northwest Territories or central British Columbia. They are divided into three main groups: the Muskwa Ranges, Hart Ranges (collectively called the Northern Rockies) and Continental Ranges. Other more northerly mountain ranges of the eastern Canadian Cordillera continue beyond the Liard River valley, including the Selwyn, Mackenzie and Richardson Mountains in Yukon as well as the British Mountains/Brooks Range in Alaska, but those are not officially recognized as part of the Rockies by the Geological Survey of Canada, although the Geological Society of America definition does consider them parts of the Rocky Mountains system as the \"Arctic Rockies\".[4]The Continental Divide of the Americas is in the Rocky Mountains and designates the line at which waters flow either to the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans. Triple Divide Peak (2,440 m or 8,020 ft) in Glacier National Park is so named because water falling on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, which has its outlet on the Beaufort Sea of the Arctic Ocean.Human population is not very dense in the Rockies, with an average of four people per square kilometer and few cities with over 50,000 people. However, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The forty-year statewide increases in population range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah and Colorado. The populations of several mountain towns and communities have doubled in the forty years 1972–2012. Jackson, Wyoming, increased 260%, from 1,244 to 4,472 residents, in those forty years.[9]The Front Range of the Rocky Mountains near Denver, Colorado","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Geology of the Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Rocky_Mountains"},{"link_name":"metamorphic rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rock"},{"link_name":"Precambrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precambrian"},{"link_name":"argillite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillite"},{"link_name":"Paleozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleozoic"},{"link_name":"limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone"},{"link_name":"dolomite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gadd1-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jackson_Glacier_terminus.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jackson Glacier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Glacier"},{"link_name":"Glacier National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)"},{"link_name":"Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana"},{"link_name":"Ma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Mesozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic_Era"},{"link_name":"sedimentary rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock"},{"link_name":"Terranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terranes"},{"link_name":"Mississippian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippian_age"},{"link_name":"Antler orogeny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antler_orogeny"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blakely-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blakely-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-English-12"},{"link_name":"Laramide orogeny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laramide_orogeny"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-English-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gadd2-13"},{"link_name":"Canadian Shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Shield"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gadd2-13"},{"link_name":"Farallon plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farallon_plate"},{"link_name":"North American plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_plate"},{"link_name":"thrusts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_fault"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usgs-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roxborough.jpg"},{"link_name":"Roxborough State Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxborough_State_Park"},{"link_name":"Denver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver"},{"link_name":"Permian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Dakota Hogback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_Hogback"},{"link_name":"Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau"},{"link_name":"erosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gadd2-13"},{"link_name":"Pleistocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene"},{"link_name":"Holocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene"},{"link_name":"glacial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier"},{"link_name":"cirques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirque"},{"link_name":"Bull Lake Glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull_Lake_Glaciation"},{"link_name":"Pinedale Glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinedale_Glaciation"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pierce79-16"},{"link_name":"Paleogene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleogene"},{"link_name":"Neogene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neogene"},{"link_name":"Wyoming Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyoming_Basin"},{"link_name":"Tetons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetons"},{"link_name":"Mesozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic"},{"link_name":"Proterozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proterozoic"},{"link_name":"Archean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archean"},{"link_name":"Beartooth Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beartooth_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"}],"text":"See also: Geology of the Rocky MountainsThe rocks in the Rocky Mountains were formed before the mountains were raised by tectonic forces. The oldest rock is Precambrian metamorphic rock that forms the core of the North American continent. There is also Precambrian sedimentary argillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers of limestone and dolomite.[7]: 76Glaciers, such as Jackson Glacier in Glacier National Park, Montana, as shown here, have dramatically shaped the Rocky Mountains.In the southern Rockies, near present-day Colorado, these ancestral rocks were disturbed by mountain building approximately 300 Ma, during the Pennsylvanian. This mountain-building produced the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. They consisted largely of Precambrian metamorphic rock forced upward through layers of the limestone laid down in the shallow sea.[10] The mountains eroded throughout the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, leaving extensive deposits of sedimentary rock.Terranes began colliding with the western edge of North America in the Mississippian (approximately 350 million years ago), causing the Antler orogeny.[11] For 270 million years, the focus of the effects of plate collisions were near the edge of the North American plate boundary, far to the west of the Rocky Mountain region.[11] It was not until 80 Ma that these effects began reaching the Rockies.[12]The current Rocky Mountains arose in the Laramide orogeny from between 80 and 55 Ma.[12] For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to pushing a rug on a hardwood floor:[13]: 78  the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the terranes and subduction are the foot pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the Canadian Shield in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.[13]: 78Further south, an unusual subduction may have caused the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States, where the Farallon plate dove at a shallow angle below the North American plate. This low angle moved the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than the normal 300 to 500 kilometres (200 to 300 mi). Scientists hypothesize that the shallow angle of the subducting plate increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous thrusts piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the broad, high Rocky Mountain range.[14]Tilted slabs of sedimentary rock in Roxborough State Park near DenverThe current southern Rockies were forced upwards through the layers of Pennsylvanian and Permian sedimentary remnants of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains.[15] Such sedimentary remnants were often tilted at steep angles along the flanks of the modern range; they are now visible in many places throughout the Rockies, and are shown along the Dakota Hogback, an early Cretaceous sandstone formation running along the eastern flank of the modern Rockies.Just after the Laramide orogeny, the Rockies were like Tibet: a high plateau, probably 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) above sea level. In the last sixty million years, erosion stripped away the high rocks, revealing the ancestral rocks beneath, and forming the current landscape of the Rockies.[13]: 80–81Periods of glaciation occurred from the Pleistocene Epoch (1.8 million – 70,000 years ago) to the Holocene Epoch (fewer than 11,000 years ago). These ice ages left their mark on the Rockies, forming extensive glacial landforms, such as U-shaped valleys and cirques. Recent glacial episodes included the Bull Lake Glaciation, which began about 150,000 years ago, and the Pinedale Glaciation, which perhaps remained at full glaciation until 15,000–20,000 years ago.[16]All of these geological processes exposed a complex set of rocks at the surface. For example, volcanic rock from the Paleogene and Neogene periods (66 million – 2.6 million years ago) occurs in the San Juan Mountains and in other areas. Millennia of severe erosion in the Wyoming Basin transformed intermountain basins into a relatively flat terrain. The Tetons and other north-central ranges contain folded and faulted rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age draped above cores of Proterozoic and Archean igneous and metamorphic rocks ranging in age from 1.2 billion (e.g., Tetons) to more than 3.3 billion years (Beartooth Mountains).[9]","title":"Geology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mount Elbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Elbert"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Trinidad, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sheridan-19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coloradodunes.jpg"},{"link_name":"Great Sand Dunes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sand_Dunes_National_Park_and_Preserve"},{"link_name":"biotic zones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_zones"},{"link_name":"indicator species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator_species"},{"link_name":"Alpine tundra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_tundra"},{"link_name":"Great Plains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Plains"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sheridan-19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bighorn_lamb_Alberta.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bighorn sheep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bighorn_sheep"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"U.S. Geological Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey"},{"link_name":"pinyon pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyon_pine"},{"link_name":"junipers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juniper"},{"link_name":"ponderosa pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponderosa_pine"},{"link_name":"oaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak"},{"link_name":"pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine"},{"link_name":"Douglas firs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_fir"},{"link_name":"Cascadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascade_range"},{"link_name":"western hemlock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_hemlock"},{"link_name":"lodgepole pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodgepole_pine"},{"link_name":"quaking aspens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaking_aspen"},{"link_name":"firs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fir"},{"link_name":"spruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spruce"},{"link_name":"whitebark pine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_albicaulis"},{"link_name":"bristlecone pine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristlecone_pine"},{"link_name":"krummholz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krummholz"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"wolves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf"},{"link_name":"elk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_elk"},{"link_name":"moose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_moose"},{"link_name":"mule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mule_deer"},{"link_name":"white-tailed deer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-tailed_deer"},{"link_name":"pronghorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronghorn"},{"link_name":"mountain goats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_goat"},{"link_name":"bighorn sheep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bighorn_sheep"},{"link_name":"badgers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_badger"},{"link_name":"black bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"link_name":"grizzly bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grizzly_bear"},{"link_name":"coyotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote"},{"link_name":"lynxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_lynx"},{"link_name":"cougars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_cougar"},{"link_name":"wolverines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolverine"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Alberta–British Columbia foothills forests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta%E2%80%93British_Columbia_foothills_forests"},{"link_name":"western toads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_toad"},{"link_name":"greenback cutthroat trout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenback_cutthroat_trout"},{"link_name":"white sturgeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_sturgeon"},{"link_name":"white-tailed ptarmigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-tailed_ptarmigan"},{"link_name":"trumpeter swan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpeter_swan"},{"link_name":"apex predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apex_predator"},{"link_name":"extirpated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_extinction"},{"link_name":"reintroduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_reintroduction_in_Yellowstone"},{"link_name":"bald eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bald_eagle"},{"link_name":"peregrine falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrine_falcon"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"}],"text":"There are a wide range of environmental factors in the Rocky Mountains. The Rockies range in latitude between the Liard River in British Columbia (at 59° N) and the Rio Grande in New Mexico (at 35° N). Prairie occurs at or below 550 metres (1,800 ft), while the highest peak in the range is Mount Elbert at 4,400 metres (14,440 ft). Precipitation ranges from 250 millimetres (10 in) per year in the southern valleys[17] to 1,500 millimetres (60 in) per year locally in the northern peaks.[18] Average January temperatures can range from −7 °C (20 °F) in Prince George, British Columbia, to 6 °C (43 °F) in Trinidad, Colorado.[19] Therefore, there is no single monolithic ecosystem for the entire Rocky Mountain Range.Great Sand Dunes of ColoradoInstead, ecologists divide the Rockies into a number of biotic zones. Each zone is defined by whether it can support trees and the presence of one or more indicator species. Two zones that do not support trees are the Plains and the Alpine tundra. The Great Plains lie to the east of the Rockies and is characterized by prairie grasses (below roughly 550 m or 1,800 ft). Alpine tundra occurs in regions above the tree-line for the Rocky Mountains, which varies from 3,700 m (12,000 ft) in New Mexico to 760 m (2,500 ft) at the northern end of the Rockies (near the Yukon).[19]Bighorn sheep (such as this lamb in Alberta) have declined dramatically since European-American settlement of the mountainsThe U.S. Geological Survey defines ten forested zones in the Rockies. Zones in more southern, warmer, or drier areas are defined by the presence of pinyon pines/junipers, ponderosa pines, or oaks mixed with pines. In more northern, colder, or wetter areas, zones are defined by Douglas firs, Cascadian species (such as western hemlock), lodgepole pines/quaking aspens, or firs mixed with spruce. Near tree-line, zones can consist of white pines (such as whitebark pine or bristlecone pine); or a mixture of white pine, fir, and spruce that appear as shrub-like krummholz. Finally, rivers and canyons can create a unique forest zone in more arid parts of the mountain range.[9]The Rocky Mountains are an important habitat for a great deal of well-known wildlife, such as wolves, elk, moose, mule and white-tailed deer, pronghorn, mountain goats, bighorn sheep, badgers, black bears, grizzly bears, coyotes, lynxes, cougars, and wolverines.[9][20] North America's largest herds of elk are in the Alberta–British Columbia foothills forests.The status of most species in the Rocky Mountains is unknown, due to incomplete information. European-American settlement of the mountains has adversely impacted native species. Examples of some species that have declined include western toads, greenback cutthroat trout, white sturgeon, white-tailed ptarmigan, trumpeter swan, and bighorn sheep. In the U.S. portion of the mountain range, apex predators such as grizzly bears and wolf packs had been extirpated from their original ranges, but have partially recovered due to conservation measures and reintroduction. Other recovering species include the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon.[9]","title":"Ecology and climate"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MesaVerdeNationalParkCliffPalace.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mesa Verde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa_Verde_National_Park"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cherokee_Pass2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cherokee Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee_Trail"},{"link_name":"Fort Collins, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Collins,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"indigenous peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"Apache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache"},{"link_name":"Arapaho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho"},{"link_name":"Bannock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bannock_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"Blackfoot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfoot"},{"link_name":"Cheyenne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyenne"},{"link_name":"Coeur d'Alene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_people"},{"link_name":"Kalispel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalispel"},{"link_name":"Crow Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crow_Nation"},{"link_name":"Flathead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederated_Salish_and_Kootenai_Tribes_of_the_Flathead_Nation"},{"link_name":"Shoshone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoshone"},{"link_name":"Sioux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakota_people"},{"link_name":"Ute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ute_Tribe"},{"link_name":"Kutenai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ktunaxa_Kinbasket_Tribal_Council"},{"link_name":"Sekani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekani"},{"link_name":"Dunne-za","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunne-za"},{"link_name":"mammoth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoth"},{"link_name":"ancient bison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_bison"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"}],"sub_title":"Indigenous people","text":"Mesa Verde ruins in ColoradoCherokee Trail near Fort Collins, Colorado, from a sketch taken June 7, 1859Since the last great ice age, the Rocky Mountains were home first to indigenous peoples including the Apache, Arapaho, Bannock, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Coeur d'Alene, Kalispel, Crow Nation, Flathead, Shoshone, Sioux, Ute, Kutenai (Ktunaxa in Canada), Sekani, Dunne-za, and others. Paleo-Indians hunted the now-extinct mammoth and ancient bison (an animal 20% larger than modern bison) in the foothills and valleys of the mountains. Like the modern tribes that followed them, Paleo-Indians probably migrated to the plains in fall and winter for bison and to the mountains in spring and summer for fish, deer, elk, roots, and berries. In Colorado, along with the crest of the Continental Divide, rock walls that Native Americans built for driving game date back 5,400–5,800 years. A growing body of scientific evidence indicates that indigenous people had significant effects on mammal populations by hunting and on vegetation patterns through deliberate burning.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Francisco Vázquez de Coronado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PBS2001-21"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"fur traders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur_trade"},{"link_name":"Platte River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platte_River"},{"link_name":"American Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_MacKenzie_by_Thomas_Lawrence_(c.1800).jpg"},{"link_name":"Sir Alexander Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_(explorer)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PrincetonNWPass-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CAHistPlace-24"},{"link_name":"Bella Coola, British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_Coola,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Lewis and Clark Expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NPSScientificEncounters-25"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"Mountain men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_man"},{"link_name":"North West Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_West_Company"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_House"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain Foothills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Foothills"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"Hudson's Bay Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PC2012-26"},{"link_name":"David Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Thompson_(explorer)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nwda2006-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oldham2003-28"},{"link_name":"Anglo-American Convention of 1818","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-American_Convention_of_1818"},{"link_name":"49th parallel north","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/49th_parallel_north"},{"link_name":"Lake of the Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_of_the_Woods"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USDS2007-29"},{"link_name":"Oregon dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_dispute"}],"sub_title":"European exploration","text":"Recent human history of the Rocky Mountains is one of more rapid change. The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado—with a group of soldiers and missionaries marched into the Rocky Mountain region from the south in 1540.[21] In 1610, the Spanish founded the city of Santa Fe, the oldest continuous seat of government in the United States, at the foot of the Rockies in present-day New Mexico. The introduction of the horse, metal tools, rifles, new diseases, and different cultures profoundly changed the Native American cultures. Native American populations were extirpated from most of their historical ranges by disease, warfare, habitat loss (eradication of the bison), and continued assaults on their culture.[9]In 1739, French fur traders Pierre and Paul Mallet, while journeying through the Great Plains, discovered a range of mountains at the headwaters of the Platte River, which local American Indian tribes called the \"Rockies\", becoming the first Europeans to report on this uncharted mountain range.[22]Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1800Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1764 – March 11, 1820) became the first European to cross the Rocky Mountains in 1793.[23] He found the upper reaches of the Fraser River and reached the Pacific coast of what is now Canada on July 20 of that year, completing the first recorded transcontinental crossing of North America north of Mexico.[24] He arrived at Bella Coola, British Columbia, where he first reached saltwater at South Bentinck Arm, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean.The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) was the first scientific reconnaissance of the Rocky Mountains.[25] Specimens were collected for contemporary botanists, zoologists, and geologists. The expedition was said to have paved the way to (and through) the Rocky Mountains for European-Americans from the East, although Lewis and Clark met at least 11 European-American mountain men during their travels.[9]Mountain men, primarily French, Spanish, and British, roamed the Rocky Mountains from 1720 to 1800 seeking mineral deposits and furs. The fur-trading North West Company established Rocky Mountain House as a trading post in what is now the Rocky Mountain Foothills of present-day Alberta in 1799, and their business rivals the Hudson's Bay Company established Acton House nearby.[26] These posts served as bases for most European activity in the Canadian Rockies in the early 19th century. Among the most notable are the expeditions of David Thompson, who followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean.[27] On his 1811 expedition, he camped at the junction of the Columbia River and the Snake River and erected a pole and notice claiming the area for the United Kingdom and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a fort at the site.[28]By the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which established the 49th parallel north as the international boundary west from Lake of the Woods to the \"Stony Mountains\";[29] the UK and the US agreed to what has since been described as \"joint occupancy\" of lands further west to the Pacific Ocean. Resolution of the territorial and treaty issues, the Oregon dispute, was deferred until a later time.In 1819, Spain ceded their rights north of the 42nd Parallel to the United States, though these rights did not include possession and also included obligations to Britain and Russia concerning their claims in the same region.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silver_mines,_Aspen,_Colorado,_1898.jpg"},{"link_name":"Aspen, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspen,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"fur traders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur_trader"},{"link_name":"William Henry Ashley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Ashley"},{"link_name":"Jim Bridger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Bridger"},{"link_name":"Kit Carson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kit_Carson"},{"link_name":"John Colter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Colter"},{"link_name":"Thomas Fitzpatrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fitzpatrick_(trapper)"},{"link_name":"Andrew Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Henry_(fur_trader)"},{"link_name":"Jedediah Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedediah_Smith"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Bonneville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Bonneville"},{"link_name":"wagon train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagon_train"},{"link_name":"South Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pass_(Wyoming)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"New Caledonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonia_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"Fort McLeod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McLeod_Lake"},{"link_name":"Fort Fraser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Fraser,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Fort St. James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_St._James"},{"link_name":"Oregon Dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_Dispute"},{"link_name":"James Sinclair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Sinclair_(fur_trapper)"},{"link_name":"Red River Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Colony"},{"link_name":"Fort Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Vancouver"},{"link_name":"Columbia District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_District"},{"link_name":"Columbia Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Valley"},{"link_name":"Radium Hot Springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium_Hot_Springs_(British_Columbia)"},{"link_name":"Oregon boundary dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_boundary_dispute"},{"link_name":"Oregon Treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_Treaty"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSPN-30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saltair-Pavilion-1900.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Saltair Pavilion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltair_(Utah)"},{"link_name":"Great Salt Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake"},{"link_name":"Oregon Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_Trail"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BLMotic-31"},{"link_name":"Mormons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon"},{"link_name":"Great Salt Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UNL-32"},{"link_name":"gold rushes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_rush"},{"link_name":"Union Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"transcontinental railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcontinental_railroad"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UC2012-33"},{"link_name":"Yellowstone National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NPS-34"},{"link_name":"Canadian Pacific Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway"},{"link_name":"Kicking Horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kicking_Horse_Pass"},{"link_name":"Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Pass_(British_Columbia)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordCPR-35"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Jasper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasper_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Banff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Yoho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoho_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Waterton Lakes National Parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterton_Lakes_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Great Northern Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_(U.S.)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PennState2011-36"},{"link_name":"President Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison"},{"link_name":"Theodore Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Medicine Bow Forest Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_Bow_%E2%80%93_Routt_National_Forest"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_National_Park"},{"link_name":"forestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry"},{"link_name":"recreation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"}],"sub_title":"Settlement","text":"Aspen, Colorado silver mining in 1898After 1802, fur traders and explorers ushered in the first widespread American presence in the Rockies south of the 49th parallel. The more famous of these include William Henry Ashley, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, John Colter, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Andrew Henry, and Jedediah Smith. On July 24, 1832, Benjamin Bonneville led the first wagon train across the Rocky Mountains by using South Pass in the present State of Wyoming.[9] Similarly, in the wake of Mackenzie's 1793 expedition, fur trading posts were established west of the Northern Rockies in a region of the northern Interior Plateau of British Columbia which came to be known as New Caledonia, beginning with Fort McLeod (today's community of McLeod Lake) and Fort Fraser, but ultimately focused on Stuart Lake Post (today's Fort St. James).Negotiations between the United Kingdom and the United States over the next few decades failed to settle upon a compromise boundary and the Oregon Dispute became important in geopolitical diplomacy between the British Empire and the new American Republic. In 1841, James Sinclair, Chief Factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, guided some 200 settlers from the Red River Colony west to bolster settlement around Fort Vancouver in an attempt to retain the Columbia District for Britain. The party crossed the Rockies into the Columbia Valley, a region of the Rocky Mountain Trench near present-day Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia, then traveled south. Despite such efforts, in 1846, Britain ceded all claim to Columbia District lands south of the 49th parallel to the United States; as resolution to the Oregon boundary dispute by the Oregon Treaty.[30]The Saltair Pavilion on the Great Salt Lake in 1900Thousands passed through the Rocky Mountains on the Oregon Trail beginning in the 1840s.[31] The Mormons began settling near the Great Salt Lake in 1847.[32] From 1859 to 1864, gold was discovered in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and British Columbia, sparking several gold rushes bringing thousands of prospectors and miners to explore every mountain and canyon and to create the Rocky Mountains' first major industry. The Idaho gold rush alone produced more gold than the California and Alaska gold rushes combined and was important in the financing of the Union Army during the American Civil War. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869,[33] and Yellowstone National Park was established as the world's first national park in 1872.[34] Meanwhile, a transcontinental railroad in Canada was originally promised in 1871. Though political complications pushed its completion to 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway eventually followed the Kicking Horse and Rogers Passes to the Pacific Ocean.[35] Canadian railway officials also convinced Parliament to set aside vast areas of the Canadian Rockies as Jasper, Banff, Yoho, and Waterton Lakes National Parks, laying the foundation for a tourism industry which thrives to this day. Glacier National Park (MT) was established with a similar relationship to tourism promotions by the Great Northern Railway.[36] While settlers filled the valleys and mining towns, conservation and preservation ethics began to take hold. U.S. President Harrison established several forest reserves in the Rocky Mountains in 1891–1892. In 1905, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt extended the Medicine Bow Forest Reserve to include the area now managed as Rocky Mountain National Park. Economic development began to center on mining, forestry, agriculture, and recreation, as well as on the service industries that support them. Tents and camps became ranches and farms, forts and train stations became towns, and some towns became cities.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rig_wind_river.jpg"},{"link_name":"Drilling rig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drilling_rig"},{"link_name":"Wind River Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_River_Range"},{"link_name":"molybdenum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum"},{"link_name":"tungsten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"oil shale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shale"},{"link_name":"Climax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Leadville, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadville,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Coeur d'Alene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene,_Idaho"},{"link_name":"Fernie, British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernie,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Sparwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparwood"},{"link_name":"Hinton, Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinton,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbler_Ridge,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"Eagle River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_River_(Colorado)"},{"link_name":"algae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae"},{"link_name":"moss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moss"},{"link_name":"trout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trout"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brandt93-37"},{"link_name":"sedimentary basins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_basin"},{"link_name":"coalbed methane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalbed_methane"},{"link_name":"San Juan Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_Basin"},{"link_name":"Powder River Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_River_Basin"},{"link_name":"hydraulic fracturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"pastures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasture"},{"link_name":"transhumance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumance"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"}],"sub_title":"Industry and development","text":"Drilling rig for natural gas near the Wind River RangeEconomic resources of the Rocky Mountains are varied and abundant. Minerals found in the Rocky Mountains include significant deposits of copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, silver, tungsten, and zinc. The Wyoming Basin and several smaller areas contain significant reserves of coal, natural gas, oil shale, and petroleum. For example, the Climax mine, near Leadville, Colorado, was the largest producer of molybdenum in the world. Molybdenum is used in heat-resistant steel in such things as cars and planes. The Climax mine employed over 3,000 workers. The Coeur d'Alene mine of northern Idaho produces silver, lead, and zinc. Canada's largest coal mines are near Fernie, British Columbia and Sparwood, British Columbia; additional coal mines exist near Hinton, Alberta, and in the Northern Rockies surrounding Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia.[9]Abandoned mines with their wakes of mine tailings and toxic wastes dot the Rocky Mountain landscape. In one major example, eighty years of zinc mining profoundly polluted the river and bank near Eagle River in north-central Colorado. High concentrations of the metal carried by spring runoff harmed algae, moss, and trout populations. An economic analysis of mining effects at this site revealed declining property values, degraded water quality, and the loss of recreational opportunities. The analysis also revealed that cleanup of the river could yield $2.3 million in additional revenue from recreation. In 1983, the former owner of the zinc mine was sued by the Colorado Attorney General for the $4.8 million cleanup costs; five years later, ecological recovery was considerable.[9][37]The Rocky Mountains contain several sedimentary basins that are rich in coalbed methane. Coalbed methane is natural gas that arises from coal, either through bacterial action or through exposure to high temperature. Coalbed methane supplies 7 percent of the natural gas used in the U.S. The largest coalbed methane sources in the Rocky Mountains are in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico and Colorado and the Powder River Basin in Wyoming. These two basins are estimated to contain 38 trillion cubic feet of gas. Coalbed methane can be recovered by dewatering the coal bed, and separating the gas from the water; or injecting water to fracture the coal to release the gas (so-called hydraulic fracturing).[38]Agriculture and forestry are major industries. Agriculture includes dryland and irrigated farming and livestock grazing. Livestock are frequently moved between high-elevation summer pastures and low-elevation winter pastures, a practice known as transhumance.[9]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Steam_Phase_eruption_of_Castle_geyser_with_double_rainbow.jpg"},{"link_name":"Castle Geyser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Geyser"},{"link_name":"Yellowstone National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%90%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Icefields Parkway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta_Highway_93#Icefields_Parkway"},{"link_name":"List of U.S. Rocky Mountain ski resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ski_areas_and_resorts_in_the_United_States#Rocky_Mountains"},{"link_name":"List of Alberta ski resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ski_areas_and_resorts_in_Canada#Alberta"},{"link_name":"List of B.C. ski resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ski_areas_and_resorts_in_Canada#British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS-9"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Yellowstone National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Glacier National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)"},{"link_name":"Grand Teton National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Teton_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sand_Dunes_National_Park_and_Preserve"},{"link_name":"Sawtooth National Recreation Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawtooth_National_Recreation_Area"},{"link_name":"Flathead Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flathead_Lake"},{"link_name":"national parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Parks_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Banff National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Jasper National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasper_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Kootenay National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kootenay_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Waterton Lakes National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterton_Lakes_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Yoho National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoho_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterton-Glacier_International_Peace_Park"},{"link_name":"skiing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiing"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain ski areas and resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ski_areas_and_resorts_in_the_United_States#Rocky_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Panorama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panorama_Mountain_Resort"},{"link_name":"Kicking Horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kicking_Horse_Resort"},{"link_name":"Mount Revelstoke National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Revelstoke_National_Park"},{"link_name":"provincial parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_provincial_parks_in_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Assiniboine_Provincial_Park"},{"link_name":"Mount Robson Provincial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Robson_Provincial_Park"},{"link_name":"Northern Rocky Mountains Provincial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Rocky_Mountains_Provincial_Park"},{"link_name":"Kwadacha Wilderness Provincial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwadacha_Wilderness_Provincial_Park"},{"link_name":"Stone Mountain Provincial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Mountain_Provincial_Park"},{"link_name":"Muncho Lake Provincial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muncho_Lake_Provincial_Park"},{"link_name":"John Denver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Denver"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_High"},{"link_name":"state songs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_songs"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-costatesong-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Tourism","text":"Castle Geyser in Yellowstone National ParkIcefields ParkwaySee also: List of U.S. Rocky Mountain ski resorts, List of Alberta ski resorts, and List of B.C. ski resortsEvery year the scenic areas of the Rocky Mountains draw millions of tourists.[9] The main language of the Rocky Mountains is English. But there are also linguistic pockets of Spanish and indigenous languages.People from all over the world visit the sites to hike, camp, or engage in mountain sports.[9][39] In the summer season, examples of tourist attractions are:In the United States:Yellowstone National Park\nGlacier National Park\nGrand Teton National Park\nRocky Mountain National Park\nGreat Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve\nSawtooth National Recreation Area\nFlathead LakeIn Canada, the mountain range contains these national parks:Banff National Park\nJasper National Park\nKootenay National Park\nWaterton Lakes National Park\nYoho National ParkGlacier National Park in Montana and Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta border each other and are collectively known as Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park.In the winter, skiing is the main attraction, with dozens of Rocky Mountain ski areas and resorts.The adjacent Columbia Mountains in British Columbia contain major resorts such as Panorama and Kicking Horse, as well as Mount Revelstoke National Park and Glacier National Park.There are numerous provincial parks in the British Columbia Rockies, the largest and most notable being Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park, Mount Robson Provincial Park, Northern Rocky Mountains Provincial Park, Kwadacha Wilderness Provincial Park, Stone Mountain Provincial Park and Muncho Lake Provincial Park.John Denver wrote the song Rocky Mountain High in 1972. The song is one of the two official state songs of Colorado.[40][41]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_danger"},{"link_name":"mountain lions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cougar"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RM-2023-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WR-20170424-43"},{"link_name":"bugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect"},{"link_name":"wildfires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire"},{"link_name":"adverse snow conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classifications_of_snow"},{"link_name":"nighttime cold temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_National_Park#Elevation"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PD-20050727-44"},{"link_name":"accidental deaths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidental_death"},{"link_name":"falls from steep cliffs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaineering#Falls_from_rocks"},{"link_name":"misstep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/misstep"},{"link_name":"class 4/5 terrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yosemite_Decimal_System"},{"link_name":"falling rocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaineering#Falling_rocks"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAC-1993-45"},{"link_name":"NOLS leader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Outdoor_Leadership_School"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CLMB-20070814-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TRIB-20151209-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WYO-20180814-48"},{"link_name":"SquareTop Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinedale,_Wyoming"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MP-2009-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PD-20050722-50"},{"link_name":"accidental fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidental_death"},{"link_name":"search and rescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_and_rescue"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WD-20060901-51"},{"link_name":"U.S. Forest Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Forest_Service"}],"text":"Encountering bears or mountain lions (cougars) is a concern in the Rocky Mountains.[42][43] There are other concerns as well, including bugs, wildfires, adverse snow conditions and nighttime cold temperatures.[44]Importantly, there have been notable incidents in the Rocky Mountains, including accidental deaths, due to falls from steep cliffs (a misstep could be fatal in this class 4/5 terrain) and due to falling rocks, over the years, including 1993,[45] 2007 (involving an experienced NOLS leader),[46] 2015[47] and 2018.[48] Other incidents include a seriously injured backpacker being airlifted near SquareTop Mountain[49] in 2005,[50] and a fatal hiker incident (from an apparent accidental fall) in 2006 that involved state search and rescue.[51] The U.S. Forest Service does not offer updated aggregated records on the official number of fatalities in the Rocky Mountains.","title":"Hazards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bibliography of the Western United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Western_United_States"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountain futures: an ecological perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=zxvFXkH0828C&q=Rocky%20Mountains&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-55963-953-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55963-953-9"},{"link_name":"The Rocky Mountain region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=xv5ivm13_0oC&q=Rocky%20Mountains&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-313-32817-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32817-X"}],"text":"Further information: Bibliography of the Western United StatesBaron, Jill (2002). Rocky Mountain futures: an ecological perspective. Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-953-9.\nNewby, Rick (2004). The Rocky Mountain region. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32817-X.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"The Santa Fe Mountains at the southern end of the Rockies as seen from the Sandia Crest in New Mexico","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2d/Southern_Terminus_of_the_Rocky_Mountains_from_the_Sandia_Mountains_of_North_Central_NM.jpg/220px-Southern_Terminus_of_the_Rocky_Mountains_from_the_Sandia_Mountains_of_North_Central_NM.jpg"},{"image_text":"The summits of the Teton Range in Wyoming","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Willow_Flats_area_and_Teton_Range_in_Grand_Teton_National_Park.jpg/220px-Willow_Flats_area_and_Teton_Range_in_Grand_Teton_National_Park.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mount Robson in British Columbia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Mount_Robson_Twilight.jpg/170px-Mount_Robson_Twilight.jpg"},{"image_text":"Glaciers, such as Jackson Glacier in Glacier National Park, Montana, as shown here, have dramatically shaped the Rocky Mountains.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Jackson_Glacier_terminus.jpg/220px-Jackson_Glacier_terminus.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tilted slabs of sedimentary rock in Roxborough State Park near Denver","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Roxborough.jpg/220px-Roxborough.jpg"},{"image_text":"Great Sand Dunes of Colorado","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Coloradodunes.jpg/220px-Coloradodunes.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bighorn sheep (such as this lamb in Alberta) have declined dramatically since European-American settlement of the mountains","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Bighorn_lamb_Alberta.jpg/220px-Bighorn_lamb_Alberta.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mesa Verde ruins in Colorado","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/MesaVerdeNationalParkCliffPalace.jpg/220px-MesaVerdeNationalParkCliffPalace.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cherokee Trail near Fort Collins, Colorado, from a sketch taken June 7, 1859","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Cherokee_Pass2.jpg/220px-Cherokee_Pass2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1800","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Alexander_MacKenzie_by_Thomas_Lawrence_%28c.1800%29.jpg/170px-Alexander_MacKenzie_by_Thomas_Lawrence_%28c.1800%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aspen, Colorado silver mining in 1898","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Silver_mines%2C_Aspen%2C_Colorado%2C_1898.jpg/220px-Silver_mines%2C_Aspen%2C_Colorado%2C_1898.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Saltair Pavilion on the Great Salt Lake in 1900","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saltair-Pavilion-1900.jpeg/220px-Saltair-Pavilion-1900.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Drilling rig for natural gas near the Wind River Range","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Rig_wind_river.jpg/170px-Rig_wind_river.jpg"},{"image_text":"Castle Geyser in Yellowstone National Park","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Steam_Phase_eruption_of_Castle_geyser_with_double_rainbow.jpg/220px-Steam_Phase_eruption_of_Castle_geyser_with_double_rainbow.jpg"},{"image_text":"Icefields Parkway","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/%D0%90%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4.jpg/220px-%D0%90%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Canada portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Canada"},{"title":"United States portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_States"},{"title":"Mountains portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mountains"},{"title":"Arabian Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajar_Mountains"},{"title":"Hazards in the Wind River Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_River_Range#Hazards"},{"title":"List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_Rocky_Mountains"},{"title":"Little Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rocky_Mountains"},{"title":"Rocky Mountains subalpine zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountains_subalpine_zone"},{"title":"Southern Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Rocky_Mountains"}]

[{"reference":"\"MOUNT ELBERT\". NGS Data Sheet. National Geodetic Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce. 2019. Retrieved June 20, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=KL0637","url_text":"\"MOUNT ELBERT\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._National_Geodetic_Survey","url_text":"National Geodetic Survey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration","url_text":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce","url_text":"United States Department of Commerce"}]},{"reference":"\"Rocky Mountains, or Rockies\". Encyclopædia Britannica Kids.","urls":[{"url":"https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Rocky-Mountains-or-Rockies/276760","url_text":"\"Rocky Mountains, or Rockies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"\"Rocky Mountains | Location, Map, History, & Facts\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved July 2, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Rocky-Mountains","url_text":"\"Rocky Mountains | Location, Map, History, & Facts\""}]},{"reference":"Madole, Richard F.; Bradley, William C.; Loewenherz, Deborah S.; Ritter, Dale F.; Rutter, Nathaniel W.; Thorn, Colin E. (1987). \"Rocky Mountains\". In Graf, William L. (ed.). Geomorphic Systems of North America. Decade of North American Geology. Vol. 2 (Centennial Special ed.). Geological Society of America (published January 1, 1987). pp. 211–257. doi:10.1130/DNAG-CENT-v2.211. ISBN 9780813754147. Retrieved June 22, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252930914","url_text":"\"Rocky Mountains\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America","url_text":"Geological Society of America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1130%2FDNAG-CENT-v2.211","url_text":"10.1130/DNAG-CENT-v2.211"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813754147","url_text":"9780813754147"}]},{"reference":"Ak rigg, G.P.V.; Akrigg, Helen B. (1997). British Columbia Place Names (3rd ed.). Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-7748-0636-7. Retrieved September 2, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AVQ5RZeAFCkC&pg=229","url_text":"British Columbia Place Names"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0636-7","url_text":"978-0-7748-0636-7"}]},{"reference":"Mardon, Ernest G.; Mardon, Austin A. (2010). Community Place Names of Alberta (3rd ed.). Edmonton, AB: Golden Meteorite Press. p. 283. ISBN 978-1-897472-17-0. Retrieved September 2, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jbIYAwAAQBAJ&pg=283","url_text":"Community Place Names of Alberta"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-897472-17-0","url_text":"978-1-897472-17-0"}]},{"reference":"Gadd, Ben (1995). Handbook of the Canadian Rockies. Corax Press. ISBN 9780969263111.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780969263111","url_text":"9780969263111"}]},{"reference":"Cannings, Richard (2007). The Rockies: A Natural History. Greystone/David Suzuki Foundation. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-55365-285-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ig4OMokvt-0C&q=%22Rocky+Mountain+Trench%22+and+%22Columbia+Mountains%22&pg=PA5","url_text":"The Rockies: A Natural History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55365-285-4","url_text":"978-1-55365-285-4"}]},{"reference":"Stohlgren, TJ. \"Rocky Mountains\". Status and Trends of the Nation's Biological Resources. United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on September 27, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060927145110/http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/wm146.htm","url_text":"\"Rocky Mountains\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey","url_text":"United States Geological Survey"},{"url":"https://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/wm146.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chronic, Halka (1980). Roadside Geology of Colorado. Mountain Press Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87842-105-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87842-105-3","url_text":"978-0-87842-105-3"}]},{"reference":"Blakely, Ron. \"Geologic History of Western US\". Archived from the original on June 22, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/Text_WUS.html","url_text":"\"Geologic History of Western US\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100622013326/http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/Text_WUS.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"English, Joseph M.; Johnston, Stephen T. (2004). \"The Laramide Orogeny: What Were the Driving Forces?\" (PDF). International Geology Review. 46 (9): 833 838. Bibcode:2004IGRv...46..833E. doi:10.2747/0020-6814.46.9.833. S2CID 129901811. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carding

Carding

["1 Overview","2 History","3 Cotton manufacturing processes","4 Tools","4.1 Hand carders","4.2 Drum carders","4.3 Cottage carders","5 See also","6 References","6.1 Notes","6.2 Bibliography","7 External links"]

Process that disentangles, cleans and intermixes fibres For other uses, see Carding (disambiguation). Dyed wool being carded with a 1949 Tatham carding machine at Jamieson Mill, Sandness, Shetland, Scotland. Cotton carder (known as dhunuri or lep wallah) in Howrah, Kolkata, India Carding is a mechanical process that disentangles, cleans and intermixes fibres to produce a continuous web or sliver suitable for subsequent processing. This is achieved by passing the fibres between differentially moving surfaces covered with "card clothing", a firm flexible material embedded with metal pins. It breaks up locks and unorganised clumps of fibre and then aligns the individual fibres to be parallel with each other. In preparing wool fibre for spinning, carding is the step that comes after teasing. The word is derived from the Latin Carduus meaning thistle or teasel, as dried vegetable teasels were first used to comb the raw wool before technological advances led to the use of machines. Overview These ordered fibres can then be passed on to other processes that are specific to the desired end use of the fibre: Cotton, batting, felt, woollen or worsted yarn, etc. Carding can also be used to create blends of different fibres or different colours. When blending, the carding process combines the different fibres into a homogeneous mix. Commercial cards also have rollers and systems designed to remove some vegetable matter contaminants from the wool. Common to all carders is card clothing. Card clothing is made from a sturdy flexible backing in which closely spaced wire pins are embedded. The shape, length, diameter, and spacing of these wire pins are dictated by the card designer and the particular requirements of the application where the card cloth will be used. A later version of the card clothing product developed during the latter half of the 19th century and was found only on commercial carding machines, whereby a single piece of serrated wire was wrapped around a roller, became known as metallic card clothing. Carding machines are known as cards. Fibre may be carded by hand for hand spinning. History Science historian Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India. The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE). These carding devices, called kaman (bow) and dhunaki, would loosen the texture of the fibre by the means of a vibrating string. At the turn of the eighteenth century, wool in England was being carded using pairs of hand cards, in a two-stage process: 'working' with the cards opposed and 'stripping' where they are in parallel. In 1748 Lewis Paul of Birmingham, England, invented two hand driven carding machines. The first used a coat of wires on a flat table moved by foot pedals. This failed. On the second, a coat of wire slips was placed around a card which was then wrapped around a cylinder. Daniel Bourn obtained a similar patent in the same year, and probably used it in his spinning mill at Leominster, but this burnt down in 1754. The invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright and Samuel Crompton. Arkwright's second patent (of 1775) for his carding machine was subsequently declared invalid (1785) because it lacked originality. A "Cotton carder". An old engraving copied from artist Pierre Sonnerat's 1782 illustration. From the 1780s, the carding machines were set up in mills in the north of England and mid-Wales. Priority was given to cotton but woollen fibres were being carded in Yorkshire in 1780. With woollen, two carding machines were used: the first or the scribbler opened and mixed the fibres, the second or the condenser mixed and formed the web. The first in Wales was in a factory at Dolobran near Meifod in 1789. These carding mills produced yarn particularly for the Welsh flannel industry. In 1834 James Walton invented the first practical machines to use a wire card. He patented this machine and also a new form of card with layers of cloth and rubber. The combination of these two inventions became the standard for the carding industry, using machines first built by Parr, Curtis and Walton in Ancoats, and from 1857 by Jams Walton & Sons at Haughton Dale. By 1838, the Spen Valley, centred on Cleckheaton had at least 11 card clothing factories and by 1893, it was generally accepted as the card cloth capital of the world, though by 2008 only two manufacturers of metallic and flexible card clothing remained in England, Garnett Wire Ltd. dating back to 1851 and Joseph Sellers & Son Ltd established in 1840. Baird from Scotland took carding to Leicester, Massachusetts in the 1780s. In the 1890s, the town produced one-third of all hand and machine cards in North America. John and Arthur Slater, from Saddleworth went over to work with Slater in 1793. A 1780s scribbling mill would be driven by a water wheel. There were 170 scribbling mills around Leeds at that time. Each scribbler would require 15–45 horsepower (11–34 kW) to operate. Modern machines are driven by belting from an electric motor or an overhead shaft via two pulleys. Cotton manufacturing processes Cotton manufacturing processes Bale breaker Blowing room Willowing Breaker scutcher Batting Finishing scutcher Lapping Teasing Carding Carding room Sliver lap Combing Drawing Slubbing Intermediate Roving Fine roving Mule spinning Ring spinning Spinning Reeling Doubling Winding Bundling Bleaching Weaving shed Winding Beaming Cabling Warping Gassing Sizing/slashing/dressing Spooling Weaving Cloth Yarn (cheese) Bundle Sewing thread Carding machine Carding: the fibres are separated and then assembled into a loose strand (sliver or tow) at the conclusion of this stage. The cotton comes off of the picking machine in laps, and is then taken to carding machines. The carders line up the fibres nicely to make them easier to spin. The carding machine consists mainly of one big roller with smaller ones surrounding it. All of the rollers are covered with small teeth, and as the cotton progresses further on the teeth get finer (i.e. closer together). The cotton leaves the carding machine in the form of a sliver; a large rope of fibres. In a wider sense carding can refer to the four processes of willowing, lapping, carding and drawing. In willowing the fibres are loosened. In lapping the dust is removed to create a flat sheet or lap of fibres; Carding itself is the combing of the tangled lap into a thick rope or sliver of 1/2 inch in diameter, it can then be optionally combed, is used to remove the shorter fibres, creating a stronger yarn. A combing machine In drawing a drawing frame combines 4 slivers into one. Repeated drawing increases the quality of the sliver allowing for finer counts to be spun. Each sliver will have thin and thick spots, and by combining several slivers together a more consistent size can be reached. Since combining several slivers produces a very thick rope of cotton fibres, directly after being combined the slivers are separated into rovings. These rovings (or slubbings) are then what are used in the spinning process. For machine processing, a roving is about the width of a pencil. The rovings are collected in a drum and proceed to the slubbing frame which adds twist, and winds onto bobbins. Intermediate Frames are used to repeat the slubbing process to produce a finer yarn, and then the roving frames reduces it to a finer thread, gives more twist, makes more regular and even in thickness, and winds onto a smaller tube. The carders used currently in woollen mills differ very little from machines used 20 to 50 years ago, and in some cases, the machines are from that era. Machine carders vary in size from the one that easily fits on the kitchen table, to the carder that takes up a full room . A carder that takes up a full room works very similarly, the main difference being that the fibre goes through many more drums often with intervening cross laying to even out the load on the subsequent cards, which normally get finer as the fibre progresses through the system. When the fibre comes off the drum, it is in the form of a bat – a flat, orderly mass of fibres. If a small drum carder is being used, the bat is the length of the circumference of the big drum and is often the finished product. A big drum carder, though, will then take that bat and turn it into roving, by stretching it thinner and thinner, until it is the desired thickness (often rovings are the thickness of a wrist). (A rolag differs from a roving because it is not a continuous strand, and because the fibres end up going across instead of along the strand.) Cotton fibres are fed into the machine, picked up and brushed onto flats when carded. Some hand-spinners have a small drum carder at home especially for the purpose of mixing together the different coloured fibre that are bought already carded. Historical Carding Machines A restored carding machine at Quarry Bank Mill in the UK A wool carder from 1913 at the Mueller Tuchfabrik, Euskirchen 19th-century ox-powered double carding machine Tools Predating mechanised weaving, hand loom weaving was a cottage industry that used the same processes but on a smaller scale. These skills have survived as an artisan craft or as a art form and hobby. Hand carders Creating a rolag using hand cards. Irreler Bauerntradition shows carding, spinning and knitting in the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum. Hand cards are typically square or rectangular paddles manufactured in a variety of sizes from 2 by 2 inches (5.1 cm × 5.1 cm) to 4 by 8 inches (10 cm × 20 cm). The working face of each paddle can be flat or cylindrically curved and wears the card cloth. Small cards, called flick cards, are used to flick the ends of a lock of fibre, or to tease out some strands for spinning off. A pair of cards is used to brush the wool between them until the fibres are more or less aligned in the same direction. The aligned fibre is then peeled from the card as a rolag. Carding is an activity normally done outside or over a drop cloth, depending on the wool's cleanliness. Rolag is peeled from the card. A carding machine in Haikou, Hainan Province, China. This product (rovings, rolags, and batts) can be used for spinning. Carding of wool can either be done "in the grease" or not, depending on the type of machine and on the spinner's preference. "In the grease" means that the lanolin that naturally comes with the wool has not been washed out, leaving the wool with a slightly greasy feel. The large drum carders do not tend to get along well with lanolin, so most commercial worsted and woollen mills wash the wool before carding. Hand carders (and small drum carders too, though the directions may not recommend it) can be used to card lanolin rich wool. Drum carders Carding Llama hair with a hand-cranked drum carder. The simplest machine carder is the drum carder. Most drum carders are hand-cranked but some are powered by an electric motor. These machines generally have two rollers, or drums, covered with card clothing. The licker-in, or smaller roller meters fibre from the infeed tray onto the larger storage drum. The two rollers are connected to each other by a belt- or chain-drive so that their relative speeds cause the storage drum to gently pull fibres from the licker-in. This pulling straightens the fibres and lays them between the wire pins of the storage drum's card cloth. Fibre is added until the storage drum's card cloth is full. A gap in the card cloth facilitates removal of the batt when the card cloth is full. Some drum carders have a soft-bristled brush attachment that presses the fibre into the storage drum. This attachment serves to condense the fibres already in the card cloth and adds a small amount of additional straightening to the condensed fibre. Cottage carders Workings of a cottage carder Using a cottage carder to card white alpaca Diagram showing name, location, and rotation of rollers used on a cottage carder Cottage carding machines differ significantly from the simple drum card. These carders do not store fibre in the card cloth as the drum carder does but, rather, fibre passes through the workings of the carder for storage or for additional processing by other machines. A typical cottage carder has a single large drum (the swift) accompanied by a pair of in-feed rollers (nippers), one or more pairs of worker and stripper rollers, a fancy, and a doffer. In-feed to the carder is usually accomplished by hand or by conveyor belt and often the output of the cottage carder is stored as a batt or further processed into roving and wound into bumps with an accessory bump winder. The cottage carder in the image below supports both outputs. Raw fibre, placed on the in-feed table or conveyor is moved to the nippers which restrain and meter the fiber onto the swift. As they are transferred to the swift, many of the fibres are straightened and laid into the swift's card cloth. These fibres will be carried past the worker / stripper rollers to the fancy. As the swift carries the fibres forward, from the nippers, those fibres that are not yet straightened are picked up by a worker and carried over the top to its paired stripper. Relative to the surface speed of the swift, the worker turns quite slowly. This has the effect of reversing the fibre. The stripper, which turns at a higher speed than the worker, pulls fibres from the worker and passes them to the swift. The stripper's relative surface speed is slower than the swift's so the swift pulls the fibres from the stripper for additional straightening. Straightened fibres are carried by the swift to the fancy. The fancy's card cloth is designed to engage with the swift's card cloth so that the fibres are lifted to the tips of the swift's card cloth and carried by the swift to the doffer. The fancy and the swift are the only rollers in the carding process that actually touch. The slowly turning doffer removes the fibres from the swift and carries them to the fly comb where they are stripped from the doffer. A fine web of more or less parallel fibre, a few fibres thick and as wide as the carder's rollers, exits the carder at the fly comb by gravity or other mechanical means for storage or further processing. See also Cotton mill Cotton-spinning machinery Doubling (textiles) DREF friction spinning Gig-mill Open end spinning Spinning Spinning wheel Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution Textile manufacturing Timeline of clothing and textiles technology Yarn realisation References Notes ^ Yilmaz, Nasire Deniz; Powell (2005). "The Technology of Terry Towel production" (PDF). Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management. 4 (4). North Carolina Stare University. ^ "Preparing Wool for Handspinning". La Hottée. 27 July 2007. Archived from the original on 2014-08-22. Retrieved 2014-09-16. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Carding" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ a b c Baber, Zaheer (1996). The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilisation, and Colonial Rule in India. the State University of New York Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-7914-2919-9. ^ a b Richards 1972, p. 73. ^ Wadsworth, A. P.; Mann, J. de L. (1931). The Cotton Industry and Industrial Lancashire. Manchester University Press. pp. 419–448. ^ Fitton, R. S.; Wadsworth, A. P. (1958). The Strutts and the Arkwrights 1758-1830: a Study in the Early Factory System. Manchester University Press. pp. 65–80. ^ a b c Richards 1972, p. 74. ^ Jenkins, J. Geraint (1969). The Welsh Woollen Industry. Cardiff. pp. 33–4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Williams, Richard (1894). Montgomeryshire worthies. Newtown: Phillips & Son. p. 308. ^ Collier 1970, pp. 66, 67 ^ Collier 1970, p. 69 ^ Collier 1970, pp. 70 ^ Hills 1993, p. 4 ^ Campbell, Gordon (2006). The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518948-3. ^ Matherne, Patrick. "What is Carding". Retrieved 8 May 2012. Bibliography Collier, Ann M (1970), A Handbook of Textiles, Pergamon Press, p. 258, ISBN 0-08-018057-4 Hills, Richard Leslie (1993), Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press, p. 244, ISBN 978-0-521-45834-4 Nasmith, Joseph (1896), The Students Cotton Spinning (Third ed.), Deansgate, Manchester: John Heywood Ltd, p. 637 Richards, R.T.D. (1972), "The development of the modern woollen carding machine", in Jenkins, J. Geraint (ed.), The wool textile industry in Great Britain (1 ed.), London : Routledge & Kegan, ISBN 0710069790 External links Media related to Carding (category) at Wikimedia Commons vteSpinningMaterials Noil Rolag Roving Sliver Staple Top Tow Woolen Worsted Techniques Carding Combing Heckling Long draw Scutching Short draw Twist per inch Hand spinning tools Hand spinning Distaff Niddy noddy Nostepinne Spindle Spinning wheel Spinner's weasel Industrial spinning Cotton-spinning machinery Ring spinning Open-end spinning DREF friction spinning Magnetic ring spinning Mule spinners' cancer Piece-rate list Spinning frame Spinning jenny Spinning mule Throstle frame Water frame Wool combing machine Authority control databases National France BnF data Israel United States Latvia Artists KulturNav

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carding (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carding_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jamieson_wool_Shetland.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sandness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandness"},{"link_name":"Shetland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetland"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muhammad_Ainul_-_Howrah_2011-12-11_00914.jpg"},{"link_name":"wallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallah"},{"link_name":"Howrah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howrah"},{"link_name":"Kolkata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"sliver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sliver_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yilmaz-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PWH-2"},{"link_name":"teasel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipsacus"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"For other uses, see Carding (disambiguation).Dyed wool being carded with a 1949 Tatham carding machine at Jamieson Mill, Sandness, Shetland, Scotland.Cotton carder (known as dhunuri or lep wallah) in Howrah, Kolkata, IndiaCarding is a mechanical process that disentangles, cleans and intermixes fibres to produce a continuous web or sliver suitable for subsequent processing.[1] This is achieved by passing the fibres between differentially moving surfaces covered with \"card clothing\", a firm flexible material embedded with metal pins. It breaks up locks and unorganised clumps of fibre and then aligns the individual fibres to be parallel with each other. In preparing wool fibre for spinning, carding is the step that comes after teasing.[2]The word is derived from the Latin Carduus meaning thistle or teasel,[3] as dried vegetable teasels were first used to comb the raw wool before technological advances led to the use of machines.","title":"Carding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_mill"},{"link_name":"batting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batting_(material)"},{"link_name":"felt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felt"},{"link_name":"woollen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woollen"},{"link_name":"worsted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worsted"},{"link_name":"colours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"serrated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serration"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"These ordered fibres can then be passed on to other processes that are specific to the desired end use of the fibre: Cotton, batting, felt, woollen or worsted yarn, etc. Carding can also be used to create blends of different fibres or different colours. When blending, the carding process combines the different fibres into a homogeneous mix. Commercial cards also have rollers and systems designed to remove some vegetable matter contaminants from the wool.[citation needed]Common to all carders is card clothing. Card clothing is made from a sturdy flexible backing in which closely spaced wire pins are embedded. The shape, length, diameter, and spacing of these wire pins are dictated by the card designer and the particular requirements of the application where the card cloth will be used. A later version of the card clothing product developed during the latter half of the 19th century and was found only on commercial carding machines, whereby a single piece of serrated wire was wrapped around a roller, became known as metallic card clothing.[citation needed]Carding machines are known as cards. Fibre may be carded by hand for hand spinning.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joseph Needham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Needham"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baber1-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baber1-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baber1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards197273-5"},{"link_name":"Lewis Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Paul"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards197273-5"},{"link_name":"Daniel Bourn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bourn"},{"link_name":"Leominster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leominster"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Richard Arkwright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Arkwright"},{"link_name":"Samuel Crompton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Crompton"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dhunuri_Cotton-Carder_India_1774-1781.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pierre Sonnerat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Sonnerat"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards197274-8"},{"link_name":"Dolobran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolobran"},{"link_name":"Meifod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meifod"},{"link_name":"Welsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"},{"link_name":"flannel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flannel"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"James Walton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Walton_(inventor)"},{"link_name":"Ancoats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancoats"},{"link_name":"Haughton Dale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haughton_Green"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Spen Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Spen"},{"link_name":"Cleckheaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleckheaton"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Leicester, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicester,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards197274-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards197274-8"}],"text":"Science historian Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.[4] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[4] These carding devices, called kaman (bow) and dhunaki, would loosen the texture of the fibre by the means of a vibrating string.[4]At the turn of the eighteenth century, wool in England was being carded using pairs of hand cards, in a two-stage process: 'working' with the cards opposed and 'stripping' where they are in parallel.[5]In 1748 Lewis Paul of Birmingham, England, invented two hand driven carding machines. The first used a coat of wires on a flat table moved by foot pedals. This failed. On the second, a coat of wire slips was placed around a card which was then wrapped around a cylinder.[5]\nDaniel Bourn obtained a similar patent in the same year, and probably used it in his spinning mill at Leominster, but this burnt down in 1754.[6] The invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright and Samuel Crompton. Arkwright's second patent (of 1775) for his carding machine was subsequently declared invalid (1785) because it lacked originality.[7]A \"Cotton carder\". An old engraving copied from artist Pierre Sonnerat's 1782 illustration.From the 1780s, the carding machines were set up in mills in the north of England and mid-Wales. Priority was given to cotton but woollen fibres were being carded in Yorkshire in 1780. With woollen, two carding machines were used: the first or the scribbler opened and mixed the fibres, the second or the condenser mixed and formed the web.[8] The first in Wales was in a factory at Dolobran near Meifod in 1789. These carding mills produced yarn particularly for the Welsh flannel industry.[9]In 1834 James Walton invented the first practical machines to use a wire card. He patented this machine and also a new form of card with layers of cloth and rubber. The combination of these two inventions became the standard for the carding industry, using machines first built by Parr, Curtis and Walton in Ancoats, and from 1857 by Jams Walton & Sons at Haughton Dale.[10]By 1838, the Spen Valley, centred on Cleckheaton had at least 11 card clothing factories and by 1893, it was generally accepted as the card cloth capital of the world, though by 2008 only two manufacturers of metallic and flexible card clothing remained in England, Garnett Wire Ltd. dating back to 1851 and Joseph Sellers & Son Ltd established in 1840.[citation needed]Baird from Scotland took carding to Leicester, Massachusetts in the 1780s. In the 1890s, the town produced one-third of all hand and machine cards in North America.[citation needed] John and Arthur Slater, from Saddleworth went over to work with Slater in 1793.[8]A 1780s scribbling mill would be driven by a water wheel. There were 170 scribbling mills around Leeds at that time. Each scribbler would require 15–45 horsepower (11–34 kW) to operate. Modern machines are driven by belting from an electric motor or an overhead shaft via two pulleys.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_odo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_orh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h1o.svg"},{"link_name":"Willowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willowing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"link_name":"scutcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scutching"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ozh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_A.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h2o.svg"},{"link_name":"Carding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_orh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h1o.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"link_name":"Combing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ozh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_A.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h2o.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"link_name":"Roving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roving"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_orh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_hzo.svg"},{"link_name":"Mule spinning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_mule"},{"link_name":"Ring spinning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_spinning"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ozh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_A.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h2o.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_orh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_hrh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h1o.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_a.svg"},{"link_name":"Doubling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubling_(textiles)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_orh.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_h.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_1vo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"link_name":"Weaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_vvo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ovo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_odo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_ddo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FCIcon_odo.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catalonia_Terrassa_mNATEC_CardaObridora.jpg"},{"link_name":"sliver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sliver_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"tow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tow_(fibre)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catalonia_Terrassa_mNATEC_Pentinadora.jpg"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//frysingerreunion.org/1/new_england/sturbridge47.jpg"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Restored_carding_machine_at_Quarry_Bank_Mill.jpg"},{"link_name":"Quarry Bank Mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarry_Bank_Mill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Double_carder.JPG"}],"text":"Cotton manufacturing processes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBale breaker\n\n\n\nBlowing room\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWillowing\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBreaker scutcher\n\nBatting\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFinishing scutcher\n\nLapping\n\nTeasing\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCarding\n\n\n\nCarding room\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSliver lap\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCombing\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDrawing\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSlubbing\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIntermediate\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRoving\n\nFine roving\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMule spinning\n\nRing spinning\n\nSpinning\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nReeling\n\nDoubling\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWinding\n\nBundling\n\nBleaching\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWeaving shed\n\n\n\nWinding\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBeaming\n\n\n\nCabling\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWarping\n\n\n\nGassing\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSizing/slashing/dressing\n\n\n\nSpooling\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWeaving\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCloth\nYarn (cheese) Bundle\n\nSewing threadCarding machineCarding: the fibres are separated and then assembled into a loose strand (sliver or tow) at the conclusion of this stage.The cotton comes off of the picking machine in laps, and is then taken to carding machines. The carders line up the fibres nicely to make them easier to spin. The carding machine consists mainly of one big roller with smaller ones surrounding it. All of the rollers are covered with small teeth, and as the cotton progresses further on the teeth get finer (i.e. closer together). The cotton leaves the carding machine in the form of a sliver; a large rope of fibres.[11]In a wider sense carding can refer to the four processes of willowing, lapping, carding and drawing. In willowing the fibres are loosened. In lapping the dust is removed to create a flat sheet or lap of fibres; Carding itself is the combing of the tangled lap into a thick rope or sliver of 1/2 inch in diameter, it can then be optionally combed, is used to remove the shorter fibres, creating a stronger yarn.A combing machineIn drawing a drawing frame combines 4 slivers into one. Repeated drawing increases the quality of the sliver allowing for finer counts to be spun.[12] Each sliver will have thin and thick spots, and by combining several slivers together a more consistent size can be reached. Since combining several slivers produces a very thick rope of cotton fibres, directly after being combined the slivers are separated into rovings. These rovings (or slubbings) are then what are used in the spinning process.[13]For machine processing, a roving is about the width of a pencil. The rovings are collected in a drum and proceed to the slubbing frame which adds twist, and winds onto bobbins. Intermediate Frames are used to repeat the slubbing process to produce a finer yarn, and then the roving frames reduces it to a finer thread, gives more twist, makes more regular and even in thickness, and winds onto a smaller tube.[14]The carders used currently in woollen mills differ very little from machines used 20 to 50 years ago, and in some cases, the machines are from that era.Machine carders vary in size from the one that easily fits on the kitchen table, to the carder that takes up a full room [1][permanent dead link].A carder that takes up a full room works very similarly, the main difference being that the fibre goes through many more drums often with intervening cross laying to even out the load on the subsequent cards, which normally get finer as the fibre progresses through the system.When the fibre comes off the drum, it is in the form of a bat – a flat, orderly mass of fibres. If a small drum carder is being used, the bat is the length of the circumference of the big drum and is often the finished product. A big drum carder, though, will then take that bat and turn it into roving, by stretching it thinner and thinner, until it is the desired thickness (often rovings are the thickness of a wrist). (A rolag differs from a roving because it is not a continuous strand, and because the fibres end up going across instead of along the strand.) Cotton fibres are fed into the machine, picked up and brushed onto flats when carded.Some hand-spinners have a small drum carder at home especially for the purpose of mixing together the different coloured fibre that are bought already carded.Historical Carding Machines\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA restored carding machine at Quarry Bank Mill in the UK\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA wool carder from 1913 at the Mueller Tuchfabrik, Euskirchen\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t19th-century ox-powered double carding machine","title":"Cotton manufacturing processes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hand loom weaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving#History"},{"link_name":"art form and hobby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving#Craft_weavers"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grove-15"}],"text":"Predating mechanised weaving, hand loom weaving was a cottage industry that used the same processes but on a smaller scale. These skills have survived as an artisan craft or as a art form and hobby.[15]","title":"Tools"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rolag.jpg"},{"link_name":"rolag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolag"},{"link_name":"Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscheider_Hof_Open_Air_Museum"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"rolag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolag"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quilt_making_04.JPG"},{"link_name":"Haikou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haikou"},{"link_name":"Hainan Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan_Province"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"spinning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"lanolin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanolin"}],"sub_title":"Hand carders","text":"Creating a rolag using hand cards.Irreler Bauerntradition shows carding, spinning and knitting in the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum.Hand cards are typically square or rectangular paddles manufactured in a variety of sizes from 2 by 2 inches (5.1 cm × 5.1 cm) to 4 by 8 inches (10 cm × 20 cm). The working face of each paddle can be flat or cylindrically curved and wears the card cloth. Small cards, called flick cards, are used to flick the ends of a lock of fibre, or to tease out some strands for spinning off.[16]A pair of cards is used to brush the wool between them until the fibres are more or less aligned in the same direction. The aligned fibre is then peeled from the card as a rolag. Carding is an activity normally done outside or over a drop cloth, depending on the wool's cleanliness. Rolag is peeled from the card.[citation needed]A carding machine in Haikou, Hainan Province, China.This product (rovings, rolags, and batts) can be used for spinning.Carding of wool can either be done \"in the grease\" or not, depending on the type of machine and on the spinner's preference. \"In the grease\" means that the lanolin that naturally comes with the wool has not been washed out, leaving the wool with a slightly greasy feel. The large drum carders do not tend to get along well with lanolin, so most commercial worsted and woollen mills wash the wool before carding. Hand carders (and small drum carders too, though the directions may not recommend it) can be used to card lanolin rich wool.","title":"Tools"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carding_llama_hair.jpg"},{"link_name":"Llama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llama"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Drum carders","text":"Carding Llama hair with a hand-cranked drum carder.The simplest machine carder is the drum carder. Most drum carders are hand-cranked but some are powered by an electric motor. These machines generally have two rollers, or drums, covered with card clothing. The licker-in, or smaller roller meters fibre from the infeed tray onto the larger storage drum. The two rollers are connected to each other by a belt- or chain-drive so that their relative speeds cause the storage drum to gently pull fibres from the licker-in. This pulling straightens the fibres and lays them between the wire pins of the storage drum's card cloth. Fibre is added until the storage drum's card cloth is full. A gap in the card cloth facilitates removal of the batt when the card cloth is full.Some drum carders have a soft-bristled brush attachment that presses the fibre into the storage drum. This attachment serves to condense the fibres already in the card cloth and adds a small amount of additional straightening to the condensed fibre.[citation needed]","title":"Tools"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pat_Green_Jumbo_Exotic_Carder.jpg"},{"link_name":"alpaca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpaca"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pat_Green_Jumbo_Exotic_Carder_Schematic.jpg"},{"link_name":"doffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doffing_cylinder"},{"link_name":"roving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roving"},{"link_name":"image below","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pat_Green_Jumbo_Exotic_Carder.jpg"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Cottage carders","text":"Workings of a cottage carder\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tUsing a cottage carder to card white alpaca\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDiagram showing name, location, and rotation of rollers used on a cottage carderCottage carding machines differ significantly from the simple drum card. These carders do not store fibre in the card cloth as the drum carder does but, rather, fibre passes through the workings of the carder for storage or for additional processing by other machines.A typical cottage carder has a single large drum (the swift) accompanied by a pair of in-feed rollers (nippers), one or more pairs of worker and stripper rollers, a fancy, and a doffer. In-feed to the carder is usually accomplished by hand or by conveyor belt and often the output of the cottage carder is stored as a batt or further processed into roving and wound into bumps with an accessory bump winder. The cottage carder in the image below supports both outputs.Raw fibre, placed on the in-feed table or conveyor is moved to the nippers which restrain and meter the fiber onto the swift. As they are transferred to the swift, many of the fibres are straightened and laid into the swift's card cloth. These fibres will be carried past the worker / stripper rollers to the fancy.As the swift carries the fibres forward, from the nippers, those fibres that are not yet straightened are picked up by a worker and carried over the top to its paired stripper. Relative to the surface speed of the swift, the worker turns quite slowly. This has the effect of reversing the fibre. The stripper, which turns at a higher speed than the worker, pulls fibres from the worker and passes them to the swift. The stripper's relative surface speed is slower than the swift's so the swift pulls the fibres from the stripper for additional straightening.Straightened fibres are carried by the swift to the fancy. The fancy's card cloth is designed to engage with the swift's card cloth so that the fibres are lifted to the tips of the swift's card cloth and carried by the swift to the doffer. The fancy and the swift are the only rollers in the carding process that actually touch.The slowly turning doffer removes the fibres from the swift and carries them to the fly comb where they are stripped from the doffer. A fine web of more or less parallel fibre, a few fibres thick and as wide as the carder's rollers, exits the carder at the fly comb by gravity or other mechanical means for storage or further processing.[citation needed]","title":"Tools"}]

[{"image_text":"Dyed wool being carded with a 1949 Tatham carding machine at Jamieson Mill, Sandness, Shetland, Scotland.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Jamieson_wool_Shetland.jpg/300px-Jamieson_wool_Shetland.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cotton carder (known as dhunuri or lep wallah) in Howrah, Kolkata, India","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Muhammad_Ainul_-_Howrah_2011-12-11_00914.jpg/220px-Muhammad_Ainul_-_Howrah_2011-12-11_00914.jpg"},{"image_text":"A \"Cotton carder\". An old engraving copied from artist Pierre Sonnerat's 1782 illustration.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Dhunuri_Cotton-Carder_India_1774-1781.jpg/220px-Dhunuri_Cotton-Carder_India_1774-1781.jpg"},{"image_text":"Carding machine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Catalonia_Terrassa_mNATEC_CardaObridora.jpg/170px-Catalonia_Terrassa_mNATEC_CardaObridora.jpg"},{"image_text":"A combing machine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Catalonia_Terrassa_mNATEC_Pentinadora.jpg/170px-Catalonia_Terrassa_mNATEC_Pentinadora.jpg"},{"image_text":"Creating a rolag using hand cards.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Rolag.jpg/220px-Rolag.jpg"},{"image_text":"Irreler Bauerntradition shows carding, spinning and knitting in the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum."},{"image_text":"A carding machine in Haikou, Hainan Province, China.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Quilt_making_04.JPG/220px-Quilt_making_04.JPG"},{"image_text":"Carding Llama hair with a hand-cranked drum carder.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Carding_llama_hair.jpg/220px-Carding_llama_hair.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Cotton mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_mill"},{"title":"Cotton-spinning machinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton-spinning_machinery"},{"title":"Doubling (textiles)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubling_(textiles)"},{"title":"DREF friction spinning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DREF_friction_spinning"},{"title":"Gig-mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gig-mill"},{"title":"Open end spinning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_end_spinning"},{"title":"Spinning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)"},{"title":"Spinning wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_wheel"},{"title":"Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacture_during_the_Industrial_Revolution"},{"title":"Textile manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturing"},{"title":"Timeline of clothing and textiles technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology"},{"title":"Yarn realisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarn_realisation"}]

[{"reference":"Yilmaz, Nasire Deniz; Powell (2005). \"The Technology of Terry Towel production\" (PDF). Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management. 4 (4). North Carolina Stare University.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/volume4issue4/Articles/Yilmaz/Yilmaz_full.pdf","url_text":"\"The Technology of Terry Towel production\""}]},{"reference":"\"Preparing Wool for Handspinning\". La Hottée. 27 July 2007. Archived from the original on 2014-08-22. Retrieved 2014-09-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140822232441/http://www.lahottee.info/E_FiberPreparation.php","url_text":"\"Preparing Wool for Handspinning\""},{"url":"http://www.lahottee.info/E_FiberPreparation.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Carding\" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Carding","url_text":"\"Carding\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Baber, Zaheer (1996). The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilisation, and Colonial Rule in India. the State University of New York Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-7914-2919-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-2919-9","url_text":"0-7914-2919-9"}]},{"reference":"Wadsworth, A. P.; Mann, J. de L. (1931). The Cotton Industry and Industrial Lancashire. Manchester University Press. pp. 419–448.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Fitton, R. S.; Wadsworth, A. P. (1958). The Strutts and the Arkwrights 1758-1830: a Study in the Early Factory System. Manchester University Press. pp. 65–80.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jenkins, J. Geraint (1969). The Welsh Woollen Industry. Cardiff. pp. 33–4.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Williams, Richard (1894). Montgomeryshire worthies. Newtown: Phillips & Son. p. 308.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=b1ZSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA308","url_text":"Montgomeryshire worthies"}]},{"reference":"Campbell, Gordon (2006). The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518948-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518948-3","url_text":"978-0-19-518948-3"}]},{"reference":"Matherne, Patrick. \"What is Carding\". Retrieved 8 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fromsheeptoshawl.com/2012/fiber/what-is-carding/","url_text":"\"What is Carding\""}]},{"reference":"Collier, Ann M (1970), A Handbook of Textiles, Pergamon Press, p. 258, ISBN 0-08-018057-4","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-018057-4","url_text":"0-08-018057-4"}]},{"reference":"Hills, Richard Leslie (1993), Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press, p. 244, ISBN 978-0-521-45834-4","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_L._Hills","url_text":"Hills, Richard Leslie"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=t6TLOQBhd0YC","url_text":"Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45834-4","url_text":"978-0-521-45834-4"}]},{"reference":"Nasmith, Joseph (1896), The Students Cotton Spinning (Third ed.), Deansgate, Manchester: John Heywood Ltd, p. 637","urls":[]},{"reference":"Richards, R.T.D. (1972), \"The development of the modern woollen carding machine\", in Jenkins, J. Geraint (ed.), The wool textile industry in Great Britain (1 ed.), London [u.a.]: Routledge & Kegan, ISBN 0710069790","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/wooltextileindus0000unse","url_text":"The wool textile industry in Great Britain"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0710069790","url_text":"0710069790"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Unified_Response

Operation Unified Response

["1 Mission timeline","2 International reactions","3 Legacy","4 See also","5 External links","6 References"]

The United States military's response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake Medics from the US Army's 95th Civil Affairs Brigade deliver a baby during relief efforts. The mother named the female child "Samantha" after Uncle Sam. Operation Unified Response was the United States military's response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake. It was conducted by Joint Task Force Haiti and commanded by United States Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM) Military Deputy Commander Lieutenant General Ken Keen, although the overall U.S. government response was headed by Rajiv Shah, administrator of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The response included personnel from all branches of the military. The U.S. Navy listed its resources in the area on 19 January as "17 ships, 48 helicopters and 12 fixed-wing aircraft" in addition to 10,000 sailors and Marines. By 26 January, the U.S. military had 17,000 personnel in and around Haiti. Between the beginning of relief efforts and 18 February the US Air Force had delivered nearly 6,000 support members and 19 million pounds of cargo while evacuating 15,000 American citizens and conducted aeromedical evacuations for 223 critical Haitian patients. Elements of the mission included flying in relief supplies, flying out evacuees, including medical evacuees, loading helicopters with supplies at the PAP airport, and then dropping supplies at various points around Port-au-Prince, airdropping supplies from fixed-wing aircraft, establishing a field hospital near the Port international de Port-au-Prince, repairing a pier at the port, providing imagery from satellite, Global Hawk, and U-2 assets. Mission timeline Air traffic control operations by USAF Special Operations Combat Controllers at Port-au-Prince airport. Two United States Coast Guard Cutters off Port-au-Prince, Haiti. USCGC Forward is in the foreground. The United States Coast Guard cutters USCGC Forward (WMEC-911) and USCGC Mohawk (WMEC-913), both arrived in Port-au-Prince, on 13 January. A Maritime Intelligence Support Team aboard the Forward assessed damage to the port. The cutters were supported by the destroyer USS Higgins (DDG-76). Two United States Air Force special operations MC-130H Combat Talon II aircraft also arrived 13 January with emergency supplies, medical units and special tactics teams. Other Coast Guard ships including the USCGC Valiant (WMEC-621) and the USCGC Tahoma (WMEC-908) were dispatched. As of 14 January, United States Air Force Special Operations personnel were controlling operations of the Toussaint Louverture International Airport in Port-au-Prince, after having cleared runways and having set up a 24-hour air traffic control. On 15 January, the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70) arrived off the coast of Port-au-Prince to provide humanitarian aid, with its trained personnel, emergency supplies and 19 helicopters on deck. The United States Navy hospital ship USNS Comfort (T-AH-20) with 1,000 beds and 956 naval hospital staff was deployed to Haiti, as were the guided-missile frigate USS Underwood (FFG-36), and the guided missile cruiser USS Normandy (CG-60). Approximately 2,200 United States Marines of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit from Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune sailed on the USS Bataan (LHD-5), USS Carter Hall (LSD-50), and USS Fort McHenry (LSD-43); while 3,000 United States Army soldiers of the XVIII Airborne Corps HQ and the 82nd Airborne Division from Fort Bragg were sent beginning on 13 January. On 16 January, USS Bunker Hill (CG-52) arrived in Haiti to assist the Carl Vinson. On 17 January, the USCGC Oak (WLB-211) and the USNS Grasp (T-ARS-51) arrived at Port-au-Prince to begin repairs to the wharves. On the 18th, USS Gunston Hall (LSD-44) anchored at Killick base, and started relief operations. Additional Marines from the 24th MEU on the USS Nassau (LHA-4), USS Mesa Verde (LPD-19), and USS Ashland (LSD-48), which sailed from Naval Station Norfolk on the 18th, were diverted on the 20th from their scheduled deployment to the Middle East. This was the first use of the V-22 Osprey for a humanitarian mission. Four injured personnel from the United States embassy were evacuated to the naval base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, by United States Coast Guard helicopters. As of 21 January, approximately 10,500 people have been evacuated from Haiti to the US, including 8,300 US citizens. Approximately 45,000 American citizens were thought to have been in Haiti at the time of the earthquake. On 21 January, Air National Guard (ANG) air traffic controllers from the 260th Air Traffic Control Squadron (ATCS) in collaboration with the 248th ATCS, the 258th ATCS and the FAA took over air traffic control operations at Toussaint Louverture International Airport in Port-au-Prince. With an exorbitant amount of supplies, support, and aide in conjunction with evacuation operations, Toussaint Louverture International Airport became the busiest single runway Airport in the world averaging 675 operation per day. On 1 February, the Carl Vinson, Bunker Hill, and USNS Henson (T-AGS-63) ended their mission departed Haiti. On 3 February, the Higgins ended its relief mission and has headed for its home port. On 8 February, the 24th MEU and Nassau amphibious ready group were ordered to resume their original deployment to the Middle East. On 12 February, the US relief force has been reduced from roughly 20,000 troops to roughly 13,000 troops. On 13 February, the Gundston Hall ended its relief mission and has headed back to its original mission. On 14 February, the 190th Civil Engineering Squadron of the Kansas Air National Guard returned home. On 18 February, the Oak has left Haiti and arrived back at home port. On 1 March, Carter Hall was ordered home. On 8 March, Comfort had discharged its last patient, and departed on 10 March. On 24 March, the 22nd MEU and ARG were released from their mission and sailed for home. International reactions The United Nations expressed approval of the mission by United States and stated that the American troops would not stay long. Elements of the public of France expressed dissatisfaction with both the much larger size of the American relief operations compared to those of European nations and the commanding role U.S. forces took on the ground. Reflecting these feelings the French Minister for the Francophonie, Alain Joyandet, characterized the United States as "occupying" Haiti, citing the take over of air traffic control in the country. Several Latin American leaders accused the United States of militarily occupying Haiti. These socialist leaders, all long-time critics of the United States, included Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez former Cuban President Fidel Castro, Bolivian President Evo Morales and Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega. Through its Department of State the United States rejected the allegations and pointed to the fact that US forces were there by the invitation of the Haitian government. Despite this United States Congressman Ron Paul (R-Texas) opposed House of Representatives Resolution 1021, citing concerns over "the possibility of an open-ended US military occupation of Haiti". Legacy Air Force Chief Master Sergeant Antonio D. Travis was named one of the top 100 most influential people of 2010 by TIME Magazine for his role in Operation Unified Response. Chief Travis is a combat controller who deployed to Port-au-Prince just 30 hours after the earthquake. His team set up a card table to conduct air traffic control operations for Toussaint L'Ouverture International Airport, and was recognized for orchestrating the largest single-runway operation in history. The combat control team ran the airport for 12 days before US Air Force air traffic controllers took over. During those 12 days the team oversaw more than 4,000 takeoffs and landings, an average of one every five minutes. Their efforts are credited for ensuring the safe delivery many humanitarian relief teams from around the world and thousands of tons of life saving supplies. See also Operation Hestia, the Canadian military's counterpart Opération Séisme Haiti 2010, the French military's counterpart Operation Unified Assistance, for the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami Operation United Assistance, for the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa External links United States Southern Command References Wikimedia Commons has media related to Operation Unified Response. ^ Air Mobility Command Public Affairs (17 January 2010). "AMC Airmen critical to Operation Unified Response assisting Haiti earthquake victims". U.S. Air Force. Archived from the original on 20 July 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2010. ^ "Joint Task Force-Haiti launched". KBH News.com. 19 January 2010. Retrieved 22 January 2010. ^ Melia, Mike; Paul Haven (21 January 2010). "U.S. presence grows as aid trickles into Haiti". Marine Corps Times. Archived from the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2010. ^ U.S. Fleet Forces Public Affairs (12 January 2010). "U.S. Fleet Forces Commander Provides Update on Navy Contributions to Haiti Relief Efforts". Navy.mil. Retrieved 20 January 2010. ^ Numbers tell stories of horror, heroism in Haiti, CNN, 26 January 2010 ^ Stock, Jon (18 February 2010). "AMC Total Force provides hope to Haiti". Air Mobility Command Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2010. ^ US Coast Guard press release, 13 January 2010, http://www.piersystem.com/go/doc/786/452059/ ^ "First U.S. vessel arrives at Port-au-Prince". NBC News. 13 January 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2010. ^ US Air Force press release, 13 January 2010, https://archive.today/20120728115515/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123185581 ^ "Coast Guard sends cutters, aircraft to Haiti – Navy News, news from Iraq". Navy Times. Retrieved 15 January 2010. ^ Fox 10, WALA TV/Associated Press, Mobile, AL, 14 Jan, "Dozens of cargo planes arrive in Haiti". Archived from the original on 3 February 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2010. ^ US Navy, press release, 15 January 2010, http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=50545 ^ "U.S. Coast Guard Evacuating Haitian Girl with Injuries". commons.wikimedia.org. 19 January 2010. Retrieved 10 March 2016. ^ Reilly, Corinne. "Local military providing aid in Haiti | HamptonRoads.com | PilotOnline.com". HamptonRoads.com. Retrieved 15 January 2010. ^ "Southcom sending experts, equipment to Haiti – Florida AP". MiamiHerald.com. Retrieved 13 January 2010. ^ a b ""FACTBOX-U.S. military mobilizes thousands for Haiti relief" Reuters. 14 Jan 2010 21:20:24 GMT". Alertnet.org. Retrieved 15 January 2010. ^ Faram, Mark D. (19 January 2010). "Bataan ARG to begin arriving in Haiti today". Navy Times. Retrieved 20 January 2010. ^ "How the U.S. Military Will Help Haiti". Time. 13 January 2010. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 20 May 2010. ^ "U.S. joins international aid mobilization for Haiti quake victims". 13 January 2010. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. ^ Fuentes, Gidget (16 January 2010). "Bunker Hill en route to help Haiti mission". Navy Times. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ "Navy in Hampton Roads answers call to duty in Haiti". WVEC. 19 January 2010. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 22 January 2010. ^ a b Talton, Trista (20 January 2010). "24th MEU joining Haiti relief effort". Marine Corps Times. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2010. ^ Ewing, Philip (20 January 2010). "Nassau ARG, 24th MEU, tapped for Haiti". Marine Corps Times. Archived from the original on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2010. ^ "U.S. plans massive military response for Haiti". Associated Press. 13 January 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2010. ^ Katz, Jonathan. "Tens of thousands feared dead after Haiti quake". Archived from the original on 14 January 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2010. ^ "21-Jan-2010 Update". CNN. 21 January 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2010. ^ Hampton Roads, "The Carl Vinson departs Haiti", Lauren King, 1 February 2010 (accessed 2 February 2010) ^ SignOn San Diego, "Navy destroyer to return after helping out in Haiti", Jeanette Steele, 3 February 2010 (accessed 3 February 2010) ^ Lamothe, Dan (8 February 2010). "24th MEU, Nassau ARG complete Haiti work". Marine Corps Times. Archived from the original on 11 February 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2010. ^ Agence France Presse, "US reduces troop numbers in Haiti", AFP, 13 February 2010 (accessed 18 February 2010) ^ WVEC, "Little Creek-based USS Gunston Hall completes Haiti duty" Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine, US Navy, 15 February 2010 (accessed 16 February 2010) ^ FOX 4 KC, "Kansas National Guard Returns From Haiti" , Dave Dunn, 14 February 2010 (accessed 18 February 2010) ^ The State, "SC-based cutter returns after helping in Haiti" , Associated Press, 18 February 2010 (accessed 23 February 2010) ^ a b Navy Times, "Navy’s Haiti duties winding down", Philip Ewing, 8 March 2010 (accessed 8 March 2010) ^ Associated Press, "US hospital ship Comfort leaving Haiti", AP, 10 March 2010 (accessed 13 March 2010) ^ "Bataan, 22nd MEU headed home from Haiti". Marine Corps Times. 25 March 2010. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2010. ^ CyberPresse.ca, "L'ONU défend l'engagement militaire du Canada en Haïti", Agence France-Presse, 2 February 2010 (accessed 3 February 2010) (in French) ^ Metropole Haiti, "Haiti : Les troupes Américaines se retireront", Radio Métropole Haïti, 2 February 2010 (accessed 3 February 2010) (in French) ^ (in French) Le Figaro, "Haïti : le mariage forcé franco-américain", Alain Barluet, 22 January 2010 (accessed 30 January 2010) ^ Digital Journal, "French minister accuses U.S. of 'occupying ' Haiti", Michael Krebs, 19 January 2010 (accessed 4 February 2010) ^ "Hugo Chavez Mouthpiece Says U.S. Hit Haiti With 'Earthquake Weapon'". Fox News. 21 January 2010. Archived from the original on 27 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "Chavez says U.S. occupying Haiti in name of aid". Reuters. 17 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "Castro decries US, others sending troops to Haiti". The Washington Post. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "Castro slams US 'occupation' of Haiti". The Sydney Morning Herald. 25 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "Venezuela to U.S.: Send Haiti vaccines, not troops". Reuters. 24 January 2010. Archived from the original on 27 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "Snapshots From A Devastated Land". Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "US rejects Latin American claim it is 'occupying' Haiti". Archived from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ Text of USHOR Resolution 1021 ^ "No Military Occupation of Haiti". Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "TRAIL BLAZERS Blog | The Dallas Morning News". Archived from the original on 26 January 2010. ^ Small, David (29 April 2010). "TIME magazine recognizes Airman in top 100". US Air Force Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 28 June 2010. ^ Davis III, Bernie (5 May 2010). "TIME magazine honors Airman at New York City gala". US Air Force Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 28 June 2010. ^ McFadden, Joe (11 May 2010). "One more hooah left in me". US Air Force Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2010. ^ Sullenberger, Chesley (29 April 2010). "Chief Master Sergeant Tony Travis". TIME Magazine. The 2010 TIME 100. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2010. vte2010 Haiti earthquake Humanitarian response Relief efforts Casualties Damaged infrastructure Cholera outbreak Affected areas Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone Haiti Ouest: Port-au-Prince Arrondissement (Port-au-Prince, Bel Air, Carrefour, Cité Soleil, Gressier, Pétion-Ville) Léogâne Arrondissement (Léogâne, Grand-Goâve, Petit-Goâve) Sud-Est: Jacmel Arrondissement (Jacmel) Humanitarian response National governments NGOs For-profit organizations MINUSTAH Aid operations Unified Response (USA) Hestia (Canada) Séisme Haiti (France) White Crane (Italy) Danbi (Republic of Korea) Hispaniola (Spain) United Nations Security Council Resolution 1908 (MINUSTAH) Benefits and fundraising Canada for Haiti Ensemble pour Haïti Hope for Haiti Now (album) Hit for Haiti Clinton Bush Haiti Fund Digicel Haiti Earthquake Relief Fund "Everybody Hurts" "We Are the World 25 for Haiti" "Somos El Mundo 25 Por Haiti" Young Artists for Haiti ("Wavin' Flag") "I Put a Spell on You" "We Are the World 25 for Haiti (YouTube edition)" Download to Donate for Haiti

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_soldiers_deliver_a_baby_in_Haiti_during_Operation_Unified_Response.jpg"},{"link_name":"US Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army"},{"link_name":"95th Civil Affairs Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/95th_Civil_Affairs_Brigade"},{"link_name":"Uncle Sam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle_Sam"},{"link_name":"United States military's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_armed_forces"},{"link_name":"response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_response_to_the_2010_Haiti_earthquake"},{"link_name":"2010 Haiti earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Haiti_earthquake"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"United States Southern Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Southern_Command"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Ken Keen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Keen"},{"link_name":"Rajiv Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajiv_Shah"},{"link_name":"United States Agency for International Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USmilitary_MCT-3"},{"link_name":"resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_asset"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"aeromedical evacuations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeromedical_evacuation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"PAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Port international de Port-au-Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_international_de_Port-au-Prince"},{"link_name":"Global Hawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Hawk"},{"link_name":"U-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2"}],"text":"Medics from the US Army's 95th Civil Affairs Brigade deliver a baby during relief efforts. The mother named the female child \"Samantha\" after Uncle Sam.Operation Unified Response was the United States military's response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake.[1] It was conducted by Joint Task Force Haiti and commanded by United States Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM) Military Deputy Commander Lieutenant General Ken Keen, although the overall U.S. government response was headed by Rajiv Shah, administrator of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).[2]The response included personnel from all branches of the military.[3] The U.S. Navy listed its resources in the area on 19 January as \"17 ships, 48 helicopters and 12 fixed-wing aircraft\" in addition to 10,000 sailors and Marines.[4] By 26 January, the U.S. military had 17,000 personnel in and around Haiti.[5] Between the beginning of relief efforts and 18 February the US Air Force had delivered nearly 6,000 support members and 19 million pounds of cargo while evacuating 15,000 American citizens and conducted aeromedical evacuations for 223 critical Haitian patients.[6]Elements of the mission included flying in relief supplies, flying out evacuees, including medical evacuees, loading helicopters with supplies at the PAP airport, and then dropping supplies at various points around Port-au-Prince, airdropping supplies from fixed-wing aircraft, establishing a field hospital near the Port international de Port-au-Prince, repairing a pier at the port, providing imagery from satellite, Global Hawk, and U-2 assets.","title":"Operation Unified Response"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Combat Controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_Control_Team"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USCG_Cutters_Haiti_2010_Earthquake.JPG"},{"link_name":"United States Coast Guard Cutters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Cutter"},{"link_name":"USCGC Forward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC_Forward_(WMEC-911)"},{"link_name":"United States Coast Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard"},{"link_name":"USCGC Forward (WMEC-911)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC_Forward"},{"link_name":"USCGC Mohawk (WMEC-913)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC_Mohawk_(WMEC-913)"},{"link_name":"Port-au-Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-au-Prince"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"cutters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Cutter"},{"link_name":"destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arleigh_Burke_class_destroyer"},{"link_name":"USS Higgins (DDG-76)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Higgins"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"MC-130H Combat Talon II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_MC-130"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"USCGC Valiant (WMEC-621)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC_Valiant"},{"link_name":"USCGC Tahoma (WMEC-908)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC_Tahoma_(WMEC-908)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Toussaint Louverture International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Carl_Vinson"},{"link_name":"helicopters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"USNS Comfort (T-AH-20)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS_Comfort"},{"link_name":"guided-missile frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Hazard_Perry_class_frigate"},{"link_name":"USS Underwood (FFG-36)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Underwood"},{"link_name":"guided missile cruiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticonderoga_class_cruiser"},{"link_name":"USS Normandy (CG-60)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Normandy"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FACTBOX-16"},{"link_name":"United States Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit"},{"link_name":"Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Camp_Lejeune"},{"link_name":"USS Bataan (LHD-5)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bataan_(LHD-5)"},{"link_name":"USS Carter Hall (LSD-50)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Carter_Hall_(LSD-50)"},{"link_name":"USS Fort McHenry (LSD-43)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Fort_McHenry"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22nd_MEU-17"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"XVIII Airborne Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVIII_Airborne_Corps"},{"link_name":"82nd Airborne Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/82nd_Airborne_Division"},{"link_name":"Fort Bragg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bragg_(North_Carolina)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FACTBOX-16"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"USS Bunker Hill (CG-52)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bunker_Hill_(CG-52)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"USCGC Oak (WLB-211)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC_Oak"},{"link_name":"USNS Grasp (T-ARS-51)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS_Grasp"},{"link_name":"USS Gunston Hall (LSD-44)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Gunston_Hall_(LSD-44)"},{"link_name":"Killick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killick"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"24th MEU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit"},{"link_name":"USS Nassau (LHA-4)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Nassau_(LHA-4)"},{"link_name":"USS Mesa Verde (LPD-19)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Mesa_Verde"},{"link_name":"USS Ashland (LSD-48)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Ashland_(LSD-48)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24MEU_Haiti-22"},{"link_name":"Naval Station Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Station_Norfolk"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24th_MEU-23"},{"link_name":"V-22 Osprey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Osprey"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24MEU_Haiti-22"},{"link_name":"naval base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base"},{"link_name":"Guantánamo Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usmil-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Evacuees-26"},{"link_name":"Air National Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_National_Guard"},{"link_name":"Toussaint Louverture International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"USNS Henson (T-AGS-63)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS_Henson"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"amphibious ready group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibious_ready_group"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24MEU_leave_Haiti-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"190th Civil Engineering Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=190th_Civil_Engineering_Squadron&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kansas Air National Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_Air_National_Guard"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NT-2010-03-08-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NT-2010-03-08-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22MEUleaves-36"}],"text":"Air traffic control operations by USAF Special Operations Combat Controllers at Port-au-Prince airport.Two United States Coast Guard Cutters off Port-au-Prince, Haiti. USCGC Forward is in the foreground.The United States Coast Guard cutters USCGC Forward (WMEC-911) and USCGC Mohawk (WMEC-913), both arrived in Port-au-Prince, on 13 January. A Maritime Intelligence Support Team aboard the Forward assessed damage to the port.[7] The cutters were supported by the destroyer USS Higgins (DDG-76).[8] Two United States Air Force special operations MC-130H Combat Talon II aircraft also arrived 13 January with emergency supplies, medical units and special tactics teams.[9] Other Coast Guard ships including the USCGC Valiant (WMEC-621) and the USCGC Tahoma (WMEC-908) were dispatched.[10]\nAs of 14 January, United States Air Force Special Operations personnel were controlling operations of the Toussaint Louverture International Airport in Port-au-Prince, after having cleared runways and having set up a 24-hour air traffic control.[11]\nOn 15 January, the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70) arrived off the coast of Port-au-Prince to provide humanitarian aid, with its trained personnel, emergency supplies and 19 helicopters on deck.[12][13]The United States Navy hospital ship USNS Comfort (T-AH-20) with 1,000 beds and 956 naval hospital staff was deployed to Haiti, as were the guided-missile frigate USS Underwood (FFG-36), and the guided missile cruiser USS Normandy (CG-60).[14][15][16]\nApproximately 2,200 United States Marines of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit from Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune sailed on the USS Bataan (LHD-5), USS Carter Hall (LSD-50), and USS Fort McHenry (LSD-43);[17] while 3,000 United States Army soldiers of the XVIII Airborne Corps HQ and the 82nd Airborne Division from Fort Bragg were sent beginning on 13 January.[16][18][19]\nOn 16 January, USS Bunker Hill (CG-52) arrived in Haiti to assist the Carl Vinson.[20]\nOn 17 January, the USCGC Oak (WLB-211) and the USNS Grasp (T-ARS-51) arrived at Port-au-Prince to begin repairs to the wharves.\nOn the 18th, USS Gunston Hall (LSD-44) anchored at Killick base, and started relief operations.[21]\nAdditional Marines from the 24th MEU on the USS Nassau (LHA-4), USS Mesa Verde (LPD-19), and USS Ashland (LSD-48),[22] which sailed from Naval Station Norfolk on the 18th, were diverted on the 20th from their scheduled deployment to the Middle East.[23] This was the first use of the V-22 Osprey for a humanitarian mission.[22]\nFour injured personnel from the United States embassy were evacuated to the naval base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, by United States Coast Guard helicopters.[24][25]\nAs of 21 January, approximately 10,500 people have been evacuated from Haiti to the US, including 8,300 US citizens.[26] Approximately 45,000 American citizens were thought to have been in Haiti at the time of the earthquake.\nOn 21 January, Air National Guard (ANG) air traffic controllers from the 260th Air Traffic Control Squadron (ATCS) in collaboration with the 248th ATCS, the 258th ATCS and the FAA took over air traffic control operations at Toussaint Louverture International Airport in Port-au-Prince. With an exorbitant amount of supplies, support, and aide in conjunction with evacuation operations, Toussaint Louverture International Airport became the busiest single runway Airport in the world averaging 675 operation per day.\nOn 1 February, the Carl Vinson, Bunker Hill, and USNS Henson (T-AGS-63) ended their mission departed Haiti.[27]\nOn 3 February, the Higgins ended its relief mission and has headed for its home port.[28]\nOn 8 February, the 24th MEU and Nassau amphibious ready group were ordered to resume their original deployment to the Middle East.[29]\nOn 12 February, the US relief force has been reduced from roughly 20,000 troops to roughly 13,000 troops.[30]\nOn 13 February, the Gundston Hall ended its relief mission and has headed back to its original mission.[31]\nOn 14 February, the 190th Civil Engineering Squadron of the Kansas Air National Guard returned home.[32]\nOn 18 February, the Oak has left Haiti and arrived back at home port.[33]\nOn 1 March, Carter Hall was ordered home.[34]\nOn 8 March, Comfort had discharged its last patient,[34] and departed on 10 March.[35]\nOn 24 March, the 22nd MEU and ARG were released from their mission and sailed for home.[36]","title":"Mission timeline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Alain Joyandet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Joyandet"},{"link_name":"air traffic control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Hugo Chavez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Chavez"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Fidel Castro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Castro"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Evo Morales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evo_Morales"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Daniel Ortega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Ortega"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Department of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_State"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"United States Congressman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Ron Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Paul"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ronpaul-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"The United Nations expressed approval of the mission by United States and stated that the American troops would not stay long.[37][38]Elements of the public of France expressed dissatisfaction with both the much larger size of the American relief operations compared to those of European nations and the commanding role U.S. forces took on the ground.[39] Reflecting these feelings the French Minister for the Francophonie, Alain Joyandet, characterized the United States as \"occupying\" Haiti, citing the take over of air traffic control in the country.[40]Several Latin American leaders accused the United States of militarily occupying Haiti. These socialist leaders, all long-time critics of the United States, included Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez[41][42] former Cuban President Fidel Castro,[43] Bolivian President Evo Morales[44] and Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega.[45][46] Through its Department of State the United States rejected the allegations and pointed to the fact that US forces were there by the invitation of the Haitian government.[47] Despite this United States Congressman Ron Paul (R-Texas) opposed House of Representatives Resolution 1021,[48] citing concerns over \"the possibility of an open-ended US military occupation of Haiti\".[49][50]","title":"International reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chief Master Sergeant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Master_Sergeant"},{"link_name":"Antonio D. Travis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonio_D._Travis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"100 most influential people of 2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_100"},{"link_name":"TIME Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"combat controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Combat_Control_Team"},{"link_name":"air traffic control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"text":"Air Force Chief Master Sergeant Antonio D. Travis was named one of the top 100 most influential people of 2010 by TIME Magazine for his role in Operation Unified Response. Chief Travis is a combat controller who deployed to Port-au-Prince just 30 hours after the earthquake. His team set up a card table to conduct air traffic control operations for Toussaint L'Ouverture International Airport, and was recognized for orchestrating the largest single-runway operation in history. The combat control team ran the airport for 12 days before US Air Force air traffic controllers took over. During those 12 days the team oversaw more than 4,000 takeoffs and landings, an average of one every five minutes. Their efforts are credited for ensuring the safe delivery many humanitarian relief teams from around the world and thousands of tons of life saving supplies.[51][52][53][54]","title":"Legacy"}]

[{"image_text":"Medics from the US Army's 95th Civil Affairs Brigade deliver a baby during relief efforts. The mother named the female child \"Samantha\" after Uncle Sam.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/US_Army_soldiers_deliver_a_baby_in_Haiti_during_Operation_Unified_Response.jpg/220px-US_Army_soldiers_deliver_a_baby_in_Haiti_during_Operation_Unified_Response.jpg"},{"image_text":"Air traffic control operations by USAF Special Operations Combat Controllers at Port-au-Prince airport."},{"image_text":"Two United States Coast Guard Cutters off Port-au-Prince, Haiti. USCGC Forward is in the foreground.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/USCG_Cutters_Haiti_2010_Earthquake.JPG/220px-USCG_Cutters_Haiti_2010_Earthquake.JPG"}]

[{"title":"Operation Hestia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Hestia"},{"title":"Opération Séisme Haiti 2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_S%C3%A9isme_Haiti_2010"},{"title":"Operation Unified Assistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Unified_Assistance"},{"title":"2004 Indian Ocean tsunami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami"},{"title":"Operation United Assistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_United_Assistance"},{"title":"Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola_virus_epidemic_in_West_Africa"}]

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original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110720111721/http://www2.hurlburt.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123203941","external_links_name":"\"One more hooah left in me\""},{"Link":"http://www2.hurlburt.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123203941","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110929023138/http://205.188.238.181/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1984685_1984949_1985270,00.html","external_links_name":"\"Chief Master Sergeant Tony Travis\""},{"Link":"http://205.188.238.181/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1984685_1984949_1985270,00.html","external_links_name":"the original"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_product

Empty product

["1 Nullary arithmetic product","1.1 Definition","1.2 Relevance of defining empty products","1.3 Logarithms and exponentials","2 Nullary Cartesian product","3 Nullary categorical product","4 In logic","5 In computer programming","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Result from multiplying no factors For the non-empty product that equals to zero, see zero-product property. In mathematics, an empty product, or nullary product or vacuous product, is the result of multiplying no factors. It is by convention equal to the multiplicative identity (assuming there is an identity for the multiplication operation in question), just as the empty sum—the result of adding no numbers—is by convention zero, or the additive identity. When numbers are implied, the empty product becomes one. The term empty product is most often used in the above sense when discussing arithmetic operations. However, the term is sometimes employed when discussing set-theoretic intersections, categorical products, and products in computer programming. Nullary arithmetic product Definition Let a1, a2, a3, ... be a sequence of numbers, and let P m = ∏ i = 1 m a i = a 1 ⋯ a m {\displaystyle P_{m}=\prod _{i=1}^{m}a_{i}=a_{1}\cdots a_{m}} be the product of the first m elements of the sequence. Then P m = P m − 1 a m {\displaystyle P_{m}=P_{m-1}a_{m}} for all m = 1, 2, ... provided that we use the convention P 0 = 1 {\displaystyle P_{0}=1} . In other words, a "product" with no factors at all evaluates to 1. Allowing a "product" with zero factors reduces the number of cases to be considered in many mathematical formulas. Such a "product" is a natural starting point in induction proofs, as well as in algorithms. For these reasons, the "empty product is one" convention is common practice in mathematics and computer programming. Relevance of defining empty products The notion of an empty product is useful for the same reason that the number zero and the empty set are useful: while they seem to represent quite uninteresting notions, their existence allows for a much shorter mathematical presentation of many subjects. For example, the empty products 0! = 1 (the factorial of zero) and x0 = 1 shorten Taylor series notation (see zero to the power of zero for a discussion of when x = 0). Likewise, if M is an n × n matrix, then M0 is the n × n identity matrix, reflecting the fact that applying a linear map zero times has the same effect as applying the identity map. As another example, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic says that every positive integer greater than 1 can be written uniquely as a product of primes. However, if we do not allow products with only 0 or 1 factors, then the theorem (and its proof) become longer. More examples of the use of the empty product in mathematics may be found in the binomial theorem (which assumes and implies that x0 = 1 for all x), Stirling number, König's theorem, binomial type, binomial series, difference operator and Pochhammer symbol. Logarithms and exponentials Since logarithms map products to sums: ln ⁡ ∏ i x i = ∑ i ln ⁡ x i {\displaystyle \ln \prod _{i}x_{i}=\sum _{i}\ln x_{i}} they map an empty product to an empty sum. Conversely, the exponential function maps sums into products: e ∑ i x i = ∏ i e x i {\displaystyle e^{\sum _{i}x_{i}}=\prod _{i}e^{x_{i}}} and maps an empty sum to an empty product. Nullary Cartesian product Consider the general definition of the Cartesian product: ∏ i ∈ I X i = { g : I → ⋃ i ∈ I X i ∣ ∀ i   g ( i ) ∈ X i } . {\displaystyle \prod _{i\in I}X_{i}=\left\{g:I\to \bigcup _{i\in I}X_{i}\mid \forall i\ g(i)\in X_{i}\right\}.} If I is empty, the only such g is the empty function f ∅ {\displaystyle f_{\varnothing }} , which is the unique subset of ∅ × ∅ {\displaystyle \varnothing \times \varnothing } that is a function ∅ → ∅ {\displaystyle \varnothing \to \varnothing } , namely the empty subset ∅ {\displaystyle \varnothing } (the only subset that ∅ × ∅ = ∅ {\displaystyle \varnothing \times \varnothing =\varnothing } has): ∏ ∅ = { f ∅ : ∅ → ∅ } = { ∅ } . {\displaystyle \prod _{\varnothing }{}=\left\{f_{\varnothing }:\varnothing \to \varnothing \right\}=\{\varnothing \}.} Thus, the cardinality of the Cartesian product of no sets is 1. Under the perhaps more familiar n-tuple interpretation, ∏ ∅ = { ( ) } , {\displaystyle \prod _{\varnothing }{}=\{()\},} that is, the singleton set containing the empty tuple. Note that in both representations the empty product has cardinality 1 – the number of all ways to produce 0 outputs from 0 inputs is 1. Nullary categorical product In any category, the product of an empty family is a terminal object of that category. This can be demonstrated by using the limit definition of the product. An n-fold categorical product can be defined as the limit with respect to a diagram given by the discrete category with n objects. An empty product is then given by the limit with respect to the empty category, which is the terminal object of the category if it exists. This definition specializes to give results as above. For example, in the category of sets the categorical product is the usual Cartesian product, and the terminal object is a singleton set. In the category of groups the categorical product is the Cartesian product of groups, and the terminal object is a trivial group with one element. To obtain the usual arithmetic definition of the empty product we must take the decategorification of the empty product in the category of finite sets. Dually, the coproduct of an empty family is an initial object. Nullary categorical products or coproducts may not exist in a given category; e.g. in the category of fields, neither exists. In logic Classical logic defines the operation of conjunction, which is generalized to universal quantification in predicate calculus, and is widely known as logical multiplication because we intuitively identify true with 1 and false with 0 and our conjunction behaves as ordinary multiplier. Multipliers can have arbitrary number of inputs. In case of 0 inputs, we have empty conjunction, which is identically equal to true. This is related to another concept in logic, vacuous truth, which tells us that empty set of objects can have any property. It can be explained the way that the conjunction (as part of logic in general) deals with values less or equal 1. This means that the longer the conjunction, the higher the probability of ending up with 0. Conjunction merely checks the propositions and returns 0 (or false) as soon as one of propositions evaluates to false. Reducing the number of conjoined propositions increases the chance to pass the check and stay with 1. Particularly, if there are 0 tests or members to check, none can fail, so by default we must always succeed regardless of which propositions or member properties were to be tested. In computer programming Many programming languages, such as Python, allow the direct expression of lists of numbers, and even functions that allow an arbitrary number of parameters. If such a language has a function that returns the product of all the numbers in a list, it usually works like this: >>> math.prod() 30 >>> math.prod() 6 >>> math.prod() 2 >>> math.prod() 1 (Please note: prod is not available in the math module prior to version 3.8.) This convention helps avoid having to code special cases like "if length of list is 1" or "if length of list is zero." Multiplication is an infix operator and therefore a binary operator, complicating the notation of an empty product. Some programming languages handle this by implementing variadic functions. For example, the fully parenthesized prefix notation of Lisp languages gives rise to a natural notation for nullary functions: (* 2 2 2)  ; evaluates to 8 (* 2 2)  ; evaluates to 4 (* 2)  ; evaluates to 2 (*)  ; evaluates to 1 See also Iterated binary operation Empty function References ^ Jaroslav Nešetřil, Jiří Matoušek (1998). Invitation to Discrete Mathematics. Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-19-850207-9. ^ A.E. Ingham and R C Vaughan (1990). The Distribution of Prime Numbers. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-521-39789-8. ^ Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 211 (Revised third ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 9, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556, Zbl 0984.00001 ^ David M. Bloom (1979). Linear Algebra and Geometry. pp. 45. ISBN 0521293243. ^ Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (1990-03-04). "How Computing Science created a new mathematical style". EWD. Retrieved 2010-01-20. Hardy and Wright: 'Every positive integer, except 1, is a product of primes', Harold M. Stark: 'If n is an integer greater than 1, then either n is prime or n is a finite product of primes'. These examples — which I owe to A. J. M. van Gasteren — both reject the empty product, the last one also rejects the product with a single factor. ^ Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (1986-11-14). "The nature of my research and why I do it". EWD. Retrieved 2024-03-22. But also 0 is certainly finite and by defining the product of 0 factors — how else? — to be equal to 1 we can do away with the exception: 'If n is a positive integer, then n is a finite product of primes.' External links PlanetMath article on the empty product

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Likewise, if M is an n × n matrix, then M0 is the n × n identity matrix, reflecting the fact that applying a linear map zero times has the same effect as applying the identity map.As another example, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic says that every positive integer greater than 1 can be written uniquely as a product of primes. However, if we do not allow products with only 0 or 1 factors, then the theorem (and its proof) become longer.[5][6]More examples of the use of the empty product in mathematics may be found in the binomial theorem (which assumes and implies that x0 = 1 for all x), Stirling number, König's theorem, binomial type, binomial series, difference operator and Pochhammer symbol.","title":"Nullary arithmetic product"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"empty sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_sum"}],"sub_title":"Logarithms and exponentials","text":"Since logarithms map products to sums:ln\n ⁡\n \n ∏\n \n i\n \n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ln \\prod _{i}x_{i}=\\sum _{i}\\ln x_{i}}they map an empty product to an empty sum.Conversely, the exponential function maps sums into products:e\n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∏\n \n i\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{\\sum _{i}x_{i}}=\\prod _{i}e^{x_{i}}}and maps an empty sum to an empty product.","title":"Nullary arithmetic product"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cartesian product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product"},{"link_name":"empty function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_function"},{"link_name":"tuple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuple"},{"link_name":"singleton set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singleton_set"},{"link_name":"empty tuple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_tuple"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"}],"text":"Consider the general definition of the Cartesian product:∏\n \n i\n ∈\n I\n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n {\n \n g\n :\n I\n →\n \n ⋃\n \n i\n ∈\n I\n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ∣\n ∀\n i\n  \n g\n (\n i\n )\n ∈\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n \n }\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\prod _{i\\in I}X_{i}=\\left\\{g:I\\to \\bigcup _{i\\in I}X_{i}\\mid \\forall i\\ g(i)\\in X_{i}\\right\\}.}If I is empty, the only such g is the empty function \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n ∅\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{\\varnothing }}\n \n, which is the unique subset of \n \n \n \n ∅\n ×\n ∅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varnothing \\times \\varnothing }\n \n that is a function \n \n \n \n ∅\n →\n ∅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varnothing \\to \\varnothing }\n \n, namely the empty subset \n \n \n \n ∅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varnothing }\n \n (the only subset that \n \n \n \n ∅\n ×\n ∅\n =\n ∅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varnothing \\times \\varnothing =\\varnothing }\n \n has):∏\n \n ∅\n \n \n \n\n \n =\n \n {\n \n \n f\n \n ∅\n \n \n :\n ∅\n →\n ∅\n \n }\n \n =\n {\n ∅\n }\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\prod _{\\varnothing }{}=\\left\\{f_{\\varnothing }:\\varnothing \\to \\varnothing \\right\\}=\\{\\varnothing \\}.}Thus, the cardinality of the Cartesian product of no sets is 1.Under the perhaps more familiar n-tuple interpretation,∏\n \n ∅\n \n \n \n\n \n =\n {\n (\n )\n }\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\prod _{\\varnothing }{}=\\{()\\},}that is, the singleton set containing the empty tuple. Note that in both representations the empty product has cardinality 1 – the number of all ways to produce 0 outputs from 0 inputs is 1.","title":"Nullary Cartesian product"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"terminal object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_object"},{"link_name":"limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagram_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"discrete category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_category"},{"link_name":"category of sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_sets"},{"link_name":"category of groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_groups"},{"link_name":"decategorification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decategorification"},{"link_name":"Dually","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"coproduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coproduct"},{"link_name":"initial object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_object"},{"link_name":"category of fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_fields"}],"text":"In any category, the product of an empty family is a terminal object of that category. This can be demonstrated by using the limit definition of the product. An n-fold categorical product can be defined as the limit with respect to a diagram given by the discrete category with n objects. An empty product is then given by the limit with respect to the empty category, which is the terminal object of the category if it exists. This definition specializes to give results as above. For example, in the category of sets the categorical product is the usual Cartesian product, and the terminal object is a singleton set. In the category of groups the categorical product is the Cartesian product of groups, and the terminal object is a trivial group with one element. To obtain the usual arithmetic definition of the empty product we must take the decategorification of the empty product in the category of finite sets.Dually, the coproduct of an empty family is an initial object.\nNullary categorical products or coproducts may not exist in a given category; e.g. in the category of fields, neither exists.","title":"Nullary categorical product"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Classical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_logic"},{"link_name":"conjunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunction"},{"link_name":"universal quantification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_quantification"},{"link_name":"predicate calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_calculus"},{"link_name":"vacuous truth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuous_truth"}],"text":"Classical logic defines the operation of conjunction, which is generalized to universal quantification in predicate calculus, and is widely known as logical multiplication because we intuitively identify true with 1 and false with 0 and our conjunction behaves as ordinary multiplier. Multipliers can have arbitrary number of inputs. In case of 0 inputs, we have empty conjunction, which is identically equal to true.This is related to another concept in logic, vacuous truth, which tells us that empty set of objects can have any property. It can be explained the way that the conjunction (as part of logic in general) deals with values less or equal 1. This means that the longer the conjunction, the higher the probability of ending up with 0. Conjunction merely checks the propositions and returns 0 (or false) as soon as one of propositions evaluates to false. Reducing the number of conjoined propositions increases the chance to pass the check and stay with 1. Particularly, if there are 0 tests or members to check, none can fail, so by default we must always succeed regardless of which propositions or member properties were to be tested.","title":"In logic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"infix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infix_notation"},{"link_name":"variadic functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variadic_function"},{"link_name":"fully parenthesized prefix notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-expression"},{"link_name":"Lisp languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_programming_language"},{"link_name":"nullary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nullary"}],"text":"Many programming languages, such as Python, allow the direct expression of lists of numbers, and even functions that allow an arbitrary number of parameters. If such a language has a function that returns the product of all the numbers in a list, it usually works like this:>>> math.prod([2, 3, 5])\n30\n>>> math.prod([2, 3])\n6\n>>> math.prod([2])\n2\n>>> math.prod([])\n1(Please note: prod is not available in the math module prior to version 3.8.)This convention helps avoid having to code special cases like \"if length of list is 1\" or \"if length of list is zero.\"Multiplication is an infix operator and therefore a binary operator, complicating the notation of an empty product. Some programming languages handle this by implementing variadic functions. For example, the fully parenthesized prefix notation of Lisp languages gives rise to a natural notation for nullary functions:(* 2 2 2)  ; evaluates to 8\n(* 2 2)  ; evaluates to 4\n(* 2)  ; evaluates to 2\n(*)  ; evaluates to 1","title":"In computer programming"}]

[]

[{"title":"Iterated binary operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterated_binary_operation"},{"title":"Empty function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_function"}]

[{"reference":"Jaroslav Nešetřil, Jiří Matoušek (1998). Invitation to Discrete Mathematics. Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-19-850207-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaroslav_Ne%C5%A1et%C5%99il","url_text":"Jaroslav Nešetřil"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Matou%C5%A1ek_(mathematician)","url_text":"Jiří Matoušek"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-850207-9","url_text":"0-19-850207-9"}]},{"reference":"A.E. Ingham and R C Vaughan (1990). The Distribution of Prime Numbers. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-521-39789-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-39789-8","url_text":"0-521-39789-8"}]},{"reference":"Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 211 (Revised third ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 9, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556, Zbl 0984.00001","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_Lang","url_text":"Lang, Serge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Texts_in_Mathematics","url_text":"Graduate Texts in Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95385-4","url_text":"978-0-387-95385-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1878556","url_text":"1878556"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbl_(identifier)","url_text":"Zbl"},{"url":"https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0984.00001","url_text":"0984.00001"}]},{"reference":"David M. Bloom (1979). Linear Algebra and Geometry. pp. 45. ISBN 0521293243.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/linearalgebrageo0000bloo","url_text":"Linear Algebra and Geometry"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/linearalgebrageo0000bloo/page/45","url_text":"45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521293243","url_text":"0521293243"}]},{"reference":"Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (1990-03-04). \"How Computing Science created a new mathematical style\". EWD. Retrieved 2010-01-20. Hardy and Wright: 'Every positive integer, except 1, is a product of primes', Harold M. Stark: 'If n is an integer greater than 1, then either n is prime or n is a finite product of primes'. These examples — which I owe to A. J. M. van Gasteren — both reject the empty product, the last one also rejects the product with a single factor.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_Wybe_Dijkstra","url_text":"Edsger Wybe Dijkstra"},{"url":"http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD10xx/EWD1073.html","url_text":"\"How Computing Science created a new mathematical style\""}]},{"reference":"Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (1986-11-14). \"The nature of my research and why I do it\". EWD. Retrieved 2024-03-22. But also 0 is certainly finite and by defining the product of 0 factors — how else? — to be equal to 1 we can do away with the exception: 'If n is a positive integer, then n is a finite product of primes.'","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_Wybe_Dijkstra","url_text":"Edsger Wybe Dijkstra"},{"url":"https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD09xx/EWD993.html","url_text":"\"The nature of my research and why I do it\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Symposium_on_Algorithms_and_Computation

International Symposium on Algorithms and Computation

["1 References"]

Academic conference in the field of theoretical computer science ISAAC, the International Symposium on Algorithms and Computation, is an academic conference in the field of theoretical computer science. ISAAC has been organized annually since 1990. The proceedings are published by Springer-Verlag in the LNCS series. References ^ "Isaac 2012". Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany P ≟ NP This theoretical computer science–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

[{"reference":"\"Isaac 2012\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/isaac2012/past_conferences.htm","url_text":"\"Isaac 2012\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus_university

Campus university

["1 See also","2 References"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Campus university" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The official map of the campus of the University of Manchester A campus university is a British term for a university situated on one site, with student accommodation, teaching and research facilities, and leisure activities all together. It is derived from the Latin term campus, meaning "a flat expanse of land, plain, field". The founding of these new institutions initiated a wave of far reaching expansion in higher education within the UK and helped open access to Higher Education to students who found access to the more traditional universities difficult or closed. The traditional universities tended to attract students from the exclusive private education sector in the UK and from privileged backgrounds whereas campus universities attracted students from all classes, backgrounds and schools (especially the state funded grammar and then later comprehensive schools). These institutions also promoted "new" courses of study and so helped initiate not just a great expansion in numbers of students but also in the range of subjects studied. As such, many students in the campus universities, particularly in the post-war period of 1950 to 1970, were the first member of their family ever to go to university, and were studying new and "exciting" topics, which lent a radical edge to the experience of higher education. Campus universities are contrasted to collegiate universities, based on a number of colleges (such as the universities of Oxford, Durham, London or Cambridge) or a university consisting of a number of sites, or even individual buildings, spread throughout a town (such as the University of Edinburgh or the University of Sheffield). Confusingly, multi-site universities often call each separate site "a campus" and many original campus universities now have expanded to more than one site (or campus), for example the University of Nottingham. The classic campus university is often found on the edge of a city. Examples include: Aston University in Birmingham is a classic campus university, but located in the city centre of the city. University of Bath which is just outside the city of Bath University of Birmingham which is located in Edgbaston, 3 miles south-west of Birmingham Brunel University London which is in Uxbridge, on the edge of West London University of East Anglia which is 3 miles from the city of Norwich University of Essex near Colchester University of Exeter which has four campuses located in Devon and Cornwall Keele University near Newcastle-under-Lyme University of Kent which is just on the edge of the city of Canterbury Lancaster University near the city of Lancaster University of Nottingham which is located on the outer-suburbs of Nottingham University of Reading which has three campuses around Reading Robert Gordon University on the outskirts of Aberdeen University of Roehampton which is located in south-west London Queen Mary University of London which is located in Mile End, London Royal Holloway, University of London on the outskirts of London University of Stirling on the outskirts of Stirling University of Sussex which is 4 miles from the city of Brighton Swansea University which has two campuses, both 2 to 3 miles from Swansea University of Warwick near Coventry University of York on the outskirts of York See also Robbins Report British universities Post-1992 universities Russell Group 1994 Group References ^ Oxford Latin Dictionary, ed. P. G. W. Glare, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1982), p. 263 vteUniversity associations and groupings in the United KingdomFormal associationsCurrent Cathedrals Group Eastern ARC GuildHE GW4 Francis Crick Institute MedCity Midlands Innovation Million+ N8 Research Partnership NCUK Russell Group SES SETsquared Thomas Young Centre University Alliance Universities Scotland Universities UK Wallace Group White Rose University Consortium Defunct 1994 Group Global Medical Excellence Cluster North West Universities Association By age Ancient (pre-1600) Scotland (pre-1600) Red brick (1900–1963) Plate glass (1960–1969) New (since 1992) Informal groupings Campus university Golden triangle Doxbridge Oxbridge

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UOMCampusmap.jpg"},{"link_name":"University of Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manchester"},{"link_name":"university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"higher education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education"},{"link_name":"grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_school"},{"link_name":"comprehensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_school"},{"link_name":"collegiate universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiate_universities"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Durham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham_University"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_London"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"University of Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"University of Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sheffield"},{"link_name":"University of Nottingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nottingham"},{"link_name":"Aston University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aston_University"},{"link_name":"University of Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bath"},{"link_name":"Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath,_Somerset"},{"link_name":"University of Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Birmingham"},{"link_name":"Edgbaston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgbaston"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"Brunel University London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunel_University_London"},{"link_name":"Uxbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uxbridge"},{"link_name":"West London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_London_(sub-region)"},{"link_name":"University of East Anglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_East_Anglia"},{"link_name":"Norwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich"},{"link_name":"University of Essex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Essex"},{"link_name":"Colchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colchester"},{"link_name":"University of Exeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Exeter"},{"link_name":"Keele University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keele_University"},{"link_name":"Newcastle-under-Lyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme"},{"link_name":"University of Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kent"},{"link_name":"Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury"},{"link_name":"Lancaster University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster_University"},{"link_name":"Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster,_Lancashire"},{"link_name":"University of Nottingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nottingham"},{"link_name":"University of Reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Reading"},{"link_name":"Robert Gordon University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Robert_Gordon_University"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen"},{"link_name":"University of Roehampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Roehampton"},{"link_name":"Queen Mary University of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Mary_University_of_London"},{"link_name":"Royal Holloway, University of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Holloway,_University_of_London"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"University of Stirling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Stirling"},{"link_name":"Stirling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling"},{"link_name":"University of Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Swansea University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swansea_University"},{"link_name":"Swansea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swansea"},{"link_name":"University of Warwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Warwick"},{"link_name":"Coventry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry"},{"link_name":"University of York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_York"},{"link_name":"York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York"}],"text":"The official map of the campus of the University of ManchesterA campus university is a British term for a university situated on one site, with student accommodation, teaching and research facilities, and leisure activities all together. It is derived from the Latin term campus, meaning \"a flat expanse of land, plain, field\".[1]The founding of these new institutions initiated a wave of far reaching expansion in higher education within the UK and helped open access to Higher Education to students who found access to the more traditional universities difficult or closed. The traditional universities tended to attract students from the exclusive private education sector in the UK and from privileged backgrounds whereas campus universities attracted students from all classes, backgrounds and schools (especially the state funded grammar and then later comprehensive schools).These institutions also promoted \"new\" courses of study and so helped initiate not just a great expansion in numbers of students but also in the range of subjects studied.As such, many students in the campus universities, particularly in the post-war period of 1950 to 1970, were the first member of their family ever to go to university, and were studying new and \"exciting\" topics, which lent a radical edge to the experience of higher education.Campus universities are contrasted to collegiate universities, based on a number of colleges (such as the universities of Oxford, Durham, London or Cambridge) or a university consisting of a number of sites, or even individual buildings, spread throughout a town (such as the University of Edinburgh or the University of Sheffield). Confusingly, multi-site universities often call each separate site \"a campus\" and many original campus universities now have expanded to more than one site (or campus), for example the University of Nottingham.The classic campus university is often found on the edge of a city. Examples include:Aston University in Birmingham is a classic campus university, but located in the city centre of the city.\nUniversity of Bath which is just outside the city of Bath\nUniversity of Birmingham which is located in Edgbaston, 3 miles south-west of Birmingham\nBrunel University London which is in Uxbridge, on the edge of West London\nUniversity of East Anglia which is 3 miles from the city of Norwich\nUniversity of Essex near Colchester\nUniversity of Exeter which has four campuses located in Devon and Cornwall\nKeele University near Newcastle-under-Lyme\nUniversity of Kent which is just on the edge of the city of Canterbury\nLancaster University near the city of Lancaster\nUniversity of Nottingham which is located on the outer-suburbs of Nottingham\nUniversity of Reading which has three campuses around Reading\nRobert Gordon University on the outskirts of Aberdeen\nUniversity of Roehampton which is located in south-west London\nQueen Mary University of London which is located in Mile End, London\nRoyal Holloway, University of London on the outskirts of London\nUniversity of Stirling on the outskirts of Stirling\nUniversity of Sussex which is 4 miles from the city of Brighton\nSwansea University which has two campuses, both 2 to 3 miles from Swansea\nUniversity of Warwick near Coventry\nUniversity of York on the outskirts of York","title":"Campus university"}]

[{"image_text":"The official map of the campus of the University of Manchester","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/UOMCampusmap.jpg/220px-UOMCampusmap.jpg"}]

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi5_(website)

hi5

["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]

American social networking service For other uses, see High five (disambiguation). hi5Screenshot Screenshot of Hi5's sign up/log inType of siteSocial networking serviceAvailable inMultilingualOwnerThe Meet GroupFounder(s)Ramu YalamanchiURLhi5.comCommercialyesRegistrationRequiredLaunchedJune 27, 2004; 19 years ago (2004-06-27)Current statusActive Previous Hi5 logo used until 2010. Map of countries with most users of Hi5 hi5 is an American social networking service based in San Francisco, California. It is owned by The Meet Group. Users can create a profile and provide personal information including interests, age, photos, and hometown. Users can also send friend requests via email to other users. When a person receives a friend request, he may accept or decline it, or block the user altogether. If the user accepts another user as a friend, the two will be connected directly or in the 1st degree. The user will then appear on the person's contact list and vice versa. Some users opt to make their profiles available for everyone on hi5 to view. Other users exercise the option to make their profile viewable only to those people who are in their network. In a 2009 redesign, hi5 added features oriented toward gaming and entertainment. The site featured over 200 games in a variety of genres, and was adding games at a rate of 2-3 per week. It is targeted to users that are interested in flirting, dating, and making new friends. In order to join hi5, users must be age 18 or older. Due to hi5's shift in focus to social gaming, Comscore reclassified hi5 as an online gaming site in early 2011. According to comScore, hi5 ranked as the 6th most trafficked online gaming site. History The company was founded in 2003 by Ramu Yalamanchi. It was profitable in its first year. By 2006, it had become the 8th largest social networking service. Prior to 2004, the company had raised $250,000 from angel investors. By 2007, it was the 2nd largest social networking service after Myspace. In 2007, the company raised $20 million in a series A round from Mohr Davidow Ventures, as well as $15 million in venture debt. In 2008, comScore reported that hi5 was the third most popular social networking service in monthly unique visitors behind Facebook and MySpace. It was also the fastest growing social network. However, international growth of Facebook later hurt hi5. It was most popular in Latin America. The company had gained significant market share in Europe, Latin America, and Asia, and Mary Meeker had cited hi5 as the 10th largest site in the World in her 2007 Technology / Internet Trends report. Bill Gossman was appointed CEO in April 2009, and at that time, hi5 refocused itself as a social-network game platform and opened itself to new game developers. In early 2010, hi5 acquired social gaming company Big Six. In 2010, it announced it had raised $3 million convertible note from existing investor Mohr Davidow, bringing the funding up to $38 million. In October 2010, hi5 announced Sociopath, a set of developer tools designed to make it easier for developers to bring their game to the hi5 platform. A major part of the program was the implementation of Facebook compatible APIs, which simplified the process of bringing games already developed for Facebook to hi5. Sociopath also introduced anonymous play to the site, making it easier for gamers to play games immediately without first having to provide registration info. Sociopath was initially introduced at GDC Online in 2010. In July 2010, the company raised $14 million from Crosslink Capital. In January 2011, Alex St. John joined the company as President and CTO. As a companion to Sociopath, hi5 introduced Sociopay in early 2011. Sociopay was intended to help hi5 to better monetize users, increasing revenues for themselves and developers. Sociopay automatically adjusts the prices for hi5 coins based upon a user's region, capitalizing on hi5's international success and helping to monetize users from many different economies. Sociopay also helps monetize users less likely to purchase coins by instead serving them advertisements. In December 2011, the assets of the company were acquired by Tagged. After selling to Tagged, the management team of hi5 formed magi.com as a pure gaming site open to other game developers. Magi.com was shut down in June 2012. With Tagged's acquisition of hi5, the gaming platform changed from third-party developed games to games developed by Tagged's in-house team. Tagged noted that hi5's games weren't as "vibrant" as they could be. In 2017, Tagged and hi5 were acquired by The Meet Group for $60 million. See also List of social networking services VK Facebook Friendster Orkut Internet portal References ^ Raice, Shayndi (December 14, 2011). "Tagged acquires Facebook competitor Hi5". The Wall Street Journal. ^ Malik, Om (July 22, 2007). "Social Network Hi5 gets $20 million". Gigaom. ^ a b Kale, Vivek (November 25, 2016). Big Data Computing: A Guide for Business and Technology Managers. CRC Press. ISBN 9781315354026. ^ Shaul, Brandy (April 23, 2011). "Hi5 gaining momentum among top online/social gaming sites; should Facebook be concerned?". Games.com. ^ Nations, Daniel (December 19, 2019). "What Is Hi5, and Is It Different from Facebook?". Lifewire. ^ Takahashi, Dean (April 20, 2010). "hi5 Becomes a Top Ten Online Game Site". Venturebeat. ^ "Then and now: a history of social networking sites". CBS News. ^ Cashmore, Pete (July 16, 2006). "hi5, Another Massive Social Network". Mashable. ^ Arrington, Michael (January 20, 2007). "Hi5 Traffic Surges, May Be The Largest Social Network". TechCrunch. ^ "7 social media sites that failed to become 'Facebook'". The Economic Times. 28 May 2017. ^ WEISENTHAL, JOSEPH (January 29, 2008). "Social Net Hi5 Raises $15 Million Venture Debt". Gigaom. ^ "Social Networking Site Hi5 Takes $20 million". TechCrunch. July 22, 2007. ^ "Social Networking Explodes Worldwide as Sites Increase their Focus on Cultural Relevance" (Press release). comScore. August 12, 2008. ^ "hi5 Is Fastest-Growing Top-10 Social Network in the World for First Half of 2008" (Press release). Business Wire. July 23, 2008. ^ Lynley, Matt (December 14, 2011). "The Third Largest Social Network Behind Facebook Just Gobbled Up hi5". Business Insider. ^ Eldon, Eric (June 3, 2008). "The Latin American social networking wars: Market leader Hi5 has been growing, but so has Facebook — and Sonico?". VentureBeat. ^ "Ramu Yalamanchi". angel.co. ^ Eldon, Eric (April 24, 2009). "Bill Gossman is social network Hi5's new chief executive". VentureBeat. ^ MacMillan, Douglas (March 12, 2010). "Social Network Hi5 Gets Its Game On". Bloomberg News. ^ Rao, Leena (February 24, 2010). "hi5 Acquires Social Gaming Company Big Six". TechCrunch. ^ Rao, Leena (April 1, 2010). "Social Network hi5 Raises $3 Million In Debt From Mohr Davidow". Techcrunch. ^ Takahashi, Dean (October 6, 2010). "Will Hi5's new SocioPath game platform lure developers away from Facebook?". VentureBeat. ^ Caoili, Eric (October 6, 2010). "GDC Online: Hi5 Debuts SocioPath Social Gaming Platform". Gamasutra. ^ TAKAHASHI, DEAN (July 13, 2010). "Hi5 raises $14M as it shifts into social games and virtual goods". VentureBeat. ^ Takahashi, Dean (November 30, 2009). "hi5 recruits a beastly gaming veteran as its president". VentureBeat. ^ Brodie, Joel (February 28, 2011). "Talking SocioPath and SocioPay with Hi5's Alex St. John". Gamezebo. ^ Hoge, Patrick (14 December 2011). "Tagged buys assets of Hi5". American City Business Journals. ^ Rose, Mike (March 6, 2012). "Gamasutra - Former Hi5 president Alex St. John reveals new social games network". Gamasutra. ^ Thompson, Mike (June 6, 2012). "Magi.com shutting down". Adweek. ^ Ha, Anthony (January 26, 2012). "Tagged Begins Transformation Of Social Gaming Network hi5". TechCrunch. ^ Constine, Josh (March 6, 2017). "Old-school social networks Tagged and Hi5 bought by MeetMe for $60M". TechCrunch. External links Official website vteSocial networking servicesPersonal 23snaps Amikumu aNobii Are.na Ask.fm Badoo BeReal Bluesky Bondee Bumble Cara Clubhouse Cohost Convoz Cyworld Diaspora display Douban Draugiem.lv Facebook Foursquare City Guide Foursquare Swarm Friendica Gab Gapo Gas Gettr GNU social Hi5 Hive Social Huddles Idka Instagram IGTV IRC-Galleria Kuaishou Kumu Letterboxd LiveJournal Likee Marco Polo Mastodon Meetup MeWe Miaopai micro.blog Minds Mixi MX TakaTak Myspace My World Nextdoor Odnoklassniki Parler Peach Pinterest Pixnet Plurk Promo.com Qzone Readgeek Renren ShareChat Snapchat SNOW Spaces Tagged Tal Canal Taringa! The Meet Group Threads TikTok Tinder Triller Truth Social Tuenti TV Time Tumblr Untappd Vero VK Weibo Whisper X Xiaohongshu Yik Yak Professional Academia.edu Brainly HCL Connections LinkedIn Moodle ResearchGate Solaborate Viadeo XING Yammer Defunct App.net AsianAve Avatars United Bebo Bolt BranchOut Capazoo Cloob eConozco Edmodo Ello Emojli eWorld Eyegroove FitFinder FriendFeed Friends Reunited Friendster Grono.net Google+ Google Buzz Google Currents Hello Heello Highlight Houseparty Hyves IdeaPlane iTunes Ping iWiW Jaiku Keek Lifeknot LunarStorm Me2day Meerkat Miiverse MixBit Mobli Mugshot Multiply Musical.ly Natter Netlog NK.pl Orkut Path Periscope Pheed Piczo PlanetAll Posterous Pownce Qaiku Sciencescape (Metaα) SixDegrees.com Skyrock So.cl Spotify Live Spring.me Streetlife StudiVZ Surfbook Talkbits tbh Tea Party Community Third Voice tribe.net Tout tvtag Vine Windows Live Spaces Wretch Xanga Yahoo! 360° Yahoo! Kickstart Yahoo! Mash Yahoo! Meme Yo Services Software comparison White-label Ning Wall.fm Tools Social network analysis software Diaspora Web 2.0 Suicide Machine Concepts Attention inequality Confessions page Cybersectarianism Fediverse 1+ million users Online identity Small-world experiment Small-world network Social network Thirst trap User profile Virtual community Applications Hospitality exchange service Mobile Online dating comparison Social network advertising Social network hosting service Social profiling User interface Activity stream Brand page Groups Hashtag Like button Online petitions Polling Reblogging Stories Implications Issues relating to social networking services Privacy concerns Problematic social media use Use in investigations Use in politics User gender difference Protocols ActivityPub Decentralized Social Networking Protocol Distributed Social Networking Protocol (defunct) Micropub OpenSocial (defunct) OStatus Pump.io XMPP

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It is owned by The Meet Group.[1][2]Users can create a profile and provide personal information including interests, age, photos, and hometown. Users can also send friend requests via email to other users. When a person receives a friend request, he may accept or decline it, or block the user altogether. If the user accepts another user as a friend, the two will be connected directly or in the 1st degree. The user will then appear on the person's contact list and vice versa. Some users opt to make their profiles available for everyone on hi5 to view. Other users exercise the option to make their profile viewable only to those people who are in their network.In a 2009 redesign, hi5 added features oriented toward gaming and entertainment.[3] The site featured over 200 games in a variety of genres, and was adding games at a rate of 2-3 per week.[4] It is targeted to users that are interested in flirting, dating, and making new friends.[5] In order to join hi5, users must be age 18 or older.[3] Due to hi5's shift in focus to social gaming, Comscore reclassified hi5 as an online gaming site in early 2011. According to comScore, hi5 ranked as the 6th most trafficked online gaming site.[6]","title":"hi5"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"social networking service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"angel investors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel_investor"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"social networking service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service"},{"link_name":"Myspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myspace"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"series A round","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_A_round"},{"link_name":"venture debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_debt"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"comScore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ComScore"},{"link_name":"social networking service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Mary Meeker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Meeker"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"social-network game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social-network_game"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Crosslink Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosslink_Capital"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Alex St. John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_St._John"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Tagged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagged_(website)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"The Meet Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meet_Group"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"The company was founded in 2003 by Ramu Yalamanchi.[citation needed] It was profitable in its first year.[7]By 2006, it had become the 8th largest social networking service.[8]Prior to 2004, the company had raised $250,000 from angel investors.[citation needed]By 2007, it was the 2nd largest social networking service after Myspace.[9][10]In 2007, the company raised $20 million in a series A round from Mohr Davidow Ventures, as well as $15 million in venture debt.[11][12]In 2008, comScore reported that hi5 was the third most popular social networking service in monthly unique visitors behind Facebook and MySpace.[13] It was also the fastest growing social network.[14] However, international growth of Facebook later hurt hi5.[15] It was most popular in Latin America.[16]The company had gained significant market share in Europe, Latin America, and Asia, and Mary Meeker had cited hi5 as the 10th largest site in the World in her 2007 Technology / Internet Trends report.[17]Bill Gossman was appointed CEO in April 2009,[18] and at that time, hi5 refocused itself as a social-network game platform and opened itself to new game developers.[19]In early 2010, hi5 acquired social gaming company Big Six.[20]In 2010, it announced it had raised $3 million convertible note from existing investor Mohr Davidow, bringing the funding up to $38 million.[21]In October 2010, hi5 announced Sociopath, a set of developer tools designed to make it easier for developers to bring their game to the hi5 platform. A major part of the program was the implementation of Facebook compatible APIs, which simplified the process of bringing games already developed for Facebook to hi5. Sociopath also introduced anonymous play to the site, making it easier for gamers to play games immediately without first having to provide registration info.[22] Sociopath was initially introduced at GDC Online in 2010.[23]In July 2010, the company raised $14 million from Crosslink Capital.[24]In January 2011, Alex St. John joined the company as President and CTO.[25]As a companion to Sociopath, hi5 introduced Sociopay in early 2011. Sociopay was intended to help hi5 to better monetize users, increasing revenues for themselves and developers. Sociopay automatically adjusts the prices for hi5 coins based upon a user's region, capitalizing on hi5's international success and helping to monetize users from many different economies. Sociopay also helps monetize users less likely to purchase coins by instead serving them advertisements.[26]In December 2011, the assets of the company were acquired by Tagged.[27]After selling to Tagged, the management team of hi5 formed magi.com as a pure gaming site open to other game developers.[28] Magi.com was shut down in June 2012.[29]With Tagged's acquisition of hi5, the gaming platform changed from third-party developed games to games developed by Tagged's in-house team. Tagged noted that hi5's games weren't as \"vibrant\" as they could be.[30]In 2017, Tagged and hi5 were acquired by The Meet Group for $60 million.[31]","title":"History"}]

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[{"reference":"Raice, Shayndi (December 14, 2011). \"Tagged acquires Facebook competitor Hi5\". The Wall Street Journal.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2011/12/14/tagged-acquires-facebook-competitor-hi5/","url_text":"\"Tagged acquires Facebook competitor Hi5\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal","url_text":"The Wall Street Journal"}]},{"reference":"Malik, Om (July 22, 2007). \"Social Network Hi5 gets $20 million\". Gigaom.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Om_Malik","url_text":"Malik, Om"},{"url":"https://gigaom.com/2007/07/22/hi5/","url_text":"\"Social Network Hi5 gets $20 million\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigaom","url_text":"Gigaom"}]},{"reference":"Kale, Vivek (November 25, 2016). Big Data Computing: A Guide for Business and Technology Managers. CRC Press. 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Games.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.games.com/2011/04/23/hi5-gaining-momentum-among-top-online-social-gaming-sites/","url_text":"\"Hi5 gaining momentum among top online/social gaming sites; should Facebook be concerned?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Games.com&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Games.com"}]},{"reference":"Nations, Daniel (December 19, 2019). \"What Is Hi5, and Is It Different from Facebook?\". Lifewire.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lifewire.com/what-is-hi5-3486399","url_text":"\"What Is Hi5, and Is It Different from Facebook?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifewire","url_text":"Lifewire"}]},{"reference":"Takahashi, Dean (April 20, 2010). \"hi5 Becomes a Top Ten Online Game Site\". Venturebeat.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2011/04/20/hi5-becomes-a-top-ten-online-game-site/","url_text":"\"hi5 Becomes a Top Ten Online Game Site\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venturebeat","url_text":"Venturebeat"}]},{"reference":"\"Then and now: a history of social networking sites\". CBS News.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/then-and-now-a-history-of-social-networking-sites/6/","url_text":"\"Then and now: a history of social networking sites\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_News","url_text":"CBS News"}]},{"reference":"Cashmore, Pete (July 16, 2006). \"hi5, Another Massive Social Network\". Mashable.","urls":[{"url":"https://mashable.com/2006/07/16/hi5-another-massive-social-network/","url_text":"\"hi5, Another Massive Social Network\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashable","url_text":"Mashable"}]},{"reference":"Arrington, Michael (January 20, 2007). \"Hi5 Traffic Surges, May Be The Largest Social Network\". TechCrunch.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2007/01/20/hi5-traffic-surges-may-be-second-largest-social-network/","url_text":"\"Hi5 Traffic Surges, May Be The Largest Social Network\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch","url_text":"TechCrunch"}]},{"reference":"\"7 social media sites that failed to become 'Facebook'\". The Economic Times. 28 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/7-social-media-sites-that-failed-to-become-a-facebook/hi5/slideshow/58881847.cms","url_text":"\"7 social media sites that failed to become 'Facebook'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economic_Times","url_text":"The Economic Times"}]},{"reference":"WEISENTHAL, JOSEPH (January 29, 2008). \"Social Net Hi5 Raises $15 Million Venture Debt\". Gigaom.","urls":[{"url":"https://gigaom.com/2008/01/29/419-social-net-hi5-raises-15-million-venture-debt/","url_text":"\"Social Net Hi5 Raises $15 Million Venture Debt\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigaom","url_text":"Gigaom"}]},{"reference":"\"Social Networking Site Hi5 Takes $20 million\". TechCrunch. July 22, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2007/07/22/social-networking-site-hi5-takes-20million/","url_text":"\"Social Networking Site Hi5 Takes $20 million\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch","url_text":"TechCrunch"}]},{"reference":"\"Social Networking Explodes Worldwide as Sites Increase their Focus on Cultural Relevance\" (Press release). comScore. August 12, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.comscore.com/Insights/Press-Releases/2008/08/Social-Networking-World-Wide","url_text":"\"Social Networking Explodes Worldwide as Sites Increase their Focus on Cultural Relevance\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ComScore","url_text":"comScore"}]},{"reference":"\"hi5 Is Fastest-Growing Top-10 Social Network in the World for First Half of 2008\" (Press release). Business Wire. July 23, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20080723005871/en/hi5-Fastest-Growing-Top-10-Social-Network-World-2008","url_text":"\"hi5 Is Fastest-Growing Top-10 Social Network in the World for First Half of 2008\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Wire","url_text":"Business Wire"}]},{"reference":"Lynley, Matt (December 14, 2011). \"The Third Largest Social Network Behind Facebook Just Gobbled Up hi5\". Business Insider.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.businessinsider.com/the-third-largest-social-network-behind-facebook-just-gobbled-up-hi5-2011-12","url_text":"\"The Third Largest Social Network Behind Facebook Just Gobbled Up hi5\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Insider","url_text":"Business Insider"}]},{"reference":"Eldon, Eric (June 3, 2008). \"The Latin American social networking wars: Market leader Hi5 has been growing, but so has Facebook — and Sonico?\". VentureBeat.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2008/06/03/the-latin-american-social-networking-wars-market-leader-hi5-has-been-growing-but-so-has-facebook-and-sonico/","url_text":"\"The Latin American social networking wars: Market leader Hi5 has been growing, but so has Facebook — and Sonico?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VentureBeat","url_text":"VentureBeat"}]},{"reference":"\"Ramu Yalamanchi\". angel.co.","urls":[{"url":"https://angel.co/p/ramu-yalamanchi","url_text":"\"Ramu Yalamanchi\""}]},{"reference":"Eldon, Eric (April 24, 2009). \"Bill Gossman is social network Hi5's new chief executive\". VentureBeat.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2009/04/24/bill-gossman-is-social-network-hi5s-new-chief-executive/","url_text":"\"Bill Gossman is social network Hi5's new chief executive\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VentureBeat","url_text":"VentureBeat"}]},{"reference":"MacMillan, Douglas (March 12, 2010). \"Social Network Hi5 Gets Its Game On\". Bloomberg News.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-03-12/social-network-hi5-gets-its-game-on","url_text":"\"Social Network Hi5 Gets Its Game On\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_News","url_text":"Bloomberg News"}]},{"reference":"Rao, Leena (February 24, 2010). \"hi5 Acquires Social Gaming Company Big Six\". TechCrunch.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2010/02/24/hi5-acquires-social-gaming-company-big-six/","url_text":"\"hi5 Acquires Social Gaming Company Big Six\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch","url_text":"TechCrunch"}]},{"reference":"Rao, Leena (April 1, 2010). \"Social Network hi5 Raises $3 Million In Debt From Mohr Davidow\". Techcrunch.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2010/04/01/social-network-hi5-raises-23-million-in-funding/","url_text":"\"Social Network hi5 Raises $3 Million In Debt From Mohr Davidow\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techcrunch","url_text":"Techcrunch"}]},{"reference":"Takahashi, Dean (October 6, 2010). \"Will Hi5's new SocioPath game platform lure developers away from Facebook?\". VentureBeat.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2010/10/06/hi5-unveils-sociopath-game-platform-in-bid-to-steal-develoeprs-away-from-facebook/","url_text":"\"Will Hi5's new SocioPath game platform lure developers away from Facebook?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VentureBeat","url_text":"VentureBeat"}]},{"reference":"Caoili, Eric (October 6, 2010). \"GDC Online: Hi5 Debuts SocioPath Social Gaming Platform\". Gamasutra.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/121541/GDC_Online_Hi5_Debuts_SocioPath_Social_Gaming_Platform.php","url_text":"\"GDC Online: Hi5 Debuts SocioPath Social Gaming Platform\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"}]},{"reference":"TAKAHASHI, DEAN (July 13, 2010). \"Hi5 raises $14M as it shifts into social games and virtual goods\". VentureBeat.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2010/07/13/hi5-raises-14m-as-it-shifts-into-social-games-and-virtual-goods/","url_text":"\"Hi5 raises $14M as it shifts into social games and virtual goods\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VentureBeat","url_text":"VentureBeat"}]},{"reference":"Takahashi, Dean (November 30, 2009). \"hi5 recruits a beastly gaming veteran as its president\". VentureBeat.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2009/11/30/hi5-recruits-a-beastly-gaming-veteran-as-its-president/","url_text":"\"hi5 recruits a beastly gaming veteran as its president\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VentureBeat","url_text":"VentureBeat"}]},{"reference":"Brodie, Joel (February 28, 2011). \"Talking SocioPath and SocioPay with Hi5's Alex St. John\". Gamezebo.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamezebo.com/news/talking-sociopath-and-sociopay-with-hi5s-alex-st-john/","url_text":"\"Talking SocioPath and SocioPay with Hi5's Alex St. John\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamezebo","url_text":"Gamezebo"}]},{"reference":"Hoge, Patrick (14 December 2011). \"Tagged buys assets of Hi5\". American City Business Journals.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/news/2011/12/14/tagged-buys-shadow-of-hi5-of-yore.html","url_text":"\"Tagged buys assets of Hi5\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_City_Business_Journals","url_text":"American City Business Journals"}]},{"reference":"Rose, Mike (March 6, 2012). \"Gamasutra - Former Hi5 president Alex St. John reveals new social games network\". Gamasutra.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/164620/Former_Hi5_president_Alex_St_John_reveals_new_social_games_network.php","url_text":"\"Gamasutra - Former Hi5 president Alex St. John reveals new social games network\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"}]},{"reference":"Thompson, Mike (June 6, 2012). \"Magi.com shutting down\". Adweek.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.adweek.com/digital/magi-com-shutting-down/","url_text":"\"Magi.com shutting down\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adweek","url_text":"Adweek"}]},{"reference":"Ha, Anthony (January 26, 2012). \"Tagged Begins Transformation Of Social Gaming Network hi5\". TechCrunch.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2012/01/26/tagged-hi5-transformation/","url_text":"\"Tagged Begins Transformation Of Social Gaming Network hi5\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch","url_text":"TechCrunch"}]},{"reference":"Constine, Josh (March 6, 2017). \"Old-school social networks Tagged and Hi5 bought by MeetMe for $60M\". TechCrunch.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2017/03/06/meetme-tagged-hi5-ifwe/","url_text":"\"Old-school social networks Tagged and Hi5 bought by MeetMe for $60M\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch","url_text":"TechCrunch"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://hi5.com/","external_links_name":"hi5.com"},{"Link":"https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2011/12/14/tagged-acquires-facebook-competitor-hi5/","external_links_name":"\"Tagged acquires Facebook competitor Hi5\""},{"Link":"https://gigaom.com/2007/07/22/hi5/","external_links_name":"\"Social Network Hi5 gets $20 million\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zOGVDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT539","external_links_name":"Big Data Computing: A Guide for Business and Technology Managers"},{"Link":"http://blog.games.com/2011/04/23/hi5-gaining-momentum-among-top-online-social-gaming-sites/","external_links_name":"\"Hi5 gaining momentum among top online/social gaming sites; should Facebook be concerned?\""},{"Link":"https://www.lifewire.com/what-is-hi5-3486399","external_links_name":"\"What Is Hi5, and Is It Different from Facebook?\""},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2011/04/20/hi5-becomes-a-top-ten-online-game-site/","external_links_name":"\"hi5 Becomes a Top Ten Online Game Site\""},{"Link":"https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/then-and-now-a-history-of-social-networking-sites/6/","external_links_name":"\"Then and now: a history of social networking sites\""},{"Link":"https://mashable.com/2006/07/16/hi5-another-massive-social-network/","external_links_name":"\"hi5, Another Massive Social Network\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2007/01/20/hi5-traffic-surges-may-be-second-largest-social-network/","external_links_name":"\"Hi5 Traffic Surges, May Be The Largest Social Network\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/7-social-media-sites-that-failed-to-become-a-facebook/hi5/slideshow/58881847.cms","external_links_name":"\"7 social media sites that failed to become 'Facebook'\""},{"Link":"https://gigaom.com/2008/01/29/419-social-net-hi5-raises-15-million-venture-debt/","external_links_name":"\"Social Net Hi5 Raises $15 Million Venture Debt\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2007/07/22/social-networking-site-hi5-takes-20million/","external_links_name":"\"Social Networking Site Hi5 Takes $20 million\""},{"Link":"https://www.comscore.com/Insights/Press-Releases/2008/08/Social-Networking-World-Wide","external_links_name":"\"Social Networking Explodes Worldwide as Sites Increase their Focus on Cultural Relevance\""},{"Link":"https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20080723005871/en/hi5-Fastest-Growing-Top-10-Social-Network-World-2008","external_links_name":"\"hi5 Is Fastest-Growing Top-10 Social Network in the World for First Half of 2008\""},{"Link":"https://www.businessinsider.com/the-third-largest-social-network-behind-facebook-just-gobbled-up-hi5-2011-12","external_links_name":"\"The Third Largest Social Network Behind Facebook Just Gobbled Up hi5\""},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2008/06/03/the-latin-american-social-networking-wars-market-leader-hi5-has-been-growing-but-so-has-facebook-and-sonico/","external_links_name":"\"The Latin American social networking wars: Market leader Hi5 has been growing, but so has Facebook — and Sonico?\""},{"Link":"https://angel.co/p/ramu-yalamanchi","external_links_name":"\"Ramu Yalamanchi\""},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2009/04/24/bill-gossman-is-social-network-hi5s-new-chief-executive/","external_links_name":"\"Bill Gossman is social network Hi5's new chief executive\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-03-12/social-network-hi5-gets-its-game-on","external_links_name":"\"Social Network Hi5 Gets Its Game On\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2010/02/24/hi5-acquires-social-gaming-company-big-six/","external_links_name":"\"hi5 Acquires Social Gaming Company Big Six\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2010/04/01/social-network-hi5-raises-23-million-in-funding/","external_links_name":"\"Social Network hi5 Raises $3 Million In Debt From Mohr Davidow\""},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2010/10/06/hi5-unveils-sociopath-game-platform-in-bid-to-steal-develoeprs-away-from-facebook/","external_links_name":"\"Will Hi5's new SocioPath game platform lure developers away from Facebook?\""},{"Link":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/121541/GDC_Online_Hi5_Debuts_SocioPath_Social_Gaming_Platform.php","external_links_name":"\"GDC Online: Hi5 Debuts SocioPath Social Gaming Platform\""},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2010/07/13/hi5-raises-14m-as-it-shifts-into-social-games-and-virtual-goods/","external_links_name":"\"Hi5 raises $14M as it shifts into social games and virtual goods\""},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2009/11/30/hi5-recruits-a-beastly-gaming-veteran-as-its-president/","external_links_name":"\"hi5 recruits a beastly gaming veteran as its president\""},{"Link":"https://www.gamezebo.com/news/talking-sociopath-and-sociopay-with-hi5s-alex-st-john/","external_links_name":"\"Talking SocioPath and SocioPay with Hi5's Alex St. John\""},{"Link":"https://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/news/2011/12/14/tagged-buys-shadow-of-hi5-of-yore.html","external_links_name":"\"Tagged buys assets of Hi5\""},{"Link":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/164620/Former_Hi5_president_Alex_St_John_reveals_new_social_games_network.php","external_links_name":"\"Gamasutra - Former Hi5 president Alex St. John reveals new social games network\""},{"Link":"https://www.adweek.com/digital/magi-com-shutting-down/","external_links_name":"\"Magi.com shutting down\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2012/01/26/tagged-hi5-transformation/","external_links_name":"\"Tagged Begins Transformation Of Social Gaming Network hi5\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2017/03/06/meetme-tagged-hi5-ifwe/","external_links_name":"\"Old-school social networks Tagged and Hi5 bought by MeetMe for $60M\""},{"Link":"https://hi5.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Hsuan

Jason Hsuan

["1 References"]

The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guideline for biographies. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be shown, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted.Find sources: "Jason Hsuan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Chairman, executive director and chief executive officer of TPV Technology Jason HsuanAlma materNational Cheng Kung University, New York University Tandon School of Engineering, Boston UniversityOccupationBusinessmanOrganization(s)TPV Technology (CEO, Chairman)Board member ofTPV Technology Jason Hsuan is the chairman, executive director and chief executive officer of TPV Technology. Hsuan graduated from the Department of Electrical Engineering of the National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan in 1968, and holds a doctorate degree in systems engineering from the New York University Tandon School of Engineering (then Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn) and a master's degree in systems engineering from Boston University. In 2012, he was chairman and CEO of TPV Technology Limited. References ^ "TPV Technology Limited". tpv-tech.com. Archived from the original on 2015-06-09. ^ "Jason Hsuan: Executive Profile & Biography - Businessweek". Businessweek.com. ^ "Jason Hsuan Receives Distinguished Electrical and Computer Engineering Achievement Alumni Award". NYU Polytechnic School of Engineering. ^ World Of CEOs Ltd. "Jason Hsuan". worldofceos.com. Archived from the original on 2015-06-09. Retrieved 2015-06-09. ^ "» Strong And Humble, Jason Hsuan Runs TPV Technology". rescuecom.com. 4 March 2012. ^ "CommonWealth Magazine". cw.com.tw. ^ "Jason Hsuan: A Humble Tycoon｜WantChinaTimes.com". Archived from the original on 2015-06-09. Retrieved 2015-06-09. ^ "TPV Technology Ltd (0903.HK) People - Reuters.com". reuters.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-10. ^ all. "Philips and TPV Technology to create world's leading display partnership". philips.com.hk. Archived from the original on 2015-06-09. ^ "CEO BIO: Jason Hsuan". businessweek.com. Archived from the original on 2015-06-09. ^ "The InfoTech 100 Companies: TPV Technology Profile". businessweek.com. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. ^ "TPV Technology Limited (0903.HK Hong Kong) Insider: Jason Hsuan". Macroaxis. ^ "A Pragmatic Princeling Next In Line To Lead China". NPR.org. 14 February 2012. ^ Plunkett, Jack W. (May 2007). Plunkett's Engineering & Research Industry Almanac 2007. ISBN 9781593920692. ^ "Philips and TPV announce start of Television joint venture named TP Vision". Hospitality Net. ^ Bloomberg. "Jason Hsuan, chairman and chief executive officer of TPV Technology..." Getty Images. ^ "Jason Hsuan Interview: A Six-Month Lead Means Power", CW, 12-20-2012 This Asian business-related biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boneh%E2%80%93Lynn%E2%80%93Shacham

BLS digital signature

["1 BLS signature scheme","2 Properties","3 Curves","3.1 BLS12-381","4 Implementations","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Digital signature scheme A BLS digital signature, also known as Boneh–Lynn–Shacham (BLS), is a cryptographic signature scheme which allows a user to verify that a signer is authentic. The scheme uses a bilinear pairing for verification, and signatures are elements of an elliptic curve group. Working in an elliptic curve group provides some defense against index calculus attacks (with the caveat that such attacks are still possible in the target group G T {\displaystyle G_{T}} of the pairing), allowing shorter signatures than FDH signatures for a similar level of security. Signatures produced by the BLS signature scheme are often referred to as short signatures, BLS short signatures, or simply BLS signatures. The signature scheme is provably secure (the scheme is existentially unforgeable under adaptive chosen-message attacks) in the random oracle model assuming the intractability of the computational Diffie–Hellman problem in a gap Diffie–Hellman group. BLS signature scheme A signature scheme consists of three functions: generate, sign, and verify. Key generation The key generation algorithm selects a random integer x {\displaystyle x} such as 0 < x < r {\displaystyle 0<x<r} . The private key is x {\displaystyle x} . The holder of the private key publishes the public key, g x {\displaystyle g^{x}} . Signing Given the private key x {\displaystyle x} , and some message m {\displaystyle m} , we compute the signature by hashing the bitstring m {\displaystyle m} , as h = H ( m ) {\displaystyle h=H(m)} . We output the signature σ = h x {\displaystyle \sigma =h^{x}} . Verification Given a signature σ {\displaystyle \sigma } and a public key g x {\displaystyle g^{x}} , we verify that e ( σ , g ) = e ( H ( m ) , g x ) {\displaystyle e(\sigma ,g)=e(H(m),g^{x})} . Properties Unique and deterministic: for a given key and message, there is only one valid signature (like RSA PKCS1 v1.5, EdDSA and unlike RSA PSS, DSA, ECDSA and Schnorr). Signature Aggregation: Multiple signatures generated under multiple public keys for multiple messages can be aggregated into a single signature. Simple Threshold Signatures and multisignatures. Curves BLS12-381 BLS12-381 is part of a family of elliptic curves named after Barreto, Lynn, and Scott (a different BLS trio, except for the L). Designed by Sean Bowe in early 2017 as the foundation for an upgrade to the Zcash protocol. It is both pairing-friendly (making it efficient for digital signatures) and effective for constructing zkSnarks. Implementations To include BLS12-381 in IETF internet encryption standards. Chia network has used BLS12-381 signatures. By 2020, BLS12-381 signatures were used extensively in version 2 (Eth2) of the Ethereum blockchain, as specified in the IETF draft BLS signature specification—for cryptographically assuring that a specific Eth2 validator has actually verified a particular transaction. The use of BLS signatures in Ethereum is considered a solution to the verification bottleneck only for the medium term, as BLS signatures are not quantum secure. Over the longer term—say, 2025–2030—STARK aggregation is expected to be a drop-in replacement for BLS aggregation. Dfinity(developers of the "Internet Computer" cryptocurrency) BLS12-381 implementation. Algorand cryptocurrency uses BLS12-381. Skale cryptocurrency uses BLS12-381. See also Pairing-based cryptography References ^ a b c Dan Boneh; Ben Lynn & Hovav Shacham (2004). "Short Signatures from the Weil Pairing". Journal of Cryptology. 17 (4): 297–319. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.589.9141. doi:10.1007/s00145-004-0314-9. S2CID 206885645. ^ a b "Ethereum 2.0 Phase 0 -- The Beacon Chain : BLS Signatures". GitHub. 28 July 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2020. ^ Shacham, Hovav. "New Paradigms in Signature Schemes" (PDF). www.semanticscholar.org. p. 18. Retrieved 2024-06-07. ^ D. Boneh, C. Gentry, H. Shacham, and B. Lynn Aggregate and Verifiably Encrypted Signatures from Bilinear Maps, proceedings of Eurocrypt 2003, LNCS 2656, pp. 416-432, 2003 ^ Craige, Jake (11 March 2020). "Threshold BLS Signatures". jcraige.com. Retrieved 8 August 2022. ^ Boldyreva, Alexandra (2002). Desmedt, Yvo G. (ed.). "Threshold Signatures, Multisignatures and Blind Signatures Based on the Gap-Diffie-Hellman-Group Signature Scheme". Public Key Cryptography — PKC 2003. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer: 31–46. doi:10.1007/3-540-36288-6_3. ISBN 978-3-540-36288-3. ^ Barreto, Paulo S. L. M.; Lynn, Ben; Scott, Michael (2003), "Constructing Elliptic Curves with Prescribed Embedding Degrees", Security in Communication Networks, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 257–267, ISBN 978-3-540-00420-2, retrieved 2024-02-11 ^ a b "BLS12-381 For The Rest Of Us". HackMD. Retrieved 2024-02-11. ^ a b c d e Boneh, Dan; Gorbunov, Sergey; Wahby, Riad S.; Wee, Hoeteck; Wood, Christopher A.; Zhang, Zhenfei (2022-06-16). BLS Signatures (Report). Internet Engineering Task Force. ^ "5. BLS Signatures | Chia Documentation". docs.chia.net. Retrieved 2023-06-07. ^ BLS signatures ^ Drake, Justin (5 December 2019). "Pragmatic signature aggregation with BLS". ethresear.ch/. Eth research. Retrieved 8 January 2021. External links Summary description of the Algorand draft standard effort Ben Lynn's PBC Library Chia Network's BLS signatures implementation (C++) vtePublic-key cryptographyAlgorithmsInteger factorization Benaloh Blum–Goldwasser Cayley–Purser Damgård–Jurik GMR Goldwasser–Micali Naccache–Stern Paillier Rabin RSA Okamoto–Uchiyama Schmidt–Samoa Discrete logarithm BLS Cramer–Shoup DH DSA ECDH X25519 X448 ECDSA EdDSA Ed25519 Ed448 ECMQV EKE ElGamal signature scheme MQV Schnorr SPEKE SRP STS Lattice/SVP/CVP/LWE/SIS BLISS Kyber NewHope NTRUEncrypt NTRUSign RLWE-KEX RLWE-SIG Others AE CEILIDH EPOC HFE IES Lamport McEliece Merkle–Hellman Naccache–Stern knapsack cryptosystem Three-pass protocol XTR Theory Discrete logarithm cryptography Elliptic-curve cryptography Hash-based cryptography Non-commutative cryptography RSA problem Trapdoor function Standardization CRYPTREC IEEE P1363 NESSIE NSA Suite B Post-Quantum Cryptography Topics Digital signature OAEP Fingerprint PKI Web of trust Key size Identity-based cryptography Post-quantum cryptography OpenPGP card vteCryptographyGeneral History of cryptography Outline of cryptography Cryptographic protocol Authentication protocol Cryptographic primitive Cryptanalysis Cryptocurrency Cryptosystem Cryptographic nonce Cryptovirology Hash function Cryptographic hash function Key derivation function Digital signature Kleptography Key (cryptography) Key exchange Key generator Key schedule Key stretching Keygen Cryptojacking malware Ransomware Random number generation Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG) Pseudorandom noise (PRN) Secure channel Insecure channel Subliminal channel Encryption Decryption End-to-end encryption Harvest now, decrypt later Information-theoretic security Plaintext Codetext Ciphertext Shared secret Trapdoor function Trusted timestamping Key-based routing Onion routing Garlic routing Kademlia Mix network Mathematics Cryptographic hash function Block cipher Stream cipher Symmetric-key algorithm Authenticated encryption Public-key cryptography Quantum key distribution Quantum cryptography Post-quantum cryptography Message authentication code Random numbers Steganography Category

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Working in an elliptic curve group provides some defense against index calculus attacks (with the caveat that such attacks are still possible in the target group \n \n \n \n \n G\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle G_{T}}\n \n of the pairing), allowing shorter signatures than FDH signatures for a similar level of security.Signatures produced by the BLS signature scheme are often referred to as short signatures, BLS short signatures, or simply BLS signatures.[2] The signature scheme is provably secure (the scheme is existentially unforgeable under adaptive chosen-message attacks) in the random oracle model assuming the intractability of the computational Diffie–Hellman problem in a gap Diffie–Hellman group.[1]","title":"BLS digital signature"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signature scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature_scheme"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BLS2004-1"}],"text":"A signature scheme consists of three functions: generate, sign, and verify.[1]Key generationThe key generation algorithm selects a random integer \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n such as \n \n \n \n 0\n <\n x\n <\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0<x<r}\n \n. The private key is \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n. The holder of the private key publishes the public key, \n \n \n \n \n g\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle g^{x}}\n \n.SigningGiven the private key \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, and some message \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n, we compute the signature by hashing the bitstring \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n, as \n \n \n \n h\n =\n H\n (\n m\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h=H(m)}\n \n. We output the signature \n \n \n \n σ\n =\n \n h\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma =h^{x}}\n \n.VerificationGiven a signature \n \n \n \n σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma }\n \n and a public key \n \n \n \n \n g\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle g^{x}}\n \n, we verify that \n \n \n \n e\n (\n σ\n ,\n g\n )\n =\n e\n (\n H\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n \n g\n \n x\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e(\\sigma ,g)=e(H(m),g^{x})}\n \n.","title":"BLS signature scheme"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BGSL2003-4"},{"link_name":"Threshold Signatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_cryptosystem"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jcraige20200311-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Unique and deterministic: for a given key and message, there is only one valid signature (like RSA PKCS1 v1.5, EdDSA and unlike RSA PSS, DSA, ECDSA and Schnorr).[3]\nSignature Aggregation: Multiple signatures generated under multiple public keys for multiple messages can be aggregated into a single signature.[4]\nSimple Threshold Signatures[5] and multisignatures.[6]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Curves"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Zcash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zcash"},{"link_name":"zkSnarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZkSNARK"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"}],"sub_title":"BLS12-381","text":"BLS12-381 is part of a family of elliptic curves named after Barreto, Lynn, and Scott[7] (a different BLS trio, except for the L). 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Over the longer term—say, 2025–2030—STARK aggregation is expected to be a drop-in replacement for BLS aggregation.[9][12]\nDfinity(developers of the \"Internet Computer\" cryptocurrency) BLS12-381 implementation.[9]\nAlgorand cryptocurrency uses BLS12-381.[9]\nSkale cryptocurrency uses BLS12-381.[8]","title":"Implementations"}]

[]

[{"title":"Pairing-based cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pairing-based_cryptography"}]

[{"reference":"Dan Boneh; Ben Lynn & Hovav Shacham (2004). \"Short Signatures from the Weil Pairing\". Journal of Cryptology. 17 (4): 297–319. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.589.9141. doi:10.1007/s00145-004-0314-9. S2CID 206885645.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Boneh","url_text":"Dan Boneh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben_Lynn&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Ben Lynn"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovav_Shacham","url_text":"Hovav Shacham"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.589.9141","url_text":"10.1.1.589.9141"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00145-004-0314-9","url_text":"10.1007/s00145-004-0314-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206885645","url_text":"206885645"}]},{"reference":"\"Ethereum 2.0 Phase 0 -- The Beacon Chain : BLS Signatures\". GitHub. 28 July 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/ethereum/eth2.0-specs/blob/dev/specs/phase0/beacon-chain.md#bls-signatures","url_text":"\"Ethereum 2.0 Phase 0 -- The Beacon Chain : BLS Signatures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"Shacham, Hovav. \"New Paradigms in Signature Schemes\" (PDF). www.semanticscholar.org. p. 18. Retrieved 2024-06-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://hovav.net/ucsd/dist/thesis.pdf","url_text":"\"New Paradigms in Signature Schemes\""}]},{"reference":"Craige, Jake (11 March 2020). \"Threshold BLS Signatures\". jcraige.com. Retrieved 8 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jcraige.com/threshold-bls-signatures","url_text":"\"Threshold BLS Signatures\""}]},{"reference":"Boldyreva, Alexandra (2002). Desmedt, Yvo G. (ed.). \"Threshold Signatures, Multisignatures and Blind Signatures Based on the Gap-Diffie-Hellman-Group Signature Scheme\". Public Key Cryptography — PKC 2003. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer: 31–46. doi:10.1007/3-540-36288-6_3. ISBN 978-3-540-36288-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/3-540-36288-6_3","url_text":"\"Threshold Signatures, Multisignatures and Blind Signatures Based on the Gap-Diffie-Hellman-Group Signature Scheme\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-36288-6_3","url_text":"10.1007/3-540-36288-6_3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-36288-3","url_text":"978-3-540-36288-3"}]},{"reference":"Barreto, Paulo S. L. M.; Lynn, Ben; Scott, Michael (2003), \"Constructing Elliptic Curves with Prescribed Embedding Degrees\", Security in Communication Networks, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 257–267, ISBN 978-3-540-00420-2, retrieved 2024-02-11","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/3-540-36413-7_19","url_text":"\"Constructing Elliptic Curves with Prescribed Embedding Degrees\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-00420-2","url_text":"978-3-540-00420-2"}]},{"reference":"\"BLS12-381 For The Rest Of Us\". HackMD. Retrieved 2024-02-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://hackmd.io/@benjaminion/bls12-381","url_text":"\"BLS12-381 For The Rest Of Us\""}]},{"reference":"Boneh, Dan; Gorbunov, Sergey; Wahby, Riad S.; Wee, Hoeteck; Wood, Christopher A.; Zhang, Zhenfei (2022-06-16). BLS Signatures (Report). Internet Engineering Task Force.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-irtf-cfrg-bls-signature/05/","url_text":"BLS Signatures"}]},{"reference":"\"5. BLS Signatures | Chia Documentation\". docs.chia.net. Retrieved 2023-06-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.chia.net/guides/chialisp-bls-signatures","url_text":"\"5. BLS Signatures | Chia Documentation\""}]},{"reference":"Drake, Justin (5 December 2019). \"Pragmatic signature aggregation with BLS\". ethresear.ch/. Eth research. Retrieved 8 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://ethresear.ch/t/pragmatic-signature-aggregation-with-bls/2105","url_text":"\"Pragmatic signature aggregation with BLS\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Userspace

User space and kernel space

["1 Overview","2 Implementation","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"]

Way of using computer memory "Kernel space" redirects here. For the mathematical definition, see Null space. For the user space on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:User pages. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "User space and kernel space" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A modern computer operating system usually uses virtual memory to provide separate address spaces, or separate regions of a single address space, called user space and kernel space. Primarily, this separation serves to provide memory protection and hardware protection from malicious or errant software behaviour. Kernel space is strictly reserved for running a privileged operating system kernel, kernel extensions, and most device drivers. In contrast, user space is the memory area where application software and some drivers execute, typically one address space per process. Overview The term user space (or userland) refers to all code that runs outside the operating system's kernel. User space usually refers to the various programs and libraries that the operating system uses to interact with the kernel: software that performs input/output, manipulates file system objects, application software, etc. Each user space process normally runs in its own virtual memory space, and, unless explicitly allowed, cannot access the memory of other processes. This is the basis for memory protection in today's mainstream operating systems, and a building block for privilege separation. A separate user mode can also be used to build efficient virtual machines – see Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements. With enough privileges, processes can request the kernel to map part of another process's memory space to its own, as is the case for debuggers. Programs can also request shared memory regions with other processes, although other techniques are also available to allow inter-process communication. Various layers within Linux, also showing separation between the userland and kernel space User mode User applications bash, LibreOffice, GIMP, Blender, 0 A.D., Mozilla Firefox, ... System components init daemon:OpenRC, runit, systemd... System daemons:polkitd, smbd, sshd, udevd... Window manager:X11, Wayland, SurfaceFlinger (Android) Graphics:Mesa, AMD Catalyst, ... Other libraries:GTK, Qt, EFL, SDL, SFML, FLTK, GNUstep, ... C standard library fopen, execv, malloc, memcpy, localtime, pthread_create... (up to 2000 subroutines)glibc aims to be fast, musl aims to be lightweight, uClibc targets embedded systems, bionic was written for Android, etc. All aim to be POSIX/SUS-compatible. Kernel mode Linux kernel stat, splice, dup, read, open, ioctl, write, mmap, close, exit, etc. (about 380 system calls)The Linux kernel System Call Interface (SCI), aims to be POSIX/SUS-compatible Process scheduling subsystem IPC subsystem Memory management subsystem Virtual files subsystem Networking subsystem Other components: ALSA, DRI, evdev, klibc, LVM, device mapper, Linux Network Scheduler, NetfilterLinux Security Modules: SELinux, TOMOYO, AppArmor, Smack Hardware (CPU, main memory, data storage devices, etc.) Implementation The most common way of implementing a user mode separate from kernel mode involves operating system protection rings. Protection rings, in turn, are implemented using CPU modes. Typically, kernel space programs run in kernel mode, also called supervisor mode; normal applications in user space run in user mode. Some operating systems are single address space operating systems—they have a single address space for all user-mode code. (The kernel-mode code may be in the same address space, or it may be in a second address space). Other operating systems have a per-process address space, with a separate address space for each and every user-mode process. Another approach taken in experimental operating systems is to have a single address space for all software, and rely on a programming language's semantics to make sure that arbitrary memory cannot be accessed – applications simply cannot acquire any references to the objects that they are not allowed to access. This approach has been implemented in JXOS, Unununium as well as Microsoft's Singularity research project. See also BIOS CPU modes Early user space Memory protection OS-level virtualization Notes ^ Older operating systems, such as DOS and Windows 3.1x, do not use this architecture. References ^ "Address space". Address space options for 32bit systems. ^ "userland, n." The Jargon File. Eric S. Raymond. Retrieved 2016-08-14. ^ "Admin Guide README". Kernel.org git repositories. ^ "Unununium System Introduction". Archived from the original on 2001-12-15. Retrieved 2016-08-14. ^ "uuu/docs/system_introduction/uuu_intro.tex". UUU System Introduction Guide. 2001-06-01. Retrieved 2016-08-14. External links Linux Kernel Space Definition Entering User Mode at the Wayback Machine (archived March 26, 2016) vteOperating systemsGeneral Comparison Forensic engineering History List Timeline Usage share User features comparison Variants Disk operating system Distributed operating system Embedded operating system Hobbyist operating system Just enough operating system Mobile operating system Network operating system Object-oriented operating system Real-time operating system Supercomputer operating system KernelArchitectures Exokernel Hybrid Microkernel Monolithic Multikernel vkernel Rump kernel Unikernel Components Device driver Loadable kernel module User space and kernel space Process managementConcepts Computer multitasking (Cooperative, Preemptive) Context switch Interrupt IPC Process Process control block Real-time Thread Time-sharing Schedulingalgorithms Fixed-priority preemptive Multilevel feedback queue Round-robin Shortest job next Memory management,resource protection Bus error General protection fault Memory paging Memory protection Protection ring Segmentation fault Virtual memory Storage access,file systems Boot loader Defragmentation Device file File attribute Inode Journal Partition Virtual file system Virtual tape library Supporting concepts API Computer network HAL Live CD Live USB Shell CLI User interface PXE

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For the mathematical definition, see Null space.For the user space on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:User pages.A modern computer operating system usually uses virtual memory to provide separate address spaces, or separate regions of a single address space, called user space and kernel space.[1][a] Primarily, this separation serves to provide memory protection and hardware protection from malicious or errant software behaviour.Kernel space is strictly reserved for running a privileged operating system kernel, kernel extensions, and most device drivers. In contrast, user space is the memory area where application software and some drivers execute, typically one address space per process.","title":"User space and kernel space"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)"},{"link_name":"input/output","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output"},{"link_name":"file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"link_name":"application software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing)"},{"link_name":"virtual memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_memory"},{"link_name":"memory protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_protection"},{"link_name":"privilege separation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privilege_separation"},{"link_name":"Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popek_and_Goldberg_virtualization_requirements"},{"link_name":"debuggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugger"},{"link_name":"shared memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_memory_(interprocess_communication)"},{"link_name":"inter-process communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-process_communication"}],"text":"The term user space (or userland) refers to all code that runs outside the operating system's kernel.[2] User space usually refers to the various programs and libraries that the operating system uses to interact with the kernel: software that performs input/output, manipulates file system objects, application software, etc.Each user space process normally runs in its own virtual memory space, and, unless explicitly allowed, cannot access the memory of other processes. This is the basis for memory protection in today's mainstream operating systems, and a building block for privilege separation. A separate user mode can also be used to build efficient virtual machines – see Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements. With enough privileges, processes can request the kernel to map part of another process's memory space to its own, as is the case for debuggers. Programs can also request shared memory regions with other processes, although other techniques are also available to allow inter-process communication.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"kernel mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervisor_mode"},{"link_name":"protection rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protection_ring"},{"link_name":"CPU modes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_modes"},{"link_name":"kernel mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_mode"},{"link_name":"supervisor mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervisor_mode"},{"link_name":"single address space operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_address_space_operating_system"},{"link_name":"address space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space"},{"link_name":"references","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"JXOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JX_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularity_(operating_system)"}],"text":"The most common way of implementing a user mode separate from kernel mode involves operating system protection rings.\nProtection rings, in turn, are implemented using CPU modes.\nTypically, kernel space programs run in kernel mode, also called supervisor mode;\nnormal applications in user space run in user mode.Some operating systems are single address space operating systems—they have a single address space for all user-mode code. (The kernel-mode code may be in the same address space, or it may be in a second address space).\nOther operating systems have a per-process address space, with a separate address space for each and every user-mode process.Another approach taken in experimental operating systems is to have a single address space for all software, and rely on a programming language's semantics to make sure that arbitrary memory cannot be accessed – applications simply cannot acquire any references to the objects that they are not allowed to access.[4][5] This approach has been implemented in JXOS, Unununium as well as Microsoft's Singularity research project.","title":"Implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"Windows 3.1x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x"}],"text":"^ Older operating systems, such as DOS and Windows 3.1x, do not use this architecture.","title":"Notes"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Binet

Alfred Binet

["1 Biography","1.1 Education and early career","1.2 Later career and the Binet–Simon test","1.3 Binet and chess","2 Publications","3 Notes","4 References","5 External links"]

French psychologist, IQ test developer (1857–1911) Alfred BinetAlfred BinetBorn8 July 1857 (1857-07-08)Nice, Kingdom of SardiniaDied18 October 1911(1911-10-18) (aged 54)Paris, FranceNationalityFrenchKnown forStanford–Binet Intelligence ScalesBinet–Simon testSpouseLaure BalbianiScientific careerFieldsPsychology Alfred Binet (French: ; 8 July 1857 – 18 October 1911), born Alfredo Binetti, was a French psychologist who invented the first practical IQ test, the Binet–Simon test. In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a method that would determine which students did not learn effectively from regular classroom instruction so they could be given remedial work. Along with his collaborator Théodore Simon, Binet published revisions of his test in 1908 and 1911, the last of which appeared just before his death. Biography Education and early career Binet was born as Alfredo Binetti in Nice, which was then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia until its annexation by the Second French Empire in 1860, and the ensuing policy of Francization. Binet attended law school in Paris, and received his degree in 1878. He also studied physiology at the Sorbonne. His first formal position was as a researcher at a neurological clinic, Salpêtrière Hospital, in Paris from 1883 to 1889. From there, Binet went on to being a researcher and associate director of the Laboratory of Experimental Psychology at the Sorbonne from 1891 to 1894. In 1894, he was promoted to being the director of the laboratory until 1911 (his death). Binet also educated himself by reading psychology texts at the National Library in Paris. He soon became fascinated with the ideas of John Stuart Mill, who believed that the operations of intelligence could be explained by the laws of associationism. Binet eventually realized the limitations of this theory, but Mill's ideas continued to influence his work. In 1883, years of unaccompanied study ended when Binet was introduced to Charles Féré who introduced him to Jean-Martin Charcot, the director of a clinic called La Salpêtrière, Paris. Charcot became his mentor and in turn, Binet accepted a position at the clinic, working in his neurological laboratory. At the time of Binet's tenure, Charcot was experimenting with hypnotism and Binet, influenced by Charcot, published four articles about his work in this area. Binet aggressively supported Charcot's position which included the belief that people with weaken and not stable nervous systems were susceptible to hypnosis. Unfortunately, Charcot's conclusions did not withstand under professional scrutiny, and Binet was forced to make an embarrassing public admission that he had been wrong in supporting his teacher. Nevertheless, he had established his name internationally in the field, Morton Prince for example stating in 1904 that, "certain problems in subconscious automatism will always be associated with the names of Breuer and Freud in Germany, Janet and Alfred Binet in France.": 791  When his involvement with hypnosis waned as a result of failure to establish professional acceptance, he turned to the study of child development spurred on by the birth of his two daughters, Marguerite and Alice, both born in 1885 and 1887. Binet called Alice a subjectivist and Marguerite an objectivist, and developing the concepts of introspection and externospection in an anticipation of Carl Jung's psychological types.: 702–3  In the 21-year period following his shift in career interests, Binet "published more than 200 books, articles, and reviews in what now would be called experimental, developmental, educational, social, and differential psychology." Bergin and Cizek (2001) suggest that this work may have influenced Jean Piaget, who later studied with Binet's collaborator Théodore Simon in 1920. Binet's research with his daughters helped him to further refine his developing conception of intelligence, especially the importance of attention span and suggestibility in intellectual development. Despite Binet's extensive research interests and wide breadth of publications, today he is most widely known for his contributions to intelligence. Wolf postulates that this is the result of his not being affiliated with a major university. Because Binet did not have any formalized graduate study in psychology, he did not hold a professorship with a prestigious institution where students and funds would be sure to perpetuate his work. Additionally, his more progressive theories did not provide the practical utility that his intelligence scale would evoke. Binet and his coworker Fere discovered what they called transfer and they also recognized perceptual and emotional polarization. Binet and Fere thought their findings were a phenomenon and of utmost importance. After investigations by many, the two men were forced to admit that they were wrong about their concepts of transfer and polarization. Basically, their patients had known what was expected, what was supposed to happen, and so they simply assented. Binet had risked everything on his experiment and its results, and this failure took a toll on him. In 1890, Binet resigned from La Salpêtrière and never mentioned the place or its director again. His interests then turned towards the development of his children, Madeleine and Alice, who were two years apart. This research presages that done by Jean Piaget just a short time later, regarding the development of cognition in children. A job presented itself for Binet in 1891 at the Laboratory of Physiological Psychology at the Sorbonne. He worked for a year without pay and by 1894, he took over as the director. This was a position that Binet held until his death, and it enabled him to pursue his studies on mental processes. While directing the Laboratory, Theodore Simon applied to do doctoral research under Binet's supervision. This was the beginning of their long, fruitful collaboration. During this time he also co-founded the French journal of psychology, L'Année Psychologique, serving as the director and editor-in-chief of the journal that was the first scientific journal in this domain. During this period he worked with Victor Henri, nowadays more famous for his work in physical chemistry and the origins of enzymology, on the effects of intellectual fatigue on the composition of faeces. Later career and the Binet–Simon test In 1899, Binet was asked to be a member of the Free Society for the Psychological Study of the Child. French education changed greatly during the end of the nineteenth century, because of a law that passed which made it mandatory for children ages six to fourteen to attend school. This group to which Binet became a member hoped to begin studying children in a scientific manner. Binet and many other members of the society were appointed to the Commission for the Retarded. The question became "What should be the test given to children thought to possibly have learning disabilities, that might place them in a special classroom?" Binet made it his problem to establish the differences that separate the normal child from the abnormal, and to measure such differences. L'Etude experimentale de l'intelligence (Experimental Studies of Intelligence) was the book he used to describe his methods and it was published in 1903. Development of more tests and investigations began soon after the book, with the help of a young medical student named Theodore Simon. Simon had nominated himself a few years before as Binet's research assistant and worked with him on the intelligence tests that Binet is known for, which share Simon's name as well. In 1905, a new test for measuring intelligence was introduced and simply called the Binet–Simon scale. In 1908, they revised the scale, dropping, modifying, and adding tests and also arranging them according to age levels from three to thirteen. In 1904 a French professional group for child psychology, La Société Libre pour l'Etude Psychologique de l'Enfant, was called upon by the French government to appoint a commission on the education of retarded children. The commission was asked to create a mechanism for identifying students in need of alternative education. Binet, being an active member of this group, found the impetus for the development of his mental scale. Binet and Simon, in creating what historically is known as the Binet-Simon Scale, comprised a variety of tasks they thought were representative of typical children's abilities at various ages. This task-selection process was based on their many years of observing children in natural settings and previously published research by Binet and others. They then tested their measurement on a sample of fifty children, ten children per five age groups. The children selected for their study were identified by their school teachers as being average for their age. The purpose of this scale of normal functioning, which would later be revised twice using more stringent standards, was to compare children's mental abilities relative to those of their normal peers. The scale consisted of thirty tasks of increasing difficulty. The easier ones could be done by everyone. Some of the simplest test items assessed whether or not a child could follow a beam of light or talk back to the examiner. Slightly harder tasks required children to point to various named body parts, repeat back a series of 2 digits, repeat simple sentences, and define words like house, fork or mama. More difficult test items required children to state the difference between pairs of things, reproduce drawings from memory or to construct sentences from three given words such as "Paris, river and fortune." The hardest test items included asking children to repeat back 7 random digits, find three rhymes for the French word "obéissance" and to answer questions such as "My neighbor has been receiving strange visitors. He has received in turn a doctor, a lawyer, and then a priest. What is taking place?" (Fancher, 1985). Reproduction of an item from the 1908 Binet-Simon intelligence scale, showing three pairs of pictures, about which the tested child was asked, "Which of these two faces is the prettier?" Reproduced from the article "A Practical Guide for Administering the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence" by J. W. Wallace Wallin in the March 1911 issue of the journal The Psychological Clinic (volume 5 number 1), public domain. For the practical use of determining educational placement, the score on the Binet-Simon scale would reveal the child's mental age. For example, a 6-year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by 6 year-olds—but nothing beyond—would have a mental age that exactly matched his chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985). Binet was forthright about the limitations of his scale. He stressed the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures. Binet also stressed that intellectual development progressed at variable rates and could be influenced by the environment; therefore, intelligence was not based solely on genetics, was malleable rather than fixed, and could only be found in children with comparable backgrounds. Given Binet's stance that intelligence testing was subject to variability and was not generalizable, it is important to look at the metamorphosis that mental testing took on as it made its way to the U.S. While Binet was developing his mental scale, the business, civic, and educational leaders in the U.S. were facing issues of how to accommodate the needs of a diversifying population, while continuing to meet the demands of society. There arose the call to form a society based on meritocracy while continuing to underline the ideals of the upper class. In 1908, H.H. Goddard, a champion of the eugenics movement, found utility in mental testing as a way to evidence the superiority of the white race. After studying abroad, Goddard brought the Binet-Simon Scale to the United States and translated it into English. Following Goddard in the U.S. mental testing movement was Lewis Terman, who took the Simon-Binet Scale and standardized it using a large American sample. The new Stanford-Binet scale was no longer used solely for advocating education for all children, as was Binet's objective. A new objective of intelligence testing was illustrated in the Stanford-Binet manual with testing ultimately resulting in "curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an enormous amount of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency". Addressing the question why Binet did not speak out concerning the newfound uses of his measure, Siegler pointed out that Binet was somewhat of an isolationist in that he never traveled outside France and he barely participated in professional organizations. Additionally, his mental scale was not adopted in his own country during his lifetime and therefore was not subjected to the same fate. Finally, when Binet did become aware of the "foreign ideas being grafted on his instrument" he condemned those who with 'brutal pessimism' and 'deplorable verdicts' were promoting the concept of intelligence as a single, unitary construct. He did a lot of studies of children. His experimental subjects ranged from 3 to 18 years old. Binet published the third version of the Binet-Simon scale shortly before his death in 1911. The Binet-Simon scale was and is hugely popular around the world, mainly because of the vast literature it has fostered, as well as its relative ease of administration. Since his death, many people in many ways have honored Binet, but two of these stand out. In 1917, the Free Society for the Psychological Study of the Child, of which Binet became a member in 1899 and which prompted his development of the intelligence tests, changed their name to La Société Alfred Binet, in memory of the renowned psychologist. The second honor was not until 1984, when the journal Science 84 picked the Binet-Simon scale as one of twenty of the century's most significant developments or discoveries. He studied sexual behavior, coining the term erotic fetishism to describe individuals whose sexual interests in nonhuman objects, such as articles of clothing, and linking this to the after-effects of early impressions in an anticipation of Freud. Between 1904 and 1909, Binet co-wrote several plays for the Grand Guignol theatre with the playwright André de Lorde. He also studied the abilities of Valentine Dencausse, the most famous chiromancer in Paris in those days. Binet and chess Binet had done a series of experiments to see how well chess players played when blindfolded. He found that only some of the master chess players could play from memory and a few could play multiple games simultaneously without looking at the boards. To remember the positions of the pieces on the boards, some players envisioned exact replicas of specific chess sets, while others envisioned an abstract schema of the game. Binet concluded that extraordinary feats of memory such as blind chess playing could take a variety of mnemonic forms. He recounted his experiments in a book entitled Psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'échecs (Paris: Hachette, 1894). Publications La psychologie du raisonnement; Recherches expérimentales par l'hypnotisme (Paris, Alcan, 1886; English translation, 1899). Published in English as The psychology of reasoning, based on experimental researches in hypnotism (Chicago, Open court publishing company, 1899). Le magnétisme animal (Paris, F. Alcan, 1887). Published in English as Animal Magnetism (New York, D. Appleton and company, 1888) Perception intérieure (1887). Etudes de psychologie expérimentale (1888). Les altérations de la personnalité (Paris: F. Alcan, 1892). Published in English as Alterations of personality (New York : D. Appleton and company, 1896). The Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms: A Study in Experimental Psychology (1894) Introduction à la psychologie expérimentale (1894; with co-authors). On Double Consciousness (1896). Binet, A. & Henri, V. La fatigue intellectuelle (Paris, Schleicher frères, 1898). La Suggestibilité (Paris: Schleicher, 1900). Etude expérimentale de l'intelligence (1903). L'âme et le corps (1905). Published in English as The Mind and the Brain (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & co. ltd.). Les révélations de l'écriture d'après un contrôle scientifique (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1906). Binet, A. & Simon, T. Les enfants anormaux (Paris, A. Colin, 1907). Published in English as Mentally defective children (1907). Les idées modernes sur les enfants (Paris, E. Flammarion, 1909). L'intelligence des imbecile (L'année psychologique, 15, 1–147, 1909). Published in English as The intelligence of the feeble-minded (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins company, 1916). Alfred Binet was one of the founding editors of L'année psychologique, a yearly volume comprising original articles and reviews of the progress of psychology still in print. Notes ^ Alfred Binet lived approximately years which was common around this time period. "Alfred Binet". Archived from the original on 2011-08-23. Retrieved 2012-01-10., (February 20, 2004). ^ O. L. Zangwill, 'Binet, Alfred', in R. Gregory, The Oxford Companion to the Mind (1987) p. 88 ^ "History of the IQ Test and Intelligence Testing - Edublox Online Tutor | Development, Reading, Writing, and Math Solutions". 5 December 2020. ^ Siegler, Robert S. (1992). "The other Alfred Binet". Developmental Psychology. 28 (2): 179–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179. ^ a b Ellenberger, Henri (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01672-3. ^ a b c d e f Siegler, Robert S. (1992). "The other Alfred Binet". Developmental Psychology. 28 (2): 179–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179. ^ a b Wolf, Theta H. (1973). Alfred Binet. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226904986. ^ Nicolas, S. (1994). "Qui était Victor Henri?". L'Année Psychol. 94: 385–402. doi:10.3406/psy.1994.28772. ^ Cornish-Bowden, A.; Mazat, J.-P.; Nicolas, S. (2014). "Victor Henri: 111 years of his equation". Biochimie. 107: 161–166. doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2014.09.018. PMID 25252213. ^ Henri, V. (1898). "Influence du travail intellectuel sur les exchanges nutritifs". L'Année Psychol. 5: 179–189. doi:10.3406/psy.1898.3049. ^ Gibbons, Aisa; Warne, Russell T. (2019). "First publication of subtests in the Stanford-Binet 5, WAIS-IV, WISC-V, and WPPSI-IV". Intelligence. 75: 9–18. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.02.005. S2CID 150897563. ^ Terman, L., Lyman, G., Ordahl, G., Ordahl, L., Galbreath, N., & Talbert, W. (1916). The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence. Baltimore: Warwick & York. ^ White, Sheldon H. (2000). "Conceptual foundations of IQ testing". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 6 (1): 33–43. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.33. ISSN 1076-8971. ^ Binet, A. (1887). "Le fétichisme dans l'amour". Revue Philosophique. 24: 143–167, 252–274. ^ Freud, Sigmund (1991). On Sexuality: Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and Other Works. Penguin. p. 67. ISBN 0-140-13797-1. ^ "Grand Guignol Plays 1900 - 1909". GrandGuignol.com. Thrillpeddlers. Retrieved 10 November 2018. ^ Gregory, Richard L. (1987). The Oxford Companion to the Mind. ISBN 9780585157009. ^ Alfred Binet, Psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'échecs, (Paris: Hachette, 1894). References Avanzini, Guy (1999), Alfred Binet (in French), Presses universitaires de France, ISBN 2-13-049816-7 Foschi, Renato; Cicciola, Elisabetta (2006), "Politics and naturalism in the 20th century psychology of Alfred Binet.", History of Psychology, vol. 9, no. 4 (published Nov 2006), pp. 267–89, doi:10.1037/1093-4510.9.4.267, PMID 17333631 Klein, Alexandre (2011) Correspondance d’Alfred Binet, Volume 2 – L’émergence de la psychologie scientifique (1884–1911). Nancy : Presses Universitaires de Nancy. http://www.lcdpu.fr/livre/?GCOI=27000100152160 Klein, Alexandre (2011) "Les apports de la correspondance d’Alfred Binet à l’histoire de la psychologie", Recherches & éducations, Hors-série Centenaire Binet, 53–75. http://rechercheseducations.revues.org/index803.html Klein, Alexandre Correspondance d'Alfred Binet -Jean Larguier des Bancels, Nancy, PUN, 2008. http://www.lcdpu.fr/livre/?GCOI=27000100578310 Klein, Alexandre (2009) "La philosophie scientifique d'Alfred Binet", Revue d'Histoire des sciences, 2009/5, http://www.cairn.info/resume.php?ID_ARTICLE=RHS_622_0373 Klein, Alexandre (2008) "Les écritures du moi en histoire des sciences : les apports de la correspondance d’Alfred Binet", Jahrbuch für Europäische Wissenschaftskultur (Yearbook for European Culture of Science), Bd. 4 (2008), p. 101–115. Staum, Martin S (2007), "Ribot, Binet, and the emergence from the anthropological shadow.", Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 1–18, doi:10.1002/jhbs.20206, PMID 17205542 Faber, Diana (2003), "Archival note: an inquiry into the relationship between Alfred Binet and Cyril Burt.", Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 289–97, doi:10.1002/jhbs.10111, PMID 12891695 Nicolas, Serge; Ferrand, Ludovic (2002), "Alfred Binet and higher education.", History of Psychology, vol. 5, no. 3 (published Aug 2002), pp. 264–83, doi:10.1037/1093-4510.5.3.264, PMID 12269336 Binet, A; Simon, T (1997), "An investigation concerning the value of the oral method. 1909.", American Annals of the Deaf, vol. 142, no. 3 (published Jul 1997), pp. 35–45, doi:10.1353/aad.2012.0573, PMID 9222149, S2CID 42767787 Martin, O (1997), "", Revue de synthèse / Centre international de synthèse, vol. 118, no. 4, pp. 457–93, doi:10.1007/BF03181359, PMID 11625304 Huertas, R; del Cura, M (1996), "Not Available", Asclepio; archivo iberoamericano de historia de la medicina y antropología médica, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 115–27, doi:10.3989/asclepio.1996.v48.i2.400, hdl:10261/14501, PMID 11636466 Shephard, A H (1989), "Contributions to the history of psychology: LVII. Terman-Binet communication.", Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 68, no. 3 Pt 1 (published Jun 1989), pp. 936–8, doi:10.2466/pms.1989.68.3.936, PMID 2664700, S2CID 1811725 Stocking, G W (1980), "Innovation in the Malinowskian mode: an essay review of long-term field research in social anthropology", Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, vol. 16, no. 3 (published Jul 1980), pp. 281–6, doi:10.1002/1520-6696(198007)16:3<281::AID-JHBS2300160310>3.0.CO;2-0, PMID 11610713 Sarason, S B (1976), "The unfortunate fate of Alfred Binet and school psychology", Teachers College Record, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 580–92, PMID 11636093 Pollack, R H (1971), "Binet on perceptual-cognitive development or Piaget-come-lately", Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, vol. 7, no. 4 (published Oct 1971), pp. 370–4, doi:10.1002/1520-6696(197110)7:4<370::AID-JHBS2300070407>3.0.CO;2-0, PMID 11609528 Wolf, T. H. (1969), "The emergence of Binet's conceptions and measurement of intelligence: a case history of the creative process. Part II", Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, vol. 5, no. 3 (published Jul 1969), pp. 207–37, doi:10.1002/1520-6696(196907)5:3<207::AID-JHBS2300050302>3.0.CO;2-G, PMID 11610158 Wolf, T. H. (1969), "The emergence of Binet's conception and measurement of intelligence: a case history of the creative process", Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, vol. 5, no. 2 (published Apr 1969), pp. 113–34, doi:10.1002/1520-6696(196904)5:2<113::AID-JHBS2300050203>3.0.CO;2-5, PMID 11610191 Silverman, H. L.; Krenzel, K (1964), "Alfred Binet: Prolific Pioneer in Psychology", The Psychiatric Quarterly. Supplement, vol. 38, pp. 323–35, PMID 14301636 External links Wikisource has original works by or about:Alfred Binet Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alfred Binet. Wikiquote has quotations related to Alfred Binet. Webdocumentary (in French) Alfred Binet. Naissance de la psychologie scientifique Short biography, bibliography, and links on digitized sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet Alfred Binet: Pioneer of Intelligence Testing Works by Alfred Binet at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Alfred Binet at Internet Archive Works by Alfred Binet at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) "Binet's Self-Consciousness". Archived from the original on 2003-07-24. Retrieved 2002-08-12. New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals by Alfred Binet Le Magnetisme Animal by Alfred Binet Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Spain France BnF data Catalonia Germany Italy Israel Belgium United States Sweden Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Netherlands Poland Portugal Vatican Academics CiNii Artists Musée d'Orsay People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other SNAC IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[binɛ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"psychologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist"},{"link_name":"IQ test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ_test"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Théodore Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Simon"}],"text":"Alfred Binet (French: [binɛ]; 8 July 1857 – 18 October 1911), born Alfredo Binetti, was a French psychologist who invented the first practical IQ test, the Binet–Simon test.[2] In 1904,[3] the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a method that would determine which students did not learn effectively from regular classroom instruction so they could be given remedial work. Along with his collaborator Théodore Simon, Binet published revisions of his test in 1908 and 1911, the last of which appeared just before his death.","title":"Alfred Binet"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia"},{"link_name":"annexation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Turin_(1860)"},{"link_name":"Second French Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Empire"},{"link_name":"Francization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francization#Within_France"},{"link_name":"physiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"Sorbonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"Salpêtrière Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piti%C3%A9-Salp%C3%AAtri%C3%A8re_Hospital"},{"link_name":"John Stuart Mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill"},{"link_name":"Charles Féré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F%C3%A9r%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Jean-Martin Charcot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Martin_Charcot"},{"link_name":"hypnotism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotism"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Morton Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Prince"},{"link_name":"Breuer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Breuer"},{"link_name":"Freud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud"},{"link_name":"Janet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Janet"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ellenberger-5"},{"link_name":"Carl Jung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ellenberger-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siegler-6"},{"link_name":"Jean Piaget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget"},{"link_name":"Théodore Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Simon"},{"link_name":"intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wolf_1973-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siegler-6"},{"link_name":"phenomenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenon"},{"link_name":"Jean Piaget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget"},{"link_name":"Sorbonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"Victor Henri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Henri"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Education and early career","text":"Binet was born as Alfredo Binetti in Nice, which was then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia until its annexation by the Second French Empire in 1860, and the ensuing policy of Francization.Binet attended law school in Paris, and received his degree in 1878. He also studied physiology at the Sorbonne. His first formal position was as a researcher at a neurological clinic, Salpêtrière Hospital, in Paris from 1883 to 1889. From there, Binet went on to being a researcher and associate director of the Laboratory of Experimental Psychology at the Sorbonne from 1891 to 1894. In 1894, he was promoted to being the director of the laboratory until 1911 (his death). Binet also educated himself by reading psychology texts at the National Library in Paris. He soon became fascinated with the ideas of John Stuart Mill, who believed that the operations of intelligence could be explained by the laws of associationism. Binet eventually realized the limitations of this theory, but Mill's ideas continued to influence his work.In 1883, years of unaccompanied study ended when Binet was introduced to Charles Féré who introduced him to Jean-Martin Charcot, the director of a clinic called La Salpêtrière, Paris. Charcot became his mentor and in turn, Binet accepted a position at the clinic, working in his neurological laboratory. At the time of Binet's tenure, Charcot was experimenting with hypnotism and Binet, influenced by Charcot, published four articles about his work in this area. Binet aggressively supported Charcot's position which included the belief that people with weaken and not stable nervous systems were susceptible to hypnosis.[4] Unfortunately, Charcot's conclusions did not withstand under professional scrutiny, and Binet was forced to make an embarrassing public admission that he had been wrong in supporting his teacher. Nevertheless, he had established his name internationally in the field, Morton Prince for example stating in 1904 that, \"certain problems in subconscious automatism will always be associated with the names of Breuer and Freud in Germany, Janet and Alfred Binet in France.\"[5]: 791When his involvement with hypnosis waned as a result of failure to establish professional acceptance, he turned to the study of child development spurred on by the birth of his two daughters, Marguerite and Alice, both born in 1885 and 1887. Binet called Alice a subjectivist and Marguerite an objectivist, and developing the concepts of introspection and externospection in an anticipation of Carl Jung's psychological types.[5]: 702–3  In the 21-year period following his shift in career interests, Binet \"published more than 200 books, articles, and reviews in what now would be called experimental, developmental, educational, social, and differential psychology.\"[6] Bergin and Cizek (2001) suggest that this work may have influenced Jean Piaget, who later studied with Binet's collaborator Théodore Simon in 1920. Binet's research with his daughters helped him to further refine his developing conception of intelligence, especially the importance of attention span and suggestibility in intellectual development.Despite Binet's extensive research interests and wide breadth of publications, today he is most widely known for his contributions to intelligence. Wolf postulates that this is the result of his not being affiliated with a major university.[7] Because Binet did not have any formalized graduate study in psychology, he did not hold a professorship with a prestigious institution where students and funds would be sure to perpetuate his work.[6] Additionally, his more progressive theories did not provide the practical utility that his intelligence scale would evoke.Binet and his coworker Fere discovered what they called transfer and they also recognized perceptual and emotional polarization. Binet and Fere thought their findings were a phenomenon and of utmost importance. After investigations by many, the two men were forced to admit that they were wrong about their concepts of transfer and polarization. Basically, their patients had known what was expected, what was supposed to happen, and so they simply assented. Binet had risked everything on his experiment and its results, and this failure took a toll on him.In 1890, Binet resigned from La Salpêtrière and never mentioned the place or its director again. His interests then turned towards the development of his children, Madeleine and Alice, who were two years apart. This research presages that done by Jean Piaget just a short time later, regarding the development of cognition in children.A job presented itself for Binet in 1891 at the Laboratory of Physiological Psychology at the Sorbonne. He worked for a year without pay and by 1894, he took over as the director. This was a position that Binet held until his death, and it enabled him to pursue his studies on mental processes. While directing the Laboratory, Theodore Simon applied to do doctoral research under Binet's supervision. This was the beginning of their long, fruitful collaboration. During this time he also co-founded the French journal of psychology, L'Année Psychologique, serving as the director and editor-in-chief of the journal that was the first scientific journal in this domain. During this period he worked with Victor Henri,[8] nowadays more famous for his work in physical chemistry and the origins of enzymology,[9] on the effects of intellectual fatigue on the composition of faeces.[10]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Theodore Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Simon"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wolf_1973-7"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siegler-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Simon-Binet_Ugly_Face_Item_from_1911_journal.png"},{"link_name":"mental age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siegler-6"},{"link_name":"meritocracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritocracy"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siegler-6"},{"link_name":"H.H. Goddard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_H._Goddard"},{"link_name":"Lewis Terman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Terman"},{"link_name":"Stanford-Binet scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet_Intelligence_Scales"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siegler-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"erotic fetishism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_fetishism"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Grand Guignol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Guignol"},{"link_name":"André de Lorde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_de_Lorde"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Valentine Dencausse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentine_Dencausse"},{"link_name":"chiromancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiromancer"}],"sub_title":"Later career and the Binet–Simon test","text":"In 1899, Binet was asked to be a member of the Free Society for the Psychological Study of the Child. French education changed greatly during the end of the nineteenth century, because of a law that passed which made it mandatory for children ages six to fourteen to attend school. This group to which Binet became a member hoped to begin studying children in a scientific manner. Binet and many other members of the society were appointed to the Commission for the Retarded. The question became \"What should be the test given to children thought to possibly have learning disabilities, that might place them in a special classroom?\" Binet made it his problem to establish the differences that separate the normal child from the abnormal, and to measure such differences. L'Etude experimentale de l'intelligence (Experimental Studies of Intelligence) was the book he used to describe his methods and it was published in 1903.Development of more tests and investigations began soon after the book, with the help of a young medical student named Theodore Simon. Simon had nominated himself a few years before as Binet's research assistant and worked with him on the intelligence tests that Binet is known for, which share Simon's name as well. In 1905, a new test for measuring intelligence was introduced and simply called the Binet–Simon scale. In 1908, they revised the scale, dropping, modifying, and adding tests and also arranging them according to age levels from three to thirteen.In 1904 a French professional group for child psychology, La Société Libre pour l'Etude Psychologique de l'Enfant, was called upon by the French government to appoint a commission on the education of retarded children. The commission was asked to create a mechanism for identifying students in need of alternative education. Binet, being an active member of this group, found the impetus for the development of his mental scale.Binet and Simon, in creating what historically is known as the Binet-Simon Scale, comprised a variety of tasks they thought were representative of typical children's abilities at various ages. This task-selection process was based on their many years of observing children in natural settings[7] and previously published research by Binet and others.[11] They then tested their measurement on a sample of fifty children, ten children per five age groups. The children selected for their study were identified by their school teachers as being average for their age. The purpose of this scale of normal functioning, which would later be revised twice using more stringent standards, was to compare children's mental abilities relative to those of their normal peers.[6]The scale consisted of thirty tasks of increasing difficulty. The easier ones could be done by everyone. Some of the simplest test items assessed whether or not a child could follow a beam of light or talk back to the examiner. Slightly harder tasks required children to point to various named body parts, repeat back a series of 2 digits, repeat simple sentences, and define words like house, fork or mama. More difficult test items required children to state the difference between pairs of things, reproduce drawings from memory or to construct sentences from three given words such as \"Paris, river and fortune.\" The hardest test items included asking children to repeat back 7 random digits, find three rhymes for the French word \"obéissance\" and to answer questions such as \"My neighbor has been receiving strange visitors. He has received in turn a doctor, a lawyer, and then a priest. What is taking place?\" (Fancher, 1985).Reproduction of an item from the 1908 Binet-Simon intelligence scale, showing three pairs of pictures, about which the tested child was asked, \"Which of these two faces is the prettier?\" Reproduced from the article \"A Practical Guide for Administering the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence\" by J. W. Wallace Wallin in the March 1911 issue of the journal The Psychological Clinic (volume 5 number 1), public domain.For the practical use of determining educational placement, the score on the Binet-Simon scale would reveal the child's mental age. For example, a 6-year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by 6 year-olds—but nothing beyond—would have a mental age that exactly matched his chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985).Binet was forthright about the limitations of his scale. He stressed the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures. Binet also stressed that intellectual development progressed at variable rates and could be influenced by the environment; therefore, intelligence was not based solely on genetics, was malleable rather than fixed, and could only be found in children with comparable backgrounds.[6] Given Binet's stance that intelligence testing was subject to variability and was not generalizable, it is important to look at the metamorphosis that mental testing took on as it made its way to the U.S.While Binet was developing his mental scale, the business, civic, and educational leaders in the U.S. were facing issues of how to accommodate the needs of a diversifying population, while continuing to meet the demands of society. There arose the call to form a society based on meritocracy[6] while continuing to underline the ideals of the upper class. In 1908, H.H. Goddard, a champion of the eugenics movement, found utility in mental testing as a way to evidence the superiority of the white race. After studying abroad, Goddard brought the Binet-Simon Scale to the United States and translated it into English.Following Goddard in the U.S. mental testing movement was Lewis Terman, who took the Simon-Binet Scale and standardized it using a large American sample. The new Stanford-Binet scale was no longer used solely for advocating education for all children, as was Binet's objective. A new objective of intelligence testing was illustrated in the Stanford-Binet manual with testing ultimately resulting in \"curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an enormous amount of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency\".[12]Addressing the question why Binet did not speak out concerning the newfound uses of his measure, Siegler pointed out that Binet was somewhat of an isolationist in that he never traveled outside France and he barely participated in professional organizations.[6] Additionally, his mental scale was not adopted in his own country during his lifetime and therefore was not subjected to the same fate. Finally, when Binet did become aware of the \"foreign ideas being grafted on his instrument\" he condemned those who with 'brutal pessimism' and 'deplorable verdicts' were promoting the concept of intelligence as a single, unitary construct.[13]He did a lot of studies of children. His experimental subjects ranged from 3 to 18 years old. Binet published the third version of the Binet-Simon scale shortly before his death in 1911. The Binet-Simon scale was and is hugely popular around the world, mainly because of the vast literature it has fostered, as well as its relative ease of administration.Since his death, many people in many ways have honored Binet, but two of these stand out. In 1917, the Free Society for the Psychological Study of the Child, of which Binet became a member in 1899 and which prompted his development of the intelligence tests, changed their name to La Société Alfred Binet, in memory of the renowned psychologist. The second honor was not until 1984, when the journal Science 84 picked the Binet-Simon scale as one of twenty of the century's most significant developments or discoveries.He studied sexual behavior, coining the term erotic fetishism to describe individuals whose sexual interests in nonhuman objects, such as articles of clothing,[14] and linking this to the after-effects of early impressions in an anticipation of Freud.[15]Between 1904 and 1909, Binet co-wrote several plays for the Grand Guignol theatre with the playwright André de Lorde.[16]He also studied the abilities of Valentine Dencausse, the most famous chiromancer in Paris in those days.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Binet and chess","text":"Binet had done a series of experiments to see how well chess players played when blindfolded.[17] He found that only some of the master chess players could play from memory and a few could play multiple games simultaneously without looking at the boards. To remember the positions of the pieces on the boards, some players envisioned exact replicas of specific chess sets, while others envisioned an abstract schema of the game. Binet concluded that extraordinary feats of memory such as blind chess playing could take a variety of mnemonic forms. He recounted his experiments in a book entitled Psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'échecs (Paris: Hachette, 1894).[18]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"La psychologie du raisonnement; Recherches expérimentales par l'hypnotisme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lapsychologiedur00bine"},{"link_name":"The psychology of reasoning, based on experimental researches in hypnotism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/psychologyofreas00bineuoft"},{"link_name":"Le magnétisme animal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lemagntismeani00bine"},{"link_name":"Animal Magnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/cu31924031175015"},{"link_name":"Les altérations de la personnalité","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lesalterationsde00bineuoft"},{"link_name":"Alterations of personality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/alterationsofper00bineiala"},{"link_name":"The Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms: A Study in Experimental Psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/psychiclifeofmic00binerich#page/n7/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"On Double Consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ondoubleconsciou00bineiala"},{"link_name":"La fatigue intellectuelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lafatigueintelle00bine"},{"link_name":"La Suggestibilité","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lasuggestibilit00bine"},{"link_name":"The Mind and the Brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/mindbrain00bineiala"},{"link_name":"Les révélations de l'écriture d'après un contrôle scientifique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lesrvlations00bine"},{"link_name":"Les enfants anormaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lesenfantsanorma00bine"},{"link_name":"Mentally defective children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/mentallydefectiv00binerich"},{"link_name":"Les idées modernes sur les enfants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lesidesmoderne01bine"},{"link_name":"The intelligence of the feeble-minded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/intelligenceoffe00bine"}],"text":"La psychologie du raisonnement; Recherches expérimentales par l'hypnotisme (Paris, Alcan, 1886; English translation, 1899). Published in English as The psychology of reasoning, based on experimental researches in hypnotism (Chicago, Open court publishing company, 1899).\nLe magnétisme animal (Paris, F. Alcan, 1887). Published in English as Animal Magnetism (New York, D. Appleton and company, 1888)\nPerception intérieure (1887).\nEtudes de psychologie expérimentale (1888).\nLes altérations de la personnalité (Paris: F. Alcan, 1892). Published in English as Alterations of personality (New York : D. Appleton and company, 1896).\nThe Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms: A Study in Experimental Psychology (1894)\nIntroduction à la psychologie expérimentale (1894; with co-authors).\nOn Double Consciousness (1896).\nBinet, A. & Henri, V. La fatigue intellectuelle (Paris, Schleicher frères, 1898).\nLa Suggestibilité (Paris: Schleicher, 1900).\nEtude expérimentale de l'intelligence (1903).\nL'âme et le corps (1905). Published in English as The Mind and the Brain (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & co. ltd.).\nLes révélations de l'écriture d'après un contrôle scientifique (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1906).\nBinet, A. & Simon, T. Les enfants anormaux (Paris, A. Colin, 1907). Published in English as Mentally defective children (1907).\nLes idées modernes sur les enfants (Paris, E. Flammarion, 1909).\nL'intelligence des imbecile (L'année psychologique, 15, 1–147, 1909). Published in English as The intelligence of the feeble-minded (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins company, 1916).Alfred Binet was one of the founding editors of L'année psychologique, a yearly volume comprising original articles and reviews of the progress of psychology still in print.","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Alfred Binet\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110823091541/http://www.psychology.sbc.edu/Alfred%20Binet.htm"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.psychology.sbc.edu/Alfred%20Binet.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"History of the IQ Test and Intelligence Testing - Edublox Online Tutor | Development, Reading, Writing, and Math Solutions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.edubloxtutor.com/history-iq-test/#:~:text=Intelligence%20testing%20began%20in%20earnest,and%20those%20who%20were%20inferior."},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.28.2.179"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Ellenberger_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Ellenberger_5-1"},{"link_name":"Ellenberger, Henri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Ellenberger"},{"link_name":"The Discovery of the Unconscious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Discovery_of_the_Unconscious"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-465-01672-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-01672-3"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Siegler_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Siegler_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Siegler_6-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Siegler_6-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Siegler_6-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Siegler_6-5"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.28.2.179"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Wolf_1973_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Wolf_1973_7-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780226904986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226904986"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.3406/psy.1994.28772","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.3406%2Fpsy.1994.28772"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/j.biochi.2014.09.018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biochi.2014.09.018"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"25252213","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25252213"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.3406/psy.1898.3049","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.3406%2Fpsy.1898.3049"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"First publication of subtests in the Stanford-Binet 5, WAIS-IV, WISC-V, and WPPSI-IV\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//psyarxiv.com/9z8xv/"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/j.intell.2019.02.005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.intell.2019.02.005"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"150897563","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150897563"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"\"Conceptual foundations of IQ testing\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.33"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.33","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1037%2F1076-8971.6.1.33"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1076-8971","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-8971"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Essays_on_the_Theory_of_Sexuality"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-140-13797-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-140-13797-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"\"Grand Guignol Plays 1900 - 1909\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.grandguignol.com/plays1900s.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780585157009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780585157009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"Psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'échecs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/psychologiedesg00binegoog"}],"text":"^ Alfred Binet \nlived approximately years which was common around this time period. \"Alfred Binet\". Archived from the original on 2011-08-23. Retrieved 2012-01-10., (February 20, 2004).\n\n^ O. L. Zangwill, 'Binet, Alfred', in R. Gregory, The Oxford Companion to the Mind (1987) p. 88\n\n^ \"History of the IQ Test and Intelligence Testing - Edublox Online Tutor | Development, Reading, Writing, and Math Solutions\". 5 December 2020.\n\n^ Siegler, Robert S. (1992). \"The other Alfred Binet\". Developmental Psychology. 28 (2): 179–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179.\n\n^ a b Ellenberger, Henri (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01672-3.\n\n^ a b c d e f Siegler, Robert S. (1992). \"The other Alfred Binet\". Developmental Psychology. 28 (2): 179–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179.\n\n^ a b Wolf, Theta H. (1973). Alfred Binet. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226904986.\n\n^ Nicolas, S. (1994). \"Qui était Victor Henri?\". L'Année Psychol. 94: 385–402. doi:10.3406/psy.1994.28772.\n\n^ Cornish-Bowden, A.; Mazat, J.-P.; Nicolas, S. (2014). \"Victor Henri: 111 years of his equation\". Biochimie. 107: 161–166. doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2014.09.018. PMID 25252213.\n\n^ Henri, V. (1898). \"Influence du travail intellectuel sur les exchanges nutritifs\". L'Année Psychol. 5: 179–189. doi:10.3406/psy.1898.3049.\n\n^ Gibbons, Aisa; Warne, Russell T. (2019). \"First publication of subtests in the Stanford-Binet 5, WAIS-IV, WISC-V, and WPPSI-IV\". Intelligence. 75: 9–18. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.02.005. S2CID 150897563.\n\n^ Terman, L., Lyman, G., Ordahl, G., Ordahl, L., Galbreath, N., & Talbert, W. (1916). The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence. Baltimore: Warwick & York.\n\n^ White, Sheldon H. (2000). \"Conceptual foundations of IQ testing\". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 6 (1): 33–43. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.33. ISSN 1076-8971.\n\n^ Binet, A. (1887). \"Le fétichisme dans l'amour\". Revue Philosophique. 24: 143–167, 252–274.\n\n^ Freud, Sigmund (1991). On Sexuality: Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and Other Works. Penguin. p. 67. ISBN 0-140-13797-1.\n\n^ \"Grand Guignol Plays 1900 - 1909\". GrandGuignol.com. Thrillpeddlers. Retrieved 10 November 2018.\n\n^ Gregory, Richard L. (1987). The Oxford Companion to the Mind. ISBN 9780585157009.\n\n^ Alfred Binet, Psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'échecs, (Paris: Hachette, 1894).","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"Reproduction of an item from the 1908 Binet-Simon intelligence scale, showing three pairs of pictures, about which the tested child was asked, \"Which of these two faces is the prettier?\" Reproduced from the article \"A Practical Guide for Administering the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence\" by J. W. Wallace Wallin in the March 1911 issue of the journal The Psychological Clinic (volume 5 number 1), public domain.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Simon-Binet_Ugly_Face_Item_from_1911_journal.png/220px-Simon-Binet_Ugly_Face_Item_from_1911_journal.png"}]

[{"reference":"\"Alfred Binet\". Archived from the original on 2011-08-23. Retrieved 2012-01-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110823091541/http://www.psychology.sbc.edu/Alfred%20Binet.htm","url_text":"\"Alfred Binet\""},{"url":"http://www.psychology.sbc.edu/Alfred%20Binet.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the IQ Test and Intelligence Testing - Edublox Online Tutor | Development, Reading, Writing, and Math Solutions\". 5 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.edubloxtutor.com/history-iq-test/#:~:text=Intelligence%20testing%20began%20in%20earnest,and%20those%20who%20were%20inferior.","url_text":"\"History of the IQ Test and Intelligence Testing - Edublox Online Tutor | Development, Reading, Writing, and Math Solutions\""}]},{"reference":"Siegler, Robert S. (1992). \"The other Alfred Binet\". Developmental Psychology. 28 (2): 179–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.28.2.179","url_text":"10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179"}]},{"reference":"Ellenberger, Henri (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01672-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Ellenberger","url_text":"Ellenberger, Henri"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Discovery_of_the_Unconscious","url_text":"The Discovery of the Unconscious"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-01672-3","url_text":"0-465-01672-3"}]},{"reference":"Siegler, Robert S. (1992). \"The other Alfred Binet\". Developmental Psychology. 28 (2): 179–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.28.2.179","url_text":"10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.179"}]},{"reference":"Wolf, Theta H. (1973). Alfred Binet. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226904986.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226904986","url_text":"9780226904986"}]},{"reference":"Nicolas, S. (1994). \"Qui était Victor Henri?\". L'Année Psychol. 94: 385–402. doi:10.3406/psy.1994.28772.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fpsy.1994.28772","url_text":"10.3406/psy.1994.28772"}]},{"reference":"Cornish-Bowden, A.; Mazat, J.-P.; Nicolas, S. (2014). \"Victor Henri: 111 years of his equation\". Biochimie. 107: 161–166. doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2014.09.018. PMID 25252213.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biochi.2014.09.018","url_text":"10.1016/j.biochi.2014.09.018"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25252213","url_text":"25252213"}]},{"reference":"Henri, V. (1898). \"Influence du travail intellectuel sur les exchanges nutritifs\". L'Année Psychol. 5: 179–189. doi:10.3406/psy.1898.3049.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fpsy.1898.3049","url_text":"10.3406/psy.1898.3049"}]},{"reference":"Gibbons, Aisa; Warne, Russell T. (2019). \"First publication of subtests in the Stanford-Binet 5, WAIS-IV, WISC-V, and WPPSI-IV\". Intelligence. 75: 9–18. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.02.005. S2CID 150897563.","urls":[{"url":"http://psyarxiv.com/9z8xv/","url_text":"\"First publication of subtests in the Stanford-Binet 5, WAIS-IV, WISC-V, and WPPSI-IV\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.intell.2019.02.005","url_text":"10.1016/j.intell.2019.02.005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150897563","url_text":"150897563"}]},{"reference":"White, Sheldon H. (2000). \"Conceptual foundations of IQ testing\". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 6 (1): 33–43. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.33. ISSN 1076-8971.","urls":[{"url":"http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.33","url_text":"\"Conceptual foundations of IQ testing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1076-8971.6.1.33","url_text":"10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-8971","url_text":"1076-8971"}]},{"reference":"Binet, A. (1887). \"Le fétichisme dans l'amour\". Revue Philosophique. 24: 143–167, 252–274.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Freud, Sigmund (1991). On Sexuality: Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and Other Works. Penguin. p. 67. ISBN 0-140-13797-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Essays_on_the_Theory_of_Sexuality","url_text":"Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-140-13797-1","url_text":"0-140-13797-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Grand Guignol Plays 1900 - 1909\". GrandGuignol.com. Thrillpeddlers. Retrieved 10 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.grandguignol.com/plays1900s.htm","url_text":"\"Grand Guignol Plays 1900 - 1909\""}]},{"reference":"Gregory, Richard L. (1987). The Oxford Companion to the Mind. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti_Thomson_Sonar_Systems

Thomson Marconi Sonar

["1 Products","2 References"]

Sonar systems conglomerate Thomson Marconi Sonar NVFounded1990DefunctOctober 2001SuccessorThales Underwater Systems Thomson Marconi Sonar or TMS was formed in 1996 by the merger of the sonar systems businesses of French defence electronics specialist Thomson-CSF and British company GEC-Marconi after the payment of a balance by the latter. The new company was 50.1% owned by Thomson-CSF and 49.9% by GEC-Marconi. Denis Ranque was appointed as its CEO. The new company would head 3 operational entities: The French entity, Thomson Sintra (based in Brest and Sophia Antipolis), was brought in by Thomson-CSF. It was the European leader in defence-related sonar systems and the world's second after Lockheed Martin Loral, with annual sales of 1.5 billion francs, split between submarine sonars (35%), anti-submarine warfare systems or ASM (27%), mine warfare (15%) and airborne sonars (18%). The British entity was made up of GEC-Marconi's sonar division, which had annual sales of 90 million pounds (700 million francs) as well as a company already co-owned by it and Thomson-CSF called Ferranti Thomson Sonar Systems (with about 400 million francs in sales). A third entity in Australia, called TMS Pty, was composed of the two groups' establishments operating in the sector. With the merger of GEC's defence business Marconi Electronic Systems and British Aerospace in 1999, the resulting BAE Systems acquired Marconi's 49.9% share in TMS. BAE, through an options agreement, forced Thomson-CSF (now called Thales) to purchase its stake in 2001. The company therefore became entirely owned by Thales and was renamed Thales Underwater Systems. Products Submarine sonar and surface ship sonar Minehunter sonar Airborne acoustic processors and dipping sonars (helicopter applications) Sonar support systems and trainers Communication systems vteThales GroupDivisions andsubsidiaries Thales Air Defence Thales Australia Thales Communications Thales Nederland Thales Optronics Thales Rail Signalling Solutions Thales Training & Simulation Thales Underwater Systems Joint ventures Eurosam (33%) Naval Group (25%) OEMServices (25%) Telespazio (33%) Thales Alenia Space (67%) ThalesRaytheonSystems (50%) Products AN/PRC-148 ASTAC Blowpipe Bushmaster Protected Mobility Vehicle Hawkei Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod Eurocat Goalkeeper CIWS Javelin Martlet MW08 Protector RWS S1850M SelTrac SMART-L Sonar 2076 Sonar 2087 Starstreak SWARM Watchkeeper WK450 Ground Master 200 (Multi Mission) Predecessors Racal Thomson-CSF Thomson Marconi Sonar LiveTV Category vteGeneral Electric CompanyFormer subsidiariesand divisions GEC Computers GEC Research GEC Traction Hirst Research Centre Marconi Company Marconi Electronic Systems Marconi Instruments Marconi-Osram Valve Marconi Research Centre Osram Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Former joint ventures Alenia Marconi Systems GEC Alsthom GEC Plessey Telecommunications Matra Marconi Space Thomson Marconi Sonar Predecessorsand acquisitions A.B. Dick Company Associated Electrical Industries Birlec British Thomson-Houston (BTH) Edison Swan Hotpoint Metropolitan-Vickers Siemens Brothers & Co William Thomas Henley English Electric Dick, Kerr & Co. Elliott Brothers Marconi Company Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns Ruston & Hornsby Vulcan Foundry Willans & Robinson Gilbarco Veeder-Root Radio & Allied Industries Tracor W & T Avery Yarrow Shipbuilders Successors BAE Systems Marconi Communications Telent Unify ProductsComputers GEC 2050 GEC 4000 series GEC Series 63 OS4000 Locomotives British Rail Class 91 GEC Stephenson locomotive South African Class 4E South African Class 9E, Series 1 South African Class 9E, Series 2 South African Class 10E1, Series 1 South African Class 10E1, Series 2 People Cyril Hilsum Hugo Hirst George Simpson Martin Sixsmith Michael Sobell Arnold Weinstock Other GEC-Marconi scientist deaths conspiracy theory Phoebus cartel Category Commons References ^ "Thomson-CSF et le britannique GEC-Marconi marient leurs sonars". 5 April 1996. ^ "Thomson-CSF et le britannique GEC-Marconi marient leurs sonars". 5 April 1996. ^ "Thomson-CSF et le britannique GEC-Marconi marient leurs sonars". 5 April 1996. ^ "Thomson-CSF et le britannique GEC-Marconi marient leurs sonars". 5 April 1996. ^ "Thomson-CSF et le britannique GEC-Marconi marient leurs sonars". 5 April 1996. This article about a technological corporation or company is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric_Company"},{"link_name":"GEC Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_Computers"},{"link_name":"GEC Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_Research"},{"link_name":"GEC Traction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_Traction"},{"link_name":"Hirst Research Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirst_Research_Centre"},{"link_name":"Marconi Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Company"},{"link_name":"Marconi Electronic Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Electronic_Systems"},{"link_name":"Marconi Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Instruments"},{"link_name":"Marconi-Osram Valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi-Osram_Valve"},{"link_name":"Marconi Research Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Research_Centre"},{"link_name":"Osram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osram"},{"link_name":"Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Shipbuilding_and_Engineering"},{"link_name":"Alenia Marconi Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alenia_Marconi_Systems"},{"link_name":"GEC Alsthom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alstom"},{"link_name":"GEC Plessey Telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_Plessey_Telecommunications"},{"link_name":"Matra Marconi Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matra_Marconi_Space"},{"link_name":"Thomson Marconi Sonar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"A.B. Dick Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.B._Dick_Company"},{"link_name":"Associated Electrical Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Electrical_Industries"},{"link_name":"Birlec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birlec"},{"link_name":"British Thomson-Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Thomson-Houston"},{"link_name":"Edison Swan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_and_Swan_Electric_Light_Company"},{"link_name":"Hotpoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotpoint"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan-Vickers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers"},{"link_name":"Siemens Brothers & Co","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_Brothers"},{"link_name":"William Thomas Henley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomas_Henley"},{"link_name":"English Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Electric"},{"link_name":"Dick, Kerr & Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick,_Kerr_%26_Co."},{"link_name":"Elliott Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Brothers_(computer_company)"},{"link_name":"Marconi Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Company"},{"link_name":"Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Stephenson_and_Hawthorns"},{"link_name":"Ruston & Hornsby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruston_%26_Hornsby"},{"link_name":"Vulcan Foundry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_Foundry"},{"link_name":"Willans & Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willans_%26_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Gilbarco Veeder-Root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbarco_Veeder-Root"},{"link_name":"Radio & Allied Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_%26_Allied_Industries"},{"link_name":"Tracor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracor"},{"link_name":"W & T Avery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_%26_T_Avery"},{"link_name":"Yarrow Shipbuilders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarrow_Shipbuilders"},{"link_name":"BAE Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems"},{"link_name":"Marconi Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Communications"},{"link_name":"Telent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telent"},{"link_name":"Unify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unify_(company)"},{"link_name":"GEC 2050","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_2050"},{"link_name":"GEC 4000 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_4000_series"},{"link_name":"GEC Series 63","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_Series_63"},{"link_name":"OS4000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS4000"},{"link_name":"British Rail Class 91","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Rail_Class_91"},{"link_name":"GEC Stephenson locomotive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_Stephenson_locomotive"},{"link_name":"South African Class 4E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Class_4E"},{"link_name":"South African Class 9E, Series 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Class_9E,_Series_1"},{"link_name":"South African Class 9E, Series 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Class_9E,_Series_2"},{"link_name":"South African Class 10E1, Series 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Class_10E1,_Series_1"},{"link_name":"South African Class 10E1, Series 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Class_10E1,_Series_2"},{"link_name":"Cyril Hilsum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_Hilsum"},{"link_name":"Hugo Hirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Hirst,_1st_Baron_Hirst"},{"link_name":"George Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Simpson,_Baron_Simpson_of_Dunkeld"},{"link_name":"Martin Sixsmith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Sixsmith"},{"link_name":"Michael Sobell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Sobell"},{"link_name":"Arnold Weinstock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Weinstock"},{"link_name":"GEC-Marconi scientist deaths conspiracy theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC-Marconi_scientist_deaths_conspiracy_theory"},{"link_name":"Phoebus cartel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoebus_cartel"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:General_Electric_Company"},{"link_name":"Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:General_Electric_Company_plc"}],"text":"Submarine sonar and surface ship sonar\nMinehunter sonar\nAirborne acoustic processors and dipping sonars (helicopter applications)\nSonar support systems and trainers\nCommunication systemsvteThales GroupDivisions andsubsidiaries\nThales Air Defence\nThales Australia\nThales Communications\nThales Nederland\nThales Optronics\nThales Rail Signalling Solutions\nThales Training & Simulation\nThales Underwater Systems\nJoint ventures\nEurosam (33%)\nNaval Group (25%)\nOEMServices (25%)\nTelespazio (33%)\nThales Alenia Space (67%)\nThalesRaytheonSystems (50%)\nProducts\nAN/PRC-148\nASTAC\nBlowpipe\nBushmaster Protected Mobility Vehicle\nHawkei\nDigital Joint Reconnaissance Pod\nEurocat\nGoalkeeper CIWS\nJavelin\nMartlet\nMW08\nProtector RWS\nS1850M\nSelTrac\nSMART-L\nSonar 2076\nSonar 2087\nStarstreak\nSWARM\nWatchkeeper WK450\nGround Master 200 (Multi Mission)\nPredecessors\nRacal\nThomson-CSF\nThomson Marconi Sonar\nLiveTV\n\n CategoryvteGeneral Electric CompanyFormer subsidiariesand divisions\nGEC Computers\nGEC Research\nGEC Traction\nHirst Research Centre\nMarconi Company\nMarconi Electronic Systems\nMarconi Instruments\nMarconi-Osram Valve\nMarconi Research Centre\nOsram\nVickers Shipbuilding and Engineering\nFormer joint ventures\nAlenia Marconi Systems\nGEC Alsthom\nGEC Plessey Telecommunications\nMatra Marconi Space\nThomson Marconi Sonar\nPredecessorsand acquisitions\nA.B. Dick Company\nAssociated Electrical Industries\nBirlec\nBritish Thomson-Houston (BTH)\nEdison Swan\nHotpoint\nMetropolitan-Vickers\nSiemens Brothers & Co\nWilliam Thomas Henley\nEnglish Electric\nDick, Kerr & Co.\nElliott Brothers\nMarconi Company\nRobert Stephenson and Hawthorns\nRuston & Hornsby\nVulcan Foundry\nWillans & Robinson\nGilbarco Veeder-Root\nRadio & Allied Industries\nTracor\nW & T Avery\nYarrow Shipbuilders\nSuccessors\nBAE Systems\nMarconi Communications\nTelent\nUnify\nProductsComputers\nGEC 2050\nGEC 4000 series\nGEC Series 63\nOS4000\nLocomotives\nBritish Rail Class 91\nGEC Stephenson locomotive\nSouth African Class 4E\nSouth African Class 9E, Series 1\nSouth African Class 9E, Series 2\nSouth African Class 10E1, Series 1\nSouth African Class 10E1, Series 2\nPeople\nCyril Hilsum\nHugo Hirst\nGeorge Simpson\nMartin Sixsmith\nMichael Sobell\nArnold Weinstock\nOther\nGEC-Marconi scientist deaths conspiracy theory\nPhoebus cartel\n\n Category\n Commons","title":"Products"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G95

G95

["1 References","2 External links"]

Not to be confused with GNU Fortran, G95 Capital Area Loop Expressway, or Heckler & Koch G95. G95Original author(s)Andy VaughtInitial release2000; 24 years ago (2000)Final release0.93 / October 2012; 11 years ago (2012-10) Repositoryg95.cvs.sourceforge.netWritten inCTypeCompilerLicenseGNU GPLv2Websiteg95.org G95 is a free, portable, open-source Fortran 95 compiler. It implements the Fortran 95 standard, part of the Fortran 2003 standard, as well as some old and new extensions including features for the Fortran 2008 standard like coarray Fortran. It also supports the F programming language subset. G95 was primarily developed by Andy Vaught, before he moved to competing compiler vendor PathScale. The last stable version, 0.93, was released in October 2012. Development of G95 stopped in 2013, and the compiler is no longer maintained. GNU Fortran, a part of GCC also known as gfortran, has now bypassed G95 in terms of its Fortran 2008 implementation and in the speed of the generated code. GNU Fortran was originally forked, in January 2003, from G95. References ^ "The G95 Project". ^ "Fortran 2008 status in Fortran Wiki". ^ "The other GCC-based Fortran compiler". GNU. 2010. Retrieved 2015-11-08. External links Official website G95 on SourceForge This computer-programming-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_training

Military recruit training

["1 Major characteristics","1.1 Confinement and suppression","1.2 Control and conformity","1.3 Stress and punishment","1.4 Bonding and the hierarchy of esteem","1.5 Aggression and objectification","1.6 Fieldcraft and fitness","1.7 Graduation and drop-out","2 Variations in recruit training","3 Australia","3.1 Regional Force Surveillance Units","3.2 Royal Military College Duntroon","4 Canada","5 China","6 Denmark","7 Finland","8 France","9 Germany","10 Greece","11 India","12 Israel","13 Pakistan","14 Russia","15 Singapore","16 Sri Lanka","17 Sweden","18 Switzerland","19 United Kingdom","20 United States","20.1 U.S. Army","20.2 U.S. Marine Corps","20.3 U.S. Navy","20.4 U.S. Air and Space Forces","20.5 U.S. Coast Guard","21 See also","22 References","23 External links"]

Initial indoctrination and instruction given to new military personnel "Basic training" redirects here. For other uses, see Basic training (disambiguation). For the correction training course, see Boot camp (correctional). U.S Marine Corps recruits during physical training Military recruit training, commonly known as basic training or boot camp, refers to the initial instruction of new military personnel. It is a physically and psychologically intensive process, which resocializes its subjects for the unique demands of military employment. Major characteristics Initial military training is an intensive residential programme commonly lasting several weeks or months, which aims to induct newly recruited military personnel into the social norms and essential tasks of the armed forces. Common features include foot drill, inspections, physical training, weapons training, and a graduation parade. The training process resocializes recruits to the demands made of them by military life. Psychological conditioning techniques are used to shape attitudes and behaviours, so that recruits will obey all orders, face mortal danger, and kill their opponents in battle. According to an expert in United States military training methods, Dave Grossman, recruit training makes extensive use of four types of conditioning techniques: role modeling, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and brutalization. Inductees are required to partially submerge their individuality for the sake of their military unit, which enhances obedience to orders to perform actions normally absent from civilian life, including killing and prolonged exposure to danger. The resocialization of recruit training operates in several ways, as follows: Confinement and suppression A recruit in the US Marine Corps is shaved before his initial training begins, 2006. Once their training has begun, the right of recruits to leave the military estate (or to quit the armed forces) is denied or tightly restricted. By shaving the head, issuing uniforms, denying privacy, and prohibiting the use of first names, individuality is suppressed. Control and conformity Recruits' daily routine is highly controlled, in the manner of the 'total institution' described by the Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman. For example, the training regime determines how recruits must make their beds, polish boots, and stack their clothes; mistakes are punished. Polish army recruits on foot drill, 2007 Throughout their training, recruits are conditioned to conform to military norms and to work as a team. In particular, recruits are repeatedly instructed to stand, march, and respond to orders in a ritual known as foot drill, which is derived from 18th-century military practices and trains recruits to obey orders without hesitation or question. According to Finnish Army regulations, for example, foot drill is essential for the esprit de corps and cohesion, accustoms recruits to instinctive obedience, enables large units to be marched and moved in an orderly manner, and creates the basis for action in the battlefield. Stress and punishment The training process applies stressors continuously. Instructors may deprive recruits of sleep, food, or shelter; shout personal insults; use physical aggression; or give orders intended to humiliate. According to specialists in U.S. recruit training, the conditions of continuous stress deplete recruits' resistance to the demands made of them. The intense workload and sleep restriction experienced by military recruits leaves them little attention capacity for processing the messages they receive about new norms… Therefore, recruits should be less likely to devote their remaining cognitive effort to judging the quality of persuasive messages and will be more likely to be persuaded by the messages… Evidence from Canada, the UK, the U.S. and elsewhere shows that punishments are used routinely to condition group conformity and discourage poor performance. The role of group punishment in Canadian Army training, for example, has been described as follows: Coming from civilian society that elevates the individual, recruits are now in a world where the institutional value of the group is supreme. One has to be a team player or risk ostracism. The military does things quite deliberately to intensify the power of group pressure within its ranks. The group is made responsible for each member... even though it may seem manifestly unfair to make the group suffer for the individual. Bonding and the hierarchy of esteem As a buffer against the stressful conditions of their training, the trainee group normally forms a strong bond of mutual loyalty. Researchers in the U.S. have described it as an intense "we-feeling", which can feel more powerful than the civilian bonds that recruits are familiar with. In 2006, an official report on Australian Defence Force training explained the importance of the group bond: Willingness to apply lethal force requires… sufficient bonding within the team to override each individual’s natural human resistance to kill. The toughness and bonding required increases the closer the contact with the enemy. Recruits are taught to be proud of their identity as professional military personnel, and of their unit in particular. Heroic regimental stories and symbols are used to ennoble the recruits' own unit above others, and above other branches of the armed forces (an aspect of Interservice rivalry), thereby establishing a hierarchy of esteem (also known as a hierarchy of respect); the same stories are used to draw a contrast with the purported inferior norms associated with civilian life. (Cf. Unit cohesion) Aggression and objectification US Army drill sergeants training a recruit Evidence from Australia, the UK and the U.S. shows that recruit training systematically stimulates aggression, particularly in those enlisted for ground close combat roles. Bayonet practice is an example, as the strong language of this instruction from a British army corporal illustrates: I wanna see it in your eyes that you wanna kill these fuckers. Imagine these dummies are the fucking Taliban and they’ve just killed some of your mates. You wanna fuckin’ kill them. Show me your war face! You need some fucking more aggression, show me your war face. Another example is milling, an exercise used for infantry training in which pairs of recruits wearing boxing gloves punch each other in the head as aggressively as possible. To further enable recruits to kill on demand, they are taught to objectify (dehumanize) their opponent in battle as an ‘enemy target’ to ‘be engaged’, which will ‘fall when hit’. Fieldcraft and fitness Recruits are taught the basic skills of their profession, such as military tactics, first aid, managing their affairs in the field, and the use of weaponry and other equipment. Throughout, the physical fitness of recruits is tested and developed, although evidence from Israel, Norway, South Africa, the UK and the U.S. has found that the heavy strain on the body also leads to a high rate of injury. Graduation and drop-out Recruits who complete their initial training normally take part in a graduation parade (also called passing-out or marching-out). The parade is observed by their family and friends, and senior military personnel. Recruits then pass to the next stage of their training, if applicable. U.S. Navy recruits complete their initial training with a graduation parade, 2011. A large percentage of recruits drop out of training. For example, attrition among British infantry recruits has been found to be above 30% during the first 12 weeks. Reasons for this include dismissal for behavioural problems, poor performance, or injury, and furthermore, recruits who choose to leave if and when they have a legal right to do so. In the UK and U.S., recruits under the age of 20 are most likely to drop out in these ways. Variations in recruit training Recruit training varies by nation according to the national requirement and can be voluntary (volunteer military) or mandatory (conscription). Some nations operate both volunteer and conscription systems simultaneously. Recruit training differs according to military branch: Army and Marine Corps recruits are normally trained in basic marksmanship with individually assigned weapons, field maintenance of weapons, physical fitness training, first aid, and basic survival and infantry techniques. Navy and Coast Guard training usually focuses on water survival training, physical fitness, basic seamanship, and such skills as shipboard firefighting, basic engineering, and signals. Air Force and Space Force training usually includes physical fitness training, military and classroom instructions, basic airmanship/guardianship and field training in basic marksmanship and first aid. Australia Main article: Australian Army Recruit Training Most of the recruit training in the Australian Army is currently held at Army Recruit Training Centre (ARTC) at Kapooka, near Wagga Wagga in New South Wales. Recruit training lasts 80 days for members of the Australian Regular Army and 35 days for members of the Australian Army Reserve. In basic training recruits are taught drill, weapons and workplace safety, basic equipment maintenance, marksmanship, fieldcraft, radio use and defensive/offensive operations. Regional Force Surveillance Units Training for recruits in the Regional Force Surveillance Units usually differs greatly from training in the rest of the Army. For instance, NORFORCE recruits attend a 2-week course at the Kangaroo Flats. Recruits from areas covered by the RFSUs often come from indigenous cultures radically different from that of the general Australian population, and as such many regular standards and methods of training are not as applicable in their case. Royal Military College Duntroon Recruit Training for officers in the Australian Army (known as ICT—Initial Cadet Training) takes place at Royal Military College, Duntroon (RMC). The ICT is conducted for approximately seven weeks after which staff cadets continue military instruction in skills such as weapons training, military history, leadership, strategic studies and other such skills at section, platoon and company levels. Trainees at RMC hold the rank of Staff Cadet and, if successful in completing the course are commissioned as Lieutenants (pronounced Left-tenant). The overall full-time officer training course at RMC is 18 months long. Canada Royal Military College of Canada cadets compete in the prestigious Sandhurst Competition. Centralized recruit training in the Canadian Army did not exist until 1940, and until the creation of Basic Training Centres across Canada, recruit training had been done by individual units or depots. In 1968 the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force were unified into one service, the Canadian Forces. The Canadian Forces Training System, a unified system for all the services, was devised and remains in place today. Most non-commissioned CF recruits in the Regular Force (full-time) participate in the 8-week Basic Military Qualification (BMQ) at Canadian Forces Leadership and Recruit School at Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec. Regular Force officers complete their 12-week Basic Military Officer Qualification (BMOQ) at CFLRS as well, before moving on to Second Language Training or their occupational training. After basic training, personnel are trained in the specialty of their "environment". Members of the Royal Canadian Navy undergo a five-week sea environment training course; with members of the Canadian Army undergo a 20-day Soldier Qualification course, while officers go through a 12-week Common Army Phase (now renamed to Basic Military Officer Qualification-Army); while members from the Royal Canadian Air Force move on directly to their trade training, with the exception of Construction Engineer Officers, who also do BMOQ-A Reservists, particularly the Army Reserve, may conduct basic and trades training part-time, generally alternating weekends with their own units. Due to increased integration of the Regular and Reserve Force, many reservists attend courses hosted by the Regular Force. Members of the Army Reserves complete an 8-week BMQ/SQ combined course (Basic Military Qualification and Soldier Qualification) during the summer. Formerly the Naval and Air Reserve jointly conduct BMQ for its recruits at the Naval Reserve Training Division Borden, Ontario equivalent to Regular Force BMQ, at Canadian Forces Base Borden. Now the Naval Reserve conducts the Basic Military Naval Qualification in CFB Valcartier by the Canadian Forces Fleet School Québec (a combination of recruit training and naval environmental training which leads to savings in the training). The Navy trains its personnel in seamanship, firefighting, damage control and other skills after BMQ, in the Naval Environmental Training Program (NETP) in either Esquimalt, British Columbia or Halifax, Nova Scotia. The Royal Military College of Canada is the military academy of the Canadian Forces, and is a degree-granting university. The Royal Military College Saint-Jean is a Canadian military academy located on the site of Fort Saint-Jean (Quebec), China Main article: Military education and training in China Denmark The Danish Army conducts the HBU (Hærens Basisuddannelse, Army Basic Training course) at 8 bases around the country. The course lasts four months, and has its focus on training skills used in connection with the Danish total defence, and on recruiting for the army's international missions, and for the NCO-schools. The recruits are technically conscripts, but during recession years, many young men and woman have volunteered for HBU. Finland Training lasts 5.5 to 11.5 months total, depending on an individual specialization. All Finnish conscripts undergo six weeks of basic training (peruskoulutuskausi), which is essentially the same for all servicemen. It includes assault rifle (RK-62/RK-95) marksman training, few other basic weapon training, battle training, short field medic training and camping skills. At the end of this training, all men are promoted to their first military rank. After this, specialized training is given depending on the person (5,5–11,5 months). The NCO trainees go to AUK (NCO school) and become corporals or sergeants, from which some are selected to RUK (Reserve officer school) and become second lieutenants. Leadership training (officer candidates and NCOs) always lasts 11.5 months. France In the French army, the "Formation Générale Initiale" (FGI) is a 12 weeks course which occurs in a Centre de Formation Initiale des Militaires du Rang (CFIM). There are 10 CFIM in the country. Prior to this course, new recruits are joining the regiment they are going to serve during 3 to 5 years for reception week where they get issued gear, complete administrative documents and a final medical exam before starting training => in France any enlisted soldier signs not only for a MOS but also a unit to serve. After completing the 12 week FGI course, recruits are receiving the AFFIM certificate (say BCT graduation) and are considered as private 2nd class. After one week of leave, they go back to their regiment for the Formation de Spécialité Initiale (FSI) => MOS training. After FGI+FSI, they can start training with their platoon for external deployment. Usually, Private 1st class rank is earned after 6 to 12 month of time in service. For some units (mountain troops - airborne), there is also during first year a Formation d'Adaptation (FA) for basic mountain training (2 × 2 weeks) or parachute school (3 weeks) Content of FGI is the following one: Drills, First aid and chemical warfare, PT and obstacle course, First weapon qualification (FAMAS, pistol and grenade), Signals, Basic field and infantry training (even if not MOS11B later on), Presentation of French army, soldiers duties and reports. Germany The Allgemeine Grundausbildung (AGA) (i.e. general basic training) of the Bundeswehr covers the first three months of military service. The contents of the "Allgemeine Grundausbildung" includes Formal training (ranks, flags, orders and other fundamentals) Weapon Drill and Basic Combat training for all soldiers (Rifle, Pistol and machine gun drills are mandatory for every soldier) Theoretical Courses about Democracy and legal regulations Sports: the Basic Fitness Test (BFT) and the German Sports Badge (DSA) Guard duty training (ATB SichSdt) First Aid A notable peculiarity of German basic training is rooted in German military tradition that prefers initiative to obedience. Rather than "breaking" the personality of new recruits through intimidation and aggression, German basic training generally tries to "mold" a recruits personality in the hope of producing soldiers with stronger personalities and more own initiative. Greece While until 2000 the Greek Army was mainly conscript based, since then a large Professional Enlisted institution has been adopted, which combined with the reduction of conscript service will produce an approximate 1:1 ratio between conscript and professional enlisted. While initially training of the two institutions was shared, it has since then diverged, and conscript training has been reduced in length while professional enlisted training has been increased. India Main article: Military academies in India The Indian military services have established numerous and distinguished academies and staff colleges across India for the purpose of training professional soldiers in new generation military sciences, warfare command and strategy, and associated technologies. Israel Main article: Tironut The recruit training of the Israel Defense Forces (called tironut in Hebrew) varies depending on the unit: virtually every unusual unit completes a different training course. Recruits are certified as riflemen after the completion of the training, while most non-combat units train in all-army bases for the certification of Rifleman 02. Individuals who want to become officers must apply to be trained at a facility in the Negev desert called "Bahad One" (abbreviation of "Bsis Hadracha", Instruction Base). Pakistan Main article: Pakistan Military Academy The Pakistan Military Academy (or PMA) is a Military Academy of the Pakistan Army. It is located at Kakul in Abbottabad in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The Pakistan Military Academy is analogous to Sandhurst, West Point or Tironut and undertakes training of the prospective officers of Pakistan Army. The academy has four training battalions and sixteen companies. A Cadet is trained and passed out as an officer of the Pakistan Army in 2 years. Enlisted Men undertake training at the Regimental Center of their chosen regiment. Russia Main article: Military academies in Russia Singapore This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2011) Main article: National service in Singapore National Service (NS) in Singapore is obligatory for all able-bodied male citizens and second generation permanent residents who have reached the age of 18. Conscripts enlisted into the Singapore Armed Forces are required to attend Basic Military Training (BMT) at the beginning of their NS. They are known as Full-Time National Servicemen (NSFs). Based on their Physical Employment Status (PES) grade determined by a pre-enlistment medical examination, NSFs may undergo either a standard, enhanced, modified, or obese BMT programme at the Basic Military Training Centre on the offshore island of Pulau Tekong or at the various military units that directly accept mono-intake PES A and B recruits. A similar 4-week BMT is conducted at Kranji School 5 for enlistees deemed unfit for combat roles. Throughout their BMT, NSFs will acquire the basic soldiering skills by learning how to execute drills, undergoing physical training activities aimed at developing physical fitness and preparing them for the Individual Physical Proficiency Test (IPPT), learning how to handle the SAR 21 assault rifle and SFG 87 hand grenade, completing a Standard Obstacle Course and Battle Inoculation Course, and completing a five-day field camp, among other activities. Before passing out from BMT, NSFs have to complete a 24 km (14.91 mi) route march in Full Battle Order and attend the Passing Out Parade, which may be held at the Marina Bay Floating Platform. After completing BMT, NSFs will receive their posting orders to their respective vocations, which are determined by their PES status, suitability for deployment, and manpower requirements, among other conditions. Some NSFs will be directly posted to a military unit while others may undergo vocational training at certain institutes before being posted to units. NSFs who perform well during BMT may progress to either the Specialist Cadet School or Officer Cadet School for further training to become Specialists (non-commissioned officers) or Officers. NSFs will serve the remaining part of their NS in their respective units until their Operationally-Ready Date (ORD), whereupon they will be known as Operationally-Ready National Serviceman (NSmen) or reservists. NSmen may still be required to take the IPPT every year and attend In-Camp Training of up to 40 days per year over a period of ten years, or until they are statutorily discharged from NS at the age of 40 (for Warrant Officers, Specialists and Enlistees) or 50 (for Officers). Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, officer training is carried out at the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University and at the respective Military Academies of each respective service. Recruit training for enlisted personnel of the Sri Lanka Army is organised by the Army Training School and carried out at its premises and at several other locations. Following basic training specialized training would be carried out at Regimental Training Centres. Basic training for new recruits of the Sri Lanka Navy which is approximately six months are conducted at Advanced Naval Training Center, SLNS 'Nipuna'; Naval Artificer Training Institute, SLNS 'Thakshila', Welisara; and at Naval Recruit Training Centres at several shore establishments . This basic training will be followed by on-the-job training on-board fleet units and at shore establishments. Combat Training School at SLNS 'Pandukabaya' conducts combat training for Naval Patrolmen. Basic training for airmen of the Sri Lanka Air Force is handled by the Training Wing of the SLAF Diyatalawa. This is followed by secularized training at Advanced & Specialized Trade Training School. Sweden Since conscription ended in Sweden in 2010 (reintroduced in 2017), all recruits who seek employment within the Swedish Armed Forces have to go through Grundläggande Militär Utbildning (GMU) (Basic Military Training) for three months. Since conscription was reintroduced in 2017, all recruits who seek employment in the Swedish Armed Forces have to go through Grundutbildning (GU) (Basic Training), which consists of two parts; Grundläggande Militär Utbildning (GMU) (Basic Military Training) that lasts for 3 months and aims to provide every recruit with the same foundation for continued military service, and Befattningsutbildning (Specialization Education) for between 1–11 months depending on specialization. There is also a shorter volunteer training program for people who seek service within the Home Guard called GU-F. GU-F training takes only 14 days, but following a completed GU-F, a guardsman may go through additional training in order to specialize within the Home Guard. Basic training as part of GU as well as GU-F usually takes place at any of the Swedish Army training units. Switzerland Switzerland has mandatory military service (German: Militärdienst; French: service militaire; Italian: servizio militare) in the Swiss Army for all able-bodied male citizens, who are conscripted when they reach the age of majority, though women may volunteer for any position. Conscripts make up the majority of the manpower in the Swiss Armed Forces. At the age of 19, all male Swiss nationals must attend the two-day recruitment process in one of the six recruitment centres spread across Switzerland (Aarau, Payerne, Sumiswald, Monte Ceneri, Rüti, Mels). At the end of those two-days, if fit for service, recruits are assigned to a position in the Swiss Armed Forces. A few months later, recruits start an 18-week (23-week for special forces) boot camp (German: Rekrutenschulen; French: école de recrues; Italian: scuola reclute) during which they are allowed to go home on week-ends. There are two boot camp start per year : January (Winter) and June (Summer). During the recruitment process, recruits can choose whether they would like to serve during summer or winter. In the first seven weeks of boot camp, recruits receive "General Basic Instruction" (German: Allgemeine Grundausbildung; French: Instruction de base générale; Italian: Istruzione di base generale). During this period, recruits are instructed by their sergeants to military tactics, the use of weaponry (including SIG SG 550) and other equipment, marksmanship, self-defense skills, buddy- and self- aid, CBRN defense, basic survival skills, etc. Recruits are also educated to military life, including how to speak to their superiors, how to clean their weapons and combat shoes, how to clean the barracks, etc. During this period, recruits practice sport on a daily basis, including foot drill, running, team sports, push-ups, etc., and a few kilometers' march (up to 50 km) for some weeks. The second phase of six weeks is devoted to function-specific basic instructions (German: Funktionsgrundausbildung; French: Instruction de base spécifique à la fonction; Italian: Istruzione di base alla funzione), where recruits learn skills specific to their job. In the third phase, called "instruction in formation" (German: Verbandsausbildung; French: Instruction en formation; Italian: Istruzione di reparto), battlegroups and battalions are formed. United Kingdom See also: Selection and Training in the British ArmyBritish armed forces recruits train in two phases. The length of Phase 1 recruit training varies according to service and trade. The British Army Phase 1 training, for all enlisted units other than infantry, lasts 14 weeks. Infantry units of the British Army undergo a combined 28 weeks basic training, with the exception of the Parachute Regiment (30 weeks), Guards Regiments (30 weeks) and the Royal Gurkha Rifles (36 weeks). The Royal Air Force provides 10 weeks of basic training for all enlisted recruits, regardless of trade, and is delivered at RAF Halton. The Royal Navy provides 10 weeks of basic recruit training for all enlisted recruits, with the exception of the Royal Marines, delivered at HMS Raleigh. The Royal Marines (excluding the Royal Marines band), undertake 32 weeks of basic training, delivered at Commando Training Centre Royal Marines. Phase One is initial recruit training designed to bring all recruits to a similar standard of basic military ability. Upon completion of Phase 1 training, recruits (with the exception of Army infantry roles, and the Royal Marine Commandos) will progress to their trade specific Phase Two training, which consists of courses of varying duration to prepare recruits for their assigned role. Officer recruits into the UK Armed Forces undergo the following Basic training: British Army - 44 weeks, delivered at Royal Military Academy (RMA) in Sandhurst. Royal Air Force - 24 weeks, delivered at RAF College Cranwell (MIOTC). Royal Navy - 30 weeks (split into two equal phases of 15 weeks each), delivered at Britannia Royal Naval College (BRNC) in Dartmouth. Royal Marines - 15 months, delivered at Commando Training Centre Royal Marines, with 3 weeks towards the end of the course in the United States. Upon completion of their Officer recruit training, cadets will then progress to their trade specific training of varying length. The British Army, Royal Navy, Royal Marines and Royal Air Force manage their own Phase One and Phase Two training establishments. United States In the United States, recruit training in the U.S. Army is called Basic Combat Training (BCT); U.S. Army Combat Arms MOS (11 Series, 19 series, 13 series, 12 series) and Military Police MOS (31 series) undergo One Station Unit Training (OSUT) which involves BCT, Advanced Individual Training (AIT) and Specialized Training (such as Bradley, or Mortar School, or Gunnery) all in one. In the U.S. Air and Space Forces it is called Basic Military Training (BMT). In the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Coast Guard it is called "Recruit Training" (commonly known as Boot Camp). Some services present a badge or other award to denote completion of recruit training. The Army typically issues the Army Service Ribbon (issued after completion of Advanced Individual Training), and the Air Force presents the Air Force Training Ribbon and the Airman's Coin. The Marine Corps issue the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor once initial training is complete to signify that the recruits are now Marines. The Navy replaces the "RECRUIT" ball cap the recruits have worn throughout training with the "NAVY" ball cap upon successful completion of "Battle Stations". The United States Coast Guard's recruit training graduates place a Coast Guard Medallion on their ball cap. For honor graduates of basic training, the Air Force, Coast Guard, and Navy present a Basic Training Honor Graduate Ribbon. The Navy and Marine Corps often meritoriously advance the top graduates of each division one pay-grade (up to a maximum of E-3). U.S. Army U.S. Army recruits being instructed Main article: United States Army Basic Training In the United States Army, recruits are sent to Basic Combat Training in a location designated according to the military Military Occupational Specialty, or MOS, which is selected upon enlistment. Initial Entry Training (IET) is divided into two parts, which commonly take place at two different locations, depending on the chosen MOS: Basic Combat Training, or BCT, is a ten-week training cycle. This period does not include "Reception Week" during which recruits are being slotted to their training companies (troops for cavalry). During reception, trainees get Sexual Harassment/Assault Response & Prevention training during IET, as of 30 July 2021. Advanced Individual Training, or AIT, is where new soldiers receive specific training in their chosen MOS. The length of AIT training varies depending on the MOS and can last anywhere from four weeks to nearly one year. Several MOSs (mainly combat arms) combine both basic training and AIT in a single combined course called One Station Unit Training (OSUT), which can last up to 22 weeks. The attitude and environment remain the same throughout the entire training cycle, including drill instructors. Essentially, OSUT is an extended version of Basic Training, especially for Infantry OSUT, which remains on the same basic soldiering tasks for the entire cycle, although in greater detail. Infantry OSUT is conducted at the United States Army Infantry School at Fort Moore, and is 22 weeks long. The U.S. Army has four sites for BCT: Fort Moore at Columbus, Georgia Fort Jackson at Columbia, South Carolina Fort Leonard Wood at St. Robert, Missouri Fort Sill at Lawton, Oklahoma During Basic Combat Training, Army recruits learn a variety of basic combat skills including: Basic Rifle Marksmanship (BRM), land navigation, patrolling, securing and defending a position, drill and ceremony, fireteam formations and assaults, communications and use of AN/PRC-119 radio, combat lifesaving skills, 9-line medevac, reporting intelligence, hand grenades, Claymore mines, M203/M320 grenade launcher, M249 Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW), M240B machine gun, M2 .50 caliber machine gun, MK-19, and AT-4 anti-tank weapon. Training also includes combat conditioning by running an obstacle course, the Confidence Course, conducting marches of varying distances up to 12 miles, physical training, and Modern Army Combatives Program (MACP), a martial arts program based on the combination of Brazilian jiu-jitsu, wrestling, judo, Muay Thai, boxing, and a number of others. Recruits are trained to adopt the Army "Warrior Ethos", and to memorize and live by the Soldier's Creed. BCT is divided into three phases. During Phase I, (also known as "Red Phase") recruits are subject to "Total Control," meaning their every action is monitored and constantly corrected by drill sergeants. The first week of training is commonly referred to as "Hell Week," due to the intense period of adjustment required on the part of the new recruits. Marches are common throughout basic training. Recruits are sent to the "gas chamber" during Phase I, as part of training for defensive chemical warfare. They are also introduced to their standard-issue weapon, the M16A2 rifle, the M16A4 rifle, or M4 carbine. In Phase II (also known as "White Phase") soldiers begin actually firing weapons, starting with the rifle or carbine (M4A1). Other weapons the recruit becomes familiarized with include various grenades (such as the M67 fragmentation grenade) and grenade launchers (such as the M203). Recruits are then familiarized with the bayonet, anti-tank/armor weaponry and other heavy weapons. The course also includes an obstacle course which the soldiers are expected to negotiate in a certain amount of time. Additionally, Phase II includes continual, intense PT, along with drill and ceremony training. At the conclusion of Phase II, Soldiers are to demonstrate proficiency with the various weaponry with which they trained. Phase III or "Blue Phase," is the culmination and the most challenging of all the training phases. A final PT test is administered during the first week. Recruits who fail are frequently retested, often up until the morning of their cycle's graduation. If they do not pass, then they are recycled to another platoon that is in an earlier phase of the training cycle until they meet the fitness standards. The final PT Test is the Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT). Usually, a soldier needs to score at least 60 points in each APFT category (pushups, planks, and 2 mile run) to pass, but in Basic Combat Training, only 50 points are required; the soldier will nevertheless take another APFT with a 60-point requirement at AIT. During Blue Phase, the recruits move on to such longer and more intensive "bivouac" and FTX (Field Training Exercises) as nighttime combat operations. Drill sergeants will make much of this an adversarial process by working against the recruits in many of the night operations and trying to foil plans, etc. Upon completion of Basic Combat Training, a recruit is now a soldier, and has developed skills to operate in a combat environment, as a basic rifleman and to perform his or her MOS-specific duties under fire. U.S. Marine Corps Main article: United States Marine Corps Recruit Training A U.S. Marine Corps Drill Instructor works with enlistees, or individuals who have not left yet for recruit training. U.S. Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Kate Busto/Released The United States Marine Corps Recruit Depots are located at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina, and Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, California. Men and women go to either, depending on whether they were recruited east or west of the Mississippi River. Until 2021, women only trained at Parris Island. Marine Corps boot camp is the longest basic training, excluding Army One Station Unit Training (OSUT), in-processing & out-processing is included unlike the other branches as the other branches do not contain this in their Basic Training duration length. Formerly, recruits were referred to as either "(the) private(s)" or "(the) recruit(s)" from day one of Recruit Training. Since the 1990s, they are referred to as "(the) recruit(s)" alone until they earn the title of Marine. Marine Corps Recruit Training (MCRT) is a 13-week program that is divided up into three four-week phases and further broken down into individual training days. While there are 69 individual training days, recruits also go through pre- and post-training processing where recruits are afforded relatively little freedom. Phase one mainly consists of learning recruit life protocol, physical training, MCMAP training, academic classes, initial drill, a series inspection, and the confidence course. West coast recruits also do swim qualification during this phase. Phase two is completely in the field at Camp Pendleton for west coast recruits, with the first two weeks being spent on marksmanship training and qualification with the M16A4 service rifle, and the last week in the field learning skills such as fireteam formations, land navigation, and hikes. For east coast recruits, phase two is swim qualification, rifle qualification, and Team Week, a week of maintenance duties for the island as a show of how to perform base support tasks while still keeping military bearing and attention to detail. Phase three brings the San Diego recruits back to the recruit depot where they finish up with final drill, final inspection, more PT and confidence courses, and graduation. During third phase, west coast recruits also go back into the field one last time to do the Crucible event. Parris Island recruits finish with field training, final drill and inspection, the Crucible, and graduation. Note that recruits going to either depot receive exactly the same training, if in a different order. An important part of this process is training recruits to adopt and live by the motto, "Every Marine a rifleman". Upon completion, recruits proceed to receive further training at the School of Infantry (SOI). All non-infantry MOS Marines are trained at the Marine Combat Training Battalion (MCT), while infantry MOS Marines are trained at the Infantry Training Battalion (ITB). MCT and ITB training is conducted at one of two locations, SOI-East at Camp Lejeune in Jacksonville, North Carolina (for Parris Island graduates) and SOI-West at Camp Pendleton in San Diego, California (for San Diego graduates). Marine Combat Training Battalion (MCT) is a 29-day course. Marines learn the basics of combat marksmanship, counter-improvised explosive device techniques, how to conduct the defense of a position, convoy operations, combat formations, fireteam assaults, patrolling, urban warfare, use of the AN/PRC-119 radio, reporting military intelligence, land navigation, and the use of hand grenades, the M203 grenade launcher, M249 Squad Automatic Weapon, and M240 machine gun. Training also includes combat conditioning by running an obstacle course, conducting marches, physical training, and Marine Corps Martial Arts Program. Upon completion of Marine Combat Training, the Marine is to have gained the knowledge and ability to operate in a combat environment as a basic rifleman and to perform his or her primary duties under fire. (The main contrast with Army recruit training is that nearly identical training is integrated into Basic Combat Training, so there is no follow-on school.) Upon completion, Marines proceed to their MOS-specific school. In Infantry Training Battalion (ITB), infantry MOS (03XX) Marines receive 59 days of training in infantry skills, including advanced marksmanship, combat patrolling, land navigation, and a wide array of other infantry skills. Upon completion of ITB, newly qualified Marine infantrymen proceed to their assigned units. U.S. Navy In March 2002, a U.S. Navy Recruit Division Commander conducts "Instructional Training" to correct substandard performance during boot camp. Main article: Recruit Training Command, Great Lakes, Illinois The United States Navy currently operates boot camp at Recruit Training Command Great Lakes, located at Naval Station Great Lakes, near North Chicago, Illinois. Instead of having Drill Sergeants or Drill Instructors like other branches of the U.S. Armed Forces, the U.S. Navy has RDCs (Recruit Division Commanders) that are assigned to each division. Training lasts approximately eight weeks (although some recruits will spend as many as nine weeks in training due to the somewhat complicated processing cycle). Days are counted by a system that lists the week and day that they are on, for example, 7-3 for week 7 day 3. The first approximate week is counted P-1, P-2, etc. which denotes that it is a processing day and does not count as part of their 8-week training period. Recruits are instructed on military drill, watchstanding, basic seamanship, water survival skills, first aid, basic shipboard damage control, firefighting, shipboard communication, familiarization with the M9 pistol and Mossberg 500 shotgun (the Navy no longer gives instruction on the M16 in boot camp), pass the confidence chamber (tear-gas-filled chamber), PT, and the basic essentials on Navy life. Recruits also attend many classes throughout boot camp on subjects such as Equal Opportunity, Sexual Assault Victim Intervention, Uniform Code of Military Justice, recognition of naval aircraft and vessels, U.S. naval history, and more. In order for recruits to pass boot camp, they are physically and mentally tested on a 12-hour exercise called Battle Stations which consists of 12 different scenarios involving firefighting, navigating smoke filled compartments, first-aid knowledge, survival at sea, mass casualties, shipboard flood control, bomb detection, and many other skills that they have been learning in the previous 7 weeks. After completion of boot camp, freshly minted sailors are sent either to various "A" Schools located across the United States—where they begin training to receive their ratings (jobs)—or to apprenticeship training, where they then enter the fleet without a designation. The Navy formerly operated Recruit Training Centers in San Diego, California; Orlando, Florida; Meridian, Mississippi; and Port Deposit (Bainbridge), Maryland. From 1942 to 1946—during and immediately following World War II—the Navy had two additional training sites: Naval Training Station (USNTS) Sampson (renamed Sampson Air Force Base in 1950), near Seneca Lake, New York, where over 400,000 recruits were trained, and Farragut Naval Training Station in Bayview, Idaho. U.S. Air and Space Forces A formation of USAF airmen Main article: United States Air Force Basic Military Training The U.S. Air and Space Forces' Basic Military Training (BMT) is seven and a half weeks long, as they do not count the first week ("Week 0"). BMT is 63 calendar days long. It is conducted at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. Formerly, trainees were referred to as "airman" from day one of BMT. This has been changed; now, personnel are referred to as trainees until the Airman's Coin Ceremony in the eighth week of training, when they receive their Airman's Coin. Trainees receive military instruction (including the Air Force core values, flight and individual drill, and living area inspections), academic classes (covering topics such as Air Force history, dress and appearance, military customs and courtesies, ethics, security, and alcohol/drug abuse prevention and treatment), and field training (including protection against biological and chemical attack, basic marksmanship on the M4 carbine as well as self-aid buddy care). Following BMT, airmen/guardians go to a technical school (or 'tech school') where they learn the specifics of their Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC), which is equivalent to the MOS (Military Occupational Specialty) in the Army and Marines, the Navy's NEC (Naval Enlisted Classification) code, or the Coast Guard's ratings. All non-prior-service enlistees are required to complete BMT, including those enlisting in the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve Command. Reserve component enlistees receive the same training as their active-duty counterparts. Credit can be given on a case-by-case basis for enlistees with college credit. Eagle Scouts and service in the Civil Air Patrol qualify for promotion to E-2 (airman) or E-3 (airman first class) upon graduation from BMT. The stripes are not worn until graduation, though trainees are paid at the higher pay grade. Lackland AFB has been associated with BMT for almost the Air Force's entire history. From 1950 to 1956, 300,000 airmen received BMT at Sampson Air Force Base in New York. In 1951, Parks Air Force Base in Dublin, California, became a BMT center, with training beginning in March 1952. BMT at Parks AFB ceased later in the decade and the installation was transferred to the U.S. Army in 1959. For a brief time between 1966 and 1968, the Air Force operated a second BMT at Amarillo Air Force Base in Amarillo, Texas. Unlike the Army and Navy, but like the Marine Corps (throughout boot camp) and Coast Guard (during the first section of boot camp), trainees are required to refer to all airmen and guardians of all ranks as "sir" or "ma'am". Trainees are required to preface speaking to military training instructors with their reporting statement: "Sir/Ma'am, Trainee (the recruit's surname) reports as ordered". An additional two weeks of BMT was added to the program on November 1, 2008, extending the duration of BMT from six and a half weeks to eight and a half weeks. BMT has been tailored to incorporate some of the additional warfighting skills to coincide with increased Air Expeditionary Force (AEF) rotations and more frequent support of its sister services during those rotations. In 2015, BMT was shortened once again to seven and a half weeks. Trainees still stay at Lackland for eight and half weeks, however, the eighth week following graduation they are moved to a more relaxed environment under a program called Airman's Week, which is designed to transition trainees to technical training. U.S. Coast Guard A Coast Guard Company Commander instructs a recruit during recruit training. Recruit training for the U.S. Coast Guard is held at Coast Guard Training Center Cape May in Cape May, New Jersey. The Coast Guard base on Government Island (now known as Coast Guard Island) Alameda, California was also used as a second major recruit training center until it was closed in 1982. The official standard recruit training cycle lasts eight weeks. A limited number of recruits may face reversion to earlier weeks of training should they exhibit egregious deficiencies in attitude and/or aptitude. As an alternate for those recruits possessing prior military service or civilian job skills, Coast Guard recruit basic training offers an abbreviated route to completion of basic training with the Direct Entry Petty Officer Training program (DEPOT) "The goal of the Direct Entry Petty Officer Training Course is to produce petty officers who on the basis of their civilian professions, prior military experience, or a combination of both" are otherwise duly qualified. Coast Guard boot camp covers basic seamanship, drill, military bearing, and firefighting. The U.S. Coast Guard is unique among the armed services in that it fires the SIG Sauer P229R pistol as well as the M16 rifle during the training. Although the Coast Guard is a part of the Department of Homeland Security, rather than the Department of Defense, it is by law and tradition a branch of the United States Armed Forces. As with all military personnel, coast guardsmen are subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). Due to the Coast Guard's unique mission set – including CONUS and OCONUS defense operations, search and rescue and maritime law enforcement – there are added requirements to maintain high physical fitness standards and military bearing. Due to its unusual, diverse and difficult mission, the U.S. Coast Guard is the most selective in recruiting and training standards. As an example, the Coast Guard Academy is the only service academy that uses competitive admissions for prospective officer candidates rather than congressional appointment. During their time at Cape May, recruits are subjected to the usual "boot camp" atmosphere of direct instruction and intense motivation. Recruits must adhere to strict rules such as hygiene and uniform regulations and obey all lawful orders. The recruits are designated as seaman recruits (SR; E-1). Unique to the Coast Guard among the armed services, recruits successfully completing basic recruit training are advanced to the rank of seaman apprentice/fireman apprentice (SA/FA; E-2) or seaman/fireman (SN/FN; E-3) upon graduation—the difference generally based on the level of higher education the graduate possesses. Coast Guard drill instructors are called "company commanders" and hold a rank ranging from petty officer 2nd class (E-5) up to senior chief petty officer (E-8). Coast Guard companies have approximately two or three company commanders and anywhere from 20 to over 100 recruits. After completing boot camp, recruits can select their rating and then attend an "A" school. Few graduates go straight to "A" school; most spend up to a year in the fleet as "non-rates". "A" school is a long-term technical school providing specific instruction about a rating. The "A" schools last two to six months and usually occur at TRACEN Yorktown, Yorktown, Virginia or TRACEN Petaluma, Petaluma, California. Aviation related ratings train at the Aviation Technical Training Center at Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City, North Carolina. Some ratings have an available on-the-job apprenticeship training option known as "striking" instead of attending an "A" school. See also Military education and training Milling - military training exercise Military Academy Officer Candidate School Resocialization Psychological conditioning Military recruitment Military service References ^ a b c d e f g McGurk; et al. (2006). 'Joining the ranks: The role of indoctrination in transforming civilians to service members', (in 'Military life: The psychology of serving in peace and combat '). Westport: Praeger Security International. pp. 13–31. ISBN 978-0275983024. ^ a b c d Australia, Department of Defence (2006). "Final report of the Learning Culture Inquiry" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2017-07-01. ^ a b c d e f g Winslow, Donna (2004). "Misplaced Loyalties: The Role of Military Culture in the Breakdown of Discipline in Two Peace Operations". Journal of Military and Strategic Studies. 6 (3). ISSN 1488-559X. Archived from the original on 2017-12-24. Retrieved 2017-12-24. ^ a b c d e Dave., Grossman (2009). On killing : the psychological cost of learning to kill in war and society (Rev. ed.). New York: Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 9780316040938. OCLC 427757599. ^ a b c d e John., Hockey (1986). Squaddies : portrait of a subculture. Exeter, Devon: University of Exeter. ISBN 9780859892483. OCLC 25283124. ^ Canada, National Defence and the Canadian Armed Forces (2017). "DAOD 5002-1 - Enrolment". www.forces.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 2017-12-24. Retrieved 2017-12-24. ^ British Army (2015). "Terms and conditions of service" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-01. Retrieved 2017-12-24. ^ a b Kristiansen, Ryan. "Why Is Getting Out of the U.S. Army So Tough?". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 2017-08-10. Retrieved 2017-12-24. ^ a b c Bourne, Peter G. (1967-05-01). "Some Observations on the Psychosocial Phenomena Seen in Basic Training". Psychiatry. 30 (2): 187–196. doi:10.1080/00332747.1967.11023507. ISSN 0033-2747. PMID 27791700. ^ a b Eisenhart, R. Wayne (1975-10-01). "You Can't Hack It Little Girl: A Discussion of the Covert Psychological Agenda of Modern Combat Training". Journal of Social Issues. 31 (4): 13–23. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1975.tb01008.x. ISSN 1540-4560. ^ a b Dornbusch, Sanford M. (1955-05-01). "The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution". Social Forces. 33 (4): 316–321. doi:10.2307/2573000. ISSN 0037-7732. JSTOR 2573000. ^ a b Huntington, Samuel P. (1957). The soldier and the state : the theory and politics of civil-military relations. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674817364. OCLC 569431. ^ "The Discipline and Standards Paper" (PDF). British Army. 21 October 2013. Retrieved September 16, 2019 – via gov.uk. ^ "Annex B: Values and Standards of the British Army" (PDF). Queen's Regulations for the Army. British Army. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-10 – via gov.uk. ^ Ricks, Thomas E. "The Widening Gap Between Military and Society". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 2017-12-24. Retrieved 2017-12-24. ^ Hockey, J (2003). No more heroes: Masculinity in the infantry (in P Highgate , 'Military masculinities: Identity and the state'). Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp. 15–26. ^ Forces TV (2014-06-02), VIP Visitor Adds Pressure to Parachute Regiment Recruits | Forces TV, retrieved 2017-12-24 ^ "British Army Bayonet Training". BenoTota. 2011-12-23. Archived from the original on 2018-08-25. Retrieved 2017-12-24. ^ "Milling: Procedural brief (obtained under the Freedom of Information Act, ref. FOI2017/04225)" (PDF). British Army. March 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-02-19. Retrieved 8 December 2017 – via vfpgov.org. ^ "VIP Visitor Adds Pressure to Parachute Regiment Recruits". Forces TV. 2 June 2014. Retrieved 8 December 2017 – via YouTube. ^ Milgrom, C.; Finestone, A.; Shlamkovitch, N.; Rand, N.; Lev, B.; Simkin, A.; Wiener, M. (January 1994). "Youth is a risk factor for stress fracture. A study of 783 infantry recruits". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume. 76 (1): 20–22. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.76B1.8300674. ISSN 0301-620X. PMID 8300674. ^ Heir, T.; Glomsaker, P. (June 1996). "Epidemiology of musculoskeletal injuries among Norwegian conscripts undergoing basic military training". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 6 (3): 186–191. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.1996.tb00088.x. ISSN 0905-7188. PMID 8827849. S2CID 22233454. ^ Gordon, N. F.; Hugo, E. P.; Cilliers, J. F. (1986-04-12). "The South African Defence Force physical training programme. Part III. Exertion-related injuries sustained at an SADF basic training centre". South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde. 69 (8): 491–494. ISSN 0256-9574. PMID 3961645. ^ Blacker, Sam D.; Wilkinson, David M.; Bilzon, James L. J.; Rayson, Mark P. (March 2008). "Risk factors for training injuries among British Army recruits". Military Medicine. 173 (3): 278–286. doi:10.7205/milmed.173.3.278. ISSN 0026-4075. PMID 18419031. ^ a b Kiernan, Matthew D.; Repper, Julie; Arthur, Antony (2015-01-01). "Why do they fail? A qualitative follow up study of 1000 recruits to the British Army Infantry to understand high levels of attrition" (PDF). Work. 52 (4): 921–934. doi:10.3233/wor-152208. ISSN 1051-9815. PMID 26599676. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2019-01-06. ^ Gee, David; Taylor, Rachel (2016-11-01). "Is it Counterproductive to Enlist Minors into the Army?". The RUSI Journal. 161 (6): 36–48. doi:10.1080/03071847.2016.1265837. ISSN 0307-1847. S2CID 157986637. ^ U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (2004). "A Review of the literature on attrition from the military services: Risk factors for attrition and strategies to reduce attrition". Archived from the original on August 9, 2017. Retrieved 2017-12-25. ^ "Louder than words: An agenda for action to end state use of child soldiers". Child Soldiers International. Archived from the original on 2017-12-06. Retrieved 2017-12-06. ^ a b "NS Portal". Singapore Armed Forces. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016. ^ Försvarsmakten. "Grundutbildning". Försvarsmakten (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 2016-10-11. Retrieved 2016-10-12. ^ "Conscrits et recrues" (in French). Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports. Archived from the original on 2 May 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2009. ^ "Femmes dans l'armée" (in French). Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports. Archived from the original on 2 May 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2009. ^ "The basic organisation of the Swiss Armed Forces" (PDF). Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2009. ^ "Déroulement de l'école" (in French). Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports. Archived from the original on 8 May 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2009. ^ Thomas Brading, Army News Service (30 July 2021) Sexual assault prevention starts on day one, Army senior leaders say ^ Combatives#Modern Army Combatives ^ Thompson, Mark. "The Few, the Proud, the Broken". Time. Archived from the original on 14 December 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2017 – via nation.time.com. ^ "Recruit Training". Marines. Archived from the original on 2016-12-19. Retrieved 2016-12-19. ^ ^ "School of Infantry". Marines. Archived from the original on 2016-12-10. Retrieved 2016-12-18. Marines with a Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) of infantry are trained at the Infantry Training Battalion (ITB), while all non-infantry Marines are trained at the Marine Combat Training Battalion (MCT). ^ "School of Infantry". Marines. Archived from the original on 2016-12-10. Retrieved 2016-12-18. Marine Combat Training Battalion (MCT) is a 29-day course. The mission is to train and conduct standards-based combat skills training of all non-infantry Marines in order to ensure that "every Marine a rifleman" is true regardless of their Military Occupational Specialty. Training includes marksmanship, combat formations and patrolling, as well as other combat related skills. ^ United States Marine Corps School of Infantry ^ "BMT extended, NCOs to learn new languages". 17 July 2012. Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 1 January 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ^ "USCG Recruit Training". Archived from the original on 26 May 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017. ^ "DEPOT". Archived from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017. ^ Military.com. "Military Life". Archived from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 1 January 2017. External links USAREC (2003). U.S. Army DEP Guide: Army Terminology Archived 2003-12-27 at the Wayback Machine. United States Army Recruiting Command. Fort Knox, KY (USA). USMC Recruit Depot San Diego. Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego Archived 2007-04-13 at the Wayback Machine Headquarters Western Recruiting Region. MCRD San Diego, CA (USA) Media:The Ultimate Basic Training Guidebook: Tips, Tricks, and Tactics for Surviving Boot Camp, by Sgt. Michael Volkin. Savas Beatie, 2005. ISBN 1-932714-11-1 vteMilitary and warConcepts Military Service History Technology Occupational roles Recruitment Roles: Soldier Sailor Airman Enlisted rank Officer Commanding officer Executive officer Protocols and structure: Ranks List Uniforms Awards and decorations By country Highest Categories: Ranks Forces Command and control Defense ministry Armed Forces: Army Navy Air force Marines Space force Special forces Airborne forces Commando Frogman Militia Reserves Functional specialties: Communications Engineers Intelligence Reconnaissance List Medical Military police Gendarmerie Security forces Border guard Coast guard Logistics By country Categories: Combat occupations Development: Basic training Military maneuvers Combat training Branches Land units: Combat arms Infantry Armor Cavalry Artillery Special reconnaissance Signal corps Naval units: Warships Surface Littoral Patrol Submarines Aircraft carriers Landing craft Auxiliary ship Air units: Fighters Bombers Command Close air support Electronic-warfare Reconnaissance Structure Organization By country Armies by country Chain of command Unified combatant command General staff Land: Army group Field army Corps List Division List Brigade By type Regiment By country By type Battalion By country By type Platoon Squad Naval: Naval fleet Task force Carrier strike group Division Flotilla Squadron Air: Combat box Special units by nation: Battle Fleet; U.S. Navy Front; Russian land forces Vehicles Ground: Ground List Combat Tracked vehicles Wheeled vehicles Armor Tank Infantry fighting vehicle Lists By country Armored car Scout car Truck List Gun truck Self-propelled artillery List Anti-aircraft Rail WeaponsLand Weapons List Artillery: Artillery List By country Battery Field gun List Howitzer List Rocket List Infantry guns: Pistols Machine guns List Service rifles: Battle rifles List Assault rifle List Sniper rifle Other infantry weapons: Bazooka Anti-tank gun List Grenade List Flamethrower Bayonet Combat knife List Missiles: Shoulder-fired Anti-tank List By country Mortar Lists: Infantry Heavy Other: Land mine Shells Sea/Air: Guided missiles List Naval: Naval artillery List Anti-ship missiles Torpedoes Depth charges Close-in weapons Aerial: Guns Missiles Bombs Equipment Military equipment Lists By country Helmet List Camouflage List Body armor Facilities: Military base Lists Field hospital Combat systems Fire-control system Fire-control radar Director (military) Combat information center Sonar Radar Historical: Ship gun fire-control Gun data computer Torpedo Data Computer Warfare War Battle Strategy Tactics Combat Military science Diplomacy International law By era: Prehistoric Ancient Post-classical Early modern Late modern industrial fourth-gen By type: Armoured warfare Artillery Barrage Biological Camouflage Cavalry Chemical Class Combined arms Conventional Cyber Denial Disinformation Drone Electronic Infantry Lawfare Loitering Music Nuclear Psychological Radiological Unconventional Battlespace Aerospace Air Airborne Space Land Cold-region Desert Jungle Mountain Urban Sea Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Subterranean Tunnel Cyber Information Tactics List of military tactics Aerial Airlift Airbridge Airdrop Battle Cavalry Charge Counterattack Counterinsurgency Defeat in detail Foxhole Envelopment Guerrilla Morale Rapid dominance Siege Swarming Tactical objective Target saturation Trench Withdrawal Operational Military operation Operations research Blitzkrieg Expeditionary Deep operation Maneuver Operational manoeuvre group Strategy List of military strategies and concepts Military campaign Attrition Counter-offensive Culminating Defence in depth Fabian Mosaic Deception Defensive Depth Goal Naval Offensive Scorched earth Policy Diplomacy: Alliances Peace treaty Cooperation United Nations Mediation Public policy: Conscription Defense budget Defense policy Related: Government Nation Lists Military lists Wars Weapons Military tactics History lists: Wars Battles Military occupations Operations Sieges Related lists: War crimes Writers Other namespace Templates: Overviews {{War}} {{Weapons}} {{Ranks}} Vehicles and weapons: {{Tanks}} {{Weapons}} {{Infantry fighting vehicles}} {{Modern warships}} {{Aircraft}} Specific modern wars: {{Napoleonic Wars}} {{World War I}} {{World War II}} {{Cold War}} Categories: Lists of wars by country Conflicts by time Related Peace Peace and conflict studies Peace movement Peace process Disarmament Pacifism Détente Global studies Conscientious objector Anti-war movement Idealism in international relations Humanitarianism International cooperation Crimes against humanity {{International relations}} Categories: Peace organizations Category  Commons Authority control databases: National Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Basic training (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_training_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Boot camp (correctional)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_camp_(correctional)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island_Training_140513-M-XK446-114.jpg"},{"link_name":"U.S Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"military personnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_personnel"},{"link_name":"resocializes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resocialization"},{"link_name":"military employment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_recruitment"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"}],"text":"\"Basic training\" redirects here. For other uses, see Basic training (disambiguation). For the correction training course, see Boot camp (correctional).U.S Marine Corps recruits during physical trainingMilitary recruit training, commonly known as basic training or boot camp, refers to the initial instruction of new military personnel. It is a physically and psychologically intensive process, which resocializes its subjects for the unique demands of military employment.[1]","title":"Military recruit training"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"newly recruited military personnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_recruitment"},{"link_name":"social norms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(social)"},{"link_name":"foot drill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_drill"},{"link_name":"graduation parade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_out_(military)"},{"link_name":"resocializes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resocialization"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"Dave Grossman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Grossman_(author)"},{"link_name":"role modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role_model"},{"link_name":"classical conditioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning"},{"link_name":"operant conditioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"}],"text":"Initial military training is an intensive residential programme commonly lasting several weeks or months, which aims to induct newly recruited military personnel into the social norms and essential tasks of the armed forces. Common features include foot drill, inspections, physical training, weapons training, and a graduation parade.The training process resocializes recruits to the demands made of them by military life. Psychological conditioning techniques are used to shape attitudes and behaviours, so that recruits will obey all orders, face mortal danger, and kill their opponents in battle.[2][3][1][4][5] According to an expert in United States military training methods, Dave Grossman, recruit training makes extensive use of four types of conditioning techniques: role modeling, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and brutalization.[4]Inductees are required to partially submerge their individuality for the sake of their military unit, which enhances obedience to orders to perform actions normally absent from civilian life, including killing and prolonged exposure to danger.[1]The resocialization of recruit training operates in several ways, as follows:","title":"Major characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Recruit_having_head_shaved.jpg"},{"link_name":"US Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-8"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-9"}],"sub_title":"Confinement and suppression","text":"A recruit in the US Marine Corps is shaved before his initial training begins, 2006.Once their training has begun, the right of recruits to leave the military estate (or to quit the armed forces) is denied or tightly restricted.[6][7][8] By shaving the head, issuing uniforms, denying privacy, and prohibiting the use of first names, individuality is suppressed.[5][1][9]","title":"Major characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"total institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_institution"},{"link_name":"Erving Goffman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erving_Goffman"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Postawa.zasadnicza.jpg"},{"link_name":"Polish army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"foot drill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_drill"},{"link_name":"conform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity"},{"link_name":"norms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(social)"},{"link_name":"foot drill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_drill"},{"link_name":"Finnish Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_Army"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"esprit de corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esprit_de_corps"}],"sub_title":"Control and conformity","text":"Recruits' daily routine is highly controlled, in the manner of the 'total institution' described by the Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman. For example, the training regime determines how recruits must make their beds, polish boots, and stack their clothes; mistakes are punished.[9][5]Polish army recruits on foot drill, 2007Throughout their training, recruits are conditioned to conform to military norms and to work as a team. In particular, recruits are repeatedly instructed to stand, march, and respond to orders in a ritual known as foot drill, which is derived from 18th-century military practices and trains recruits to obey orders without hesitation or question. According to Finnish Army regulations,[citation needed] for example, foot drill is essential for the esprit de corps and cohesion, accustoms recruits to instinctive obedience, enables large units to be marched and moved in an orderly manner, and creates the basis for action in the battlefield.","title":"Major characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stressors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stressor"},{"link_name":"insults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult"},{"link_name":"aggression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression"},{"link_name":"humiliate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humiliation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"punishments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-10"},{"link_name":"Canadian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Army"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-3"}],"sub_title":"Stress and punishment","text":"The training process applies stressors continuously. Instructors may deprive recruits of sleep, food, or shelter; shout personal insults; use physical aggression; or give orders intended to humiliate.[3][4][5][8][9] According to specialists in U.S. recruit training, the conditions of continuous stress deplete recruits' resistance to the demands made of them.The intense workload and sleep restriction experienced by military recruits leaves them little attention capacity for processing the messages they receive about new norms… Therefore, recruits should be less likely to devote their remaining cognitive effort to judging the quality of persuasive messages and will be more likely to be persuaded by the messages…[1]Evidence from Canada, the UK, the U.S. and elsewhere shows that punishments are used routinely to condition group conformity and discourage poor performance.[3][5][1][10] The role of group punishment in Canadian Army training, for example, has been described as follows:Coming from civilian society that elevates the individual, recruits are now in a world where the institutional value of the group is supreme. One has to be a team player or risk ostracism. The military does things quite deliberately to intensify the power of group pressure within its ranks. The group is made responsible for each member... even though it may seem manifestly unfair to make the group suffer for the individual.[3]","title":"Major characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"loyalty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyalty"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-3"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-11"},{"link_name":"Australian Defence Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Defence_Force"},{"link_name":"lethal force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadly_force"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-2"},{"link_name":"unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_unit"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-3"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-12"},{"link_name":"regimental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiment"},{"link_name":"hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy"},{"link_name":"respect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect"},{"link_name":"norms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(social)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-3"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Unit cohesion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_cohesion"}],"sub_title":"Bonding and the hierarchy of esteem","text":"As a buffer against the stressful conditions of their training, the trainee group normally forms a strong bond of mutual loyalty.[2][3][11] Researchers in the U.S. have described it as an intense \"we-feeling\", which can feel more powerful than the civilian bonds that recruits are familiar with.[11] In 2006, an official report on Australian Defence Force training explained the importance of the group bond:Willingness to apply lethal force requires… sufficient bonding within the team to override each individual’s natural human resistance to kill. The toughness and bonding required increases the closer the contact with the enemy.[2]Recruits are taught to be proud of their identity as professional military personnel, and of their unit in particular.[3][12] Heroic regimental stories and symbols are used to ennoble the recruits' own unit above others, and above other branches of the armed forces (an aspect of Interservice rivalry), thereby establishing a hierarchy of esteem (also known as a hierarchy of respect); the same stories are used to draw a contrast with the purported inferior norms associated with civilian life.[3][12][13][14][15] (Cf. Unit cohesion)","title":"Major characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Recruit_being_trained.jpg"},{"link_name":"drill sergeants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drill_sergeant"},{"link_name":"aggression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression"},{"link_name":"close combat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_combat"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-2"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-10"},{"link_name":"Bayonet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayonet"},{"link_name":"British army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"corporal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal"},{"link_name":"Taliban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"milling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(military_training_exercise)"},{"link_name":"infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-20"},{"link_name":"objectify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectification"},{"link_name":"dehumanize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehumanization"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"}],"sub_title":"Aggression and objectification","text":"US Army drill sergeants training a recruitEvidence from Australia, the UK and the U.S. shows that recruit training systematically stimulates aggression, particularly in those enlisted for ground close combat roles.[2][16][17][4][10] Bayonet practice is an example, as the strong language of this instruction from a British army corporal illustrates:I wanna see it in your eyes that you wanna kill these fuckers. Imagine these dummies are the fucking Taliban and they’ve just killed some of your mates. You wanna fuckin’ kill them. Show me your war face! [Recruits yell] You need some fucking more aggression, show me your war face.[18]Another example is milling, an exercise used for infantry training in which pairs of recruits wearing boxing gloves punch each other in the head as aggressively as possible.[19][20]To further enable recruits to kill on demand, they are taught to objectify (dehumanize) their opponent in battle as an ‘enemy target’ to ‘be engaged’, which will ‘fall when hit’.[4]","title":"Major characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"military tactics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tactics"},{"link_name":"physical fitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Fieldcraft and fitness","text":"Recruits are taught the basic skills of their profession, such as military tactics, first aid, managing their affairs in the field, and the use of weaponry and other equipment.Throughout, the physical fitness of recruits is tested and developed, although evidence from Israel, Norway, South Africa, the UK and the U.S. has found that the heavy strain on the body also leads to a high rate of injury.[21][22][23][24]","title":"Major characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"graduation parade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_out_(military)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_111007-N-CM124-001_Recruit_Division_339_marches_into_Midway_Ceremonial_Drill_Hall_at_Recruit_Training_Command,.jpg"},{"link_name":"British infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry_of_the_British_Army"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-25"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Graduation and drop-out","text":"Recruits who complete their initial training normally take part in a graduation parade (also called passing-out or marching-out). The parade is observed by their family and friends, and senior military personnel. Recruits then pass to the next stage of their training, if applicable.U.S. Navy recruits complete their initial training with a graduation parade, 2011.A large percentage of recruits drop out of training. For example, attrition among British infantry recruits has been found to be above 30% during the first 12 weeks.[25] Reasons for this include dismissal for behavioural problems, poor performance, or injury, and furthermore, recruits who choose to leave if and when they have a legal right to do so.[25][1] In the UK and U.S., recruits under the age of 20 are most likely to drop out in these ways.[26][27]","title":"Major characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"volunteer military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer_military"},{"link_name":"conscription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"military branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_branch"},{"link_name":"Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army"},{"link_name":"Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"marksmanship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marksmanship"},{"link_name":"Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy"},{"link_name":"Coast Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Guard"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Space Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Force"}],"text":"Recruit training varies by nation according to the national requirement and can be voluntary (volunteer military) or mandatory (conscription). Some nations operate both volunteer and conscription systems simultaneously.[28]Recruit training differs according to military branch:Army and Marine Corps recruits are normally trained in basic marksmanship with individually assigned weapons, field maintenance of weapons, physical fitness training, first aid, and basic survival and infantry techniques.\nNavy and Coast Guard training usually focuses on water survival training, physical fitness, basic seamanship, and such skills as shipboard firefighting, basic engineering, and signals.\nAir Force and Space Force training usually includes physical fitness training, military and classroom instructions, basic airmanship/guardianship and field training in basic marksmanship and first aid.","title":"Variations in recruit training"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Australian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Army"},{"link_name":"Army Recruit Training Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Recruit_Training_Centre"},{"link_name":"Kapooka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapooka"},{"link_name":"Wagga Wagga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagga_Wagga"},{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Australian Regular Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Regular_Army"},{"link_name":"Australian Army Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Army_Reserve"}],"text":"Most of the recruit training in the Australian Army is currently held at Army Recruit Training Centre (ARTC) at Kapooka, near Wagga Wagga in New South Wales. Recruit training lasts 80 days for members of the Australian Regular Army and 35 days for members of the Australian Army Reserve. In basic training recruits are taught drill, weapons and workplace safety, basic equipment maintenance, marksmanship, fieldcraft, radio use and defensive/offensive operations.","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Regional Force Surveillance Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Force_Surveillance_Unit"},{"link_name":"NORFORCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NORFORCE"}],"sub_title":"Regional Force Surveillance Units","text":"Training for recruits in the Regional Force Surveillance Units usually differs greatly from training in the rest of the Army. For instance, NORFORCE recruits attend a 2-week course at the Kangaroo Flats. Recruits from areas covered by the RFSUs often come from indigenous cultures radically different from that of the general Australian population, and as such many regular standards and methods of training are not as applicable in their case.","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Military College, Duntroon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Military_College,_Duntroon"}],"sub_title":"Royal Military College Duntroon","text":"Recruit Training for officers in the Australian Army (known as ICT—Initial Cadet Training) takes place at Royal Military College, Duntroon (RMC). The ICT is conducted for approximately seven weeks after which staff cadets continue military instruction in skills such as weapons training, military history, leadership, strategic studies and other such skills at section, platoon and company levels. Trainees at RMC hold the rank of Staff Cadet and, if successful in completing the course are commissioned as Lieutenants (pronounced Left-tenant). The overall full-time officer training course at RMC is 18 months long.","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RMC_Sandhurst_2009.JPG"},{"link_name":"Royal Military College of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Military_College_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Canadian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Army"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Navy"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"unified into one service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_the_Canadian_Forces"},{"link_name":"Canadian Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Forces"},{"link_name":"Basic Military Qualification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Military_Qualification"},{"link_name":"Canadian Forces Leadership and Recruit School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Forces_Leadership_and_Recruit_School"},{"link_name":"Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"},{"link_name":"Basic Military Officer Qualification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Military_Officer_Qualification"},{"link_name":"Borden, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borden,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Canadian Forces Base Borden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Forces_Base_Borden"},{"link_name":"seamanship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seamanship"},{"link_name":"firefighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting"},{"link_name":"damage control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damage_control_(maritime)"},{"link_name":"Esquimalt, British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquimalt,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Halifax, Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halifax_Regional_Municipality"},{"link_name":"Royal Military College of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Military_College_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Royal Military College Saint-Jean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Military_College_Saint-Jean"},{"link_name":"Fort Saint-Jean (Quebec)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Saint-Jean_(Quebec)"}],"text":"Royal Military College of Canada cadets compete in the prestigious Sandhurst Competition.Centralized recruit training in the Canadian Army did not exist until 1940, and until the creation of Basic Training Centres across Canada, recruit training had been done by individual units or depots.In 1968 the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force were unified into one service, the Canadian Forces. The Canadian Forces Training System, a unified system for all the services, was devised and remains in place today.Most non-commissioned CF recruits in the Regular Force (full-time) participate in the 8-week Basic Military Qualification (BMQ) at Canadian Forces Leadership and Recruit School at Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec. Regular Force officers complete their 12-week Basic Military Officer Qualification (BMOQ) at CFLRS as well, before moving on to Second Language Training or their occupational training.After basic training, personnel are trained in the specialty of their \"environment\". Members of the Royal Canadian Navy undergo a five-week sea environment training course; with members of the Canadian Army undergo a 20-day Soldier Qualification course, while officers go through a 12-week Common Army Phase (now renamed to Basic Military Officer Qualification-Army); while members from the Royal Canadian Air Force move on directly to their trade training, with the exception of Construction Engineer Officers, who also do BMOQ-AReservists, particularly the Army Reserve, may conduct basic and trades training part-time, generally alternating weekends with their own units. Due to increased integration of the Regular and Reserve Force, many reservists attend courses hosted by the Regular Force. Members of the Army Reserves complete an 8-week BMQ/SQ combined course (Basic Military Qualification and Soldier Qualification) during the summer. Formerly the Naval and Air Reserve jointly conduct BMQ for its recruits at the Naval Reserve Training Division Borden, Ontario equivalent to Regular Force BMQ, at Canadian Forces Base Borden. Now the Naval Reserve conducts the Basic Military Naval Qualification in CFB Valcartier by the Canadian Forces Fleet School Québec (a combination of recruit training and naval environmental training which leads to savings in the training). The Navy trains its personnel in seamanship, firefighting, damage control and other skills after BMQ, in the Naval Environmental Training Program (NETP) in either Esquimalt, British Columbia or Halifax, Nova Scotia.The Royal Military College of Canada is the military academy of the Canadian Forces, and is a degree-granting university. The Royal Military College Saint-Jean is a Canadian military academy located on the site of Fort Saint-Jean (Quebec),","title":"Canada"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"China"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Danish Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Army"}],"text":"The Danish Army conducts the HBU (Hærens Basisuddannelse, Army Basic Training course) at 8 bases around the country. The course lasts four months, and has its focus on training skills used in connection with the Danish total defence, and on recruiting for the army's international missions, and for the NCO-schools. The recruits are technically conscripts, but during recession years, many young men and woman have volunteered for HBU.","title":"Denmark"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RK-62","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rk_62"},{"link_name":"RK-95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rk_95_Tp"},{"link_name":"RUK (Reserve officer school)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_Officer_School"}],"text":"Training lasts 5.5 to 11.5 months total, depending on an individual specialization. All Finnish conscripts undergo six weeks of basic training (peruskoulutuskausi), which is essentially the same for all servicemen. It includes assault rifle (RK-62/RK-95) marksman training, few other basic weapon training, battle training, short field medic training and camping skills. At the end of this training, all men are promoted to their first military rank. After this, specialized training is given depending on the person (5,5–11,5 months). The NCO trainees go to AUK (NCO school) and become corporals or sergeants, from which some are selected to RUK (Reserve officer school) and become second lieutenants. Leadership training (officer candidates and NCOs) always lasts 11.5 months.","title":"Finland"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In the French army, the \"Formation Générale Initiale\" (FGI) is a 12 weeks course which occurs in a Centre de Formation Initiale des Militaires du Rang (CFIM). There are 10 CFIM in the country. Prior to this course, new recruits are joining the regiment they are going to serve during 3 to 5 years for reception week where they get issued gear, complete administrative documents and a final medical exam before starting training => in France any enlisted soldier signs not only for a MOS but also a unit to serve.After completing the 12 week FGI course, recruits are receiving the AFFIM certificate (say BCT graduation) and are considered as private 2nd class. After one week of leave, they go back to their regiment for the Formation de Spécialité Initiale (FSI) => MOS training.After FGI+FSI, they can start training with their platoon for external deployment. Usually, Private 1st class rank is earned after 6 to 12 month of time in service.For some units (mountain troops - airborne), there is also during first year a Formation d'Adaptation (FA) for basic mountain training (2 × 2 weeks) or parachute school (3 weeks)Content of FGI is the following one:Drills,\nFirst aid and chemical warfare,\nPT and obstacle course,\nFirst weapon qualification (FAMAS, pistol and grenade), \nSignals,\nBasic field and infantry training (even if not MOS11B later on),\nPresentation of French army, soldiers duties and reports.","title":"France"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bundeswehr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundeswehr"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The Allgemeine Grundausbildung (AGA) (i.e. general basic training) of the Bundeswehr covers the first three months of military service.The contents of the \"Allgemeine Grundausbildung\" includesFormal training (ranks, flags, orders and other fundamentals)\nWeapon Drill and Basic Combat training for all soldiers (Rifle, Pistol and machine gun drills are mandatory for every soldier)\nTheoretical Courses about Democracy and legal regulations\nSports: the Basic Fitness Test (BFT) and the German Sports Badge (DSA)\nGuard duty training (ATB SichSdt)\nFirst AidA notable peculiarity of German basic training is rooted in German military tradition that prefers initiative to obedience. Rather than \"breaking\" the personality of new recruits through intimidation and aggression, German basic training generally tries to \"mold\" a recruits personality in the hope of producing soldiers with stronger personalities and more own initiative.[citation needed]","title":"Germany"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"While until 2000 the Greek Army was mainly conscript based, since then a large Professional Enlisted institution has been adopted, which combined with the reduction of conscript service will produce an approximate 1:1 ratio between conscript and professional enlisted. While initially training of the two institutions was shared, it has since then diverged, and conscript training has been reduced in length while professional enlisted training has been increased.","title":"Greece"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The Indian military services have established numerous and distinguished academies and staff colleges across India for the purpose of training professional soldiers in new generation military sciences, warfare command and strategy, and associated technologies.","title":"India"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Israel Defense Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces"}],"text":"The recruit training of the Israel Defense Forces (called tironut in Hebrew) varies depending on the unit: virtually every unusual unit completes a different training course. Recruits are certified as riflemen after the completion of the training, while most non-combat units train in all-army bases for the certification of Rifleman 02. Individuals who want to become officers must apply to be trained at a facility in the Negev desert called \"Bahad One\" (abbreviation of \"Bsis Hadracha\", Instruction Base).","title":"Israel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Military Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Academy"},{"link_name":"Pakistan Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Army"},{"link_name":"Kakul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakul"},{"link_name":"Abbottabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbottabad"},{"link_name":"Khyber Pakhtunkhwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa"},{"link_name":"Sandhurst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Military_Academy_Sandhurst"},{"link_name":"West Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Point"},{"link_name":"Tironut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tironut"}],"text":"The Pakistan Military Academy (or PMA) is a Military Academy of the Pakistan Army. It is located at Kakul in Abbottabad in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The Pakistan Military Academy is analogous to Sandhurst, West Point or Tironut and undertakes training of the prospective officers of Pakistan Army. The academy has four training battalions and sixteen companies. A Cadet is trained and passed out as an officer of the Pakistan Army in 2 years.Enlisted Men undertake training at the Regimental Center of their chosen regiment.","title":"Pakistan"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Russia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Singapore Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"medical examination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PULHHEEMS"},{"link_name":"Basic Military Training Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Military_Training_Centre"},{"link_name":"Pulau Tekong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulau_Tekong"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-29"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"drills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_drill"},{"link_name":"Individual Physical Proficiency Test (IPPT)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual_Physical_Proficiency_Test"},{"link_name":"SAR 21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAR_21"},{"link_name":"SFG 87","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SFG_87"},{"link_name":"Marina Bay Floating Platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Float_@_Marina_Bay"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Specialist Cadet School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialist_Cadet_School"},{"link_name":"Officer Cadet School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Officer_Cadet_School_(Singapore)"},{"link_name":"Specialists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialist_(Singapore)"},{"link_name":"Officers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)"},{"link_name":"reservists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservist"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-29"}],"text":"National Service (NS) in Singapore is obligatory for all able-bodied male citizens and second generation permanent residents who have reached the age of 18. Conscripts enlisted into the Singapore Armed Forces are required to attend Basic Military Training (BMT) at the beginning of their NS. They are known as Full-Time National Servicemen (NSFs).Based on their Physical Employment Status (PES) grade determined by a pre-enlistment medical examination, NSFs may undergo either a standard, enhanced, modified, or obese BMT programme at the Basic Military Training Centre on the offshore island of Pulau Tekong or at the various military units that directly accept mono-intake PES A and B recruits. [29][failed verification] A similar 4-week BMT is conducted at Kranji School 5 for enlistees deemed unfit for combat roles.Throughout their BMT, NSFs will acquire the basic soldiering skills by learning how to execute drills, undergoing physical training activities aimed at developing physical fitness and preparing them for the Individual Physical Proficiency Test (IPPT), learning how to handle the SAR 21 assault rifle and SFG 87 hand grenade, completing a Standard Obstacle Course and Battle Inoculation Course, and completing a five-day field camp, among other activities.Before passing out from BMT, NSFs have to complete a 24 km (14.91 mi) route march in Full Battle Order and attend the Passing Out Parade, which may be held at the Marina Bay Floating Platform.[citation needed]After completing BMT, NSFs will receive their posting orders to their respective vocations, which are determined by their PES status, suitability for deployment, and manpower requirements, among other conditions. Some NSFs will be directly posted to a military unit while others may undergo vocational training at certain institutes before being posted to units.NSFs who perform well during BMT may progress to either the Specialist Cadet School or Officer Cadet School for further training to become Specialists (non-commissioned officers) or Officers.NSFs will serve the remaining part of their NS in their respective units until their Operationally-Ready Date (ORD), whereupon they will be known as Operationally-Ready National Serviceman (NSmen) or reservists. NSmen may still be required to take the IPPT every year and attend In-Camp Training of up to 40 days per year over a period of ten years, or until they are statutorily discharged from NS at the age of 40 (for Warrant Officers, Specialists and Enlistees) or 50 (for Officers).[29]","title":"Singapore"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Sir_John_Kotelawala_Defence_University"},{"link_name":"Military Academies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Academies"},{"link_name":"Sri Lanka Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Army"},{"link_name":"Army Training School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Training_School"},{"link_name":"Sri Lanka Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Navy"},{"link_name":"Naval Patrolmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Navy#Naval_Patrolmen"},{"link_name":"Sri Lanka Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"SLAF Diyatalawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLAF_Diyatalawa"}],"text":"In Sri Lanka, officer training is carried out at the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University and at the respective Military Academies of each respective service.Recruit training for enlisted personnel of the Sri Lanka Army is organised by the Army Training School and carried out at its premises and at several other locations. Following basic training specialized training would be carried out at Regimental Training Centres.Basic training for new recruits of the Sri Lanka Navy which is approximately six months are conducted at Advanced Naval Training Center, SLNS 'Nipuna'; Naval Artificer Training Institute, SLNS 'Thakshila', Welisara; and at Naval Recruit Training Centres at several shore establishments . This basic training will be followed by on-the-job training on-board fleet units and at shore establishments. Combat Training School at SLNS 'Pandukabaya' conducts combat training for Naval Patrolmen.Basic training for airmen of the Sri Lanka Air Force is handled by the Training Wing of the SLAF Diyatalawa. This is followed by secularized training at Advanced & Specialized Trade Training School.","title":"Sri Lanka"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swedish Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"Home Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Guard_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Swedish Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Army"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"Since conscription ended in Sweden in 2010 (reintroduced in 2017), all recruits who seek employment within the Swedish Armed Forces have to go through Grundläggande Militär Utbildning (GMU) (Basic Military Training) for three months.Since conscription was reintroduced in 2017, all recruits who seek employment in the Swedish Armed Forces have to go through Grundutbildning (GU) (Basic Training), which consists of two parts; Grundläggande Militär Utbildning (GMU) (Basic Military Training) that lasts for 3 months and aims to provide every recruit with the same foundation for continued military service, and Befattningsutbildning (Specialization Education) for between 1–11 months depending on specialization.There is also a shorter volunteer training program for people who seek service within the Home Guard called GU-F. GU-F training takes only 14 days, but following a completed GU-F, a guardsman may go through additional training in order to specialize within the Home Guard.Basic training as part of GU as well as GU-F usually takes place at any of the Swedish Army training units.[30]","title":"Sweden"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"Swiss Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_citizen"},{"link_name":"conscripted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription"},{"link_name":"age of majority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_majority"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:20-32"},{"link_name":"Swiss Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-basics-33"},{"link_name":"Aarau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarau"},{"link_name":"Payerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payerne"},{"link_name":"Sumiswald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumiswald"},{"link_name":"Monte Ceneri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Ceneri"},{"link_name":"Rüti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCti,_Z%C3%BCrich"},{"link_name":"Mels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mels"},{"link_name":"Swiss Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"sergeants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergeants"},{"link_name":"military tactics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tactics"},{"link_name":"weaponry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaponry"},{"link_name":"SIG SG 550","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stgw_90"},{"link_name":"marksmanship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marksmanship"},{"link_name":"CBRN defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN_defense"},{"link_name":"foot drill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_drill"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"battlegroups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlegroup_(army)"},{"link_name":"battalions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battalion"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"Switzerland has mandatory military service (German: Militärdienst; French: service militaire; Italian: servizio militare) in the Swiss Army for all able-bodied male citizens, who are conscripted when they reach the age of majority,[31] though women may volunteer for any position.[32] Conscripts make up the majority of the manpower in the Swiss Armed Forces.[33]At the age of 19, all male Swiss nationals must attend the two-day recruitment process in one of the six recruitment centres spread across Switzerland (Aarau, Payerne, Sumiswald, Monte Ceneri, Rüti, Mels). At the end of those two-days, if fit for service, recruits are assigned to a position in the Swiss Armed Forces.A few months later, recruits start an 18-week (23-week for special forces) boot camp (German: Rekrutenschulen; French: école de recrues; Italian: scuola reclute) during which they are allowed to go home on week-ends. There are two boot camp start per year : January (Winter) and June (Summer). During the recruitment process, recruits can choose whether they would like to serve during summer or winter.In the first seven weeks of boot camp, recruits receive \"General Basic Instruction\" (German: Allgemeine Grundausbildung; French: Instruction de base générale; Italian: Istruzione di base generale). During this period, recruits are instructed by their sergeants to military tactics, the use of weaponry (including SIG SG 550) and other equipment, marksmanship, self-defense skills, buddy- and self- aid, CBRN defense, basic survival skills, etc. Recruits are also educated to military life, including how to speak to their superiors, how to clean their weapons and combat shoes, how to clean the barracks, etc. During this period, recruits practice sport on a daily basis, including foot drill, running, team sports, push-ups, etc., and a few kilometers' march (up to 50 km) for some weeks.The second phase of six weeks is devoted to function-specific basic instructions (German: Funktionsgrundausbildung; French: Instruction de base spécifique à la fonction; Italian: Istruzione di base alla funzione), where recruits learn skills specific to their job.In the third phase, called \"instruction in formation\" (German: Verbandsausbildung; French: Instruction en formation; Italian: Istruzione di reparto), battlegroups and battalions are formed.[34]","title":"Switzerland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Selection and Training in the British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_and_Training_in_the_British_Army"},{"link_name":"RAF Halton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Halton"},{"link_name":"HMS Raleigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Raleigh_(shore_establishment)"},{"link_name":"Commando Training Centre Royal Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commando_Training_Centre_Royal_Marines"},{"link_name":"MIOTC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_Initial_Officer_Training_Course"},{"link_name":"Commando Training Centre Royal Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commando_Training_Centre_Royal_Marines"},{"link_name":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"Royal Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Marines"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"}],"text":"See also: Selection and Training in the British ArmyBritish armed forces recruits train in two phases. The length of Phase 1 recruit training varies according to service and trade. The British Army Phase 1 training, for all enlisted units other than infantry, lasts 14 weeks. Infantry units of the British Army undergo a combined 28 weeks basic training, with the exception of the Parachute Regiment (30 weeks), Guards Regiments (30 weeks) and the Royal Gurkha Rifles (36 weeks).The Royal Air Force provides 10 weeks of basic training for all enlisted recruits, regardless of trade, and is delivered at RAF Halton.The Royal Navy provides 10 weeks of basic recruit training for all enlisted recruits, with the exception of the Royal Marines, delivered at HMS Raleigh. The Royal Marines (excluding the Royal Marines band), undertake 32 weeks of basic training, delivered at Commando Training Centre Royal Marines.Phase One is initial recruit training designed to bring all recruits to a similar standard of basic military ability. Upon completion of Phase 1 training, recruits (with the exception of Army infantry roles, and the Royal Marine Commandos) will progress to their trade specific Phase Two training, which consists of courses of varying duration to prepare recruits for their assigned role.Officer recruits into the UK Armed Forces undergo the following Basic training:British Army - 44 weeks, delivered at Royal Military Academy (RMA) in Sandhurst.\nRoyal Air Force - 24 weeks, delivered at RAF College Cranwell (MIOTC).\nRoyal Navy - 30 weeks (split into two equal phases of 15 weeks each), delivered at Britannia Royal Naval College (BRNC) in Dartmouth.\nRoyal Marines - 15 months, delivered at Commando Training Centre Royal Marines, with 3 weeks towards the end of the course in the United States.Upon completion of their Officer recruit training, cadets will then progress to their trade specific training of varying length.The British Army, Royal Navy, Royal Marines and Royal Air Force manage their own Phase One and Phase Two training establishments.","title":"United Kingdom"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Basic Combat Training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Basic_Training"},{"link_name":"Air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Space Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Force"},{"link_name":"Basic Military Training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Basic_Military_Training"},{"link_name":"U.S. Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"U.S. Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"U.S. Coast Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard"},{"link_name":"Army Service Ribbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Service_Ribbon"},{"link_name":"Air Force Training Ribbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Training_Ribbon"},{"link_name":"Airman's Coin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airman%27s_coin"},{"link_name":"Eagle, Globe, and Anchor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle,_Globe,_and_Anchor"},{"link_name":"Basic Training Honor Graduate Ribbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Training_Honor_Graduate_Ribbon"}],"text":"In the United States, recruit training in the U.S. Army is called Basic Combat Training (BCT); U.S. Army Combat Arms MOS (11 Series, 19 series, 13 series, 12 series) and Military Police MOS (31 series) undergo One Station Unit Training (OSUT) which involves BCT, Advanced Individual Training (AIT) and Specialized Training (such as Bradley, or Mortar School, or Gunnery) all in one. In the U.S. Air and Space Forces it is called Basic Military Training (BMT). In the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Coast Guard it is called \"Recruit Training\" (commonly known as Boot Camp).Some services present a badge or other award to denote completion of recruit training. The Army typically issues the Army Service Ribbon (issued after completion of Advanced Individual Training), and the Air Force presents the Air Force Training Ribbon and the Airman's Coin. The Marine Corps issue the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor once initial training is complete to signify that the recruits are now Marines. The Navy replaces the \"RECRUIT\" ball cap the recruits have worn throughout training with the \"NAVY\" ball cap upon successful completion of \"Battle Stations\". The United States Coast Guard's recruit training graduates place a Coast Guard Medallion on their ball cap.For honor graduates of basic training, the Air Force, Coast Guard, and Navy present a Basic Training Honor Graduate Ribbon. The Navy and Marine Corps often meritoriously advance the top graduates of each division one pay-grade (up to a maximum of E-3).","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drill-push.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sexual Harassment/Assault Response & Prevention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_Harassment/Assault_Response_%26_Prevention"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharpTraining-35"},{"link_name":"United States Army Infantry School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Infantry_School"},{"link_name":"Fort Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Moore"},{"link_name":"Columbus, Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Fort Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Jackson_(South_Carolina)"},{"link_name":"Columbia, South Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia,_South_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Fort Leonard Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Leonard_Wood_(military_base)"},{"link_name":"St. Robert, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Robert,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Fort Sill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Sill"},{"link_name":"Lawton, Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawton,_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Soldier's Creed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldier%27s_Creed"},{"link_name":"M16A2 rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M16A2_rifle"},{"link_name":"M16A4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M16A4"},{"link_name":"M4 carbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4_carbine"},{"link_name":"M4A1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4A1"},{"link_name":"Field Training Exercises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Training_Exercise"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Army","text":"U.S. Army recruits being instructedIn the United States Army, recruits are sent to Basic Combat Training in a location designated according to the military Military Occupational Specialty, or MOS, which is selected upon enlistment.Initial Entry Training (IET) is divided into two parts, which commonly take place at two different locations, depending on the chosen MOS:Basic Combat Training, or BCT, is a ten-week training cycle. This period does not include \"Reception Week\" during which recruits are being slotted to their training companies (troops for cavalry). During reception, trainees get Sexual Harassment/Assault Response & Prevention training during IET, as of 30 July 2021.[35]\nAdvanced Individual Training, or AIT, is where new soldiers receive specific training in their chosen MOS. The length of AIT training varies depending on the MOS and can last anywhere from four weeks to nearly one year.\nSeveral MOSs (mainly combat arms) combine both basic training and AIT in a single combined course called One Station Unit Training (OSUT), which can last up to 22 weeks. The attitude and environment remain the same throughout the entire training cycle, including drill instructors. Essentially, OSUT is an extended version of Basic Training, especially for Infantry OSUT, which remains on the same basic soldiering tasks for the entire cycle, although in greater detail. Infantry OSUT is conducted at the United States Army Infantry School at Fort Moore, and is 22 weeks long.The U.S. Army has four sites for BCT:Fort Moore at Columbus, Georgia\nFort Jackson at Columbia, South Carolina\nFort Leonard Wood at St. Robert, Missouri\nFort Sill at Lawton, OklahomaDuring Basic Combat Training, Army recruits learn a variety of basic combat skills including: Basic Rifle Marksmanship (BRM), land navigation, patrolling, securing and defending a position, drill and ceremony, fireteam formations and assaults, communications and use of AN/PRC-119 radio, combat lifesaving skills, 9-line medevac, reporting intelligence, hand grenades, Claymore mines, M203/M320 grenade launcher, M249 Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW), M240B machine gun, M2 .50 caliber machine gun, MK-19, and AT-4 anti-tank weapon. Training also includes combat conditioning by running an obstacle course, the Confidence Course, conducting marches of varying distances up to 12 miles, physical training, and Modern Army Combatives Program (MACP), a martial arts program based on the combination of Brazilian jiu-jitsu, wrestling, judo, Muay Thai, boxing, and a number of others.[36] Recruits are trained to adopt the Army \"Warrior Ethos\", and to memorize and live by the Soldier's Creed.BCT is divided into three phases. During Phase I, (also known as \"Red Phase\") recruits are subject to \"Total Control,\" meaning their every action is monitored and constantly corrected by drill sergeants. The first week of training is commonly referred to as \"Hell Week,\" due to the intense period of adjustment required on the part of the new recruits. Marches are common throughout basic training. Recruits are sent to the \"gas chamber\" during Phase I, as part of training for defensive chemical warfare. They are also introduced to their standard-issue weapon, the M16A2 rifle, the M16A4 rifle, or M4 carbine.In Phase II (also known as \"White Phase\") soldiers begin actually firing weapons, starting with the rifle or carbine (M4A1). Other weapons the recruit becomes familiarized with include various grenades (such as the M67 fragmentation grenade) and grenade launchers (such as the M203). Recruits are then familiarized with the bayonet, anti-tank/armor weaponry and other heavy weapons. The course also includes an obstacle course which the soldiers are expected to negotiate in a certain amount of time. Additionally, Phase II includes continual, intense PT, along with drill and ceremony training. At the conclusion of Phase II, Soldiers are to demonstrate proficiency with the various weaponry with which they trained.Phase III or \"Blue Phase,\" is the culmination and the most challenging of all the training phases. A final PT test is administered during the first week. Recruits who fail are frequently retested, often up until the morning of their cycle's graduation. If they do not pass, then they are recycled to another platoon that is in an earlier phase of the training cycle until they meet the fitness standards. The final PT Test is the Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT). Usually, a soldier needs to score at least 60 points in each APFT category (pushups, planks, and 2 mile run) to pass, but in Basic Combat Training, only 50 points are required; the soldier will nevertheless take another APFT with a 60-point requirement at AIT. During Blue Phase, the recruits move on to such longer and more intensive \"bivouac\" and FTX (Field Training Exercises) as nighttime combat operations. Drill sergeants will make much of this an adversarial process by working against the recruits in many of the night operations and trying to foil plans, etc.Upon completion of Basic Combat Training, a recruit is now a soldier, and has developed skills to operate in a combat environment, as a basic rifleman and to perform his or her MOS-specific duties under fire.","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marine-drill-instructor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island"},{"link_name":"Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego"},{"link_name":"Mississippi River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_River"},{"link_name":"One Station Unit Training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Station_Unit_Training"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcrt-1-38"},{"link_name":"MCMAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Martial_Arts_Program"},{"link_name":"Camp Pendleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Camp_Pendleton"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"School of Infantry (SOI)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_School_of_Infantry"},{"link_name":"MOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Marine_Corps_MOS"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soi-1-40"},{"link_name":"Camp Lejeune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Camp_Lejeune"},{"link_name":"Camp Pendleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Camp_Pendleton"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mctb-1-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry"},{"link_name":"MOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Marine_Corps_MOS"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Marine Corps","text":"A U.S. Marine Corps Drill Instructor works with enlistees, or individuals who have not left yet for recruit training. U.S. Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Kate Busto/ReleasedThe United States Marine Corps Recruit Depots are located at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina, and Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, California. Men and women go to either, depending on whether they were recruited east or west of the Mississippi River. Until 2021, women only trained at Parris Island. Marine Corps boot camp is the longest basic training, excluding Army One Station Unit Training (OSUT), in-processing & out-processing is included unlike the other branches as the other branches do not contain this in their Basic Training duration length.[37] Formerly, recruits were referred to as either \"(the) private(s)\" or \"(the) recruit(s)\" from day one of Recruit Training. Since the 1990s, they are referred to as \"(the) recruit(s)\" alone until they earn the title of Marine.Marine Corps Recruit Training (MCRT) is a 13-week program that is divided up into three four-week phases and further broken down into individual training days.[38] While there are 69 individual training days, recruits also go through pre- and post-training processing where recruits are afforded relatively little freedom. Phase one mainly consists of learning recruit life protocol, physical training, MCMAP training, academic classes, initial drill, a series inspection, and the confidence course. West coast recruits also do swim qualification during this phase. Phase two is completely in the field at Camp Pendleton for west coast recruits, with the first two weeks being spent on marksmanship training and qualification with the M16A4 service rifle, and the last week in the field learning skills such as fireteam formations, land navigation, and hikes. For east coast recruits, phase two is swim qualification, rifle qualification, and Team Week, a week of maintenance duties for the island as a show of how to perform base support tasks while still keeping military bearing and attention to detail. Phase three brings the San Diego recruits back to the recruit depot where they finish up with final drill, final inspection, more PT and confidence courses, and graduation. During third phase, west coast recruits also go back into the field one last time to do the Crucible event. Parris Island recruits finish with field training, final drill and inspection, the Crucible, and graduation. Note that recruits going to either depot receive exactly the same training, if in a different order. An important part of this process is training recruits to adopt and live by the motto, \"Every Marine a rifleman\".[39]Upon completion, recruits proceed to receive further training at the School of Infantry (SOI). All non-infantry MOS Marines are trained at the Marine Combat Training Battalion (MCT), while infantry MOS Marines are trained at the Infantry Training Battalion (ITB).[40]MCT and ITB training is conducted at one of two locations, SOI-East at Camp Lejeune in Jacksonville, North Carolina (for Parris Island graduates) and SOI-West at Camp Pendleton in San Diego, California (for San Diego graduates).Marine Combat Training Battalion (MCT) is a 29-day course.[41] Marines learn the basics of combat marksmanship, counter-improvised explosive device techniques, how to conduct the defense of a position, convoy operations, combat formations, fireteam assaults, patrolling, urban warfare, use of the AN/PRC-119 radio, reporting military intelligence, land navigation, and the use of hand grenades, the M203 grenade launcher, M249 Squad Automatic Weapon, and M240 machine gun. Training also includes combat conditioning by running an obstacle course, conducting marches, physical training, and Marine Corps Martial Arts Program. Upon completion of Marine Combat Training, the Marine is to have gained the knowledge and ability to operate in a combat environment as a basic rifleman and to perform his or her primary duties under fire.[42] (The main contrast with Army recruit training is that nearly identical training is integrated into Basic Combat Training, so there is no follow-on school.) Upon completion, Marines proceed to their MOS-specific school.In Infantry Training Battalion (ITB), infantry MOS (03XX) Marines receive 59 days of training in infantry skills, including advanced marksmanship, combat patrolling, land navigation, and a wide array of other infantry skills. Upon completion of ITB, newly qualified Marine infantrymen proceed to their assigned units.","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instructional_Training_exercises_at_RTC_Great_Lakes.jpg"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Naval Station Great Lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Station_Great_Lakes"},{"link_name":"North Chicago, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Chicago,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"military drill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_parade"},{"link_name":"watchstanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchkeeping"},{"link_name":"basic seamanship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seamanship"},{"link_name":"first aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aid"},{"link_name":"damage control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damage_control_(maritime)"},{"link_name":"firefighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting"},{"link_name":"M9 pistol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M9_pistol"},{"link_name":"Mossberg 500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossberg_500"},{"link_name":"M16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M16_rifle"},{"link_name":"tear-gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tear_gas"},{"link_name":"PT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness"},{"link_name":"Uniform Code of Military Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice"},{"link_name":"U.S. naval history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Battle Stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_quarters"},{"link_name":"ratings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_ratings"},{"link_name":"Port Deposit (Bainbridge), Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Naval_Training_Center_Bainbridge"},{"link_name":"Sampson Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampson_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Farragut Naval Training Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farragut_Naval_Training_Station"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Navy","text":"In March 2002, a U.S. Navy Recruit Division Commander conducts \"Instructional Training\" to correct substandard performance during boot camp.The United States Navy currently operates boot camp at Recruit Training Command Great Lakes, located at Naval Station Great Lakes, near North Chicago, Illinois. Instead of having Drill Sergeants or Drill Instructors like other branches of the U.S. Armed Forces, the U.S. Navy has RDCs (Recruit Division Commanders) that are assigned to each division. Training lasts approximately eight weeks (although some recruits will spend as many as nine weeks in training due to the somewhat complicated processing cycle). Days are counted by a system that lists the week and day that they are on, for example, 7-3 for week 7 day 3. The first approximate week is counted P-1, P-2, etc. which denotes that it is a processing day and does not count as part of their 8-week training period. Recruits are instructed on military drill, watchstanding, basic seamanship, water survival skills, first aid, basic shipboard damage control, firefighting, shipboard communication, familiarization with the M9 pistol and Mossberg 500 shotgun (the Navy no longer gives instruction on the M16 in boot camp), pass the confidence chamber (tear-gas-filled chamber), PT, and the basic essentials on Navy life. Recruits also attend many classes throughout boot camp on subjects such as Equal Opportunity, Sexual Assault Victim Intervention, Uniform Code of Military Justice, recognition of naval aircraft and vessels, U.S. naval history, and more. In order for recruits to pass boot camp, they are physically and mentally tested on a 12-hour exercise called Battle Stations which consists of 12 different scenarios involving firefighting, navigating smoke filled compartments, first-aid knowledge, survival at sea, mass casualties, shipboard flood control, bomb detection, and many other skills that they have been learning in the previous 7 weeks. After completion of boot camp, freshly minted sailors are sent either to various \"A\" Schools located across the United States—where they begin training to receive their ratings (jobs)—or to apprenticeship training, where they then enter the fleet without a designation.The Navy formerly operated Recruit Training Centers in San Diego, California; Orlando, Florida; Meridian, Mississippi; and Port Deposit (Bainbridge), Maryland. From 1942 to 1946—during and immediately following World War II—the Navy had two additional training sites: Naval Training Station (USNTS) Sampson (renamed Sampson Air Force Base in 1950), near Seneca Lake, New York, where over 400,000 recruits were trained, and Farragut Naval Training Station in Bayview, Idaho.","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_Force_Military_Training_Instructor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lackland Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lackland_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"San Antonio, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio,_Texas"},{"link_name":"M4 carbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4_carbine"},{"link_name":"Air Force Specialty Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Specialty_Code"},{"link_name":"Military Occupational Specialty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Occupational_Specialty"},{"link_name":"Air National Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_National_Guard"},{"link_name":"Air Force Reserve Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Reserve_Command"},{"link_name":"Civil Air Patrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Air_Patrol"},{"link_name":"airman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airman"},{"link_name":"airman first class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airman_first_class"},{"link_name":"Sampson Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampson_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Parks Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parks_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Dublin, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin,_California"},{"link_name":"Amarillo Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Husband_Amarillo_International_Airport#Amarillo_Air_Force_Base_(1951%E2%80%931968)"},{"link_name":"Amarillo, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarillo,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Air and Space Forces","text":"A formation of USAF airmenThe U.S. Air and Space Forces' Basic Military Training (BMT) is seven and a half weeks long, as they do not count the first week (\"Week 0\"). BMT is 63 calendar days long. It is conducted at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. Formerly, trainees were referred to as \"airman\" from day one of BMT. This has been changed; now, personnel are referred to as trainees until the Airman's Coin Ceremony in the eighth week of training, when they receive their Airman's Coin. Trainees receive military instruction (including the Air Force core values, flight and individual drill, and living area inspections), academic classes (covering topics such as Air Force history, dress and appearance, military customs and courtesies, ethics, security, and alcohol/drug abuse prevention and treatment), and field training (including protection against biological and chemical attack, basic marksmanship on the M4 carbine as well as self-aid buddy care). Following BMT, airmen/guardians go to a technical school (or 'tech school') where they learn the specifics of their Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC), which is equivalent to the MOS (Military Occupational Specialty) in the Army and Marines, the Navy's NEC (Naval Enlisted Classification) code, or the Coast Guard's ratings.All non-prior-service enlistees are required to complete BMT, including those enlisting in the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve Command. Reserve component enlistees receive the same training as their active-duty counterparts. Credit can be given on a case-by-case basis for enlistees with college credit. Eagle Scouts and service in the Civil Air Patrol qualify for promotion to E-2 (airman) or E-3 (airman first class) upon graduation from BMT. The stripes are not worn until graduation, though trainees are paid at the higher pay grade.Lackland AFB has been associated with BMT for almost the Air Force's entire history. From 1950 to 1956, 300,000 airmen received BMT at Sampson Air Force Base in New York. In 1951, Parks Air Force Base in Dublin, California, became a BMT center, with training beginning in March 1952. BMT at Parks AFB ceased later in the decade and the installation was transferred to the U.S. Army in 1959. For a brief time between 1966 and 1968, the Air Force operated a second BMT at Amarillo Air Force Base in Amarillo, Texas.Unlike the Army and Navy, but like the Marine Corps (throughout boot camp) and Coast Guard (during the first section of boot camp), trainees are required to refer to all airmen and guardians of all ranks as \"sir\" or \"ma'am\". Trainees are required to preface speaking to military training instructors with their reporting statement: \"Sir/Ma'am, Trainee (the recruit's surname) reports as ordered\".An additional two weeks of BMT was added to the program on November 1, 2008, extending the duration of BMT from six and a half weeks to eight and a half weeks. BMT has been tailored to incorporate some of the additional warfighting skills to coincide with increased Air Expeditionary Force (AEF) rotations and more frequent support of its sister services during those rotations.[43] In 2015, BMT was shortened once again to seven and a half weeks. Trainees still stay at Lackland for eight and half weeks, however, the eighth week following graduation they are moved to a more relaxed environment under a program called Airman's Week, which is designed to transition trainees to technical training.","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USCG_Basic_Training.jpg"},{"link_name":"U.S. Coast Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard"},{"link_name":"Coast Guard Training Center Cape May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Training_Center_Cape_May"},{"link_name":"Cape May, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_May,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Coast Guard Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Guard_Island"},{"link_name":"Alameda, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda,_California"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"SIG Sauer P229R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIG_Sauer_P229"},{"link_name":"M16 rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M16_rifle"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Department of Homeland Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security"},{"link_name":"Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"United States Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"Uniform Code of Military Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice"},{"link_name":"CONUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CONUS"},{"link_name":"OCONUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CONUS#CONUS/OCONUS"},{"link_name":"Coast Guard Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Academy"},{"link_name":"TRACEN Yorktown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_Center_Yorktown"},{"link_name":"Yorktown, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorktown,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"TRACEN Petaluma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_Center_Petaluma"},{"link_name":"Petaluma, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petaluma,_California"},{"link_name":"Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Guard_Air_Station_Elizabeth_City"},{"link_name":"North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Coast Guard","text":"A Coast Guard Company Commander instructs a recruit during recruit training.Recruit training for the U.S. Coast Guard is held at Coast Guard Training Center Cape May in Cape May, New Jersey.[44] The Coast Guard base on Government Island (now known as Coast Guard Island) Alameda, California was also used as a second major recruit training center until it was closed in 1982. The official standard recruit training cycle lasts eight weeks. A limited number of recruits may face reversion to earlier weeks of training should they exhibit egregious deficiencies in attitude and/or aptitude.As an alternate for those recruits possessing prior military service or civilian job skills, Coast Guard recruit basic training offers an abbreviated route to completion of basic training with the Direct Entry Petty Officer Training program (DEPOT) \"The goal of the Direct Entry Petty Officer Training Course is to produce petty officers who on the basis of their civilian professions, prior military experience, or a combination of both\" are otherwise duly qualified.[45]Coast Guard boot camp covers basic seamanship, drill, military bearing, and firefighting. The U.S. Coast Guard is unique among the armed services in that it fires the SIG Sauer P229R pistol as well as the M16 rifle during the training.[46]Although the Coast Guard is a part of the Department of Homeland Security, rather than the Department of Defense, it is by law and tradition a branch of the United States Armed Forces. As with all military personnel, coast guardsmen are subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). Due to the Coast Guard's unique mission set – including CONUS and OCONUS defense operations, search and rescue and maritime law enforcement – there are added requirements to maintain high physical fitness standards and military bearing. Due to its unusual, diverse and difficult mission, the U.S. Coast Guard is the most selective in recruiting and training standards. As an example, the Coast Guard Academy is the only service academy that uses competitive admissions for prospective officer candidates rather than congressional appointment.During their time at Cape May, recruits are subjected to the usual \"boot camp\" atmosphere of direct instruction and intense motivation. Recruits must adhere to strict rules such as hygiene and uniform regulations and obey all lawful orders. The recruits are designated as seaman recruits (SR; E-1). Unique to the Coast Guard among the armed services, recruits successfully completing basic recruit training are advanced to the rank of seaman apprentice/fireman apprentice (SA/FA; E-2) or seaman/fireman (SN/FN; E-3) upon graduation—the difference generally based on the level of higher education the graduate possesses. Coast Guard drill instructors are called \"company commanders\" and hold a rank ranging from petty officer 2nd class (E-5) up to senior chief petty officer (E-8). Coast Guard companies have approximately two or three company commanders and anywhere from 20 to over 100 recruits.After completing boot camp, recruits can select their rating and then attend an \"A\" school. Few graduates go straight to \"A\" school; most spend up to a year in the fleet as \"non-rates\". \"A\" school is a long-term technical school providing specific instruction about a rating. The \"A\" schools last two to six months and usually occur at TRACEN Yorktown, Yorktown, Virginia or TRACEN Petaluma, Petaluma, California. Aviation related ratings train at the Aviation Technical Training Center at Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City, North Carolina. Some ratings have an available on-the-job apprenticeship training option known as \"striking\" instead of attending an \"A\" school.","title":"United States"}]

[{"image_text":"U.S Marine Corps recruits during physical training","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island_Training_140513-M-XK446-114.jpg/250px-Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island_Training_140513-M-XK446-114.jpg"},{"image_text":"A recruit in the US Marine Corps is shaved before his initial training begins, 2006.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Recruit_having_head_shaved.jpg/220px-Recruit_having_head_shaved.jpg"},{"image_text":"Polish army recruits on foot drill, 2007","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Postawa.zasadnicza.jpg/220px-Postawa.zasadnicza.jpg"},{"image_text":"US Army drill sergeants training a recruit","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Recruit_being_trained.jpg/220px-Recruit_being_trained.jpg"},{"image_text":"U.S. Navy recruits complete their initial training with a graduation parade, 2011.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/US_Navy_111007-N-CM124-001_Recruit_Division_339_marches_into_Midway_Ceremonial_Drill_Hall_at_Recruit_Training_Command%2C.jpg/220px-US_Navy_111007-N-CM124-001_Recruit_Division_339_marches_into_Midway_Ceremonial_Drill_Hall_at_Recruit_Training_Command%2C.jpg"},{"image_text":"Royal Military College of Canada cadets compete in the prestigious Sandhurst Competition.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/RMC_Sandhurst_2009.JPG/220px-RMC_Sandhurst_2009.JPG"},{"image_text":"U.S. Army recruits being instructed","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Drill-push.jpg/220px-Drill-push.jpg"},{"image_text":"A U.S. Marine Corps Drill Instructor works with enlistees, or individuals who have not left yet for recruit training. U.S. Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Kate Busto/Released","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Marine-drill-instructor.jpg/220px-Marine-drill-instructor.jpg"},{"image_text":"In March 2002, a U.S. Navy Recruit Division Commander conducts \"Instructional Training\" to correct substandard performance during boot camp.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Instructional_Training_exercises_at_RTC_Great_Lakes.jpg/220px-Instructional_Training_exercises_at_RTC_Great_Lakes.jpg"},{"image_text":"A formation of USAF airmen","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Air_Force_Military_Training_Instructor.jpg/170px-Air_Force_Military_Training_Instructor.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Coast Guard Company Commander instructs a recruit during recruit training.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/USCG_Basic_Training.jpg/220px-USCG_Basic_Training.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Military education and training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_education_and_training"},{"title":"Milling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(military_training_exercise)"},{"title":"Military Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Academy"},{"title":"Officer Candidate School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Officer_Candidate_School"},{"title":"Resocialization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resocialization"},{"title":"Psychological conditioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_conditioning"},{"title":"Military recruitment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_recruitment"},{"title":"Military service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_service"}]

[{"reference":"McGurk; et al. (2006). 'Joining the ranks: The role of indoctrination in transforming civilians to service members', (in 'Military life: The psychology of serving in peace and combat [vol. 2]'). Westport: Praeger Security International. pp. 13–31. ISBN 978-0275983024.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275983024","url_text":"978-0275983024"}]},{"reference":"Australia, Department of Defence (2006). \"Final report of the Learning Culture Inquiry\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2017-07-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.defence.gov.au/publications/docs/LCIreport.pdf","url_text":"\"Final report of the Learning Culture Inquiry\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170301093606/http://www.defence.gov.au/publications/docs/LCIreport.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Winslow, Donna (2004). \"Misplaced Loyalties: The Role of Military Culture in the Breakdown of Discipline in Two Peace Operations\". Journal of Military and Strategic Studies. 6 (3). ISSN 1488-559X. Archived from the original on 2017-12-24. Retrieved 2017-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://jmss.org/jmss/index.php/jmss/article/view/214","url_text":"\"Misplaced Loyalties: The Role of Military Culture in the Breakdown of Discipline in Two Peace Operations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1488-559X","url_text":"1488-559X"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171224214451/http://jmss.org/jmss/index.php/jmss/article/view/214","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dave., Grossman (2009). On killing : the psychological cost of learning to kill in war and society (Rev. ed.). New York: Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 9780316040938. OCLC 427757599.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780316040938","url_text":"9780316040938"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/427757599","url_text":"427757599"}]},{"reference":"John., Hockey (1986). Squaddies : portrait of a subculture. Exeter, Devon: University of Exeter. ISBN 9780859892483. OCLC 25283124.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780859892483","url_text":"9780859892483"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25283124","url_text":"25283124"}]},{"reference":"Canada, National Defence and the Canadian Armed Forces (2017). \"DAOD 5002-1 - Enrolment\". www.forces.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 2017-12-24. Retrieved 2017-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/about-policies-standards-defence-admin-orders-directives-5000/5002-1.page#cc","url_text":"\"DAOD 5002-1 - Enrolment\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171224213712/http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/about-policies-standards-defence-admin-orders-directives-5000/5002-1.page#cc","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"British Army (2015). \"Terms and conditions of service\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-01. Retrieved 2017-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150501072744/http://www.army.mod.uk/documents/general/TermsofService.pdf","url_text":"\"Terms and conditions of service\""},{"url":"https://www.army.mod.uk/documents/general/TermsofService.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kristiansen, Ryan. \"Why Is Getting Out of the U.S. Army So Tough?\". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 2017-08-10. Retrieved 2017-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://nation.time.com/2012/05/04/why-is-getting-out-of-the-u-s-army-so-tough/","url_text":"\"Why Is Getting Out of the U.S. Army So Tough?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-781X","url_text":"0040-781X"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170810075638/http://nation.time.com/2012/05/04/why-is-getting-out-of-the-u-s-army-so-tough/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bourne, Peter G. (1967-05-01). \"Some Observations on the Psychosocial Phenomena Seen in Basic Training\". Psychiatry. 30 (2): 187–196. doi:10.1080/00332747.1967.11023507. ISSN 0033-2747. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Russian_hacker_password_theft

2014 Russian hacker password theft

["1 Criticism of Hold Security","2 Skepticism","3 References"]

Massive data breach in Russia This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2023) The 2014 Russian hacker password theft is an alleged hacking incident resulting in the possible theft of over 1.2 billion internet credentials, including usernames and passwords, with hundreds of millions of corresponding e-mail addresses. The data breach was first reported by The New York Times after being allegedly discovered and reported by Milwaukee-based information security company, Hold Security. 420,000 websites are reported to be affected. According to The New York Times, some big companies knew that their user's credentials are among the stolen. Hold Security did not disclose which sites were compromised, but, instead, offered two separate services, one for website owners and one for consumers to check if they're affected. The service for website owners costs $10 a month. The check for consumers is free. Hold Security described the group responsible for the hack as a small group of "fewer than a dozen men in their 20s ... based in a small city in south central Russia, the region flanked by Kazakhstan and Mongolia", and dubbed the group CyberVor (Russian, lit. "cyber thief"). Hold claimed the hack was perpetrated through the use of SQL injection. According to a Forbes article, Hold Security says that not all the 1.2 billion credentials were stolen this way, there are also ones that CyberVor simply bought from people that used other means, and Hold Security doesn't know what the split is. Criticism of Hold Security Forbes columnist, Kashmir Hill, noted "The Internet predictably panicked as the story of yet another massive password breach went viral." and "his is a pretty direct link between a panic and a pay-out for a security firm." Hold Security's website has a service offering people to check if their username and password pair has been stolen. It requires people to send Hold Security encrypted versions of their passwords. Skepticism No named independent sources came forward to confirm the breach, and Forbes columnist, Joseph Steinberg, even expressed outright skepticism about many of the "facts" claimed about the breach, raising questions about the trustworthiness of the reports of the breach altogether. References ^ "Russia gang hacks 1.2 billion usernames and passwords". BBC News. August 6, 2014. Archived from the original on September 28, 2018. Retrieved June 21, 2018. ^ Sullivan, Gail (August 6, 2014). "Russian hackers steal more than 1 billion passwords. Security firm seizes opportunity". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 7, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014. ^ a b Perlroth, Nicole (August 5, 2014). "Russian Gang Amasses Over a Billion Internet Passwords". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 5, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014. ^ a b c d Joseph Steinberg (August 7, 2014). "Why I Am Skeptical About 1.2-Billion Passwords Being Stolen". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 11, 2014. Retrieved August 7, 2014. ^ a b c Hill, Kashmir (August 5, 2014). "Firm That Exposed Breach Of 'Billion Passwords' Quickly Offered $120 Service To Find Out If You're Affected". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 8, 2014. Retrieved August 7, 2014. ^ "CyberVor Breach FAQ". Hold Security. August 12, 2014. Archived from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved August 18, 2014. ^ Marks, Joseph (August 5, 2014). "Russian hacking gang steals more than 1 billion usernames and passwords". Politico. Archived from the original on August 8, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014. ^ "Russian hackers 'stole 1.2 billion passwords'". Al Jazeera. 7 August 2014. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022. ^ Thomas, Brewster (August 12, 2014). "The Man Who Found 1.2 Billion Stolen Passwords: Negative Publicity Harming My Business". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 16, 2014. Retrieved August 18, 2014. vteHacking in the 2010s ← 2000s Timeline 2020s → Major incidents2010 Operation Aurora (publication of 2009 events) Australian cyberattacks Operation Olympic Games Operation ShadowNet Operation Payback 2011 Canadian government DigiNotar DNSChanger HBGary Federal Operation AntiSec PlayStation network outage RSA SecurID compromise 2012 LinkedIn hack Stratfor email leak Operation High Roller 2013 South Korea cyberattack Snapchat hack Cyberterrorism attack of June 25 2013 Yahoo! data breach Singapore cyberattacks 2014 Anthem medical data breach Operation Tovar 2014 celebrity nude photo leak 2014 JPMorgan Chase data breach 2014 Sony Pictures hack Russian hacker password theft 2014 Yahoo! data breach 2015 Office of Personnel Management data breach Hacking Team Ashley Madison data breach VTech data breach Ukrainian Power Grid Cyberattack SWIFT banking hack 2016 Bangladesh Bank robbery Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center ransomware incident Commission on Elections data breach Democratic National Committee cyber attacks Vietnam Airport Hacks DCCC cyber attacks Indian Bank data breaches Surkov leaks Dyn cyberattack Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. elections 2016 Bitfinex hack 2017 SHAttered 2017 Macron e-mail leaks WannaCry ransomware attack Westminster data breach Petya and NotPetya 2017 Ukraine ransomware attacks Vault7 data breach Equifax data breach Deloitte breach Disqus breach 2018 Trustico Atlanta cyberattack SingHealth data breach 2019 Sri Lanka cyberattack Baltimore ransomware attack Bulgarian revenue agency hack WhatsApp snooping scandal Jeff Bezos phone hacking incident Hacktivism Anonymous associated events CyberBerkut GNAA Goatse Security Lizard Squad LulzRaft LulzSec New World Hackers NullCrew OurMine PayPal 14 RedHack Teamp0ison TDO UGNazi Ukrainian Cyber Alliance Advancedpersistent threats Bangladesh Black Hat Hackers Bureau 121 Charming Kitten Cozy Bear Dark Basin DarkMatter Elfin Team Equation Group Fancy Bear GOSSIPGIRL (confederation) Guccifer 2.0 Hacking Team Helix Kitten Iranian Cyber Army Lazarus Group (BlueNorOff) (AndAriel) NSO Group Numbered Panda PLA Unit 61398 PLA Unit 61486 PLATINUM Pranknet Red Apollo Rocket Kitten Stealth Falcon Syrian Electronic Army Tailored Access Operations The Shadow Brokers xDedic Yemen Cyber Army Individuals Cyber Anakin George Hotz Guccifer Jeremy Hammond Junaid Hussain Kristoffer von Hassel Mustafa Al-Bassam MLT Ryan Ackroyd Sabu Topiary Track2 The Jester Major vulnerabilitiespublicly disclosed Evercookie (2010) iSeeYou (2013) Heartbleed (2014) Shellshock (2014) POODLE (2014) Rootpipe (2014) Row hammer (2014) SS7 vulnerabilities (2014) WinShock (2014) JASBUG (2015) Stagefright (2015) DROWN (2016) Badlock (2016) Dirty COW (2016) Cloudbleed (2017) Broadcom Wi-Fi (2017) EternalBlue (2017) DoublePulsar (2017) Silent Bob is Silent (2017) KRACK (2017) ROCA vulnerability (2017) BlueBorne (2017) Meltdown (2018) Spectre (2018) EFAIL (2018) Exactis (2018) Speculative Store Bypass (2018) Lazy FP state restore (2018) TLBleed (2018) SigSpoof (2018) Foreshadow (2018) Dragonblood (2019) Microarchitectural Data Sampling (2019) BlueKeep (2019) Kr00k (2019) Malware2010 Bad Rabbit Black Energy 2 SpyEye Stuxnet 2011 Coreflood Alureon Duqu Kelihos Metulji botnet Stars 2012 Carna Dexter FBI Flame Mahdi Red October Shamoon 2013 CryptoLocker DarkSeoul 2014 Brambul Black Energy 3 Carbanak Careto DarkHotel Duqu 2.0 FinFisher Gameover ZeuS Regin 2015 Dridex Hidden Tear Rombertik TeslaCrypt 2016 Hitler Jigsaw KeRanger Necurs MEMZ Mirai Pegasus Petya and NotPetya X-Agent 2017 BrickerBot Kirk LogicLocker Rensenware Triton WannaCry XafeCopy 2018 VPNFilter 2019 Grum Joanap NetTraveler R2D2 Tinba Titanium ZeroAccess botnet

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[]

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Retrieved August 6, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/06/technology/russian-gang-said-to-amass-more-than-a-billion-stolen-internet-credentials.html","url_text":"\"Russian Gang Amasses Over a Billion Internet Passwords\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140805224353/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/06/technology/russian-gang-said-to-amass-more-than-a-billion-stolen-internet-credentials.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Joseph Steinberg (August 7, 2014). \"Why I Am Skeptical About 1.2-Billion Passwords Being Stolen\". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 11, 2014. Retrieved August 7, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/josephsteinberg/2014/08/07/why-i-am-skeptical-about-1-2-billion-passwords-being-stolen/","url_text":"\"Why I Am Skeptical About 1.2-Billion Passwords Being Stolen\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140811003831/http://www.forbes.com/sites/josephsteinberg/2014/08/07/why-i-am-skeptical-about-1-2-billion-passwords-being-stolen/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hill, Kashmir (August 5, 2014). \"Firm That Exposed Breach Of 'Billion Passwords' Quickly Offered $120 Service To Find Out If You're Affected\". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 8, 2014. Retrieved August 7, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2014/08/05/huge-password-breach-shady-antics/","url_text":"\"Firm That Exposed Breach Of 'Billion Passwords' Quickly Offered $120 Service To Find Out If You're Affected\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140808054631/http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2014/08/05/huge-password-breach-shady-antics/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"CyberVor Breach FAQ\". Hold Security. August 12, 2014. Archived from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved August 18, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084459/http://www.holdsecurity.com/faq/","url_text":"\"CyberVor Breach FAQ\""},{"url":"http://www.holdsecurity.com/faq/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Marks, Joseph (August 5, 2014). \"Russian hacking gang steals more than 1 billion usernames and passwords\". Politico. Archived from the original on August 8, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.politico.com/story/2014/08/russian-hacking-gang-usernames-passwords-109741.html","url_text":"\"Russian hacking gang steals more than 1 billion usernames and passwords\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politico","url_text":"Politico"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140808212905/http://www.politico.com/story/2014/08/russian-hacking-gang-usernames-passwords-109741.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Russian hackers 'stole 1.2 billion passwords'\". Al Jazeera. 7 August 2014. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2014/8/7/russian-hackers-stole-1-2-billion-passwords","url_text":"\"Russian hackers 'stole 1.2 billion passwords'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English","url_text":"Al Jazeera"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220209170153/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2014/8/7/russian-hackers-stole-1-2-billion-passwords","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, Brewster (August 12, 2014). \"The Man Who Found 1.2 Billion Stolen Passwords: Negative Publicity Harming My Business\". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 16, 2014. Retrieved August 18, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/thomasbrewster/2014/08/12/alex-holden-explains-data-breach-profiteering-defense/","url_text":"\"The Man Who Found 1.2 Billion Stolen Passwords: Negative Publicity Harming My Business\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140816022845/http://www.forbes.com/sites/thomasbrewster/2014/08/12/alex-holden-explains-data-breach-profiteering-defense/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_password

passwd

["1 Password file","2 Shadow file","3 History","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Tool to change passwords on Unix-like OSes Not to be confused with the "passwd" key used in the Name Service Switch, which can use /etc/passwd as a source. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Passwd" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message) passwdOriginal author(s)AT&T Bell LaboratoriesDeveloper(s)Various open-source and commercial developersOperating systemUnix, Unix-like, Plan 9, InfernoPlatformCross-platformTypeCommand passwd is a command on Unix, Plan 9, Inferno, and most Unix-like operating systems used to change a user's password. The password entered by the user is run through a key derivation function to create a hashed version of the new password, which is saved. Only the hashed version is stored; the entered password is not saved for security reasons. When the user logs on, the password entered by the user during the log on process is run through the same key derivation function and the resulting hashed version is compared with the saved version. If the hashes are identical, the entered password is considered to be correct, and the user is authenticated. In theory, it is possible for two different passwords to produce the same hash. However, cryptographic hash functions are designed in such a way that finding any password that produces the same hash is very difficult and practically infeasible, so if the produced hash matches the stored one, the user can be authenticated. The passwd command may be used to change passwords for local accounts, and on most systems, can also be used to change passwords managed in a distributed authentication mechanism such as NIS, Kerberos, or LDAP. Password file The /etc/passwd file is a text-based database of information about users that may log into the system or other operating system user identities that own running processes. In many operating systems this file is just one of many possible back-ends for the more general passwd name service. The file's name originates from one of its initial functions as it contained the data used to verify passwords of user accounts. However, on modern Unix systems the security-sensitive password information is instead often stored in a different file using shadow passwords, or other database implementations. The /etc/passwd file typically has file system permissions that allow it to be readable by all users of the system (world-readable), although it may only be modified by the superuser or by using a few special purpose privileged commands. The /etc/passwd file is a text file with one record per line, each describing a user account. Each record consists of seven fields separated by colons. The ordering of the records within the file is generally unimportant. An example record may be: jsmith:x:1001:1000:Joe Smith,Room 1007,(234)555-8910,(234)555-0044,email:/home/jsmith:/bin/sh The fields, in order from left to right, are: jsmith: User name: the string a user would type in when logging into the operating system: the logname. Must be unique across users listed in the file. x: Information used to validate a user's password. The format is the same as that of the analogous field in the shadow password file, with the additional convention that setting it to "x" means the actual password is found in the shadow file, a common occurrence on modern systems. 1001: user identifier number, used by the operating system for internal purposes. It must be unique as it identifies users uniquely. 1000: group identifier number, which identifies the primary group of the user; all files that are created by this user may initially be accessible to this group. Joe Smith,Room 1007...: Gecos field, commentary that describes the person or account. Typically, this is a set of comma-separated values including the user's full name and contact details. /home/jsmith: Path to the user's home directory. /bin/sh: Program that is started every time the user logs into the system. For an interactive user, this is usually one of the system's command line interpreters (shells). Shadow file /etc/shadow is used to increase the security level of passwords by restricting all but highly privileged users' access to hashed password data. Typically, that data is kept in files owned by and accessible only by the super user. Systems administrators can reduce the likelihood of brute-force attacks by making the list of hashed passwords unreadable by unprivileged users. The obvious way to do this is to make the passwd database itself readable only by the root user. However, this would restrict access to other data in the file such as username-to-userid mappings, which would break many existing utilities and provisions. One solution is a "shadow" password file to hold the password hashes separate from the other data in the world-readable passwd file. For local files, this is usually /etc/shadow on Linux and Unix systems, or /etc/master.passwd on BSD systems; each is readable only by root. (Root access to the data is considered acceptable since on systems with the traditional "all-powerful root" security model, the root user would be able to obtain the information in other ways in any case). Virtually all recent Unix-like operating systems use shadowed passwords. The shadow password file does not entirely solve the problem of attacker access to hashed passwords, as some network authentication schemes operate by transmitting the hashed password over the network (sometimes in cleartext, e.g., Telnet), making it vulnerable to interception. Copies of system data, such as system backups written to tape or optical media, can also become a means for illicitly obtaining hashed passwords. In addition, the functions used by legitimate password-checking programs need to be written in such a way that malicious programs cannot make large numbers of authentication checks at high rates of speed. Regardless of whether password shadowing is in effect on a given system, the passwd file is readable by all users so that various system utilities (e.g., grep) can work (e.g., to ensure that user names existing on the system can be found inside the file), while only the root user can write to it. Without password shadowing, this means that an attacker with unprivileged access to the system can obtain the hashed form of every user's password. Those values can be used to mount a brute force attack offline, testing possible passwords against the hashed passwords relatively quickly without alerting system security arrangements designed to detect an abnormal number of failed login attempts. Especially when the hash is not salted it is also possible to look up these hashed passwords in rainbow tables, databases specially made for giving back a password for a unique hash. With a shadowed password scheme in use, the /etc/passwd file typically shows a character such as '*', or 'x' in the password field for each user instead of the hashed password, and /etc/shadow usually contains the following user information: User login name salt and hashed password OR a status exception value e.g.: $id$salt$hashed, the printable form of a password hash as produced by crypt (C), where $id is the algorithm used. Other Unix-like systems may have different values, like NetBSD. Key stretching is used to increase password cracking difficulty, using by default 1000 rounds of modified MD5, 64 rounds of Blowfish, 5000 rounds of SHA-256 or SHA-512. The number of rounds may be varied for Blowfish, or for SHA-256 and SHA-512 by using $A$rounds=X$, where "A" and "X" are the algorithm IDs and the number of rounds. Common id values include: $1$ – MD5 $2$, $2a$, $2b$ – bcrypt $5$ – SHA-256 $6$ – SHA-512 $y$ – yescrypt Empty string – No password, the account has no password (reported by passwd on Solaris with "NP"). "!", "*" – the account is password locked, user will be unable to log in via password authentication but other methods (e.g. ssh key, logging in as root) may be still allowed. "*LK*" – the account itself is locked, user will be unable to log in. "*NP*", "!!" – the password has never been set Days since epoch of last password change Days until change allowed Days before change required Days warning for expiration Days after no logins before account is locked Days since epoch when account expires Reserved and unused The format of the shadow file is simple, and basically identical to that of the password file, to wit, one line per user, ordered fields on each line, and fields separated by colons. Many systems require the order of user lines in the shadow file be identical to the order of the corresponding users in the password file. History Prior to password shadowing, a Unix user's hashed password was stored in the second field of their record in the /etc/passwd file (within the seven-field format as outlined above). Password shadowing first appeared in Unix systems with the development of SunOS in the mid-1980s, System V Release 3.2 in 1988 and BSD4.3 Reno in 1990. But, vendors who had performed ports from earlier UNIX releases did not always include the new password shadowing features in their releases, leaving users of those systems exposed to password file attacks. System administrators may also arrange for the storage of passwords in distributed databases such as NIS and LDAP, rather than in files on each connected system. In the case of NIS, the shadow password mechanism is often still used on the NIS servers; in other distributed mechanisms the problem of access to the various user authentication components is handled by the security mechanisms of the underlying data repository. In 1987, the author of the original Shadow Password Suite, Julie Haugh, experienced a computer break-in and wrote the initial release of the Shadow Suite containing the login, passwd and su commands. The original release, written for the SCO Xenix operating system, quickly got ported to other platforms. The Shadow Suite was ported to Linux in 1992 one year after the original announcement of the Linux project, and was included in many early distributions, and continues to be included in many current Linux distributions. In the past, it was necessary to have different commands to change passwords in different authentication schemes. For example, the command to change a NIS password was yppasswd. This required users to be aware of the different methods to change passwords for different systems, and also resulted in wasteful duplication of code in the various programs that performed the same functions with different back ends. In most implementations, there is now a single passwd command, and the control of where the password is actually changed is handled transparently to the user via pluggable authentication modules (PAMs). For example, the type of hash used is dictated by the configuration of the pam_unix.so module. By default, the MD5 hash has been used, while current modules are also capable of stronger hashes such as blowfish, SHA256 and SHA512. See also chsh Crypt (C) (the library function) and Crypt (Unix) (the utility) getent Security Account Manager (the Microsoft Windows equivalent of the password file) Unix security vipw References ^ Understanding /etc/passwd File Format ^ "passwd(5) - Linux manual page". Man7.org. Retrieved 2014-08-25. ^ Adams, David. "How to View and Understand the /etc/passwd file in Linux". ^ RFC 2877: 5250 Telnet Enhancements ^ "Password hashing with MD5-crypt in relation to MD5 – Vidar's Blog". ^ "Implementation of SHA512-crypt vs MD5-crypt – Vidar's Blog". ^ "Modular Crypt Format". Archived from the original on 2022-01-07. Retrieved 2022-01-29. ^ "solaris - passwd (1)". cs.bgu.ac.il. Archived from the original on 2013-12-17. ^ "6.3. Red Hat Enterprise Linux-Specific Information". Access.redhat.com. Retrieved 2014-08-25. ^ "passwd.adjunt(5) in SunOS-4.1.3". Modman.unixdev.net. Retrieved 2016-01-03. External links Manual page from Unix First Edition describing /etc/passwd passwd(1): update a user's authentication token(s) – FreeBSD General Commands Manual passwd(1) – Plan 9 Programmer's Manual, Volume 1 passwd(1) – Inferno General commands Manual authconfig, a command-line tool for controlling the use of shadow passwords vteUnix command-line interface programs and shell builtinsFile system cat chattr chmod chown chgrp cksum cmp cp dd du df file fuser ln ls mkdir mv pax pwd rm rmdir split tee touch type umask Processes at bg crontab fg kill nice ps time User environment env exit logname mesg talk tput uname who write Text processing awk basename comm csplit cut diff dirname ed ex fold head iconv join m4 more nl paste patch printf read sed sort strings tail tr troff uniq vi wc xargs Shell builtins alias cd echo test unset wait Searching find grep Documentation man Software development ar ctags lex make nm strip yacc Miscellaneous bc cal expr lp od sleep true and false Categories Standard Unix programs Unix SUS2008 utilities List

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The password entered by the user is run through a key derivation function to create a hashed version of the new password, which is saved. Only the hashed version is stored; the entered password is not saved for security reasons.When the user logs on, the password entered by the user during the log on process is run through the same key derivation function and the resulting hashed version is compared with the saved version. If the hashes are identical, the entered password is considered to be correct, and the user is authenticated. In theory, it is possible for two different passwords to produce the same hash. However, cryptographic hash functions are designed in such a way that finding any password that produces the same hash is very difficult and practically infeasible, so if the produced hash matches the stored one, the user can be authenticated.The passwd command may be used to change passwords for local accounts, and on most systems, can also be used to change passwords managed in a distributed authentication mechanism such as NIS, Kerberos, or LDAP.","title":"passwd"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"users","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_(computing)"},{"link_name":"log into","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Login"},{"link_name":"passwd name service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passwd_(database)"},{"link_name":"passwords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"file system permissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system_permissions"},{"link_name":"superuser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superuser"},{"link_name":"text file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_file"},{"link_name":"line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(text_file)"},{"link_name":"user account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_(computing)"},{"link_name":"colons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(punctuation)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"logname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logname"},{"link_name":"password","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password"},{"link_name":"shadow password","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Shadow_file"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-linuxman-2"},{"link_name":"user identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_identifier_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"group identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_identifier_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"Gecos field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gecos_field"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"home directory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_directory"},{"link_name":"command line interpreters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_line_interpreter"},{"link_name":"shells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_(computing)"}],"text":"The /etc/passwd file is a text-based database of information about users that may log into the system or other operating system user identities that own running processes.In many operating systems this file is just one of many possible back-ends for the more general passwd name service.The file's name originates from one of its initial functions as it contained the data used to verify passwords of user accounts. However, on modern Unix systems the security-sensitive password information is instead often stored in a different file using shadow passwords, or other database implementations.The /etc/passwd file typically has file system permissions that allow it to be readable by all users of the system (world-readable), although it may only be modified by the superuser or by using a few special purpose privileged commands.The /etc/passwd file is a text file with one record per line, each describing a user account.\nEach record consists of seven fields separated by colons. The ordering of the records within the file is generally unimportant.An example record may be:jsmith:x:1001:1000:Joe Smith,Room 1007,(234)555-8910,(234)555-0044,email:/home/jsmith:/bin/shThe fields, in order from left to right, are:[1]jsmith: User name: the string a user would type in when logging into the operating system: the logname. Must be unique across users listed in the file.\nx: Information used to validate a user's password. The format is the same as that of the analogous field in the shadow password file, with the additional convention that setting it to \"x\" means the actual password is found in the shadow file, a common occurrence on modern systems.[2]\n1001: user identifier number, used by the operating system for internal purposes. It must be unique as it identifies users uniquely.\n1000: group identifier number, which identifies the primary group of the user; all files that are created by this user may initially be accessible to this group.\nJoe Smith,Room 1007...: Gecos field, commentary that describes the person or account. Typically, this is a set of comma-separated values including the user's full name and contact details.[3]\n/home/jsmith: Path to the user's home directory.\n/bin/sh: Program that is started every time the user logs into the system. For an interactive user, this is usually one of the system's command line interpreters (shells).","title":"Password file"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"super user","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superuser"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD"},{"link_name":"Unix-like","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix-like"},{"link_name":"cleartext","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleartext"},{"link_name":"Telnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telnet"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"grep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grep"},{"link_name":"brute force attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute_force_attack"},{"link_name":"login","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logging_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"rainbow tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow_table"},{"link_name":"salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(cryptography)"},{"link_name":"crypt (C)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypt_(C)"},{"link_name":"NetBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//man.netbsd.org/crypt.3"},{"link_name":"Key stretching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_stretching"},{"link_name":"password cracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password_cracking"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Blowfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//man.netbsd.org/crypt.3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"bcrypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bcrypt"},{"link_name":"yescrypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yescrypt"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-solaris_-_passwd_(1)-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"epoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time"},{"link_name":"quantify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers"}],"text":"/etc/shadow is used to increase the security level of passwords by restricting all but highly privileged users' access to hashed password data. Typically, that data is kept in files owned by and accessible only by the super user.Systems administrators can reduce the likelihood of brute-force attacks by making the list of hashed passwords unreadable by unprivileged users. The obvious way to do this is to make the passwd database itself readable only by the root user. However, this would restrict access to other data in the file such as username-to-userid mappings, which would break many existing utilities and provisions. One solution is a \"shadow\" password file to hold the password hashes separate from the other data in the world-readable passwd file. For local files, this is usually /etc/shadow on Linux and Unix systems, or /etc/master.passwd on BSD systems; each is readable only by root. (Root access to the data is considered acceptable since on systems with the traditional \"all-powerful root\" security model, the root user would be able to obtain the information in other ways in any case). Virtually all recent Unix-like operating systems use shadowed passwords.The shadow password file does not entirely solve the problem of attacker access to hashed passwords, as some network authentication schemes operate by transmitting the hashed password over the network (sometimes in cleartext, e.g., Telnet[4]), making it vulnerable to interception. Copies of system data, such as system backups written to tape or optical media, can also become a means for illicitly obtaining hashed passwords. In addition, the functions used by legitimate password-checking programs need to be written in such a way that malicious programs cannot make large numbers of authentication checks at high rates of speed.Regardless of whether password shadowing is in effect on a given system, the passwd file is readable by all users so that various system utilities (e.g., grep) can work (e.g., to ensure that user names existing on the system can be found inside the file), while only the root user can write to it. Without password shadowing, this means that an attacker with unprivileged access to the system can obtain the hashed form of every user's password. Those values can be used to mount a brute force attack offline, testing possible passwords against the hashed passwords relatively quickly without alerting system security arrangements designed to detect an abnormal number of failed login attempts. Especially when the hash is not salted it is also possible to look up these hashed passwords in rainbow tables, databases specially made for giving back a password for a unique hash.With a shadowed password scheme in use, the /etc/passwd file typically shows a character such as '*', or 'x' in the password field for each user instead of the hashed password, and /etc/shadow usually contains the following user information:User login name\nsalt and hashed password OR a status exception value e.g.:\n$id$salt$hashed, the printable form of a password hash as produced by crypt (C), where $id is the algorithm used. Other Unix-like systems may have different values, like NetBSD. Key stretching is used to increase password cracking difficulty, using by default 1000 rounds of modified MD5,[5] 64 rounds of Blowfish, 5000 rounds of SHA-256 or SHA-512.[6] The number of rounds may be varied for Blowfish, or for SHA-256 and SHA-512 by using $A$rounds=X$, where \"A\" and \"X\" are the algorithm IDs and the number of rounds. Common id values include:[7]\n$1$ – MD5\n$2$, $2a$, $2b$ – bcrypt\n$5$ – SHA-256\n$6$ – SHA-512\n$y$ – yescrypt\nEmpty string – No password, the account has no password (reported by passwd on Solaris with \"NP\").[8]\n\"!\", \"*\" – the account is password locked, user will be unable to log in via password authentication but other methods (e.g. ssh key, logging in as root) may be still allowed.\n\"*LK*\" – the account itself is locked, user will be unable to log in.\n\"*NP*\", \"!!\" – the password has never been set[9]\nDays since epoch of last password change\nDays until change allowed\nDays before change required\nDays warning for expiration\nDays after no logins before account is locked\nDays since epoch when account expires\nReserved and unusedThe format of the shadow file is simple, and basically identical to that of the password file, to wit, one line per user, ordered fields on each line, and fields separated by colons. Many[quantify] systems require the order of user lines in the shadow file be identical to the order of the corresponding users in the password file.","title":"Shadow file"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SunOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunOS"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"System V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_V"},{"link_name":"BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD"},{"link_name":"NIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Information_Service"},{"link_name":"LDAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDAP"},{"link_name":"login","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logging_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"su","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"Xenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenix"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"back ends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_and_back_ends"},{"link_name":"pluggable authentication modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluggable_authentication_module"},{"link_name":"MD5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MD5"},{"link_name":"blowfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blowfish_(cipher)"},{"link_name":"SHA256","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHA256"},{"link_name":"SHA512","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHA512"}],"text":"Prior to password shadowing, a Unix user's hashed password was stored in the second field of their record in the /etc/passwd file (within the seven-field format as outlined above).Password shadowing first appeared in Unix systems with the development of SunOS in the mid-1980s,[10] System V Release 3.2 in 1988 and BSD4.3 Reno in 1990. But, vendors who had performed ports from earlier UNIX releases did not always include the new password shadowing features in their releases, leaving users of those systems exposed to password file attacks.System administrators may also arrange for the storage of passwords in distributed databases such as NIS and LDAP, rather than in files on each connected system. In the case of NIS, the shadow password mechanism is often still used on the NIS servers; in other distributed mechanisms the problem of access to the various user authentication components is handled by the security mechanisms of the underlying data repository.In 1987, the author of the original Shadow Password Suite, Julie Haugh, experienced a computer break-in and wrote the initial release of the Shadow Suite containing the login, passwd and su commands. The original release, written for the SCO Xenix operating system, quickly got ported to other platforms. The Shadow Suite was ported to Linux in 1992 one year after the original announcement of the Linux project, and was included in many early distributions, and continues to be included in many current Linux distributions.In the past, it was necessary to have different commands to change passwords in different authentication schemes. For example, the command to change a NIS password was yppasswd. This required users to be aware of the different methods to change passwords for different systems, and also resulted in wasteful duplication of code in the various programs that performed the same functions with different back ends. In most implementations, there is now a single passwd command, and the control of where the password is actually changed is handled transparently to the user via pluggable authentication modules (PAMs). For example, the type of hash used is dictated by the configuration of the pam_unix.so module. By default, the MD5 hash has been used, while current modules are also capable of stronger hashes such as blowfish, SHA256 and SHA512.","title":"History"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojciech_Zurek

Wojciech H. Zurek

["1 Education","2 Career","3 Honors","4 Books","5 References","6 External links"]

Polish theoretical physicist (born 1951) Wojciech H. ZurekBornWojciech H. Żurek1951 (age 72–73)Bielsko-Biała, PolandEducationAGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków (M.Sc., 1974)University of Texas at Austin (PhD, 1979)Known forQuantum decoherenceNo cloning theoremQuantum DarwinismPointer stateEinselectionEnvarianceQuantum discordKibble–Zurek mechanismKibble–Zurek scaling lawsScientific careerFieldsQuantum physicsInstitutionsCalifornia Institute of TechnologyLos Alamos National LaboratorySanta Fe InstituteUniversity of California, Santa BarbaraDoctoral advisorWilliam C. Schieve Wojciech Hubert Zurek (Polish: Żurek; born 1951) is a Polish theoretical physicist and a leading authority on quantum theory, especially decoherence and non-equilibrium dynamics of symmetry breaking and resulting defect generation (known as the Kibble–Zurek mechanism). Education He attended the I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Mikołaja Kopernika (1st Secondary High School of Mikołaj Kopernik) in Bielsko-Biała. Zurek earned his M.Sc. in physics at AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland in 1974 and completed his Ph.D. under advisor William C. Schieve at the University of Texas at Austin in 1979. He spent two years at Caltech as a Tolman Fellow, and started at LANL as a J. Oppenheimer Fellow. Career He was the leader of the Theoretical Astrophysics Group at Los Alamos from 1991 until he was made a laboratory fellow in the theory division in 1996. Zurek is currently a foreign associate of the Cosmology Program at the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research. He served as a member of the external faculty of the Santa Fe Institute, and has been a visiting professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Zurek co-organized the programs Quantum Coherence and Decoherence and Quantum Computing and Chaos at UCSB's Institute for Theoretical Physics. He researches decoherence, physics of quantum and classical information, non-equilibrium dynamics of defect generation, and astrophysics. He is also the co-author, along with William Wootters and Dennis Dieks, of a proof stating that a single quantum cannot be cloned (see the no cloning theorem). He also coined the terms einselection and quantum discord. Zurek with his colleague Tom W. B. Kibble pioneered a paradigmatic framework for understanding defect generation in non-equilibrium processes, particularly, for understanding topological defects generated when a second-order phase transition point is crossed at a finite rate. The paradigm covers phenomena of enormous varieties and scales, ranging from structure formation in the early Universe to vortex generation in superfluids. The key mechanism of critical defect generation is known as the Kibble–Zurek mechanism, and the resulting scaling laws known as the Kibble–Zurek scaling laws. He pointed out the fundamental role of environment in determining a set of special basis states immune to environmental decoherence (pointer basis) which defines a classical measuring apparatus unambiguously. His work on decoherence paves a way towards the understanding of emergence of the classical world from the quantum mechanical one, getting rid of ad hoc demarcations between the two, like the one imposed by Niels Bohr in the famous Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. The underlying mechanism proposed and developed by Zurek and his collaborators is known as quantum Darwinism. His work also has a lot of potential benefit to the emerging field of quantum computing. He is a pioneer in information physics, edited an influential book on "Complexity, Entropy and the Physics of Information", and spearheaded the efforts that finally exorcised Maxwell's demon. Zurek showed that the demon can extract energy from its environment for "free" as long as it (a) is able to find structure in the environment, and (b) is able to compress this pattern (whereas the remaining code is more succinct than the brute-force description of the structure). In this way the demon can exploit thermal fluctuations. However, he showed that in thermodynamic equilibrium (the most likely state of the environment), the demon can at best break even, even if the information about the environment is compressed. As a result of his exploration, Zurek suggested redefining entropy and distinguishing between two parts: the part that we already know about the environment (measured in Kolmogorov complexity), and, conditioned on our knowledge, the remaining uncertainty (measured in Shannon entropy). He is a staff scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory and also a laboratory fellow (a prestigious distinction for a US National Laboratory scientist). Zurek was awarded the Albert Einstein Professorship Prize by the Foundation of the University of Ulm in Germany in 2010. Honors 1996 Laboratory Fellow at the Los Alamos National Laboratory 2004 Phi Beta Kappa Visiting Lecturer 2005 Alexander von Humboldt Prize 2009 Fellow of the American Physical Society 2009 Marian Smoluchowski Medal, highest prize of the Polish Physical Society 2010 Albert-Einstein Professorship, honorary professorship at the University of Ulm 2012 Order of Polonia Restituta, the Commander's Cross - one of Poland's highest Orders 2014 Los Alamos Medal, the highest honor bestowed by the Los Alamos National Laboratory Books as editor with John Wheeler: Quantum theory of measurement. Princeton University Press 1983 ISBN 978-0691613161; 2014 edition as editor with A. van der Merwe, W. A. Miller: Between Quantum and Cosmos. Princeton University Press, 1988 ISBN 978-0691605548 as editor: Complexity, Entropy and Physics of Information. Addison-Wesley 1990; Zurek, Wojciech H. (8 March 2018). 2018 pbk edition. ISBN 978-0-201-51506-0. as editor with J. J. Halliwell, J. Pérez-Mercader: Physical Origins of Time Asymmetry. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1994 ISBN 0-521-43328-2 1996 pbk edition. Cambridge University Press. 21 March 1996. ISBN 0-521-56837-4. as editor with H. Arodz and J. Dziarmaga: Patterns of Symmetry Breaking, NATO ASI series volume (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 2003) ISBN 978-1-4020-1745-2; 2012 edition. Springer. 6 December 2012. ISBN 9789400710290. e-book ISBN 978-94-007-1029-0 References ^ a b CV ^ Zurek, W. H. (October 1985). "Cosmological experiments in superfluid helium?". Nature. 317 (6037): 505–508. Bibcode:1985Natur.317..505Z. doi:10.1038/317505a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4253800. ^ Zurek, Wojciech Hubert (1990). Complexity, Entropy, and the Physics of Information: The Proceedings of the 1988 Workshop on Complexity, Entropy, and the Physics of Information Held May-June, 1989, in Santa Fe, New Mexico. ISBN 9780201515091. ^ "2009 Fellows of the American Physical Society". ^ lanl.gov ^ Cartwright, Nancy (1985). "Review of Quantum Theory and Measurement edited by John Archibald Wheeler and Wojciech Hubert Zurek". Philosophy of Science. 52 (3): 480–481. doi:10.1086/289264. ^ Segrè, Gino (1995). "Review of Physical Origins of Time Asymmetry edited by J. J. Halliwell, J. Pérez-Mercader, and W. H. Zurek". Physics Today. 48 (9): 90. Bibcode:1995PhT....48i..90H. doi:10.1063/1.2808167. External links Wojciech H. Zurek's webpage Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Catalonia Germany Israel Belgium United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Academics Google Scholar Scopus zbMATH Other IdRef

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Zurek"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mikołaj Kopernik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Kopernik"},{"link_name":"Bielsko-Biała","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bielsko-Bia%C5%82a"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"AGH University of Science and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGH_University_of_Science_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"Kraków","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w"},{"link_name":"William C. Schieve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_C._Schieve&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CV-1"},{"link_name":"Caltech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltech"},{"link_name":"Tolman Fellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tolman_Fellow&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"LANL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LANL"},{"link_name":"J. Oppenheimer Fellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J._Oppenheimer_Fellow&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"He attended the I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Mikołaja Kopernika (1st Secondary High School of Mikołaj Kopernik) in Bielsko-Biała.Zurek earned his M.Sc. in physics at AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland in 1974 and completed his Ph.D. under advisor William C. Schieve at the University of Texas at Austin in 1979.[1] He spent two years at Caltech as a Tolman Fellow, and started at LANL as a J. Oppenheimer Fellow.","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology"},{"link_name":"Canadian Institute for Advanced Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Institute_for_Advanced_Research"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute"},{"link_name":"University of California, Santa Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara"},{"link_name":"UCSB's Institute for Theoretical Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavli_Institute_for_Theoretical_Physics"},{"link_name":"astrophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics"},{"link_name":"William Wootters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wootters"},{"link_name":"Dennis Dieks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Dieks"},{"link_name":"quantum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum"},{"link_name":"no cloning theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_cloning_theorem"},{"link_name":"einselection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einselection"},{"link_name":"quantum discord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_discord"},{"link_name":"Tom W. B. Kibble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_W._B._Kibble"},{"link_name":"superfluids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluidity"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Kibble–Zurek mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibble%E2%80%93Zurek_mechanism"},{"link_name":"Kibble–Zurek scaling laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kibble%E2%80%93Zurek_scaling_laws&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"pointer basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointer_basis"},{"link_name":"Niels Bohr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen interpretation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_interpretation"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"quantum Darwinism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Darwinism"},{"link_name":"quantum computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Maxwell's demon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon"},{"link_name":"entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy"},{"link_name":"Kolmogorov complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov_complexity"},{"link_name":"Shannon entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon_entropy"},{"link_name":"Los Alamos National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"laboratory fellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_fellow&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"He was the leader of the Theoretical Astrophysics Group at Los Alamos from 1991 until he was made a laboratory fellow in the theory division in 1996. Zurek is currently a foreign associate of the Cosmology Program at the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research. He served as a member of the external faculty of the Santa Fe Institute, and has been a visiting professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Zurek co-organized the programs Quantum Coherence and Decoherence and Quantum Computing and Chaos at UCSB's Institute for Theoretical Physics.He researches decoherence, physics of quantum and classical information, non-equilibrium dynamics of defect generation, and astrophysics. He is also the co-author, along with William Wootters and Dennis Dieks, of a proof stating that a single quantum cannot be cloned (see the no cloning theorem). He also coined the terms einselection and quantum discord.Zurek with his colleague Tom W. B. Kibble pioneered a paradigmatic framework for understanding defect generation in non-equilibrium processes, particularly, for understanding topological defects generated when a second-order phase transition point is crossed at a finite rate. The paradigm covers phenomena of enormous varieties and scales, ranging from structure formation in the early Universe to vortex generation in superfluids.[2] The key mechanism of critical defect generation is known as the Kibble–Zurek mechanism, and the resulting scaling laws known as the Kibble–Zurek scaling laws.He pointed out the fundamental role of environment in determining a set of special basis states immune to environmental decoherence (pointer basis) which defines a classical measuring apparatus unambiguously. His work on decoherence paves a way towards the understanding of emergence of the classical world from the quantum mechanical one, getting rid of ad hoc demarcations between the two, like the one imposed by Niels Bohr in the famous Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. The underlying mechanism proposed and developed by Zurek and his collaborators is known as quantum Darwinism. His work also has a lot of potential benefit to the emerging field of quantum computing.He is a pioneer in information physics, edited an influential book on \"Complexity, Entropy and the Physics of Information\",[3] and spearheaded the efforts that finally exorcised Maxwell's demon. Zurek showed that the demon can extract energy from its environment for \"free\" as long as it (a) is able to find structure in the environment, and (b) is able to compress this pattern (whereas the remaining code is more succinct than the brute-force description of the structure). In this way the demon can exploit thermal fluctuations. However, he showed that in thermodynamic equilibrium (the most likely state of the environment), the demon can at best break even, even if the information about the environment is compressed. As a result of his exploration, Zurek suggested redefining entropy and distinguishing between two parts: the part that we already know about the environment (measured in Kolmogorov complexity), and, conditioned on our knowledge, the remaining uncertainty (measured in Shannon entropy).He is a staff scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory and also a laboratory fellow (a prestigious distinction for a US National Laboratory scientist). Zurek was awarded the Albert Einstein Professorship Prize by the Foundation of the University of Ulm in Germany in 2010.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alexander von Humboldt Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt_Prize"},{"link_name":"American Physical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Physical_Society"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aps-4"},{"link_name":"Marian Smoluchowski Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Smoluchowski_Medal"},{"link_name":"Order of Polonia Restituta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Polonia_Restituta"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"1996 Laboratory Fellow at the Los Alamos National Laboratory\n2004 Phi Beta Kappa Visiting Lecturer\n2005 Alexander von Humboldt Prize\n2009 Fellow of the American Physical Society[4]\n2009 Marian Smoluchowski Medal, highest prize of the Polish Physical Society\n2010 Albert-Einstein Professorship, honorary professorship at the University of Ulm\n2012 Order of Polonia Restituta, the Commander's Cross - one of Poland's highest Orders\n2014 Los Alamos Medal, the highest honor bestowed by the Los Alamos National Laboratory[5]","title":"Honors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0691613161","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691613161"},{"link_name":"2014 edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=L7r_AwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"A. van der Merwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alwyn_Van_der_Merwe"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0691605548","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691605548"},{"link_name":"2018 pbk edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=RQpQDwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-201-51506-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-51506-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-43328-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43328-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"1996 pbk edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=kv-evuvt5c4C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-56837-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56837-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4020-1745-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1745-2"},{"link_name":"2012 edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=cIpqCQAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9789400710290","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400710290"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-94-007-1029-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-1029-0"}],"text":"as editor with John Wheeler: Quantum theory of measurement. Princeton University Press 1983[6] ISBN 978-0691613161; 2014 edition\nas editor with A. van der Merwe, W. A. Miller: Between Quantum and Cosmos. Princeton University Press, 1988 ISBN 978-0691605548\nas editor: Complexity, Entropy and Physics of Information. Addison-Wesley 1990; Zurek, Wojciech H. (8 March 2018). 2018 pbk edition. ISBN 978-0-201-51506-0.\nas editor with J. J. Halliwell, J. Pérez-Mercader: Physical Origins of Time Asymmetry. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1994 ISBN 0-521-43328-2[7] 1996 pbk edition. Cambridge University Press. 21 March 1996. ISBN 0-521-56837-4.\nas editor with H. Arodz and J. Dziarmaga: Patterns of Symmetry Breaking, NATO ASI series volume (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 2003) ISBN 978-1-4020-1745-2; 2012 edition. Springer. 6 December 2012. ISBN 9789400710290. e-book ISBN 978-94-007-1029-0","title":"Books"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipolla%27s_algorithm

Cipolla's algorithm

["1 Algorithm","2 Example","3 Proof","4 Speed","5 Prime power moduli","6 References","7 Sources"]

In computational number theory, Cipolla's algorithm is a technique for solving a congruence of the form x 2 ≡ n ( mod p ) , {\displaystyle x^{2}\equiv n{\pmod {p}},} where x , n ∈ F p {\displaystyle x,n\in \mathbf {F} _{p}} , so n is the square of x, and where p {\displaystyle p} is an odd prime. Here F p {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p}} denotes the finite field with p {\displaystyle p} elements; { 0 , 1 , … , p − 1 } {\displaystyle \{0,1,\dots ,p-1\}} . The algorithm is named after Michele Cipolla, an Italian mathematician who discovered it in 1907. Apart from prime moduli, Cipolla's algorithm is also able to take square roots modulo prime powers. Algorithm Inputs: p {\displaystyle p} , an odd prime, n ∈ F p {\displaystyle n\in \mathbf {F} _{p}} , which is a square. Outputs: x ∈ F p {\displaystyle x\in \mathbf {F} _{p}} , satisfying x 2 = n . {\displaystyle x^{2}=n.} Step 1 is to find an a ∈ F p {\displaystyle a\in \mathbf {F} _{p}} such that a 2 − n {\displaystyle a^{2}-n} is not a square. There is no known deterministic algorithm for finding such an a {\displaystyle a} , but the following trial and error method can be used. Simply pick an a {\displaystyle a} and by computing the Legendre symbol ( a 2 − n p ) {\displaystyle ({\frac {a^{2}-n}{p}})} one can see whether a {\displaystyle a} satisfies the condition. The chance that a random a {\displaystyle a} will satisfy is ( p − 1 ) / 2 p {\displaystyle (p-1)/2p} . With p {\displaystyle p} large enough this is about 1 / 2 {\displaystyle 1/2} . Therefore, the expected number of trials before finding a suitable a {\displaystyle a} is about 2. Step 2 is to compute x by computing x = ( a + a 2 − n ) ( p + 1 ) / 2 {\displaystyle x=\left(a+{\sqrt {a^{2}-n}}\right)^{(p+1)/2}} within the field extension F p 2 = F p ( a 2 − n ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}=\mathbf {F} _{p}({\sqrt {a^{2}-n}})} . This x will be the one satisfying x 2 = n . {\displaystyle x^{2}=n.} If x 2 = n {\displaystyle x^{2}=n} , then ( − x ) 2 = n {\displaystyle (-x)^{2}=n} also holds. And since p is odd, x ≠ − x {\displaystyle x\neq -x} . So whenever a solution x is found, there's always a second solution, -x. Example (Note: All elements before step two are considered as an element of F 13 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{13}} and all elements in step two are considered as elements of F 13 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{13^{2}}} .) Find all x such that x 2 = 10. {\displaystyle x^{2}=10.} Before applying the algorithm, it must be checked that 10 {\displaystyle 10} is indeed a square in F 13 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{13}} . Therefore, the Legendre symbol ( 10 | 13 ) {\displaystyle (10|13)} has to be equal to 1. This can be computed using Euler's criterion: ( 10 | 13 ) ≡ 10 6 ≡ 1 ( mod 13 ) . {\textstyle (10|13)\equiv 10^{6}\equiv 1{\pmod {13}}.} This confirms 10 being a square and hence the algorithm can be applied. Step 1: Find an a such that a 2 − n {\displaystyle a^{2}-n} is not a square. As stated, this has to be done by trial and error. Choose a = 2 {\displaystyle a=2} . Then a 2 − n {\displaystyle a^{2}-n} becomes 7. The Legendre symbol ( 7 | 13 ) {\displaystyle (7|13)} has to be −1. Again this can be computed using Euler's criterion: 7 6 = 343 2 ≡ 5 2 ≡ 25 ≡ − 1 ( mod 13 ) . {\textstyle 7^{6}=343^{2}\equiv 5^{2}\equiv 25\equiv -1{\pmod {13}}.} So a = 2 {\displaystyle a=2} is a suitable choice for a. Step 2: Compute x = ( a + a 2 − n ) ( p + 1 ) / 2 = ( 2 + − 6 ) 7 {\displaystyle x=\left(a+{\sqrt {a^{2}-n}}\right)^{(p+1)/2}=\left(2+{\sqrt {-6}}\right)^{7}} in F 13 ( − 6 ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{13}({\sqrt {-6}})} : ( 2 + − 6 ) 2 = 4 + 4 − 6 − 6 = − 2 + 4 − 6 {\displaystyle \left(2+{\sqrt {-6}}\right)^{2}=4+4{\sqrt {-6}}-6=-2+4{\sqrt {-6}}} ( 2 + − 6 ) 4 = ( − 2 + 4 − 6 ) 2 = − 1 − 3 − 6 {\displaystyle \left(2+{\sqrt {-6}}\right)^{4}=\left(-2+4{\sqrt {-6}}\right)^{2}=-1-3{\sqrt {-6}}} ( 2 + − 6 ) 6 = ( − 2 + 4 − 6 ) ( − 1 − 3 − 6 ) = 9 + 2 − 6 {\displaystyle \left(2+{\sqrt {-6}}\right)^{6}=\left(-2+4{\sqrt {-6}}\right)\left(-1-3{\sqrt {-6}}\right)=9+2{\sqrt {-6}}} ( 2 + − 6 ) 7 = ( 9 + 2 − 6 ) ( 2 + − 6 ) = 6 {\displaystyle \left(2+{\sqrt {-6}}\right)^{7}=\left(9+2{\sqrt {-6}}\right)\left(2+{\sqrt {-6}}\right)=6} So x = 6 {\displaystyle x=6} is a solution, as well as x = − 6 {\displaystyle x=-6} . Indeed, 6 2 ≡ 10 ( mod 13 ) . {\textstyle 6^{2}\equiv 10{\pmod {13}}.} Proof The first part of the proof is to verify that F p 2 = F p ( a 2 − n ) = { x + y a 2 − n : x , y ∈ F p } {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}=\mathbf {F} _{p}({\sqrt {a^{2}-n}})=\{x+y{\sqrt {a^{2}-n}}:x,y\in \mathbf {F} _{p}\}} is indeed a field. For the sake of notation simplicity, ω {\displaystyle \omega } is defined as a 2 − n {\displaystyle {\sqrt {a^{2}-n}}} . Of course, a 2 − n {\displaystyle a^{2}-n} is a quadratic non-residue, so there is no square root in F p {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p}} . This ω {\displaystyle \omega } can roughly be seen as analogous to the complex number i. The field arithmetic is quite obvious. Addition is defined as ( x 1 + y 1 ω ) + ( x 2 + y 2 ω ) = ( x 1 + x 2 ) + ( y 1 + y 2 ) ω {\displaystyle \left(x_{1}+y_{1}\omega \right)+\left(x_{2}+y_{2}\omega \right)=\left(x_{1}+x_{2}\right)+\left(y_{1}+y_{2}\right)\omega } . Multiplication is also defined as usual. With keeping in mind that ω 2 = a 2 − n {\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=a^{2}-n} , it becomes ( x 1 + y 1 ω ) ( x 2 + y 2 ω ) = x 1 x 2 + x 1 y 2 ω + y 1 x 2 ω + y 1 y 2 ω 2 = ( x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2 ( a 2 − n ) ) + ( x 1 y 2 + y 1 x 2 ) ω {\displaystyle \left(x_{1}+y_{1}\omega \right)\left(x_{2}+y_{2}\omega \right)=x_{1}x_{2}+x_{1}y_{2}\omega +y_{1}x_{2}\omega +y_{1}y_{2}\omega ^{2}=\left(x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}\left(a^{2}-n\right)\right)+\left(x_{1}y_{2}+y_{1}x_{2}\right)\omega } . Now the field properties have to be checked. The properties of closure under addition and multiplication, associativity, commutativity and distributivity are easily seen. This is because in this case the field F p 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} is somewhat resembles the field of complex numbers (with ω {\displaystyle \omega } being the analogon of i). The additive identity is 0 {\displaystyle 0} , or more formally 0 + 0 ω {\displaystyle 0+0\omega } : Let α ∈ F p 2 {\displaystyle \alpha \in \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} , then α + 0 = ( x + y ω ) + ( 0 + 0 ω ) = ( x + 0 ) + ( y + 0 ) ω = x + y ω = α {\displaystyle \alpha +0=(x+y\omega )+(0+0\omega )=(x+0)+(y+0)\omega =x+y\omega =\alpha } . The multiplicative identity is 1 {\displaystyle 1} , or more formally 1 + 0 ω {\displaystyle 1+0\omega } : α ⋅ 1 = ( x + y ω ) ( 1 + 0 ω ) = ( x ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ y ( a 2 − n ) ) + ( x ⋅ 0 + 1 ⋅ y ) ω = x + y ω = α {\displaystyle \alpha \cdot 1=(x+y\omega )(1+0\omega )=\left(x\cdot 1+0\cdot y\left(a^{2}-n\right)\right)+(x\cdot 0+1\cdot y)\omega =x+y\omega =\alpha } . The only thing left for F p 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} being a field is the existence of additive and multiplicative inverses. It is easily seen that the additive inverse of x + y ω {\displaystyle x+y\omega } is − x − y ω {\displaystyle -x-y\omega } , which is an element of F p 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} , because − x , − y ∈ F p {\displaystyle -x,-y\in \mathbf {F} _{p}} . In fact, those are the additive inverse elements of x and y. For showing that every non-zero element α {\displaystyle \alpha } has a multiplicative inverse, write down α = x 1 + y 1 ω {\displaystyle \alpha =x_{1}+y_{1}\omega } and α − 1 = x 2 + y 2 ω {\displaystyle \alpha ^{-1}=x_{2}+y_{2}\omega } . In other words, ( x 1 + y 1 ω ) ( x 2 + y 2 ω ) = ( x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2 ( a 2 − n ) ) + ( x 1 y 2 + y 1 x 2 ) ω = 1 {\displaystyle (x_{1}+y_{1}\omega )(x_{2}+y_{2}\omega )=\left(x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}\left(a^{2}-n\right)\right)+\left(x_{1}y_{2}+y_{1}x_{2}\right)\omega =1} . So the two equalities x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2 ( a 2 − n ) = 1 {\displaystyle x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}(a^{2}-n)=1} and x 1 y 2 + y 1 x 2 = 0 {\displaystyle x_{1}y_{2}+y_{1}x_{2}=0} must hold. Working out the details gives expressions for x 2 {\displaystyle x_{2}} and y 2 {\displaystyle y_{2}} , namely x 2 = − y 1 − 1 x 1 ( y 1 ( a 2 − n ) − x 1 2 y 1 − 1 ) − 1 {\displaystyle x_{2}=-y_{1}^{-1}x_{1}\left(y_{1}\left(a^{2}-n\right)-x_{1}^{2}y_{1}^{-1}\right)^{-1}} , y 2 = ( y 1 ( a 2 − n ) − x 1 2 y 1 − 1 ) − 1 {\displaystyle y_{2}=\left(y_{1}\left(a^{2}-n\right)-x_{1}^{2}y_{1}^{-1}\right)^{-1}} . The inverse elements which are shown in the expressions of x 2 {\displaystyle x_{2}} and y 2 {\displaystyle y_{2}} do exist, because these are all elements of F p {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p}} . This completes the first part of the proof, showing that F p 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} is a field. The second and middle part of the proof is showing that for every element x + y ω ∈ F p 2 : ( x + y ω ) p = x − y ω {\displaystyle x+y\omega \in \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}:(x+y\omega )^{p}=x-y\omega } . By definition, ω 2 = a 2 − n {\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=a^{2}-n} is not a square in F p {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p}} . Euler's criterion then says that ω p − 1 = ( ω 2 ) p − 1 2 = − 1 {\displaystyle \omega ^{p-1}=\left(\omega ^{2}\right)^{\frac {p-1}{2}}=-1} . Thus ω p = − ω {\displaystyle \omega ^{p}=-\omega } . This, together with Fermat's little theorem (which says that x p = x {\displaystyle x^{p}=x} for all x ∈ F p {\displaystyle x\in \mathbf {F} _{p}} ) and the knowledge that in fields of characteristic p the equation ( a + b ) p = a p + b p {\displaystyle \left(a+b\right)^{p}=a^{p}+b^{p}} holds, a relationship sometimes called the Freshman's dream, shows the desired result ( x + y ω ) p = x p + y p ω p = x − y ω {\displaystyle (x+y\omega )^{p}=x^{p}+y^{p}\omega ^{p}=x-y\omega } . The third and last part of the proof is to show that if x 0 = ( a + ω ) p + 1 2 ∈ F p 2 {\displaystyle x_{0}=\left(a+\omega \right)^{\frac {p+1}{2}}\in \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} , then x 0 2 = n ∈ F p {\displaystyle x_{0}^{2}=n\in \mathbf {F} _{p}} . Compute x 0 2 = ( a + ω ) p + 1 = ( a + ω ) ( a + ω ) p = ( a + ω ) ( a − ω ) = a 2 − ω 2 = a 2 − ( a 2 − n ) = n {\displaystyle x_{0}^{2}=\left(a+\omega \right)^{p+1}=(a+\omega )(a+\omega )^{p}=(a+\omega )(a-\omega )=a^{2}-\omega ^{2}=a^{2}-\left(a^{2}-n\right)=n} . Note that this computation took place in F p 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} , so this x 0 ∈ F p 2 {\displaystyle x_{0}\in \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} . But with Lagrange's theorem, stating that a non-zero polynomial of degree n has at most n roots in any field K, and the knowledge that x 2 − n {\displaystyle x^{2}-n} has 2 roots in F p {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p}} , these roots must be all of the roots in F p 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} . It was just shown that x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} and − x 0 {\displaystyle -x_{0}} are roots of x 2 − n {\displaystyle x^{2}-n} in F p 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} , so it must be that x 0 , − x 0 ∈ F p {\displaystyle x_{0},-x_{0}\in \mathbf {F} _{p}} . Speed After finding a suitable a, the number of operations required for the algorithm is 4 m + 2 k − 4 {\displaystyle 4m+2k-4} multiplications, 4 m − 2 {\displaystyle 4m-2} sums, where m is the number of digits in the binary representation of p and k is the number of ones in this representation. To find a by trial and error, the expected number of computations of the Legendre symbol is 2. But one can be lucky with the first try and one may need more than 2 tries. In the field F p 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}} , the following two equalities hold ( x + y ω ) 2 = ( x 2 + y 2 ω 2 ) + ( ( x + y ) 2 − x 2 − y 2 ) ω , {\displaystyle (x+y\omega )^{2}=\left(x^{2}+y^{2}\omega ^{2}\right)+\left(\left(x+y\right)^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}\right)\omega ,} where ω 2 = a 2 − n {\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=a^{2}-n} is known in advance. This computation needs 4 multiplications and 4 sums. ( x + y ω ) 2 ( a + ω ) = ( a d 2 − b ( x + d ) ) + ( d 2 − b y ) ω , {\displaystyle \left(x+y\omega \right)^{2}\left(a+\omega \right)=\left(ad^{2}-b\left(x+d\right)\right)+\left(d^{2}-by\right)\omega ,} where d = ( x + y a ) {\displaystyle d=(x+ya)} and b = n y {\displaystyle b=ny} . This operation needs 6 multiplications and 4 sums. Assuming that p ≡ 1 ( mod 4 ) , {\displaystyle p\equiv 1{\pmod {4}},} (in the case p ≡ 3 ( mod 4 ) {\displaystyle p\equiv 3{\pmod {4}}} , the direct computation x ≡ ± n p + 1 4 {\displaystyle x\equiv \pm n^{\frac {p+1}{4}}} is much faster) the binary expression of ( p + 1 ) / 2 {\displaystyle (p+1)/2} has m − 1 {\displaystyle m-1} digits, of which k are ones. So for computing a ( p + 1 ) / 2 {\displaystyle (p+1)/2} power of ( a + ω ) {\displaystyle \left(a+\omega \right)} , the first formula has to be used n − k − 1 {\displaystyle n-k-1} times and the second k − 1 {\displaystyle k-1} times. For this, Cipolla's algorithm is better than the Tonelli–Shanks algorithm if and only if S ( S − 1 ) > 8 m + 20 {\displaystyle S(S-1)>8m+20} , with 2 S {\displaystyle 2^{S}} being the maximum power of 2 which divides p − 1 {\displaystyle p-1} . Prime power moduli According to Dickson's "History Of Numbers", the following formula of Cipolla will find square roots modulo powers of prime: 2 − 1 q t ( ( k + k 2 − q ) s + ( k − k 2 − q ) s ) mod p λ {\displaystyle 2^{-1}q^{t}((k+{\sqrt {k^{2}-q}})^{s}+(k-{\sqrt {k^{2}-q}})^{s}){\bmod {p^{\lambda }}}} where t = ( p λ − 2 p λ − 1 + 1 ) / 2 {\displaystyle t=(p^{\lambda }-2p^{\lambda -1}+1)/2} and s = p λ − 1 ( p + 1 ) / 2 {\displaystyle s=p^{\lambda -1}(p+1)/2} where q = 10 {\displaystyle q=10} , k = 2 {\displaystyle k=2} as in this article's example Taking the example in the wiki article we can see that this formula above does indeed take square roots modulo prime powers. As 10 mod 13 3 ≡ 1046 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {10}}{\bmod {13^{3}}}\equiv 1046} Now solve for 2 − 1 q t {\displaystyle 2^{-1}q^{t}} via: 2 − 1 10 ( 13 3 − 2 ⋅ 13 2 + 1 ) / 2 mod 13 3 ≡ 1086 {\displaystyle 2^{-1}10^{(13^{3}-2\cdot 13^{2}+1)/2}{\bmod {13^{3}}}\equiv 1086} Now create the ( 2 + 2 2 − 10 ) 13 2 ⋅ 7 mod 13 3 {\displaystyle (2+{\sqrt {2^{2}-10}})^{13^{2}\cdot 7}{\bmod {13^{3}}}} and ( 2 − 2 2 − 10 ) 13 2 ⋅ 7 mod 13 3 {\displaystyle (2-{\sqrt {2^{2}-10}})^{13^{2}\cdot 7}{\bmod {13^{3}}}} (See here for mathematica code showing this above computation, remembering that something close to complex modular arithmetic is going on here) As such: ( 2 + 2 2 − 10 ) 13 2 ⋅ 7 mod 13 3 ≡ 1540 {\displaystyle (2+{\sqrt {2^{2}-10}})^{13^{2}\cdot 7}{\bmod {13^{3}}}\equiv 1540} and ( 2 − 2 2 − 10 ) 13 2 ⋅ 7 mod 13 3 ≡ 1540 {\displaystyle (2-{\sqrt {2^{2}-10}})^{13^{2}\cdot 7}{\bmod {13^{3}}}\equiv 1540} and the final equation is: 1086 ( 1540 + 1540 ) mod 13 3 ≡ 1046 {\displaystyle 1086(1540+1540){\bmod {13^{3}}}\equiv 1046} which is the answer. References ^ Dickson, Leonard Eugene (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers. Vol. 1. p. 218. ^ R. Crandall, C. Pomerance Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective Springer-Verlag, (2001) p. 157 ^ "M. Baker Cipolla's Algorithm for finding square roots mod p" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-25. Retrieved 2011-08-24. ^ Tornaría, Gonzalo (2002). "Square Roots Modulo P". LATIN 2002: Theoretical Informatics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 2286. pp. 430–434. doi:10.1007/3-540-45995-2_38. ISBN 978-3-540-43400-9. ^ "History of the Theory of Numbers" Volume 1 by Leonard Eugene Dickson, p218, Chelsea Publishing 1952 read online ^ Michelle Cipolla, Rendiconto dell' Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche. Napoli, (3),10,1904, 144-150 Sources E. Bach, J.O. Shallit Algorithmic Number Theory: Efficient algorithms MIT Press, (1996) vteNumber-theoretic algorithmsPrimality tests AKS APR Baillie–PSW Elliptic curve Pocklington Fermat Lucas Lucas–Lehmer Lucas–Lehmer–Riesel Proth's theorem Pépin's Quadratic Frobenius Solovay–Strassen Miller–Rabin Prime-generating Sieve of Atkin Sieve of Eratosthenes Sieve of Pritchard Sieve of Sundaram Wheel factorization Integer factorization Continued fraction (CFRAC) Dixon's Lenstra elliptic curve (ECM) Euler's Pollard's rho p − 1 p + 1 Quadratic sieve (QS) General number field sieve (GNFS) Special number field sieve (SNFS) Rational sieve Fermat's Shanks's square forms Trial division Shor's Multiplication Ancient Egyptian Long Karatsuba Toom–Cook Schönhage–Strassen Fürer's Euclidean division Binary Chunking Fourier Goldschmidt Newton-Raphson Long Short SRT Discrete logarithm Baby-step giant-step Pollard rho Pollard kangaroo Pohlig–Hellman Index calculus Function field sieve Greatest common divisor Binary Euclidean Extended Euclidean Lehmer's Modular square root Cipolla Pocklington's Tonelli–Shanks Berlekamp Kunerth Other algorithms Chakravala Cornacchia Exponentiation by squaring Integer square root Integer relation (LLL; KZ) Modular exponentiation Montgomery reduction Schoof Trachtenberg system Italics indicate that algorithm is for numbers of special forms

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"odd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Element_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"Michele Cipolla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michele_Cipolla"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dickson-1"}],"text":"x\n \n 2\n \n \n ≡\n n\n \n \n (\n mod\n \n p\n )\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}\\equiv n{\\pmod {p}},}where \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n n\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,n\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n, so n is the square of x, and where \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n is an odd prime. Here \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n denotes the finite field with \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n elements; \n \n \n \n {\n 0\n ,\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n p\n −\n 1\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{0,1,\\dots ,p-1\\}}\n \n. The algorithm is named after Michele Cipolla, an Italian mathematician who discovered it in 1907.Apart from prime moduli, Cipolla's algorithm is also able to take square roots modulo prime powers.[1]","title":"Cipolla's algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trial and error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error"},{"link_name":"Legendre symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendre_symbol"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"field extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_extension"}],"text":"Inputs:p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n, an odd prime,\n\n \n \n \n n\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n, which is a square.Outputs:x\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n, satisfying \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}=n.}Step 1 is to find an \n \n \n \n a\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a^{2}-n}\n \n is not a square. There is no known deterministic algorithm for finding such an \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n, but the following trial and error method can be used. Simply pick an \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n and by computing the Legendre symbol \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n p\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\frac {a^{2}-n}{p}})}\n \n one can see whether \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n satisfies the condition. The chance that a random \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n will satisfy is \n \n \n \n (\n p\n −\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p-1)/2p}\n \n. With \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n large enough this is about \n \n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1/2}\n \n.[2] Therefore, the expected number of trials before finding a suitable \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n is about 2.Step 2 is to compute x by computing \n \n \n \n x\n =\n \n \n (\n \n a\n +\n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n p\n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=\\left(a+{\\sqrt {a^{2}-n}}\\right)^{(p+1)/2}}\n \n within the field extension \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}=\\mathbf {F} _{p}({\\sqrt {a^{2}-n}})}\n \n. This x will be the one satisfying \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}=n.}If \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}=n}\n \n, then \n \n \n \n (\n −\n x\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (-x)^{2}=n}\n \n also holds. And since p is odd, \n \n \n \n x\n ≠\n −\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\neq -x}\n \n. So whenever a solution x is found, there's always a second solution, -x.","title":"Algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Euler's criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_criterion"}],"text":"(Note: All elements before step two are considered as an element of \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n 13\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{13}}\n \n and all elements in step two are considered as elements of \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n 13\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{13^{2}}}\n \n.)Find all x such that \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 10.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}=10.}Before applying the algorithm, it must be checked that \n \n \n \n 10\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 10}\n \n is indeed a square in \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n 13\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{13}}\n \n. Therefore, the Legendre symbol \n \n \n \n (\n 10\n \n |\n \n 13\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (10|13)}\n \n has to be equal to 1. This can be computed using Euler's criterion: \n \n \n \n (\n 10\n \n |\n \n 13\n )\n ≡\n \n 10\n \n 6\n \n \n ≡\n 1\n \n \n (\n mod\n \n 13\n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\textstyle (10|13)\\equiv 10^{6}\\equiv 1{\\pmod {13}}.}\n \n This confirms 10 being a square and hence the algorithm can be applied.Step 1: Find an a such that \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a^{2}-n}\n \n is not a square. As stated, this has to be done by trial and error. Choose \n \n \n \n a\n =\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a=2}\n \n. Then \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a^{2}-n}\n \n becomes 7. The Legendre symbol \n \n \n \n (\n 7\n \n |\n \n 13\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (7|13)}\n \n has to be −1. Again this can be computed using Euler's criterion: \n \n \n \n \n 7\n \n 6\n \n \n =\n \n 343\n \n 2\n \n \n ≡\n \n 5\n \n 2\n \n \n ≡\n 25\n ≡\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n mod\n \n 13\n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\textstyle 7^{6}=343^{2}\\equiv 5^{2}\\equiv 25\\equiv -1{\\pmod {13}}.}\n \n So \n \n \n \n a\n =\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a=2}\n \n is a suitable choice for a.\nStep 2: Compute \n \n \n \n x\n =\n \n \n (\n \n a\n +\n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n p\n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n 2\n +\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 7\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=\\left(a+{\\sqrt {a^{2}-n}}\\right)^{(p+1)/2}=\\left(2+{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)^{7}}\n \n in \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n 13\n \n \n (\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{13}({\\sqrt {-6}})}\n \n:(\n \n 2\n +\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 4\n +\n 4\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n −\n 6\n =\n −\n 2\n +\n 4\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(2+{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)^{2}=4+4{\\sqrt {-6}}-6=-2+4{\\sqrt {-6}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 2\n +\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 4\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n −\n 2\n +\n 4\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n −\n 1\n −\n 3\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(2+{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)^{4}=\\left(-2+4{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)^{2}=-1-3{\\sqrt {-6}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 2\n +\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 6\n \n \n =\n \n (\n \n −\n 2\n +\n 4\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n −\n 1\n −\n 3\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n 9\n +\n 2\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(2+{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)^{6}=\\left(-2+4{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)\\left(-1-3{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)=9+2{\\sqrt {-6}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 2\n +\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 7\n \n \n =\n \n (\n \n 9\n +\n 2\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n 2\n +\n \n \n −\n 6\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n 6\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(2+{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)^{7}=\\left(9+2{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)\\left(2+{\\sqrt {-6}}\\right)=6}So \n \n \n \n x\n =\n 6\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=6}\n \n is a solution, as well as \n \n \n \n x\n =\n −\n 6\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=-6}\n \n. Indeed, \n \n \n \n \n 6\n \n 2\n \n \n ≡\n 10\n \n \n (\n mod\n \n 13\n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\textstyle 6^{2}\\equiv 10{\\pmod {13}}.}","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"square root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_unit"},{"link_name":"Addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"Multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"associativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associativity"},{"link_name":"commutativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutativity"},{"link_name":"distributivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributivity"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_element"},{"link_name":"inverses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_element"},{"link_name":"Fermat's little theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat%27s_little_theorem"},{"link_name":"characteristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characteristic_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"Freshman's dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshman%27s_dream#Prime_characteristic"},{"link_name":"Lagrange's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange%27s_theorem_(number_theory)"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_polynomial"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The first part of the proof is to verify that \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n )\n =\n {\n x\n +\n y\n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n :\n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}=\\mathbf {F} _{p}({\\sqrt {a^{2}-n}})=\\{x+y{\\sqrt {a^{2}-n}}:x,y\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}\\}}\n \n is indeed a field. For the sake of notation simplicity, \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }\n \n is defined as \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {a^{2}-n}}}\n \n. Of course, \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a^{2}-n}\n \n is a quadratic non-residue, so there is no square root in \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n. This \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }\n \n can roughly be seen as analogous to the complex number i.\nThe field arithmetic is quite obvious. Addition is defined as(\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n ω\n \n )\n \n +\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n ω\n \n )\n \n =\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n +\n \n (\n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(x_{1}+y_{1}\\omega \\right)+\\left(x_{2}+y_{2}\\omega \\right)=\\left(x_{1}+x_{2}\\right)+\\left(y_{1}+y_{2}\\right)\\omega }\n \n.Multiplication is also defined as usual. With keeping in mind that \n \n \n \n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega ^{2}=a^{2}-n}\n \n, it becomes(\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n ω\n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n ω\n \n )\n \n =\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n ω\n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ω\n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n +\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(x_{1}+y_{1}\\omega \\right)\\left(x_{2}+y_{2}\\omega \\right)=x_{1}x_{2}+x_{1}y_{2}\\omega +y_{1}x_{2}\\omega +y_{1}y_{2}\\omega ^{2}=\\left(x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}\\left(a^{2}-n\\right)\\right)+\\left(x_{1}y_{2}+y_{1}x_{2}\\right)\\omega }\n \n.Now the field properties have to be checked.\nThe properties of closure under addition and multiplication, associativity, commutativity and distributivity are easily seen. This is because in this case the field \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n is somewhat resembles the field of complex numbers (with \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }\n \n being the analogon of i).\nThe additive identity is \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n, or more formally \n \n \n \n 0\n +\n 0\n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0+0\\omega }\n \n: Let \n \n \n \n α\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha \\in \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n, thenα\n +\n 0\n =\n (\n x\n +\n y\n ω\n )\n +\n (\n 0\n +\n 0\n ω\n )\n =\n (\n x\n +\n 0\n )\n +\n (\n y\n +\n 0\n )\n ω\n =\n x\n +\n y\n ω\n =\n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha +0=(x+y\\omega )+(0+0\\omega )=(x+0)+(y+0)\\omega =x+y\\omega =\\alpha }\n \n.The multiplicative identity is \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1}\n \n, or more formally \n \n \n \n 1\n +\n 0\n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1+0\\omega }\n \n:α\n ⋅\n 1\n =\n (\n x\n +\n y\n ω\n )\n (\n 1\n +\n 0\n ω\n )\n =\n \n (\n \n x\n ⋅\n 1\n +\n 0\n ⋅\n y\n \n (\n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n +\n (\n x\n ⋅\n 0\n +\n 1\n ⋅\n y\n )\n ω\n =\n x\n +\n y\n ω\n =\n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha \\cdot 1=(x+y\\omega )(1+0\\omega )=\\left(x\\cdot 1+0\\cdot y\\left(a^{2}-n\\right)\\right)+(x\\cdot 0+1\\cdot y)\\omega =x+y\\omega =\\alpha }\n \n.The only thing left for \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n being a field is the existence of additive and multiplicative inverses. It is easily seen that the additive inverse of \n \n \n \n x\n +\n y\n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x+y\\omega }\n \n is \n \n \n \n −\n x\n −\n y\n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle -x-y\\omega }\n \n, which is an element of \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n, because \n \n \n \n −\n x\n ,\n −\n y\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -x,-y\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n. In fact, those are the additive inverse elements of x and y. For showing that every non-zero element \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n has a multiplicative inverse, write down \n \n \n \n α\n =\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha =x_{1}+y_{1}\\omega }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n α\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha ^{-1}=x_{2}+y_{2}\\omega }\n \n. In other words,(\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n ω\n )\n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n ω\n )\n =\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n +\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n ω\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{1}+y_{1}\\omega )(x_{2}+y_{2}\\omega )=\\left(x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}\\left(a^{2}-n\\right)\\right)+\\left(x_{1}y_{2}+y_{1}x_{2}\\right)\\omega =1}\n \n.So the two equalities \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}(a^{2}-n)=1}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}y_{2}+y_{1}x_{2}=0}\n \n must hold. Working out the details gives expressions for \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{2}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{2}}\n \n, namelyx\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n −\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n )\n \n −\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{2}=-y_{1}^{-1}x_{1}\\left(y_{1}\\left(a^{2}-n\\right)-x_{1}^{2}y_{1}^{-1}\\right)^{-1}}\n \n,\n\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n )\n \n −\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{2}=\\left(y_{1}\\left(a^{2}-n\\right)-x_{1}^{2}y_{1}^{-1}\\right)^{-1}}\n \n.The inverse elements which are shown in the expressions of \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{2}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{2}}\n \n do exist, because these are all elements of \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n. This completes the first part of the proof, showing that \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n is a field.The second and middle part of the proof is showing that for every element \n \n \n \n x\n +\n y\n ω\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n :\n (\n x\n +\n y\n ω\n \n )\n \n p\n \n \n =\n x\n −\n y\n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x+y\\omega \\in \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}:(x+y\\omega )^{p}=x-y\\omega }\n \n.\nBy definition, \n \n \n \n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega ^{2}=a^{2}-n}\n \n is not a square in \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n. Euler's criterion then says thatω\n \n p\n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n p\n −\n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n \n =\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega ^{p-1}=\\left(\\omega ^{2}\\right)^{\\frac {p-1}{2}}=-1}\n \n.Thus \n \n \n \n \n ω\n \n p\n \n \n =\n −\n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega ^{p}=-\\omega }\n \n. This, together with Fermat's little theorem (which says that \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n p\n \n \n =\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{p}=x}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n) and the knowledge that in fields of characteristic p the equation \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n a\n +\n b\n \n )\n \n \n p\n \n \n =\n \n a\n \n p\n \n \n +\n \n b\n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(a+b\\right)^{p}=a^{p}+b^{p}}\n \n holds, a relationship sometimes called the Freshman's dream, shows the desired result(\n x\n +\n y\n ω\n \n )\n \n p\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n p\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n p\n \n \n \n ω\n \n p\n \n \n =\n x\n −\n y\n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x+y\\omega )^{p}=x^{p}+y^{p}\\omega ^{p}=x-y\\omega }\n \n.The third and last part of the proof is to show that if \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n a\n +\n ω\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n p\n +\n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}=\\left(a+\\omega \\right)^{\\frac {p+1}{2}}\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n, then \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n n\n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}^{2}=n\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n.\nComputex\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n a\n +\n ω\n \n )\n \n \n p\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n (\n a\n +\n ω\n )\n (\n a\n +\n ω\n \n )\n \n p\n \n \n =\n (\n a\n +\n ω\n )\n (\n a\n −\n ω\n )\n =\n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n (\n \n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n )\n \n =\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}^{2}=\\left(a+\\omega \\right)^{p+1}=(a+\\omega )(a+\\omega )^{p}=(a+\\omega )(a-\\omega )=a^{2}-\\omega ^{2}=a^{2}-\\left(a^{2}-n\\right)=n}\n \n.Note that this computation took place in \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n, so this \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n. But with Lagrange's theorem, stating that a non-zero polynomial of degree n has at most n roots in any field K, and the knowledge that \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}-n}\n \n has 2 roots in \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n, these roots must be all of the roots in \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n. It was just shown that \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -x_{0}}\n \n are roots of \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2}-n}\n \n in \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n, so it must be that \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ∈\n \n \n F\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0},-x_{0}\\in \\mathbf {F} _{p}}\n \n.[3]","title":"Proof"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_digit"},{"link_name":"binary representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"Tonelli–Shanks algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonelli%E2%80%93Shanks_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"After finding a suitable a, the number of operations required for the algorithm is \n \n \n \n 4\n m\n +\n 2\n k\n −\n 4\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 4m+2k-4}\n \n multiplications, \n \n \n \n 4\n m\n −\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 4m-2}\n \n sums, where m is the number of digits in the binary representation of p and k is the number of ones in this representation. To find a by trial and error, the expected number of computations of the Legendre symbol is 2. But one can be lucky with the first try and one may need more than 2 tries. In the field \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} _{p^{2}}}\n \n, the following two equalities hold(\n x\n +\n y\n ω\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n +\n \n (\n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n +\n y\n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n ω\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x+y\\omega )^{2}=\\left(x^{2}+y^{2}\\omega ^{2}\\right)+\\left(\\left(x+y\\right)^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}\\right)\\omega ,}where \n \n \n \n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega ^{2}=a^{2}-n}\n \n is known in advance. This computation needs 4 multiplications and 4 sums.(\n \n x\n +\n y\n ω\n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n a\n +\n ω\n \n )\n \n =\n \n (\n \n a\n \n d\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n b\n \n (\n \n x\n +\n d\n \n )\n \n \n )\n \n +\n \n (\n \n \n d\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n b\n y\n \n )\n \n ω\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(x+y\\omega \\right)^{2}\\left(a+\\omega \\right)=\\left(ad^{2}-b\\left(x+d\\right)\\right)+\\left(d^{2}-by\\right)\\omega ,}where \n \n \n \n d\n =\n (\n x\n +\n y\n a\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d=(x+ya)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n b\n =\n n\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b=ny}\n \n. This operation needs 6 multiplications and 4 sums.Assuming that \n \n \n \n p\n ≡\n 1\n \n \n (\n mod\n \n 4\n )\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p\\equiv 1{\\pmod {4}},}\n \n (in the case \n \n \n \n p\n ≡\n 3\n \n \n (\n mod\n \n 4\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p\\equiv 3{\\pmod {4}}}\n \n, the direct computation \n \n \n \n x\n ≡\n ±\n \n n\n \n \n \n p\n +\n 1\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\equiv \\pm n^{\\frac {p+1}{4}}}\n \n is much faster) the binary expression of \n \n \n \n (\n p\n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p+1)/2}\n \n has \n \n \n \n m\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m-1}\n \n digits, of which k are ones. So for computing a \n \n \n \n (\n p\n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p+1)/2}\n \n power of \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n a\n +\n ω\n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(a+\\omega \\right)}\n \n, the first formula has to be used \n \n \n \n n\n −\n k\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n-k-1}\n \n times and the second \n \n \n \n k\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k-1}\n \n times.For this, Cipolla's algorithm is better than the Tonelli–Shanks algorithm if and only if \n \n \n \n S\n (\n S\n −\n 1\n )\n >\n 8\n m\n +\n 20\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(S-1)>8m+20}\n \n, with \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{S}}\n \n being the maximum power of 2 which divides \n \n \n \n p\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p-1}\n \n.[4]","title":"Speed"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dickson1-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Cipolla%27s_algorithm"}],"text":"According to Dickson's \"History Of Numbers\", the following formula of Cipolla will find square roots modulo powers of prime:\n[5]\n[6]2\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n q\n \n t\n \n \n (\n (\n k\n +\n \n \n \n k\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n q\n \n \n \n )\n \n s\n \n \n +\n (\n k\n −\n \n \n \n k\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n q\n \n \n \n )\n \n s\n \n \n )\n \n mod\n \n \n p\n \n λ\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{-1}q^{t}((k+{\\sqrt {k^{2}-q}})^{s}+(k-{\\sqrt {k^{2}-q}})^{s}){\\bmod {p^{\\lambda }}}}\n \n\nwhere \n \n \n \n t\n =\n (\n \n p\n \n λ\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n p\n \n λ\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t=(p^{\\lambda }-2p^{\\lambda -1}+1)/2}\n \n and \n \n \n \n s\n =\n \n p\n \n λ\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n p\n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s=p^{\\lambda -1}(p+1)/2}\n \n\nwhere \n \n \n \n q\n =\n 10\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q=10}\n \n, \n \n \n \n k\n =\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=2}\n \n as in this article's exampleTaking the example in the wiki article we can see that this formula above does indeed take square roots modulo prime powers.As10\n \n \n \n mod\n \n \n 13\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n ≡\n 1046\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {10}}{\\bmod {13^{3}}}\\equiv 1046}Now solve for \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n q\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{-1}q^{t}}\n \n via:2\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n 10\n \n (\n \n 13\n \n 3\n \n \n −\n 2\n ⋅\n \n 13\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n mod\n \n \n 13\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n ≡\n 1086\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{-1}10^{(13^{3}-2\\cdot 13^{2}+1)/2}{\\bmod {13^{3}}}\\equiv 1086}Now create the \n \n \n \n (\n 2\n +\n \n \n \n 2\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 10\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 13\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n 7\n \n \n \n mod\n \n \n 13\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (2+{\\sqrt {2^{2}-10}})^{13^{2}\\cdot 7}{\\bmod {13^{3}}}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n 2\n −\n \n \n \n 2\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 10\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 13\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n 7\n \n \n \n mod\n \n \n 13\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (2-{\\sqrt {2^{2}-10}})^{13^{2}\\cdot 7}{\\bmod {13^{3}}}}\n \n\n(See here for mathematica code showing this above computation, remembering\nthat something close to complex modular arithmetic is going on here)As such:(\n 2\n +\n \n \n \n 2\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 10\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 13\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n 7\n \n \n \n mod\n \n \n 13\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n ≡\n 1540\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (2+{\\sqrt {2^{2}-10}})^{13^{2}\\cdot 7}{\\bmod {13^{3}}}\\equiv 1540}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n 2\n −\n \n \n \n 2\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 10\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 13\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n 7\n \n \n \n mod\n \n \n 13\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n ≡\n 1540\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (2-{\\sqrt {2^{2}-10}})^{13^{2}\\cdot 7}{\\bmod {13^{3}}}\\equiv 1540}and the final equation is:1086\n (\n 1540\n +\n 1540\n )\n \n mod\n \n \n 13\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n ≡\n 1046\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1086(1540+1540){\\bmod {13^{3}}}\\equiv 1046}\n \n which is the answer.","title":"Prime power moduli"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Number-theoretic_algorithms"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Number-theoretic_algorithms"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Number-theoretic_algorithms"},{"link_name":"Number-theoretic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"},{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"Primality tests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primality_test"},{"link_name":"AKS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKS_primality_test"},{"link_name":"APR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adleman%E2%80%93Pomerance%E2%80%93Rumely_primality_test"},{"link_name":"Baillie–PSW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baillie%E2%80%93PSW_primality_test"},{"link_name":"Elliptic curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve_primality"},{"link_name":"Pocklington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocklington_primality_test"},{"link_name":"Fermat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat_primality_test"},{"link_name":"Lucas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_primality_test"},{"link_name":"Lucas–Lehmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas%E2%80%93Lehmer_primality_test"},{"link_name":"Lucas–Lehmer–Riesel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas%E2%80%93Lehmer%E2%80%93Riesel_test"},{"link_name":"Proth's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proth%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"Pépin's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9pin%27s_test"},{"link_name":"Quadratic Frobenius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_Frobenius_test"},{"link_name":"Solovay–Strassen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solovay%E2%80%93Strassen_primality_test"},{"link_name":"Miller–Rabin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Rabin_primality_test"},{"link_name":"Prime-generating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generating_primes"},{"link_name":"Sieve of Atkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieve_of_Atkin"},{"link_name":"Sieve of Eratosthenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieve_of_Eratosthenes"},{"link_name":"Sieve of Pritchard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieve_of_Pritchard"},{"link_name":"Sieve of Sundaram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieve_of_Sundaram"},{"link_name":"Wheel factorization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_factorization"},{"link_name":"Integer factorization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_factorization"},{"link_name":"Continued fraction (CFRAC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continued_fraction_factorization"},{"link_name":"Dixon's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixon%27s_factorization_method"},{"link_name":"Lenstra elliptic curve (ECM)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenstra_elliptic-curve_factorization"},{"link_name":"Euler's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_factorization_method"},{"link_name":"Pollard's rho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_rho_algorithm"},{"link_name":"p − 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_p_%E2%88%92_1_algorithm"},{"link_name":"p + 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams%27s_p_%2B_1_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Quadratic sieve (QS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_sieve"},{"link_name":"General number field sieve (GNFS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_number_field_sieve"},{"link_name":"Special number field sieve (SNFS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_number_field_sieve"},{"link_name":"Rational sieve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_sieve"},{"link_name":"Fermat's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat%27s_factorization_method"},{"link_name":"Shanks's square forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanks%27s_square_forms_factorization"},{"link_name":"Trial division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_division"},{"link_name":"Shor's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shor%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Ancient Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_multiplication"},{"link_name":"Long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_multiplication"},{"link_name":"Karatsuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Toom–Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toom%E2%80%93Cook_multiplication"},{"link_name":"Schönhage–Strassen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nhage%E2%80%93Strassen_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Fürer's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCrer%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Euclidean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_division"},{"link_name":"division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_division"},{"link_name":"Chunking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(division)"},{"link_name":"Fourier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_division"},{"link_name":"Goldschmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldschmidt_division"},{"link_name":"Newton-Raphson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Raphson_division"},{"link_name":"Long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_division"},{"link_name":"Short","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_division"},{"link_name":"SRT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRT_division"},{"link_name":"Discrete logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_logarithm"},{"link_name":"Baby-step giant-step","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby-step_giant-step"},{"link_name":"Pollard rho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_rho_algorithm_for_logarithms"},{"link_name":"Pollard kangaroo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_kangaroo_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Pohlig–Hellman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohlig%E2%80%93Hellman_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Index calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_calculus_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Function field sieve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_field_sieve"},{"link_name":"Greatest common divisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_common_divisor"},{"link_name":"Binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_GCD_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Euclidean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Extended Euclidean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Euclidean_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Lehmer's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehmer%27s_GCD_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Modular square root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residue"},{"link_name":"Cipolla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Pocklington's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocklington%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Tonelli–Shanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonelli%E2%80%93Shanks_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Berlekamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlekamp%E2%80%93Rabin_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Kunerth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunerth%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Chakravala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakravala_method"},{"link_name":"Cornacchia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornacchia%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Exponentiation by squaring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation_by_squaring"},{"link_name":"Integer square root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_square_root"},{"link_name":"Integer relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_relation_algorithm"},{"link_name":"LLL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenstra%E2%80%93Lenstra%E2%80%93Lov%C3%A1sz_lattice_basis_reduction_algorithm"},{"link_name":"KZ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korkine%E2%80%93Zolotarev_lattice_basis_reduction_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Modular exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_exponentiation"},{"link_name":"Montgomery reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery_reduction"},{"link_name":"Schoof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schoof%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Trachtenberg system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trachtenberg_system"}],"text":"E. Bach, J.O. Shallit Algorithmic Number Theory: Efficient algorithms MIT Press, (1996)vteNumber-theoretic algorithmsPrimality tests\nAKS\nAPR\nBaillie–PSW\nElliptic curve\nPocklington\nFermat\nLucas\nLucas–Lehmer\nLucas–Lehmer–Riesel\nProth's theorem\nPépin's\nQuadratic Frobenius\nSolovay–Strassen\nMiller–Rabin\nPrime-generating\nSieve of Atkin\nSieve of Eratosthenes\nSieve of Pritchard\nSieve of Sundaram\nWheel factorization\nInteger factorization\nContinued fraction (CFRAC)\nDixon's\nLenstra elliptic curve (ECM)\nEuler's\nPollard's rho\np − 1\np + 1\nQuadratic sieve (QS)\nGeneral number field sieve (GNFS)\nSpecial number field sieve (SNFS)\nRational sieve\nFermat's\nShanks's square forms\nTrial division\nShor's\nMultiplication\nAncient Egyptian\nLong\nKaratsuba\nToom–Cook\nSchönhage–Strassen\nFürer's\nEuclidean division\nBinary\nChunking\nFourier\nGoldschmidt\nNewton-Raphson\nLong\nShort\nSRT\nDiscrete logarithm\nBaby-step giant-step\nPollard rho\nPollard kangaroo\nPohlig–Hellman\nIndex calculus\nFunction field sieve\nGreatest common divisor\nBinary\nEuclidean\nExtended Euclidean\nLehmer's\nModular square root\nCipolla\nPocklington's\nTonelli–Shanks\nBerlekamp\nKunerth\nOther algorithms\nChakravala\nCornacchia\nExponentiation by squaring\nInteger square root\nInteger relation (LLL; KZ)\nModular exponentiation\nMontgomery reduction\nSchoof\nTrachtenberg system\n\nItalics indicate that algorithm is for numbers of special forms","title":"Sources"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral

Cape Canaveral

["1 History","1.1 Rocket launch site","1.2 Name changes","2 Notes","3 References","4 Sources","5 External links"]

Coordinates: 28°28′N 80°32′W / 28.46°N 80.53°W / 28.46; -80.53Cape on the Atlantic coast of Florida in the United States This article is about the area of Florida. For the city, see Cape Canaveral, Florida. For the port, see Port Canaveral. For the rocket launch sites, see Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and Kennedy Space Center. Cape Canaveral Spanish: Cabo CañaveralCapeView of Cape Canaveral from space in 1991Cape CanaveralLocation in FloridaShow map of FloridaCape CanaveralCape Canaveral (the United States)Show map of the United StatesCoordinates: 28°28′N 80°32′W / 28.46°N 80.53°W / 28.46; -80.53LocationFlorida, United StatesOffshore water bodiesAtlantic OceanElevation3.1 m (10 ft) Cape Canaveral (Spanish: Cabo Cañaveral) is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, in the United States, near the center of the state's Atlantic coast. Officially Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island, separated from it by the Banana River. It is part of a region known as the Space Coast, and is the site of the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. Since many U.S. spacecraft have been launched from both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other. Other features of the cape include Port Canaveral, one of the busiest cruise ports in the world, and the Cape Canaveral Lighthouse. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District. Mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area. History See also: Cape Canaveral, Florida A section of a map from the 1584 edition of Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, Additamentum III showing the name C. de Cañareal Humans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years. During the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, which was among the earliest cultures in North America to produce pottery. The Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, with influences from the Belle Glade culture to the south. During the first Spanish colonial period the area around the Indian River, to the south of Cape Canaveral, was occupied by the Ais people, while the area around the Mosquito Lagoon, to the north of the Cape, was occupied by the Surruque people. The Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language. In the early 16th century, Cape Canaveral was noted on maps, although without being named. It was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañaveral. The name "Canaveral" (cañaveral in Spanish, meaning 'reed bed' or 'sugarcane plantation') is the third oldest surviving European place name in the United States. The first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521–1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo. A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, it became a landing spot for many shipwrecked sailors. An early alternative name was "Cape of Currents". By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps. English privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century. A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians. Other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribault's colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers. In December 1571, Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral and encountered the Ais Indians. From 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success; diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the shipwrecked sailors they returned. The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the coral shoals off the coast. The hurricane of August 1885, pushed a "wall of water" over the barrier island (elevation, 3.1 m (10 ft)) devastating Cape Canaveral and adjacent areas. The ocean waves flooded the homesteaders and discouraged further settlement in the area. The beach near the lighthouse was severely eroded prompting its relocation 1.6 km (0.99 mi) west inland. The 1890 graduating class of Harvard University started a gun club called the "Canaveral Club" at the Cape. This was founded by C. B. Horton of Boston and George H. Reed. A number of distinguished visitors including presidents Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison were reported to have stayed here. In the 1920s, the grand building fell into disrepair and later burned to the ground. In the 20th century, several communities sprang up in Cape Canaveral with names like Canaveral, Canaveral Harbor, Artesia and De Soto Beach. While the area was predominantly a farming and fishing community, some visionaries saw its potential as a resort for vacationers. However, the stock market crash of 1929 hampered its development. In the 1930s, a group of wealthy journalists started a community called "Journalista Beach", now called Avon by the Sea. The Brossier brothers built houses in this area and started a publication entitled the Evening Star Reporter that was the forerunner of the Orlando Sentinel. Construction of Port Canaveral for military and commercial purposes was started in July 1950 and dedicated on 4 November 1953. Congress approved the construction of a deep-water port in 1929, half a century after it was first petitioned by the U.S. Navy in 1878. It is now the major deep-water port of Central Florida. Rocket launch site Main article: Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Cape Canaveral with Kennedy Space Center shown in white; Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in green Cape Canaveral became the test site for missiles when the legislation for the Joint Long Range Proving Ground was passed by the 81st Congress and signed by President Harry Truman on 11 May 1949. Work began on 9 May 1950, under a contract with the Duval Engineering Company of Jacksonville, Florida, to build the Cape's first paved access road and its first permanent launch site. The first rocket launched at the Cape was a V-2 rocket named Bumper 8 from Launch Complex 3 on 24 July 1950. On 6 February 1959, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile was accomplished. NASA's Project Mercury and Gemini space flights were launched from Cape Canaveral, as were Apollo flights using the Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets. Cape Canaveral was chosen for rocket launches to take advantage of the Earth's rotation. The linear velocity of the Earth's surface is greatest towards the equator; the relatively southerly location of the cape allows rockets to take advantage of this by launching eastward, in the same direction as the Earth's rotation. It is also highly desirable to have the downrange area sparsely populated, in case of accidents; an ocean is ideal for this. The east coast of Florida has logistical advantages over potential competing sites. The Spaceport Florida Launch Complex 46 of the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station is the easternmost near the tip of the cape. In 1999, the North American Numbering Plan Administration allocated telephone area code 321 (as in a launch countdown) to the Cape Canaveral area in homage to its spacefaring heritage. Name changes A post office in the area was built and listed in the U.S. Post Office application as "Artesia" and retained this name from 1893 to 1954. It was "Port Canaveral" from 1954 to 1962, and then the City of Cape Canaveral from 1962 to 1963, when a larger post office was built. In 1963, President Lyndon Johnson issued an executive order renaming the area "Cape Kennedy", after President John F. Kennedy, who had set the goal of landing on the Moon. After Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, his widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, suggested to Johnson that renaming the Cape Canaveral facility would be an appropriate memorial. Johnson recommended the renaming of the entire cape, announced in a televised address on November 28, 1963, six days after the assassination, on Thanksgiving evening. Accordingly, Cape Canaveral was officially renamed Cape Kennedy. Kennedy's last visit to the space facility was on 16 November 1963, six days before his death; the final Mercury mission had concluded six months earlier. Although the name change was approved by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names of the Department of the Interior in December 1963, it was not popular in Florida from the outset, especially in the bordering city of Cape Canaveral. In May 1973, the Florida Legislature passed a law restoring the former 400-year-old name, and the Board went along. The name restoration to Cape Canaveral became official on 9 October 1973. Senator Ted Kennedy had stated in 1970 that it was a matter to be decided by the citizens of Florida. The Kennedy family issued a letter stating they "understood the decision". NASA's Kennedy Space Center retains the "Kennedy" name. The Gemini, Apollo, and the first Skylab missions were all launched while the area was named Cape Kennedy. The first crewed launch under the restored name of Cape Canaveral was Skylab 4, the final Skylab mission, on 16 November 1973. Notes Spaceflight portal ^ Florida was named earlier, April 2, 1513, by Ponce de Leon, whose men also named Las Tortugas, now Dry Tortugas. From the account by Spanish historian Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas published in 1601 ^ The 1865 Jules Verne novel From the Earth to the Moon located its "Baltimore Gun Club" which sent the mission to the Moon about 100 miles away.Mike Gruntman (2004). Blazing the Trail: The Early History Spacecraft and Rocketry. Library of Flight. Reston, Virginia: International Academy of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 302. ISBN 978-1563477058. References ^ "Cape Canaveral Map (Florida)". Yellow Maps. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2013. ^ "Cargo Destinations Locator Map" (PDF). Port Canaveral Official Website. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2013. ^ Zimmerman, Vera "The First Settlers, 10,000 BC to 1820" Archived December 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on August 11, 2007 ^ Milanich, Jerald T. (1994). Archaeology of Precolumbian Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. pp. 887–95, 244–247. ISBN 0-8130-1273-2. ^ Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida 1513–1763. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. p. 6. ISBN 0-8130-2645-8. ^ Stewart, George R. (1945). Names on the Land: An Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. New York: Random House. pp. 11–13. ^ a b "The History of Cape Canaveral, Chapter 1: Cape Canaveral Before Rockets (B.C.–1948)". Spaceline, Inc. Retrieved 29 December 2008. ^ Chatelain, Verne E. (1941), The defenses of Spanish Florida: 1565 to 1763, Carnegie Institution of Washington publication, Nr. 511, Carnegie Institution, p. 10, OCLC 603544979 ^ Ranson, Robert (1989), East Coast Florida Memoirs 1837 to 1886 (reprint ed.), Florida Classics Library, ISBN 9780912451091 ^ Osborne 2008, p. 3 ^ Brammer, Robert (2 October 2018). "District Court finds the Shipwreck Discovered off the Coast of Florida is la Trinité from the Lost French Colony of Fort Caroline". Library of Congress. Retrieved 23 November 2022. ^ a b Rouse, Irving (1981). Survey of Indian River Archaeology. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 45. ISBN 978-0-404-15668-8. ^ "Img_0338 (Cape Canaveral Lighthouse Florida heritage marker)" Archived June 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Cape Canaveral Lighthouse Foundation Retrieved on November 10, 2012 ^ Williams, John M. and Duedall, Iver W. "Florida Hurricanes and Tropical Storms, Revised Edition" (from National Sea Grant Digital Library) Archived April 4, 2014, at the Wayback Machine page 7 University Press of Florida ^ Osborne 2008, pp. 18–20 ^ Osborne 2008, pp. 39–42 ^ Osborne 2008, p. 40 ^ a b c "Evolution of the 45th Space Wing" Archived June 13, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Patrick Air Force Base Official Website Retrieved on October 13, 2013 ^ "A Proud History" Archived October 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Port Canaveral Official Website Retrieved on October 13, 2013 ^ Lethbridge, Clifford J. (2013) "Cape Canaveral Launch Chronology, From July 1950 to September 2013" Spaceline.org Retrieved on October 13, 2013 ^ a b c "Historical Programs – Cape Canaveral – The Cape Canaveral Name" Kennedy Space Center official website Retrieved on October 13, 2013 Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 ^ "3-2-1, Call Cape Canaveral". The New York Times. 23 November 1999. p. 6. Retrieved 13 October 2013. ^ Osborne 2008, p. 42 ^ "It's Cape Kennedy now". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Florida. Associated Press. 29 November 1963. p. 1. ^ Webb, Alvin B. Jr. (29 November 1963). "Cape Canaveral now Cape Kennedy". Eugene Register-Guard. Florida. UPI. p. 4A. ^ Warden, Philip (29 November 1963). "Canaveral renamed for John F. Kennedy". Chicago Tribune. p. 1, sec. 1. ^ "Cape's space center named for Kennedy". Chicago Tribune. 30 November 1963. p. 3, sec. 1. ^ a b "Cape Kennedy remains despite the opposition". The Victoria Advocate. Texas. Associated Press. 8 December 1963. p. 7A. ^ "JFK views test firing of Polaris". Eugene Register-Guard. Oregon. Associated Press. 16 November 1963. p. 1A. ^ "Kennedy watches firing". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Florida. UPI. 17 November 1963. p. 1. ^ Young, Robert (17 November 1963). "Stage missile show at Cape for Kennedy". Chicago Tribune. p. 1, sec. 1. ^ Osborne 2008, p. 88 ^ "Canaveral's name change isn't simple". Chicago Tribune. Associated Press. 30 November 1963. p. 3, sec. 1. ^ a b "Senators ask for Canaveral". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Florida. Associated Press. 26 November 1970. p. 17. ^ "House approves renaming Cape Kennedy". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Florida. 19 May 1973. p. 2A. ^ Fla. S.B. 217, ch. 73-369 (1973) ^ Lethbridge, Clifford J. "Cape History". Spaceline.org. Retrieved 23 March 2011. ^ "Cape Kennedy is now Cape Canaveral". Lakeland Ledger. (Florida). (Washington Post). 10 October 1973. p. 8A. ^ Hoyt, Clark (16 February 1972). "Senate Hearing Slated on Renaming Cape". Miami Herald. Retrieved 23 November 2022. ^ "Gemini success spurs space hopes". Eugene Register-Guard. Oregon. Associated Press. 9 April 1964. p. 2A. ^ "Astronaut says: 'Little late, but good show!'". Eugene Register-Guard. Oregon. Associated Press. 7 December 1972. p. 1A. ^ "Skylab linkup due today". Eugene-Register-Guard. Oregon. wire services. 28 July 1973. p. 1A. ^ "Skylab astronauts set for 9:01 launch today". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Florida. 16 November 1973. p. 1A. ^ "Third Skylab crew fired aloft". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. Associated Press. 16 November 1973. p. 1. Sources Osborne, Ray (2008) "Images of America: Cape Canaveral" Arcadia Publishing, USA ISBN 978-0-7385-5327-6 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cape Canaveral. Cape Canaveral travel guide from Wikivoyage City of Cape Canaveral, FL The Straight Dope: Why did they change the name of Cape Kennedy back to Cape Canaveral? Nautical Chart of Cape Canaveral Cape Canaveral from Encyclopedia Astronautica Authority control databases International VIAF National France BnF data Israel United States Czech Republic Other NARA 2

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For the city, see Cape Canaveral, Florida. For the port, see Port Canaveral. For the rocket launch sites, see Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and Kennedy Space Center.Cape Canaveral (Spanish: Cabo Cañaveral) is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, in the United States, near the center of the state's Atlantic coast. Officially Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island, separated from it by the Banana River. It is part of a region known as the Space Coast, and is the site of the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. Since many U.S. spacecraft have been launched from both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other.Other features of the cape include Port Canaveral, one of the busiest cruise ports in the world, and the Cape Canaveral Lighthouse. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District.[2] Mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area.","title":"Cape Canaveral"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral,_Florida"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1584-Canavaral.jpg"},{"link_name":"Abraham Ortelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Archaic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christ"},{"link_name":"Mount Taylor period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Taylor_period"},{"link_name":"Orange culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_culture"},{"link_name":"North 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Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Florida"},{"link_name":"Pedro de Ibarra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_de_Ibarra_(governor_of_La_Florida)"},{"link_name":"Alvaro Mexia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvaro_Mexia"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RiverArchaeology-13"},{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral Lighthouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Light"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"homesteaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homesteaders"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Grover Cleveland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grover_Cleveland"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"stock market crash of 1929","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Orlando Sentinel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando_Sentinel"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Port Canaveral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Canaveral"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Patrick-20"},{"link_name":"Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Congress"},{"link_name":"U.S. Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Navy"},{"link_name":"Central Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Florida"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"See also: Cape Canaveral, FloridaA section of a map from the 1584 edition of Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, Additamentum III showing the name C. de CañarealHumans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years.[3]During the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, which was among the earliest cultures in North America to produce pottery. The Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, with influences from the Belle Glade culture to the south.[4]During the first Spanish colonial period the area around the Indian River, to the south of Cape Canaveral, was occupied by the Ais people, while the area around the Mosquito Lagoon, to the north of the Cape, was occupied by the Surruque people. The Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language.[5]In the early 16th century, Cape Canaveral was noted on maps, although without being named. It was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañaveral. The name \"Canaveral\" (cañaveral in Spanish, meaning 'reed bed' or 'sugarcane plantation') is the third oldest surviving European place name in the United States.[note 1] The first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521–1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo.[7] A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, it became a landing spot for many shipwrecked sailors. An early alternative name was \"Cape of Currents\". By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps.[7]English privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century.[8] A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians.[9] Other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribault's colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers.[10][11]In December 1571, Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral and encountered the Ais Indians.[12] From 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success; diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the shipwrecked sailors they returned.[12]The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the coral shoals off the coast.[13]The hurricane of August 1885, pushed a \"wall of water\" over the barrier island (elevation, 3.1 m (10 ft)) devastating Cape Canaveral and adjacent areas. The ocean waves flooded the homesteaders and discouraged further settlement in the area. The beach near the lighthouse was severely eroded prompting its relocation 1.6 km (0.99 mi) west inland.[14]The 1890 graduating class of Harvard University started a gun club called the \"Canaveral Club\" at the Cape.[note 2] This was founded by C. B. Horton of Boston and George H. Reed. A number of distinguished visitors including presidents Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison were reported to have stayed here. In the 1920s, the grand building fell into disrepair and later burned to the ground.[15]In the 20th century, several communities sprang up in Cape Canaveral with names like Canaveral, Canaveral Harbor, Artesia and De Soto Beach. While the area was predominantly a farming and fishing community, some visionaries saw its potential as a resort for vacationers. However, the stock market crash of 1929 hampered its development.[16] In the 1930s, a group of wealthy journalists started a community called \"Journalista Beach\", now called Avon by the Sea. The Brossier brothers built houses in this area and started a publication entitled the Evening Star Reporter that was the forerunner of the Orlando Sentinel.[17]Construction of Port Canaveral for military and commercial purposes was started in July 1950 and dedicated on 4 November 1953.[18] Congress approved the construction of a deep-water port in 1929, half a century after it was first petitioned by the U.S. Navy in 1878. It is now the major deep-water port of Central Florida.[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merritt_Island.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral Space Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"Joint Long Range Proving Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Long_Range_Proving_Ground"},{"link_name":"81st Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/81st_Congress"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Harry Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Truman"},{"link_name":"Duval Engineering Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houdaille_Industries"},{"link_name":"Jacksonville, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Patrick-20"},{"link_name":"V-2 rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"link_name":"Bumper 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTV-G-4_Bumper"},{"link_name":"Launch Complex 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_3"},{"link_name":"Titan intercontinental ballistic missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_I"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Project Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Mercury"},{"link_name":"Gemini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gemini"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program"},{"link_name":"Saturn I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_I"},{"link_name":"Saturn IB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_IB"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"equator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equator"},{"link_name":"downrange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downrange"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KSC-23"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Patrick-20"},{"link_name":"Spaceport Florida Launch Complex 46","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Launch_Complex_46"},{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral Space Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KSC-23"},{"link_name":"North American Numbering Plan Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Numbering_Plan_Administration"},{"link_name":"area code 321","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_code_321"},{"link_name":"countdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countdown"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Rocket launch site","text":"Cape Canaveral with Kennedy Space Center shown in white; Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in greenCape Canaveral became the test site for missiles when the legislation for the Joint Long Range Proving Ground was passed by the 81st Congress and signed by President Harry Truman on 11 May 1949. Work began on 9 May 1950, under a contract with the Duval Engineering Company of Jacksonville, Florida, to build the Cape's first paved access road and its first permanent launch site.[18]The first rocket launched at the Cape was a V-2 rocket named Bumper 8 from Launch Complex 3 on 24 July 1950. On 6 February 1959, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile was accomplished. NASA's Project Mercury and Gemini space flights were launched from Cape Canaveral, as were Apollo flights using the Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets.[20]Cape Canaveral was chosen for rocket launches to take advantage of the Earth's rotation. The linear velocity of the Earth's surface is greatest towards the equator; the relatively southerly location of the cape allows rockets to take advantage of this by launching eastward, in the same direction as the Earth's rotation. It is also highly desirable to have the downrange area sparsely populated, in case of accidents; an ocean is ideal for this.[21] The east coast of Florida has logistical advantages over potential competing sites.[18] The Spaceport Florida Launch Complex 46 of the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station is the easternmost near the tip of the cape.[21]In 1999, the North American Numbering Plan Administration allocated telephone area code 321 (as in a launch countdown) to the Cape Canaveral area in homage to its spacefaring heritage.[22]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. Post Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Lyndon Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson"},{"link_name":"executive order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_order"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"Jacqueline Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy_Onassis"},{"link_name":"Thanksgiving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-itknow-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ergnowck-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-renct-28"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chtrb-29"},{"link_name":"renamed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_renaming"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KSC-23"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ckremdesp-30"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ergpol-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sarohet-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smshacp-33"},{"link_name":"final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Atlas_9"},{"link_name":"Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Mercury"},{"link_name":"U.S. Board on Geographic Names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Board_on_Geographic_Names"},{"link_name":"Department of the Interior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ckremdesp-30"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnchis-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sasfcnv-36"},{"link_name":"city of Cape Canaveral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Florida Legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_Legislature"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-happr-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ckisncc-40"},{"link_name":"Senator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Ted Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Kennedy"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sasfcnv-36"},{"link_name":"Kennedy family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_family"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Gemini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gemini"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gsspspho-42"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asllbgs-43"},{"link_name":"Skylab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-skluduetod-44"},{"link_name":"Skylab 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab_4"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sasetfo-45"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sdcthrd-46"}],"sub_title":"Name changes","text":"A post office in the area was built and listed in the U.S. Post Office application as \"Artesia\" and retained this name from 1893 to 1954.[23] It was \"Port Canaveral\" from 1954 to 1962, and then the City of Cape Canaveral from 1962 to 1963, when a larger post office was built.In 1963, President Lyndon Johnson issued an executive order renaming the area \"Cape Kennedy\", after President John F. Kennedy, who had set the goal of landing on the Moon. After Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, his widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, suggested to Johnson that renaming the Cape Canaveral facility would be an appropriate memorial. Johnson recommended the renaming of the entire cape, announced in a televised address on November 28, 1963, six days after the assassination, on Thanksgiving evening.[24][25][26][27] Accordingly, Cape Canaveral was officially renamed Cape Kennedy.[21][28] Kennedy's last visit to the space facility was on 16 November 1963, six days before his death;[29][30]\n[31] the final Mercury mission had concluded six months earlier.Although the name change was approved by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names of the Department of the Interior in December 1963,[32] it was not popular in Florida from the outset,[28][33][34] especially in the bordering city of Cape Canaveral. In May 1973, the Florida Legislature passed a law restoring the former 400-year-old name,[35][36] and the Board went along. The name restoration to Cape Canaveral became official on 9 October 1973.[37][38] Senator Ted Kennedy had stated in 1970 that it was a matter to be decided by the citizens of Florida.[34] The Kennedy family issued a letter stating they \"understood the decision\". NASA's Kennedy Space Center retains the \"Kennedy\" name.[39]The Gemini,[40] Apollo,[41] and the first Skylab missions were all launched while the area was named Cape Kennedy.[42] The first crewed launch under the restored name of Cape Canaveral was Skylab 4, the final Skylab mission, on 16 November 1973.[43][44]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spaceflight portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"Ponce de Leon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Dry Tortugas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_Tortugas_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_de_Herrera_y_Tordesillas"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"Jules Verne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Verne"},{"link_name":"From the Earth to the Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_the_Earth_to_the_Moon"},{"link_name":"Mike Gruntman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Gruntman"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1563477058","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1563477058"}],"text":"Spaceflight portal^ Florida was named earlier, April 2, 1513, by Ponce de Leon, whose men also named Las Tortugas, now Dry Tortugas. From the account by Spanish historian Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas published in 1601[6]\n\n^ The 1865 Jules Verne novel From the Earth to the Moon located its \"Baltimore Gun Club\" which sent the mission to the Moon about 100 miles away.Mike Gruntman (2004). Blazing the Trail: The Early History Spacecraft and Rocketry. Library of Flight. Reston, Virginia: International Academy of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 302. ISBN 978-1563477058.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Images of America: Cape Canaveral\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=gP8sHFpNXugC&q=Images+of+America:+Cape+Canaveral"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7385-5327-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-5327-6"}],"text":"Osborne, Ray (2008) \"Images of America: Cape Canaveral\" Arcadia Publishing, USA ISBN 978-0-7385-5327-6","title":"Sources"}]

[{"image_text":"A section of a map from the 1584 edition of Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, Additamentum III showing the name C. de Cañareal","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/1584-Canavaral.jpg/240px-1584-Canavaral.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cape Canaveral with Kennedy Space Center shown in white; Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in green","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Merritt_Island.jpg/220px-Merritt_Island.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"Mike Gruntman (2004). Blazing the Trail: The Early History Spacecraft and Rocketry. Library of Flight. Reston, Virginia: International Academy of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 302. ISBN 978-1563477058.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Gruntman","url_text":"Mike Gruntman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1563477058","url_text":"978-1563477058"}]},{"reference":"\"Cape Canaveral Map (Florida)\". Yellow Maps. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161228192047/http://www.yellowmaps.com/usgs/quad/28080d5.htm","url_text":"\"Cape Canaveral Map (Florida)\""},{"url":"http://www.yellowmaps.com/usgs/quad/28080d5.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Cargo Destinations Locator Map\" (PDF). Port Canaveral Official Website. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120813155840/http://portcanaveral.com/cargo/ForTruckers_Cargo_Destinations_Maps.pdf","url_text":"\"Cargo Destinations Locator Map\""},{"url":"http://portcanaveral.com/cargo/ForTruckers_Cargo_Destinations_Maps.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Milanich, Jerald T. (1994). Archaeology of Precolumbian Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. pp. 887–95, 244–247. ISBN 0-8130-1273-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-1273-2","url_text":"0-8130-1273-2"}]},{"reference":"Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida 1513–1763. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. p. 6. ISBN 0-8130-2645-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-2645-8","url_text":"0-8130-2645-8"}]},{"reference":"Stewart, George R. (1945). Names on the Land: An Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. New York: Random House. pp. 11–13.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The History of Cape Canaveral, Chapter 1: Cape Canaveral Before Rockets (B.C.–1948)\". Spaceline, Inc. Retrieved 29 December 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.spaceline.org/capehistory/1a.html","url_text":"\"The History of Cape Canaveral, Chapter 1: Cape Canaveral Before Rockets (B.C.–1948)\""}]},{"reference":"Chatelain, Verne E. (1941), The defenses of Spanish Florida: 1565 to 1763, Carnegie Institution of Washington publication, Nr. 511, Carnegie Institution, p. 10, OCLC 603544979","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/603544979","url_text":"603544979"}]},{"reference":"Ranson, Robert (1989), East Coast Florida Memoirs 1837 to 1886 (reprint ed.), Florida Classics Library, ISBN 9780912451091","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780912451091","url_text":"9780912451091"}]},{"reference":"Brammer, Robert (2 October 2018). \"District Court finds the Shipwreck Discovered off the Coast of Florida is la Trinité from the Lost French Colony of Fort Caroline\". Library of Congress. Retrieved 23 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2018/10/district-court-finds-the-shipwreck-discovered-off-the-coast-of-florida-is-la-trinit-from-the-lost-french-colony-of-fort-caroline/","url_text":"\"District Court finds the Shipwreck Discovered off the Coast of Florida is la Trinité from the Lost French Colony of Fort Caroline\""}]},{"reference":"Rouse, Irving (1981). Survey of Indian River Archaeology. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 45. ISBN 978-0-404-15668-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-15668-8","url_text":"978-0-404-15668-8"}]},{"reference":"\"3-2-1, Call Cape Canaveral\". The New York Times. 23 November 1999. p. 6. Retrieved 13 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/23/science/3-2-1-call-cape-canaveral.html","url_text":"\"3-2-1, Call Cape Canaveral\""}]},{"reference":"\"It's Cape Kennedy now\". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Florida. Associated Press. 29 November 1963. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=U38eAAAAIBAJ&pg=1484%2C5225048","url_text":"\"It's Cape Kennedy now\""}]},{"reference":"Webb, Alvin B. Jr. (29 November 1963). \"Cape Canaveral now Cape Kennedy\". Eugene Register-Guard. Florida. UPI. p. 4A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XPxVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6074%2C5282616","url_text":"\"Cape Canaveral now Cape Kennedy\""}]},{"reference":"Warden, Philip (29 November 1963). \"Canaveral renamed for John F. Kennedy\". Chicago Tribune. p. 1, sec. 1.","urls":[{"url":"http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1963/11/29/page/1/article/u-s-hears-johnson-plea","url_text":"\"Canaveral renamed for John F. Kennedy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cape's space center named for Kennedy\". Chicago Tribune. 30 November 1963. p. 3, sec. 1.","urls":[{"url":"http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1963/11/30/page/3/article/capes-space-center-named-for-kennedy","url_text":"\"Cape's space center named for Kennedy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cape Kennedy remains despite the opposition\". The Victoria Advocate. Texas. Associated Press. 8 December 1963. p. 7A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EIZHAAAAIBAJ&pg=4092%2C955393","url_text":"\"Cape Kennedy remains despite the opposition\""}]},{"reference":"\"JFK views test firing of Polaris\". Eugene Register-Guard. Oregon. Associated Press. 16 November 1963. p. 1A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=T_xVAAAAIBAJ&pg=4389%2C2766570","url_text":"\"JFK views test firing of Polaris\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kennedy watches firing\". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Florida. UPI. 17 November 1963. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rdoeAAAAIBAJ&pg=3986%2C4496300","url_text":"\"Kennedy watches firing\""}]},{"reference":"Young, Robert (17 November 1963). \"Stage missile show at Cape for Kennedy\". Chicago Tribune. p. 1, sec. 1.","urls":[{"url":"http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1963/11/17/page/1/article/stage-missile-show-at-cape-for-kennedy","url_text":"\"Stage missile show at Cape for Kennedy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Canaveral's name change isn't simple\". Chicago Tribune. Associated Press. 30 November 1963. p. 3, sec. 1.","urls":[{"url":"http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1963/11/30/page/3/article/canaverals-name-change-isnt-simple","url_text":"\"Canaveral's name change isn't simple\""}]},{"reference":"\"Senators ask for Canaveral\". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Florida. Associated Press. 26 November 1970. p. 17.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=190pAAAAIBAJ&pg=790%2C6949330","url_text":"\"Senators ask for Canaveral\""}]},{"reference":"\"House approves renaming Cape Kennedy\". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Florida. 19 May 1973. p. 2A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5fEpAAAAIBAJ&pg=4882%2C941965","url_text":"\"House approves renaming Cape Kennedy\""}]},{"reference":"Lethbridge, Clifford J. \"Cape History\". Spaceline.org. Retrieved 23 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.spaceline.org/history-cape-canaveral/history-cape-canaveral-chapter-3/","url_text":"\"Cape History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cape Kennedy is now Cape Canaveral\". Lakeland Ledger. (Florida). (Washington Post). 10 October 1973. p. 8A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=n41OAAAAIBAJ&sjid=fPoDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7245%2C2691579","url_text":"\"Cape Kennedy is now Cape Canaveral\""}]},{"reference":"Hoyt, Clark (16 February 1972). \"Senate Hearing Slated on Renaming Cape\". Miami Herald. Retrieved 23 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SDfzw53OG5IC&dq=kennedy+family+understood+decision+to+change+cape+kennedy+to+cape+canaveral&pg=PA34","url_text":"\"Senate Hearing Slated on Renaming Cape\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gemini success spurs space hopes\". Eugene Register-Guard. Oregon. Associated Press. 9 April 1964. p. 2A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qgBWAAAAIBAJ&pg=6902%2C1673489","url_text":"\"Gemini success spurs space hopes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Astronaut says: 'Little late, but good show!'\". Eugene Register-Guard. Oregon. Associated Press. 7 December 1972. p. 1A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JalVAAAAIBAJ&pg=1950%2C1636149","url_text":"\"Astronaut says: 'Little late, but good show!'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Skylab linkup due today\". Eugene-Register-Guard. Oregon. wire services. 28 July 1973. p. 1A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=YeVVAAAAIBAJ&pg=3163%2C6410296","url_text":"\"Skylab linkup due today\""}]},{"reference":"\"Skylab astronauts set for 9:01 launch today\". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Florida. 16 November 1973. p. 1A.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Z-MpAAAAIBAJ&pg=3778%2C4892","url_text":"\"Skylab astronauts set for 9:01 launch today\""}]},{"reference":"\"Third Skylab crew fired aloft\". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. Associated Press. 16 November 1973. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=36dYAAAAIBAJ&pg=6498%2C5079","url_text":"\"Third Skylab crew fired aloft\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_chart

Line chart

["1 History","2 Example","3 Best-fit","4 See also","5 References"]

Chart typeFor the mathematical concept, see Line graph. Line chart showing the population of the town of Pushkin, Saint Petersburg from 1800 to 2010, measured at various intervals A line chart or line graph, also known as curve chart, is a type of chart that displays information as a series of data points called 'markers' connected by straight line segments. It is a basic type of chart common in many fields. It is similar to a scatter plot except that the measurement points are ordered (typically by their x-axis value) and joined with straight line segments. A line chart is often used to visualize a trend in data over intervals of time – a time series – thus the line is often drawn chronologically. In these cases they are known as run charts. History Some of the earliest known line charts are generally credited to Francis Hauksbee, Nicolaus Samuel Cruquius, Johann Heinrich Lambert and William Playfair. Example In the experimental sciences, data collected from experiments are often visualized by a graph. For example, if one collects data on the speed of an object at certain points in time, one can visualize the data in a data table such as the following: Graph of speed versus time Elapsed Time (s) Speed (m s−1) 0 0 1 3 2 7 3 12 4 18 5 30 6 45.6 Such a table representation of data is a great way to display exact values, but it can prevent the discovery and understanding of patterns in the values. In addition, a table display is often erroneously considered to be an objective, neutral collection or storage of the data (and may in that sense even be erroneously considered to be the data itself) whereas it is in fact just one of various possible visualizations of the data. Understanding the process described by the data in the table is aided by producing a graph or line chart of speed versus time. Such a visualisation appears in the figure to the right. This visualization can let the viewer quickly understand the entire process at a glance. This visualization can however be misunderstood, especially when expressed as showing the mathematical function v ( t ) {\displaystyle v(t)} that expresses the speed v {\displaystyle v} (the dependent variable) as a function of time t {\displaystyle t} . This can be misunderstood as showing speed to be a variable that is dependent only on time. This would however only be true in the case of an object being acted on only by a constant force acting in a vacuum. Best-fit A best-fit line chart (simple linear regression) A parody line graph (1919) by William Addison Dwiggins. Charts often include an overlaid mathematical function depicting the best-fit trend of the scattered data. This layer is referred to as a best-fit layer and the graph containing this layer is often referred to as a line graph. It is simple to construct a "best-fit" layer consisting of a set of line segments connecting adjacent data points; however, such a "best-fit" is usually not an ideal representation of the trend of the underlying scatter data for the following reasons: It is highly improbable that the discontinuities in the slope of the best-fit would correspond exactly with the positions of the measurement values. It is highly unlikely that the experimental error in the data is negligible, yet the curve falls exactly through each of the data points. In either case, the best-fit layer can reveal trends in the data. Further, measurements such as the gradient or the area under the curve can be made visually, leading to more conclusions or results from the data table. A true best-fit layer should depict a continuous mathematical function whose parameters are determined by using a suitable error-minimization scheme, which appropriately weights the error in the data values. Such curve fitting functionality is often found in graphing software or spreadsheets. Best-fit curves may vary from simple linear equations to more complex quadratic, polynomial, exponential, and periodic curves. See also Curve fitting Data and information visualization List of information graphics software Run chart References Wikimedia Commons has media related to Line charts. ^ Spear, Mary Eleanor (1952). Charting Statistics. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 41. OCLC 166502. ^ Burton G. Andreas (1965). Experimental psychology. p.186 ^ Michael Friendly (2008). "Milestones in the history of thematic cartography, statistical graphics, and data visualization". pp 13–14. Retrieved 7 July 2008. ^ Curve fitting. 2023. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) Authority control databases: National Germany

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Line graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_graph"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pushkin_population_history.svg"},{"link_name":"Pushkin, Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pushkin,_Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chart"},{"link_name":"line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/line"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"scatter plot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatter_plot"},{"link_name":"time series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_series"},{"link_name":"run charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run_chart"}],"text":"For the mathematical concept, see Line graph.Line chart showing the population of the town of Pushkin, Saint Petersburg from 1800 to 2010, measured at various intervalsA line chart or line graph, also known as curve chart,[1] is a type of chart that displays information as a series of data points called 'markers' connected by straight line segments.[2] It is a basic type of chart common in many fields. It is similar to a scatter plot except that the measurement points are ordered (typically by their x-axis value) and joined with straight line segments. A line chart is often used to visualize a trend in data over intervals of time – a time series – thus the line is often drawn chronologically. In these cases they are known as run charts.","title":"Line chart"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Francis Hauksbee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Hauksbee"},{"link_name":"Nicolaus Samuel Cruquius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Samuel_Cruquius"},{"link_name":"Johann Heinrich Lambert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert"},{"link_name":"William Playfair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Playfair"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Some of the earliest known line charts are generally credited to Francis Hauksbee, Nicolaus Samuel Cruquius, Johann Heinrich Lambert and William Playfair.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_table"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ScientificGraphSpeedVsTime.svg"}],"text":"In the experimental sciences, data collected from experiments are often visualized by a graph. For example, if one collects data on the speed of an object at certain points in time, one can visualize the data in a data table such as the following:Graph of speed versus timeSuch a table representation of data is a great way to display exact values, but it can prevent the discovery and understanding of patterns in the values. In addition, a table display is often erroneously considered to be an objective, neutral collection or storage of the data (and may in that sense even be erroneously considered to be the data itself) whereas it is in fact just one of various possible visualizations of the data.Understanding the process described by the data in the table is aided by producing a graph or line chart of speed versus time. Such a visualisation appears in the figure to the right. This visualization can let the viewer quickly understand the entire process at a glance.This visualization can however be misunderstood, especially when expressed as showing the mathematical function \n \n \n \n v\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v(t)}\n \n that expresses the speed \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}\n \n (the dependent variable) as a function of time \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n. This can be misunderstood as showing speed to be a variable that is dependent only on time. This would however only be true in the case of an object being acted on only by a constant force acting in a vacuum.","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okuns_law_quarterly_differences.svg"},{"link_name":"simple linear regression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_linear_regression"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dwiggins_graph.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Addison Dwiggins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Addison_Dwiggins"},{"link_name":"best-fit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best-fit"},{"link_name":"gradient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient"},{"link_name":"curve fitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve_fitting"},{"link_name":"graphing software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_graphing_software"},{"link_name":"spreadsheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"A best-fit line chart (simple linear regression)A parody line graph (1919) by William Addison Dwiggins.Charts often include an overlaid mathematical function depicting the best-fit trend of the scattered data. This layer is referred to as a best-fit layer and the graph containing this layer is often referred to as a line graph.It is simple to construct a \"best-fit\" layer consisting of a set of line segments connecting adjacent data points; however, such a \"best-fit\" is usually not an ideal representation of the trend of the underlying scatter data for the following reasons:It is highly improbable that the discontinuities in the slope of the best-fit would correspond exactly with the positions of the measurement values.\nIt is highly unlikely that the experimental error in the data is negligible, yet the curve falls exactly through each of the data points.In either case, the best-fit layer can reveal trends in the data. Further, measurements such as the gradient or the area under the curve can be made visually, leading to more conclusions or results from the data table.A true best-fit layer should depict a continuous mathematical function whose parameters are determined by using a suitable error-minimization scheme, which appropriately weights the error in the data values. Such curve fitting functionality is often found in graphing software or spreadsheets. Best-fit curves may vary from simple linear equations to more complex quadratic, polynomial, exponential, and periodic curves.[4]","title":"Best-fit"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQUOZE

SQUOZE

["1 Encoding","2 Etymology","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"]

Compression scheme This article is about a compression scheme. For the similarly named transponder code in aeronautics, see Squawk code. SQUOZE (abbreviated as SQZ) is a memory-efficient representation of a combined source and relocatable object program file with a symbol table on punched cards which was introduced in 1958 with the SCAT assembler on the SHARE Operating System (SOS) for the IBM 709. A program in this format was called a SQUOZE deck. It was also used on later machines including the IBM 7090 and 7094. Encoding In the SQUOZE encoding, identifiers in the symbol table were represented in a 50-character alphabet, allowing a 36-bit machine word to represent six alphanumeric characters plus two flag bits, thus saving two bits per six characters, because the six bits normally allocated for each character could store up to 64 states rather than only the 50 states needed to represent the 50 letters of the alphabet, and 506 < 234. SQUOZE character codes Mostsignificantdigits Least significant digits Dec +0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 Oct 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Dec Oct Bin 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 +0 0 000 space 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 +8 1 001 7 8 9 A B C D E +16 2 010 F G H I J K L M +24 3 011 N O P Q R S T U +32 4 100 V W X Y Z = # / % ) ⌑ +40 5 101 + & - - @ + & - * / $ +48 6 110 , . — — — — — — Using base 50 already saves a single bit every three characters, so it was used in two three-character chunks. The manual has a formula for encoding six characters ABCDEF: ( A ∗ 50 2 + B ∗ 50 + C ) ∗ 2 17 + ( D ∗ 50 2 + E ∗ 50 + F ) {\displaystyle (A*50^{2}+B*50+C)*2^{17}+(D*50^{2}+E*50+F)} For example "SQUOZE", normally 36 bits: 35 33 37 31 44 17(base 8) would be encoded in two 17-bit pieces to fit in the 34 bits as ( 0o220231 << 17 ) | 0o175473 == 0o110114575473. A simpler example of the same logic would be how a three-digit BCD number would take up 12 bits, such as 987: 9 8 7(base 16) 1001 1000 0111(base 2), but any such value could be stored in 10 bits directly, saving two bits, such as 987: 3db(base 16) 11 1101 1011(base 2). Etymology "Squoze" is a facetious past participle of the verb 'to squeeze'. The name SQUOZE was later borrowed for similar schemes used on DEC machines; they had a 40-character alphabet (50 in octal) and were called DEC RADIX 50 and MOD40, but sometimes nicknamed DEC Squoze. See also Packed BCD Hertz encoding Chen–Ho encoding Densely packed decimal (DPD) BCD (character encoding) Base 50 (numeral system) Base conversion References ^ a b c d SHARE 709 System Committee, ed. (June 1961) . "Section 02: SCAT Language; Appendix 1: Table of Permissible Characters; Appendix 3: SQUOZE Deck Format - Chapter 8: Dictionary". SOS Reference Manual - SHARE System for the IBM 709 (PDF). New York, USA: SOS Group, International Business Machines Corporation. pp. 02.00.01 – 02.00.11, 12.03.08.01 – 12.03.08.02, 12.01.00.01. X28-1213. Distribution No. 1–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-06-18. Retrieved 2020-06-18. pp. 12.03.08.01 – 12.03.08.02: Bit Positions Used Bit 0 Bit 1 Bits 2–35 Base 50 representation of the symbol with heading character. The base 50 representation of a symbol is obtained as follows: a. If the symbol has fewer than five characters, it is headed (by blank if it is in an unheaded region). b. The symbol with it heading character is left-justified and any unused low-order positions are filled with blanks. c. Each character in the symbol is replaced by it base 50 equivalent. d. The result is then converted by the following: if the symbol, after each character is repaced by its base 50 equivalent, is ABCDEF, its base 50 representation is (A*502+B*50+C)*217+(D*502+E*50+F). ^ Salomon, David (February 1993) . Written at California State University, Northridge, California, USA. Chivers, Ian D. (ed.). Assemblers and Loaders (PDF). Ellis Horwood Series In Computers And Their Applications (1 ed.). Chicester, West Sussex, UK: Ellis Horwood Limited / Simon & Schuster International Group. ISBN 0-13-052564-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2008-10-01. (xiv+294+4 pages) ^ Jacob, Bruce; Ng, Spencer W.; Wang, David T.; Rodrigez, Samuel (2008). "Part I Chapter 3.1.3 On-Line Locality Optimizations: Dynamic Compression of Instructions and Data". Memory Systems: Cache, DRAM, Disk. The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Computer Architecture and Design. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers / Elsevier. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-12-379751-3. (900 pages) ^ a b Jones, Douglas W. (2018). "Lecture 7, Object Codes, Loaders and Linkers - Final steps on the road to machine code". Operating Systems, Spring 2018. Part of the CS:3620 Operating Systems Collection. The University of Iowa, Department of Computer Science. Archived from the original on 2020-06-06. Retrieved 2020-06-06. ^ a b Boehm, Elaine M.; Steel, Jr., Thomas B. (June 1958). Machine Implementation of Symbolic Programming - Summary of a Paper to be Presented at the Summer 1958 Meeting of the ACM. ACM '58: Preprints of papers presented at the 13th national meeting of the Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 17-1–17-3. doi:10.1145/610937.610953. Archived from the original on 2020-06-06. Retrieved 2020-06-06. (3 pages) ^ a b c Boehm, Elaine M.; Steel, Jr., Thomas B. (April 1959). "The SHARE 709 System: Machine Implementation of Symbolic Programming". Journal of the ACM. 6 (2): 134–140. doi:10.1145/320964.320968. S2CID 16545134. Archived from the original on 2020-06-04. Retrieved 2020-06-04. pp. 137–138: There is an interesting feature related to the encoding of symbols for inclusion in the dictionary. In the usual mode of expression, symbols may be constructed from a set of 50 characters. If encoding were character by character, six bits would be required for the representation of each such character. As a symbol may contain as many as six characters, a total of 36 bits would be required for the representation of each symbol. This might seem convenient, as the length of a 709 word is exactly 36 bits, but a moment's consideration shows that it is unfortunate as it would be desirable to have a bit or two available in the same word as the symbol representation, giving a clue to the nature of the symbol. These flagging bits can be obtained. Let each character possible represent a digit in a number system having a base of fifty. Now six character symbols may be read as natural numbers in a base fifty system. If these numbers are converted to the usual base two system, only 34 bits are required for the maximum number and a gain of two flag bits has been made. This has the incidental feature of decreasing the requisite number of bits for representing the entire code, but conversion time would outweigh the saving by a significant margin were it not for the peculiar length of the 709 word. Here is a clear illustration of the critical effect the precise specifications of the machine concerned hold over the details of an encoding schema. (7 pages) ^ Shell, Donald L. (April 1959) . "The SHARE 709 System: A Cooperative Effort". Journal of the ACM. 6 (2): 123–127. doi:10.1145/320964.320966. S2CID 16476514. Archived from the original on 2020-06-17. Retrieved 2020-06-16. (5 pages) ^ "8.10 .RAD50". PAL-11R Assembler - Programmer's Manual - Program Assembly Language and Relocatable Assembler for the Disk Operating System (2nd revised printing ed.). Maynard, Massachusetts, USA: Digital Equipment Corporation. May 1971 . p. 8-8. DEC-11-ASDB-D. Retrieved 2020-06-18. p. 8-8: PDP-11 systems programs often handle symbols in a specially coded form called RADIX 50 (this form is sometimes referred to as MOD40). This form allows 3 characters to be packed into 16 bits Further reading Williams, Al (2016-11-22). "Squoze your data". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2020-06-06. Retrieved 2020-06-06. Ehrman, John Robert; Snyder, James N. (1964-04-15). "3.3.2.1 SCAT". The PORTHOS Executive System for the IBM 7094 - User's Manual (PDF). University of Illinois, Graduate College Digital Computer Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-06-07. Retrieved 2020-06-07. SCAT is a two part assembler which in brief operates as follows: Programs written symbolically as one order per card are ingested during the first phase by the "compiler" which scans the program for symbols and outputs a condensed deck of cards (SQUOZE deck) containing tables of these symbols and the program condensed and efficiently coded. During the second phase this SQUOZE deck is ingested by the "modify and load" program which converts the object program to binary machine language which by option can either be loaded ready to run or output on absolute binary cards (23 orders per card) for loading and running at a later time. The "lister" can produce a printed version of the program at either of these stages. Symbolic corrections to a program can be inserted into the second phase along with the SQUOZE deck. (1 page)

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Squawk code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squawk_code"},{"link_name":"source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"relocatable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relocation_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_file"},{"link_name":"symbol table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol_table"},{"link_name":"punched cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"SCAT assembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SCAT_assembler&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM_1961_SOS-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salomon_1993-2"},{"link_name":"SHARE Operating System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHARE_Operating_System"},{"link_name":"IBM 709","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_709"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jacob_2008-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones_2018-4"},{"link_name":"deck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card_deck_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boehm-Steel_1958-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boehm-Steel_1959-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shell_1959-7"},{"link_name":"IBM 7090","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7090"},{"link_name":"7094","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7094"}],"text":"This article is about a compression scheme. For the similarly named transponder code in aeronautics, see Squawk code.SQUOZE (abbreviated as SQZ) is a memory-efficient representation of a combined source and relocatable object program file with a symbol table on punched cards which was introduced in 1958 with the SCAT assembler[1][2] on the SHARE Operating System (SOS) for the IBM 709.[3][4] A program in this format was called a SQUOZE deck.[5][6][7] It was also used on later machines including the IBM 7090 and 7094.","title":"SQUOZE"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet_(formal_languages)"},{"link_name":"machine word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_word"},{"link_name":"alphanumeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphanumeric"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boehm-Steel_1959-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM_1961_SOS-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM_1961_SOS-1"},{"link_name":"BCD number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal"}],"text":"In the SQUOZE encoding, identifiers in the symbol table were represented in a 50-character alphabet, allowing a 36-bit machine word to represent six alphanumeric characters plus two flag bits, thus saving two bits per six characters,[6][1] because the six bits normally allocated for each character could store up to 64 states rather than only the 50 states needed to represent the 50 letters of the alphabet, and 506 < 234.Using base 50 already saves a single bit every three characters, so it was used in two three-character chunks. The manual[1] has a formula for encoding six characters ABCDEF: \n \n \n \n (\n A\n ∗\n \n 50\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n B\n ∗\n 50\n +\n C\n )\n ∗\n \n 2\n \n 17\n \n \n +\n (\n D\n ∗\n \n 50\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n E\n ∗\n 50\n +\n F\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (A*50^{2}+B*50+C)*2^{17}+(D*50^{2}+E*50+F)}For example \"SQUOZE\", normally 36 bits: 35 33 37 31 44 17(base 8) would be encoded in two 17-bit pieces to fit in the 34 bits as ( 0o220231 << 17 ) | 0o175473 == 0o110114575473.A simpler example of the same logic would be how a three-digit BCD number would take up 12 bits, such as 987: 9 8 7(base 16) 1001 1000 0111(base 2), but any such value could be stored in 10 bits directly, saving two bits, such as 987: 3db(base 16) 11 1101 1011(base 2).","title":"Encoding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"past participle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_participle"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boehm-Steel_1958-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boehm-Steel_1959-6"},{"link_name":"DEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones_2018-4"},{"link_name":"octal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octal"},{"link_name":"DEC RADIX 50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_RADIX_50"},{"link_name":"MOD40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_MOD40"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DEC_1971_PAL-11R-8"},{"link_name":"DEC Squoze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_Squoze"}],"text":"\"Squoze\" is a facetious past participle of the verb 'to squeeze'.[5][6]The name SQUOZE was later borrowed for similar schemes used on DEC machines;[4] they had a 40-character alphabet (50 in octal) and were called DEC RADIX 50 and MOD40,[8] but sometimes nicknamed DEC Squoze.","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Squoze your data\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hackaday.com/2016/11/22/squoze-your-data/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200606101541/https://hackaday.com/2016/11/22/squoze-your-data/"},{"link_name":"The PORTHOS Executive System for the IBM 7094 - User's Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4834584.pdf"},{"link_name":"University of Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200607163131/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4834584.pdf"}],"text":"Williams, Al (2016-11-22). \"Squoze your data\". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2020-06-06. Retrieved 2020-06-06.\nEhrman, John Robert; Snyder, James N. (1964-04-15). \"3.3.2.1 SCAT\". The PORTHOS Executive System for the IBM 7094 - User's Manual (PDF). University of Illinois, Graduate College Digital Computer Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-06-07. Retrieved 2020-06-07. […] SCAT is a two part assembler which in brief operates as follows: Programs written symbolically as one order per card are ingested during the first phase by the \"compiler\" which scans the program for symbols and outputs a condensed deck of cards (SQUOZE deck) containing tables of these symbols and the program condensed and efficiently coded. During the second phase this SQUOZE deck is ingested by the \"modify and load\" program which converts the object program to binary machine language which by option can either be loaded ready to run or output on absolute binary cards (23 orders per card) for loading and running at a later time. The \"lister\" can produce a printed version of the program at either of these stages. Symbolic corrections to a program can be inserted into the second phase along with the SQUOZE deck. […] (1 page)","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

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[{"reference":"SHARE 709 System Committee, ed. (June 1961) [1959]. \"Section 02: SCAT Language; Appendix 1: Table of Permissible Characters; Appendix 3: SQUOZE Deck Format - Chapter 8: Dictionary\". SOS Reference Manual - SHARE System for the IBM 709 (PDF). New York, USA: SOS Group, International Business Machines Corporation. pp. 02.00.01 – 02.00.11, 12.03.08.01 – 12.03.08.02, 12.01.00.01. X28-1213. Distribution No. 1–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-06-18. Retrieved 2020-06-18. pp. 12.03.08.01 – 12.03.08.02: […] Bit Positions Used […] Bit 0 […] Bit 1 […] Bits 2–35 […] Base 50 representation of the symbol with heading character. […] The base 50 representation of a symbol is obtained as follows: […] a. If the symbol has fewer than five characters, it is headed (by blank if it is in an unheaded region). […] b. The symbol with it[s] heading character is left-justified and any unused low-order positions are filled with blanks. […] c. Each character in the symbol is replaced by it[s] base 50 equivalent. […] d. The result is then converted by the following: if the symbol, after each character is rep[l]aced by its base 50 equivalent, is ABCDEF, its base 50 representation is (A*502+B*50+C)*217+(D*502+E*50+F). […]","urls":[{"url":"http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/share/SOS_Reference_Manual_Jun61.pdf","url_text":"SOS Reference Manual - SHARE System for the IBM 709"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Business_Machines_Corporation","url_text":"International Business Machines Corporation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200618175636/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/share/SOS_Reference_Manual_Jun61.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_50_(numeral_system)","url_text":"Base 50"}]},{"reference":"Salomon, David (February 1993) [1992]. Written at California State University, Northridge, California, USA. Chivers, Ian D. (ed.). Assemblers and Loaders (PDF). Ellis Horwood Series In Computers And Their Applications (1 ed.). Chicester, West Sussex, UK: Ellis Horwood Limited / Simon & Schuster International Group. ISBN 0-13-052564-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2008-10-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.davidsalomon.name/assem.advertis/asl.pdf","url_text":"Assemblers and Loaders"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellis_Horwood_Limited","url_text":"Ellis Horwood Limited"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster_International_Group","url_text":"Simon & Schuster International Group"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-052564-2","url_text":"0-13-052564-2"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200323010358/http://www.davidsalomon.name/assem.advertis/asl.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jacob, Bruce; Ng, Spencer W.; Wang, David T.; Rodrigez, Samuel (2008). \"Part I Chapter 3.1.3 On-Line Locality Optimizations: Dynamic Compression of Instructions and Data\". Memory Systems: Cache, DRAM, Disk. The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Computer Architecture and Design. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers / Elsevier. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-12-379751-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SrP3aWed-esC&pg=PA147","url_text":"\"Part I Chapter 3.1.3 On-Line Locality Optimizations: Dynamic Compression of Instructions and Data\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers","url_text":"Morgan Kaufmann Publishers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-379751-3","url_text":"978-0-12-379751-3"}]},{"reference":"Jones, Douglas W. (2018). \"Lecture 7, Object Codes, Loaders and Linkers - Final steps on the road to machine code\". Operating Systems, Spring 2018. Part of the CS:3620 Operating Systems Collection. The University of Iowa, Department of Computer Science. Archived from the original on 2020-06-06. Retrieved 2020-06-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_W._Jones","url_text":"Jones, Douglas W."},{"url":"http://homepage.divms.uiowa.edu/~jones/opsys/notes/07.shtml","url_text":"\"Lecture 7, Object Codes, Loaders and Linkers - Final steps on the road to machine code\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_University_of_Iowa","url_text":"The University of Iowa"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200606164231/http://homepage.divms.uiowa.edu/~jones/opsys/notes/07.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Boehm, Elaine M.; Steel, Jr., Thomas B. (June 1958). Machine Implementation of Symbolic Programming - Summary of a Paper to be Presented at the Summer 1958 Meeting of the ACM. ACM '58: Preprints of papers presented at the 13th national meeting of the Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 17-1–17-3. doi:10.1145/610937.610953. Archived from the original on 2020-06-06. Retrieved 2020-06-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/610937.610953","url_text":"Machine Implementation of Symbolic Programming - Summary of a Paper to be Presented at the Summer 1958 Meeting of the ACM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F610937.610953","url_text":"10.1145/610937.610953"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200606075930/https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/610937.610953","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Boehm, Elaine M.; Steel, Jr., Thomas B. (April 1959). \"The SHARE 709 System: Machine Implementation of Symbolic Programming\". Journal of the ACM. 6 (2): 134–140. doi:10.1145/320964.320968. S2CID 16545134. Archived from the original on 2020-06-04. Retrieved 2020-06-04. pp. 137–138: […] There is an interesting feature related to the encoding of symbols for inclusion in the dictionary. In the usual mode of expression, symbols may be constructed from a set of 50 characters. If encoding were character by character, six bits would be required for the representation of each such character. As a symbol may contain as many as six characters, a total of 36 bits would be required for the representation of each symbol. This might seem convenient, as the length of a 709 word is exactly 36 bits, but a moment's consideration shows that it is unfortunate as it would be desirable to have a bit or two available in the same word as the symbol representation, giving a clue to the nature of the symbol. These flagging bits can be obtained. Let each character possible represent a digit in a number system having a base of fifty. Now six character symbols may be read as natural numbers in a base fifty system. If these numbers are converted to the usual base two system, only 34 bits are required for the maximum number and a gain of two flag bits has been made. This has the incidental feature of decreasing the requisite number of bits for representing the entire code, but conversion time would outweigh the saving by a significant margin were it not for the peculiar length of the 709 word. Here is a clear illustration of the critical effect the precise specifications of the machine concerned hold over the details of an encoding schema. […]","urls":[{"url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/320964.320968","url_text":"\"The SHARE 709 System: Machine Implementation of Symbolic Programming\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_ACM","url_text":"Journal of the ACM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F320964.320968","url_text":"10.1145/320964.320968"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16545134","url_text":"16545134"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200604124209/https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/320964.320968","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_50_(numeral_system)","url_text":"base of fifty"}]},{"reference":"Shell, Donald L. (April 1959) [October 1958]. \"The SHARE 709 System: A Cooperative Effort\". Journal of the ACM. 6 (2): 123–127. doi:10.1145/320964.320966. S2CID 16476514. Archived from the original on 2020-06-17. Retrieved 2020-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/320964.320966","url_text":"\"The SHARE 709 System: A Cooperative Effort\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_ACM","url_text":"Journal of the ACM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F320964.320966","url_text":"10.1145/320964.320966"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16476514","url_text":"16476514"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200617052333/https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/320964.320966","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"8.10 .RAD50\". PAL-11R Assembler - Programmer's Manual - Program Assembly Language and Relocatable Assembler for the Disk Operating System (2nd revised printing ed.). Maynard, Massachusetts, USA: Digital Equipment Corporation. May 1971 [February 1971]. p. 8-8. DEC-11-ASDB-D. Retrieved 2020-06-18. p. 8-8: […] PDP-11 systems programs often handle symbols in a specially coded form called RADIX 50 (this form is sometimes referred to as MOD40). This form allows 3 characters to be packed into 16 bits […]","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_decpdp11do11RAssemblerProgrammersManualMay71_2572677","url_text":"PAL-11R Assembler - Programmer's Manual - Program Assembly Language and Relocatable Assembler for the Disk Operating System"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation","url_text":"Digital Equipment Corporation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11","url_text":"PDP-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_RADIX_50","url_text":"RADIX 50"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_MOD40","url_text":"MOD40"}]},{"reference":"Williams, Al (2016-11-22). \"Squoze your data\". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2020-06-06. Retrieved 2020-06-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://hackaday.com/2016/11/22/squoze-your-data/","url_text":"\"Squoze your data\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200606101541/https://hackaday.com/2016/11/22/squoze-your-data/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ehrman, John Robert; Snyder, James N. (1964-04-15). \"3.3.2.1 SCAT\". The PORTHOS Executive System for the IBM 7094 - User's Manual (PDF). University of Illinois, Graduate College Digital Computer Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-06-07. Retrieved 2020-06-07. […] SCAT is a two part assembler which in brief operates as follows: Programs written symbolically as one order per card are ingested during the first phase by the \"compiler\" which scans the program for symbols and outputs a condensed deck of cards (SQUOZE deck) containing tables of these symbols and the program condensed and efficiently coded. During the second phase this SQUOZE deck is ingested by the \"modify and load\" program which converts the object program to binary machine language which by option can either be loaded ready to run or output on absolute binary cards (23 orders per card) for loading and running at a later time. The \"lister\" can produce a printed version of the program at either of these stages. Symbolic corrections to a program can be inserted into the second phase along with the SQUOZE deck. […]","urls":[{"url":"https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4834584.pdf","url_text":"The PORTHOS Executive System for the IBM 7094 - User's Manual"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois","url_text":"University of Illinois"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200607163131/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4834584.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_quartz

Fused quartz

["1 Manufacture","2 Fusion","3 Product quality","4 Applications","4.1 Refractory material applications","5 Properties of fused quartz","5.1 Refractive index","5.2 List of physical properties","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Glass consisting of pure silica Not to be confused with Shocked quartz. This fused quartz sphere was manufactured for use in a gyroscope in the Gravity Probe B experiment. It is one of the most accurate spheres ever manufactured, deviating from a perfect sphere by no more than 40 atoms of thickness. Fused quartz, fused silica or quartz glass is a glass consisting of almost pure silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) in amorphous (non-crystalline) form. This differs from all other commercial glasses, such as soda-lime glass, lead glass, or borosilicate glass, in which other ingredients are added which change the glasses' optical and physical properties, such as lowering the melt temperature, the spectral transmission range, or the mechanical strength. Fused quartz, therefore, has high working and melting temperatures, making it difficult to form and less desirable for most common applications, but is much stronger, more chemically resistant, and exhibits lower thermal expansion, making it more suitable for many specialized uses such as lighting and scientific applications. The terms fused quartz and fused silica are used interchangeably but can refer to different manufacturing techniques, resulting in different trace impurities. However fused quartz, being in the glassy state, has quite different physical properties compared to crystalline quartz despite being made of the same substance. Due to its physical properties it finds specialty uses in semiconductor fabrication and laboratory equipment, for instance. Compared to other common glasses, the optical transmission of pure silica extends well into the ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, so is used to make lenses and other optics for these wavelengths. Depending on manufacturing processes, impurities will restrict the optical transmission, resulting in commercial grades of fused quartz optimized for use in the infrared, or in the ultraviolet. The low coefficient of thermal expansion of fused quartz makes it a useful material for precision mirror substrates or optical flats. Manufacture Fused quartz is produced by fusing (melting) high-purity silica sand, which consists of quartz crystals. There are four basic types of commercial silica glass: Type I is produced by induction melting natural quartz in a vacuum or an inert atmosphere. Type II is produced by fusing quartz crystal powder in a high-temperature flame. Type III is produced by burning SiCl4 in a hydrogen-oxygen flame. Type IV is produced by burning SiCl4 in a water vapor-free plasma flame. Quartz contains only silicon and oxygen, although commercial quartz glass often contains impurities. Two dominant impurities are aluminium and titanium which affect the optical transmission at ultraviolet wavelengths. If water is present in the manufacturing process, hydroxyl (OH) groups may become embedded which reduces transmission in the infrared. Fusion Melting is effected at approximately 2200 °C (4000 °F) using either an electrically heated furnace (electrically fused) or a gas/oxygen-fuelled furnace (flame-fused). Fused silica can be made from almost any silicon-rich chemical precursor, usually using a continuous process which involves flame oxidation of volatile silicon compounds to silicon dioxide, and thermal fusion of the resulting dust (although alternative processes are used). This results in a transparent glass with an ultra-high purity and improved optical transmission in the deep ultraviolet. One common method involves adding silicon tetrachloride to a hydrogen–oxygen flame. Product quality Fused quartz is normally transparent. The material can, however, become translucent if small air bubbles are allowed to be trapped within. The water content (and therefore infrared transmission) of fused quartz is determined by the manufacturing process. Flame-fused material always has a higher water content due to the combination of the hydrocarbons and oxygen fueling the furnace, forming hydroxyl groups within the material. An IR grade material typically has an content below 10 ppm. Applications Many optical applications of fused quartz exploit its wide transparency range, which can extend well into the ultraviolet and into the near-mid infrared. Fused quartz is the key starting material for optical fiber, used for telecommunications. Because of its strength and high melting point (compared to ordinary glass), fused quartz is used as an envelope for halogen lamps and high-intensity discharge lamps, which must operate at a high envelope temperature to achieve their combination of high brightness and long life. Some high-power vacuum tubes used silica envelopes whose good transmission at infrared wavelengths facilitated radiation cooling of their incandescent anodes. Because of its physical strength, fused quartz was used in deep diving vessels such as the bathysphere and benthoscope and in the windows of crewed spacecraft, including the Space Shuttle and International Space Station. Fused quartz was used also in composite armour development. In the semiconductor industry, its combination of strength, thermal stability, and UV transparency makes it an excellent substrate for projection masks for photolithography. An EPROM with fused quartz window in the top of the package Its UV transparency also finds use as windows on EPROMs (erasable programmable read only memory), a type of non-volatile memory chip which is erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. EPROMs are recognizable by the transparent fused quartz (although some later models use UV-transparent resin) window which sits on top of the package, through which the silicon chip is visible, and which transmits UV light for erasing. Due to the thermal stability and composition, it is used in 5D optical data storage and in semiconductor fabrication furnaces. Fused quartz has nearly ideal properties for fabricating first surface mirrors such as those used in telescopes. The material behaves in a predictable way and allows the optical fabricator to put a very smooth polish onto the surface and produce the desired figure with fewer testing iterations. In some instances, a high-purity UV grade of fused quartz has been used to make several of the individual uncoated lens elements of special-purpose lenses including the Zeiss 105 mm f/4.3 UV Sonnar, a lens formerly made for the Hasselblad camera, and the Nikon UV-Nikkor 105 mm f/4.5 (presently sold as the Nikon PF10545MF-UV) lens. These lenses are used for UV photography, as the quartz glass can be transparent at much shorter wavelengths than lenses made with more common flint or crown glass formulas. Fused quartz can be metallised and etched for use as a substrate for high-precision microwave circuits, the thermal stability making it a good choice for narrowband filters and similar demanding applications. The lower dielectric constant than alumina allows higher impedance tracks or thinner substrates. Refractory material applications Fused quartz as an industrial raw material is used to make various refractory shapes such as crucibles, trays, shrouds, and rollers for many high-temperature thermal processes including steelmaking, investment casting, and glass manufacture. Refractory shapes made from fused quartz have excellent thermal shock resistance and are chemically inert to most elements and compounds, including virtually all acids, regardless of concentration, except hydrofluoric acid, which is very reactive even in fairly low concentrations. Translucent fused-quartz tubes are commonly used to sheathe electric elements in room heaters, industrial furnaces, and other similar applications. Owing to its low mechanical damping at ordinary temperatures, it is used for high-Q resonators, in particular, for wine-glass resonator of hemispherical resonator gyro. For the same reason fused quartz is also the material used for modern glass instruments such as the glass harp and the verrophone, and is also used for new builds of the historical glass harmonica, giving these instruments a greater dynamic range and a clearer sound than with the historically used lead crystal. Quartz glassware is occasionally used in chemistry laboratories when standard borosilicate glass cannot withstand high temperatures or when high UV transmission is required. The cost of production is significantly higher, limiting its use; it is usually found as a single basic element, such as a tube in a furnace, or as a flask, the elements in direct exposure to the heat. Properties of fused quartz The extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion, about 5.5×10−7/K (20–320 °C), accounts for its remarkable ability to undergo large, rapid temperature changes without cracking (see thermal shock). Phosphorescence in fused quartz from an extremely intense pulse of UV light in a flashtube, centered at 170 nm Fused quartz is prone to phosphorescence and "solarisation" (purplish discoloration) under intense UV illumination, as is often seen in flashtubes. "UV grade" synthetic fused silica (sold under various tradenames including "HPFS", "Spectrosil", and "Suprasil") has a very low metallic impurity content making it transparent deeper into the ultraviolet. An optic with a thickness of 1 cm has a transmittance around 50% at a wavelength of 170 nm, which drops to only a few percent at 160 nm. However, its infrared transmission is limited by strong water absorptions at 2.2 μm and 2.7 μm. "Infrared grade" fused quartz (tradenames "Infrasil", "Vitreosil IR", and others), which is electrically fused, has a greater presence of metallic impurities, limiting its UV transmittance wavelength to around 250 nm, but a much lower water content, leading to excellent infrared transmission up to 3.6 μm wavelength. All grades of transparent fused quartz/fused silica have nearly identical mechanical properties. Refractive index The optical dispersion of fused quartz can be approximated by the following Sellmeier equation: ε = n 2 = 1 + 0.6961663 λ 2 λ 2 − 0.0684043 2 + 0.4079426 λ 2 λ 2 − 0.1162414 2 + 0.8974794 λ 2 λ 2 − 9.896161 2 , {\displaystyle \varepsilon =n^{2}=1+{\frac {0.6961663\lambda ^{2}}{\lambda ^{2}-0.0684043^{2}}}+{\frac {0.4079426\lambda ^{2}}{\lambda ^{2}-0.1162414^{2}}}+{\frac {0.8974794\lambda ^{2}}{\lambda ^{2}-9.896161^{2}}},} where the wavelength λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is measured in micrometers. This equation is valid between 0.21 and 3.71 μm and at 20 °C. Its validity was confirmed for wavelengths up to 6.7 μm. Experimental data for the real (refractive index) and imaginary (absorption index) parts of the complex refractive index of fused quartz reported in the literature over the spectral range from 30 nm to 1000 μm have been reviewed by Kitamura et al. and are available online. Its quite high Abbe Number of 67.8 makes it among the lowest dispersion glasses at visible wavelengths, as well as having an exceptionally low refractive index in the visible (nd = 1.4585). Note that fused quartz has a very different and lower refractive index compared to crystalline quartz which is birefringent with refractive indices no = 1.5443 and ne = 1.5534 at the same wavelength. Although these forms have the same chemical formula, their differing structures result in different optical and other physical properties. List of physical properties Density: 2.203 g/cm3 Hardness: 5.3–6.5 (Mohs scale), 8.8 GPa Tensile strength: 48.3 MPa Compressive strength: > 1.1 GPa Bulk modulus: ~37 GPa Rigidity modulus: 31 GPa Young's modulus: 71.7 GPa Poisson's ratio: 0.17 Lamé elastic constants: λ = 15.87 GPa, μ = 31.26 GPa Coefficient of thermal expansion: 5.5 × 10−7/K (average 20–320 °C) Thermal conductivity: 1.3 W/(m·K) Specific heat capacity: 45.3 J/(mol·K) Softening point: ≈ 1665 °C Annealing point: ≈ 1140 °C Strain point: 1070 °C Electrical resistivity: > 1018 Ω·m Dielectric constant: 3.75 at 20 °C 1 MHz Dielectric loss factor: less than 0.0004 at 20 °C 1 MHz typically 6 × 10−5 at 10 GHz Dielectric strength: 250–400 kV/cm at 20 °C Magnetic susceptibility: −11.28 × 10−6 (SI, 22 °C) Hamaker constant: A = 6.5 × 10−20 J. Surface tension: 0.300 N/m at 1800–2400 °C Index of refraction: nd = 1.4585 (at 587.6 nm) Change of refractive index with temperature: 1.28 × 10−5/K (20–30 °C) Transmission range: Cutoff – 160 to 5000 nm, with a deep absorption band at 2730 nm. Best transmittance – 180 to 2700 nm. Stress-optic coefficients: p11 = 0.113, p12 = 0.252. Abbe number: Vd = 67.82 See also Quartz fiber Structure of liquids and glasses Vycor References ^ Hardwood, W. (20 April 2004). "Spacecraft launched to test Albert Einstein's theories". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 14 May 2009. ^ "Quartz vs. Fused Silica: What's the Difference?". Swift Glass. 2015-09-08. Retrieved 2017-08-18. ^ De Jong, Bernard H. W. S.; Beerkens, Ruud G. C.; Van Nijnatten, Peter A. (2000). "Glass". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a12_365. ISBN 3-527-30673-0. ^ a b c Kitamura, Rei; Pilon, Laurent; Jonasz, Miroslaw (2007-11-19). "Optical Constants of Silica Glass From Extreme Ultraviolet to Far Infrared at Near Room Temperatures" (PDF). Applied Optics. 46 (33): 8118–8133. Bibcode:2007ApOpt..46.8118K. doi:10.1364/AO.46.008118. PMID 18026551. S2CID 17169097. Retrieved 2014-07-12. ^ Chemical purity of fused quartz / fused silica, www.heraeus-quarzglas.com ^ Varshneya, Arun K. (2019). Fundamentals of inorganic glasses. John C. Mauro. Amsterdam. ISBN 978-0-12-816226-2. OCLC 1101101049.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ "Fused quartz - Acemap". ddescholar.acemap.info. Retrieved 2023-07-04. ^ Salem, Jonathan (2012). "Transparent Armor Ceramics as Spacecraft Windows". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. ^ Evaluation of Siliceous Cored Armor for the XM60 Tank Archived June 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine ^ "Intel 1702A 2K (256 x 8) UV Erasable PROM" (PDF). ^ "CPU History - EPROMs". www.cpushack.com. Retrieved 2021-05-12. ^ Kazansky, P.; et al. (11 March 2016). "Eternal 5D data storage via ultrafast-laser writing in glass". SPIE Newsroom. ^ "Fused Quartz and Silica Plates for Semiconductor Applications". Heraeus Holding GmbH. Retrieved 2022-08-07. ^ "Quartz Properties". finkenbeiner.com. Retrieved 2022-08-07. ^ An Overview of MEMS Inertial Sensing Technology, February 1, 2003 ^ Penn, Steven D.; Harry, Gregory M.; Gretarsson, Andri M.; Kittelberger, Scott E.; Saulson, Peter R.; Schiller, John J.; Smith, Joshua R.; Swords, Sol O. (2001). "High quality factor measured in fused silica". Review of Scientific Instruments. 72 (9): 3670–3673. arXiv:gr-qc/0009035. Bibcode:2001RScI...72.3670P. doi:10.1063/1.1394183. S2CID 11630697. ^ a b c Malitson, I. H. (October 1965). "Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica" (PDF). Journal of the Optical Society of America. 55 (10): 1205–1209. Bibcode:1965JOSA...55.1205M. doi:10.1364/JOSA.55.001205. Retrieved 2014-07-12. ^ "Keysight Technologies GENESYS Concepts" (PDF). Keysight Technologies. ^ "Fused Silica". OpticsLand. Archived from the original on 2013-06-02. Retrieved 2016-02-27. ^ Wapler, M. C.; Leupold, J.; Dragonu, I.; von Elverfeldt, D.; Zaitsev, M.; Wallrabe, U. (2014). "Magnetic properties of materials for MR engineering, micro-MR and beyond". JMR. 242: 233–242. arXiv:1403.4760. Bibcode:2014JMagR.242..233W. doi:10.1016/j.jmr.2014.02.005. PMID 24705364. S2CID 11545416. ^ Surface tension and viscosity measurement of optical glasses using a scanning CO2 laser ^ Optical Engineering Science by Stephen Rolt - Wiley Publishing 2020 Page 211-213 ^ "Refractive Index of Fused Silica (Fused Quartz)". Refractive Index. Retrieved 2017-08-18. External links "Frozen Eye to Bring New Worlds into View" Popular Mechanics, June 1931 General Electrics, West Lynn Massachusetts Labs work on large fuzed quartz blocks vteGlass science topicsBasics Glass Glass transition Supercooling Formulation AgInSbTe Bioglass Borophosphosilicate glass Borosilicate glass Ceramic glaze Chalcogenide glass Cobalt glass Cranberry glass Crown glass Flint glass Fluorosilicate glass Fused quartz GeSbTe Gold ruby glass Lead glass Milk glass Phosphosilicate glass Photochromic lens glass Silicate glass Soda–lime glass Sodium hexametaphosphate Soluble glass Tellurite glass Thoriated glass Ultra low expansion glass Uranium glass Vitreous enamel Wood's glass ZBLAN Glass-ceramics Bioactive glass CorningWare Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals Macor Zerodur Preparation Annealing Chemical vapor deposition Glass batch calculation Glass forming Glass melting Glass modeling Ion implantation Liquidus temperature sol–gel technique Viscosity Vitrification Optics Achromat Dispersion Gradient-index optics Hydrogen darkening Optical amplifier Optical fiber Optical lens design Photochromic lens Photosensitive glass Refraction Transparent materials Surfacemodification Anti-reflective coating Chemically strengthened glass Corrosion Dealkalization DNA microarray Hydrogen darkening Insulated glazing Porous glass Self-cleaning glass sol–gel technique Tempered glass Diversetopics Conservation and restoration of glass objects Glass-coated wire Safety glass Glass databases Glass electrode Glass fiber reinforced concrete Glass ionomer cement Glass microspheres Glass-reinforced plastic Glass cloth Glass-to-metal seal Porous glass Pre-preg Prince Rupert's drops Radioactive waste vitrification Windshield Glass fiber Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States

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It is one of the most accurate spheres ever manufactured, deviating from a perfect sphere by no more than 40 atoms of thickness.[1]Fused quartz, fused silica or quartz glass is a glass consisting of almost pure silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) in amorphous (non-crystalline) form. This differs from all other commercial glasses, such as soda-lime glass, lead glass, or borosilicate glass, in which other ingredients are added which change the glasses' optical and physical properties, such as lowering the melt temperature, the spectral transmission range, or the mechanical strength. Fused quartz, therefore, has high working and melting temperatures, making it difficult to form and less desirable for most common applications, but is much stronger, more chemically resistant, and exhibits lower thermal expansion, making it more suitable for many specialized uses such as lighting and scientific applications.The terms fused quartz and fused silica are used interchangeably but can refer to different manufacturing techniques, resulting in different trace impurities. However fused quartz, being in the glassy state, has quite different physical properties compared to crystalline quartz despite being made of the same substance.[2] Due to its physical properties it finds specialty uses in semiconductor fabrication and laboratory equipment, for instance.Compared to other common glasses, the optical transmission of pure silica extends well into the ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, so is used to make lenses and other optics for these wavelengths. Depending on manufacturing processes, impurities will restrict the optical transmission, resulting in commercial grades of fused quartz optimized for use in the infrared, or in the ultraviolet. The low coefficient of thermal expansion of fused quartz makes it a useful material for precision mirror substrates or optical flats.[3]","title":"Fused quartz"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fusing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting"},{"link_name":"quartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz"},{"link_name":"SiCl4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_tetrachloride"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rk-4"},{"link_name":"aluminium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium"},{"link_name":"titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"hydroxyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl"}],"text":"Fused quartz is produced by fusing (melting) high-purity silica sand, which consists of quartz crystals. There are four basic types of commercial silica glass:Type I is produced by induction melting natural quartz in a vacuum or an inert atmosphere.\nType II is produced by fusing quartz crystal powder in a high-temperature flame.\nType III is produced by burning SiCl4 in a hydrogen-oxygen flame.\nType IV is produced by burning SiCl4 in a water vapor-free plasma flame.[4]Quartz contains only silicon and oxygen, although commercial quartz glass often contains impurities. Two dominant impurities are aluminium and titanium[5] which affect the optical transmission at ultraviolet wavelengths. If water is present in the manufacturing process, hydroxyl (OH) groups may become embedded which reduces transmission in the infrared.","title":"Manufacture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"oxidation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation"},{"link_name":"silicon tetrachloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_tetrachloride"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Melting is effected at approximately 2200 °C (4000 °F) using either an electrically heated furnace (electrically fused) or a gas/oxygen-fuelled furnace (flame-fused).[6] Fused silica can be made from almost any silicon-rich chemical precursor, usually using a continuous process which involves flame oxidation of volatile silicon compounds to silicon dioxide, and thermal fusion of the resulting dust (although alternative processes are used). This results in a transparent glass with an ultra-high purity and improved optical transmission in the deep ultraviolet. One common method involves adding silicon tetrachloride to a hydrogen–oxygen flame.[citation needed]","title":"Fusion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hydroxyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Fused quartz is normally transparent. The material can, however, become translucent if small air bubbles are allowed to be trapped within. The water content (and therefore infrared transmission) of fused quartz is determined by the manufacturing process. Flame-fused material always has a higher water content due to the combination of the hydrocarbons and oxygen fueling the furnace, forming hydroxyl [OH] groups within the material. An IR grade material typically has an [OH] content below 10 ppm.[7]","title":"Product quality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"optical fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber"},{"link_name":"glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"halogen lamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen_lamp"},{"link_name":"high-intensity discharge lamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-intensity_discharge_lamp"},{"link_name":"vacuum tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"radiation cooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_cooling"},{"link_name":"incandescent anodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube#Heat_generation_and_cooling"},{"link_name":"bathysphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathysphere"},{"link_name":"benthoscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthoscope"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"composite armour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_armour"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-xm60-9"},{"link_name":"projection masks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projection_mask"},{"link_name":"photolithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolithography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EPROM_Intel_C1702A.jpg"},{"link_name":"EPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM"},{"link_name":"EPROMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM"},{"link_name":"read only memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read_only_memory"},{"link_name":"non-volatile memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memory"},{"link_name":"chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"UV light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV_light"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"5D optical data storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5D_optical_data_storage"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spexp-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"first surface mirrors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_surface_mirror"},{"link_name":"telescopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope"},{"link_name":"flint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_glass"},{"link_name":"crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_glass_(optics)"},{"link_name":"dielectric constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_constant"}],"text":"Many optical applications of fused quartz exploit its wide transparency range, which can extend well into the ultraviolet and into the near-mid infrared. Fused quartz is the key starting material for optical fiber, used for telecommunications.Because of its strength and high melting point (compared to ordinary glass), fused quartz is used as an envelope for halogen lamps and high-intensity discharge lamps, which must operate at a high envelope temperature to achieve their combination of high brightness and long life. Some high-power vacuum tubes used silica envelopes whose good transmission at infrared wavelengths facilitated radiation cooling of their incandescent anodes.Because of its physical strength, fused quartz was used in deep diving vessels such as the bathysphere and benthoscope and in the windows of crewed spacecraft, including the Space Shuttle and International Space Station.[8] Fused quartz was used also in composite armour development.[9]In the semiconductor industry, its combination of strength, thermal stability, and UV transparency makes it an excellent substrate for projection masks for photolithography.An EPROM with fused quartz window in the top of the packageIts UV transparency also finds use as windows on EPROMs (erasable programmable read only memory), a type of non-volatile memory chip which is erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. EPROMs are recognizable by the transparent fused quartz (although some later models use UV-transparent resin) window which sits on top of the package, through which the silicon chip is visible, and which transmits UV light for erasing.[10][11]Due to the thermal stability and composition, it is used in 5D optical data storage[12] and in semiconductor fabrication furnaces.[13][14]Fused quartz has nearly ideal properties for fabricating first surface mirrors such as those used in telescopes. The material behaves in a predictable way and allows the optical fabricator to put a very smooth polish onto the surface and produce the desired figure with fewer testing iterations. In some instances, a high-purity UV grade of fused quartz has been used to make several of the individual uncoated lens elements of special-purpose lenses including the Zeiss 105 mm f/4.3 UV Sonnar, a lens formerly made for the Hasselblad camera, and the Nikon UV-Nikkor 105 mm f/4.5 (presently sold as the Nikon PF10545MF-UV) lens. These lenses are used for UV photography, as the quartz glass can be transparent at much shorter wavelengths than lenses made with more common flint or crown glass formulas.Fused quartz can be metallised and etched for use as a substrate for high-precision microwave circuits, the thermal stability making it a good choice for narrowband filters and similar demanding applications. The lower dielectric constant than alumina allows higher impedance tracks or thinner substrates.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"steelmaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelmaking"},{"link_name":"investment casting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_casting"},{"link_name":"hydrofluoric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid"},{"link_name":"sheathe electric elements in room heaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_heater"},{"link_name":"high-Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_factor"},{"link_name":"wine-glass resonator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrating_structure_gyroscope#Wine-glass_resonator"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"glass harp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_harp"},{"link_name":"verrophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrophone"},{"link_name":"glass harmonica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_harmonica"},{"link_name":"lead crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_crystal"},{"link_name":"borosilicate glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borosilicate_glass"}],"sub_title":"Refractory material applications","text":"Fused quartz as an industrial raw material is used to make various refractory shapes such as crucibles, trays, shrouds, and rollers for many high-temperature thermal processes including steelmaking, investment casting, and glass manufacture. Refractory shapes made from fused quartz have excellent thermal shock resistance and are chemically inert to most elements and compounds, including virtually all acids, regardless of concentration, except hydrofluoric acid, which is very reactive even in fairly low concentrations. Translucent fused-quartz tubes are commonly used to sheathe electric elements in room heaters, industrial furnaces, and other similar applications.Owing to its low mechanical damping at ordinary temperatures, it is used for high-Q resonators, in particular, for wine-glass resonator of hemispherical resonator gyro.[15][16] For the same reason fused quartz is also the material used for modern glass instruments such as the glass harp and the verrophone, and is also used for new builds of the historical glass harmonica, giving these instruments a greater dynamic range and a clearer sound than with the historically used lead crystal.Quartz glassware is occasionally used in chemistry laboratories when standard borosilicate glass cannot withstand high temperatures or when high UV transmission is required. The cost of production is significantly higher, limiting its use; it is usually found as a single basic element, such as a tube in a furnace, or as a flask, the elements in direct exposure to the heat.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"thermal shock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_shock"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fused_silica_phosphorescence_from_a_24_million_watt_flash.jpg"},{"link_name":"phosphorescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorescence"},{"link_name":"solarisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solarisation_(physics)"},{"link_name":"flashtubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashtube"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"water absorptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_absorption"}],"text":"The extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion, about 5.5×10−7/K (20–320 °C), accounts for its remarkable ability to undergo large, rapid temperature changes without cracking (see thermal shock).Phosphorescence in fused quartz from an extremely intense pulse of UV light in a flashtube, centered at 170 nmFused quartz is prone to phosphorescence and \"solarisation\" (purplish discoloration) under intense UV illumination, as is often seen in flashtubes. \"UV grade\" synthetic fused silica (sold under various tradenames including \"HPFS\", \"Spectrosil\", and \"Suprasil\") has a very low metallic impurity content making it transparent deeper into the ultraviolet. An optic with a thickness of 1 cm has a transmittance around 50% at a wavelength of 170 nm, which drops to only a few percent at 160 nm. However, its infrared transmission is limited by strong water absorptions at 2.2 μm and 2.7 μm.\"Infrared grade\" fused quartz (tradenames \"Infrasil\", \"Vitreosil IR\", and others), which is electrically fused, has a greater presence of metallic impurities, limiting its UV transmittance wavelength to around 250 nm, but a much lower water content, leading to excellent infrared transmission up to 3.6 μm wavelength. All grades of transparent fused quartz/fused silica have nearly identical mechanical properties.","title":"Properties of fused quartz"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"optical dispersion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)"},{"link_name":"Sellmeier equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sellmeier_equation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-17"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rk-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rk-4"},{"link_name":"available online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.seas.ucla.edu/~pilon/downloads.htm"},{"link_name":"Abbe Number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbe_number"},{"link_name":"dispersion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)"},{"link_name":"quartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz"},{"link_name":"birefringent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birefringent"}],"sub_title":"Refractive index","text":"The optical dispersion of fused quartz can be approximated by the following Sellmeier equation:[17]ε\n =\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 1\n +\n \n \n \n 0.6961663\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n 0.0684043\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 0.4079426\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n 0.1162414\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 0.8974794\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n 9.896161\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon =n^{2}=1+{\\frac {0.6961663\\lambda ^{2}}{\\lambda ^{2}-0.0684043^{2}}}+{\\frac {0.4079426\\lambda ^{2}}{\\lambda ^{2}-0.1162414^{2}}}+{\\frac {0.8974794\\lambda ^{2}}{\\lambda ^{2}-9.896161^{2}}},}where the wavelength \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n \n is measured in micrometers. This equation is valid between 0.21 and 3.71 μm and at 20 °C.[17] Its validity was confirmed for wavelengths up to 6.7 μm.[4] Experimental data for the real (refractive index) and imaginary (absorption index) parts of the complex refractive index of fused quartz reported in the literature over the spectral range from 30 nm to 1000 μm have been reviewed by Kitamura et al.[4] and are available online.Its quite high Abbe Number of 67.8 makes it among the lowest dispersion glasses at visible wavelengths, as well as having an exceptionally low refractive index in the visible (nd = 1.4585). Note that fused quartz has a very different and lower refractive index compared to crystalline quartz which is birefringent with refractive indices no = 1.5443 and ne = 1.5534 at the same wavelength. Although these forms have the same chemical formula, their differing structures result in different optical and other physical properties.","title":"Properties of fused quartz"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density"},{"link_name":"Hardness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness"},{"link_name":"GPa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Tensile strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength"},{"link_name":"MPa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Compressive strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressive_strength"},{"link_name":"Bulk modulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_modulus"},{"link_name":"Rigidity modulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_modulus"},{"link_name":"Young's modulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s_modulus"},{"link_name":"Poisson's ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson%27s_ratio"},{"link_name":"Lamé elastic constants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lam%C3%A9_parameters"},{"link_name":"Coefficient of thermal expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansion#Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion"},{"link_name":"Thermal conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conductivity"},{"link_name":"Specific heat capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_capacity#Extensive_and_intensive_quantities"},{"link_name":"Softening point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softening_point"},{"link_name":"Annealing point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(glass)"},{"link_name":"Strain point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(glass)"},{"link_name":"Electrical resistivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity"},{"link_name":"Dielectric constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_permittivity"},{"link_name":"Dielectric loss factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagation_constant#Attenuation_constant"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Dielectric strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_strength"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Magnetic susceptibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_susceptibility"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Hamaker constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamaker_constant"},{"link_name":"Surface tension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Index of refraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-17"},{"link_name":"Transmission range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"transmittance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmittance"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Stress-optic coefficients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress-optic_coefficient"},{"link_name":"Abbe number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbe_number"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"List of physical properties","text":"Density: 2.203 g/cm3\nHardness: 5.3–6.5 (Mohs scale), 8.8 GPa\nTensile strength: 48.3 MPa\nCompressive strength: > 1.1 GPa\nBulk modulus: ~37 GPa\nRigidity modulus: 31 GPa\nYoung's modulus: 71.7 GPa\nPoisson's ratio: 0.17\nLamé elastic constants: λ = 15.87 GPa, μ = 31.26 GPa\nCoefficient of thermal expansion: 5.5 × 10−7/K (average 20–320 °C)\nThermal conductivity: 1.3 W/(m·K)\nSpecific heat capacity: 45.3 J/(mol·K)\nSoftening point: ≈ 1665 °C\nAnnealing point: ≈ 1140 °C\nStrain point: 1070 °C\nElectrical resistivity: > 1018 Ω·m\nDielectric constant: 3.75 at 20 °C 1 MHz\nDielectric loss factor: less than 0.0004 at 20 °C 1 MHz typically 6 × 10−5 at 10 GHz[18]\nDielectric strength: 250–400 kV/cm at 20 °C[19]\nMagnetic susceptibility: −11.28 × 10−6 (SI, 22 °C)[20]\nHamaker constant: A = 6.5 × 10−20 J.\nSurface tension: 0.300 N/m at 1800–2400 °C[21]\nIndex of refraction: nd = 1.4585 (at 587.6 nm)\nChange of refractive index with temperature: 1.28 × 10−5/K (20–30 °C)[17]\nTransmission range: Cutoff – 160 to 5000 nm, with a deep absorption band at 2730 nm. Best transmittance – 180 to 2700 nm.[22]\nStress-optic coefficients: p11 = 0.113, p12 = 0.252.\nAbbe number: Vd = 67.82[23]","title":"Properties of fused quartz"}]

[{"image_text":"This fused quartz sphere was manufactured for use in a gyroscope in the Gravity Probe B experiment. It is one of the most accurate spheres ever manufactured, deviating from a perfect sphere by no more than 40 atoms of thickness.[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Einstein_gyro_gravity_probe_b.jpg/330px-Einstein_gyro_gravity_probe_b.jpg"},{"image_text":"An EPROM with fused quartz window in the top of the package","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EPROM_Intel_C1702A.jpg/220px-EPROM_Intel_C1702A.jpg"},{"image_text":"Phosphorescence in fused quartz from an extremely intense pulse of UV light in a flashtube, centered at 170 nm","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Fused_silica_phosphorescence_from_a_24_million_watt_flash.jpg/350px-Fused_silica_phosphorescence_from_a_24_million_watt_flash.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Quartz fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_fiber"},{"title":"Structure of liquids and glasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_liquids_and_glasses"},{"title":"Vycor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vycor"}]

[{"reference":"Hardwood, W. (20 April 2004). \"Spacecraft launched to test Albert Einstein's theories\". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 14 May 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.spaceflightnow.com/delta/d304/","url_text":"\"Spacecraft launched to test Albert Einstein's theories\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spaceflight_Now&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Spaceflight Now"}]},{"reference":"\"Quartz vs. Fused Silica: What's the Difference?\". Swift Glass. 2015-09-08. Retrieved 2017-08-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.swiftglass.com/quartz-vs-fused-silica-whats-the-difference/","url_text":"\"Quartz vs. Fused Silica: What's the Difference?\""}]},{"reference":"De Jong, Bernard H. W. S.; Beerkens, Ruud G. C.; Van Nijnatten, Peter A. (2000). \"Glass\". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a12_365. ISBN 3-527-30673-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a12_365","url_text":"10.1002/14356007.a12_365"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-527-30673-0","url_text":"3-527-30673-0"}]},{"reference":"Kitamura, Rei; Pilon, Laurent; Jonasz, Miroslaw (2007-11-19). \"Optical Constants of Silica Glass From Extreme Ultraviolet to Far Infrared at Near Room Temperatures\" (PDF). Applied Optics. 46 (33): 8118–8133. Bibcode:2007ApOpt..46.8118K. doi:10.1364/AO.46.008118. PMID 18026551. S2CID 17169097. Retrieved 2014-07-12.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.seas.ucla.edu/%7Epilon/Publications/AO2007-1.pdf","url_text":"\"Optical Constants of Silica Glass From Extreme Ultraviolet to Far Infrared at Near Room Temperatures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ApOpt..46.8118K","url_text":"2007ApOpt..46.8118K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.46.008118","url_text":"10.1364/AO.46.008118"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18026551","url_text":"18026551"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17169097","url_text":"17169097"}]},{"reference":"Varshneya, Arun K. (2019). Fundamentals of inorganic glasses. John C. Mauro. Amsterdam. ISBN 978-0-12-816226-2. OCLC 1101101049.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1101101049","url_text":"Fundamentals of inorganic glasses"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-816226-2","url_text":"978-0-12-816226-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1101101049","url_text":"1101101049"}]},{"reference":"\"Fused quartz - Acemap\". ddescholar.acemap.info. Retrieved 2023-07-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://ddescholar.acemap.info/field/2009270740","url_text":"\"Fused quartz - Acemap\""}]},{"reference":"Salem, Jonathan (2012). \"Transparent Armor Ceramics as Spacecraft Windows\". Journal of the American Ceramic Society.","urls":[{"url":"http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1120&context=nasapub&sei-redir=1","url_text":"\"Transparent Armor Ceramics as Spacecraft Windows\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Ceramic_Society","url_text":"American Ceramic Society"}]},{"reference":"\"Intel 1702A 2K (256 x 8) UV Erasable PROM\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://kormus.cz/mvt/datasheety/C1702A.pdf","url_text":"\"Intel 1702A 2K (256 x 8) UV Erasable PROM\""}]},{"reference":"\"CPU History - EPROMs\". www.cpushack.com. Retrieved 2021-05-12.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cpushack.com/EPROM.html","url_text":"\"CPU History - EPROMs\""}]},{"reference":"Kazansky, P.; et al. (11 March 2016). \"Eternal 5D data storage via ultrafast-laser writing in glass\". 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Review of Scientific Instruments. 72 (9): 3670–3673. arXiv:gr-qc/0009035. Bibcode:2001RScI...72.3670P. doi:10.1063/1.1394183. S2CID 11630697.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Saulson","url_text":"Saulson, Peter R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0009035","url_text":"gr-qc/0009035"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001RScI...72.3670P","url_text":"2001RScI...72.3670P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1394183","url_text":"10.1063/1.1394183"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11630697","url_text":"11630697"}]},{"reference":"Malitson, I. H. (October 1965). \"Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica\" (PDF). Journal of the Optical Society of America. 55 (10): 1205–1209. Bibcode:1965JOSA...55.1205M. doi:10.1364/JOSA.55.001205. Retrieved 2014-07-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.opticsinfobase.org/DirectPDFAccess/BF3D3BCC-E051-50FE-1CC45E714EE1496A_52806/josa-55-10-1205.pdf","url_text":"\"Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965JOSA...55.1205M","url_text":"1965JOSA...55.1205M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSA.55.001205","url_text":"10.1364/JOSA.55.001205"}]},{"reference":"\"Keysight Technologies GENESYS Concepts\" (PDF). Keysight Technologies.","urls":[{"url":"http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5989-6424EN.pdf","url_text":"\"Keysight Technologies GENESYS Concepts\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fused Silica\". OpticsLand. Archived from the original on 2013-06-02. Retrieved 2016-02-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130602023507/http://www.sciner.com/Opticsland/FS.htm","url_text":"\"Fused Silica\""},{"url":"http://www.sciner.com/Opticsland/FS.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Wapler, M. C.; Leupold, J.; Dragonu, I.; von Elverfeldt, D.; Zaitsev, M.; Wallrabe, U. (2014). \"Magnetic properties of materials for MR engineering, micro-MR and beyond\". JMR. 242: 233–242. arXiv:1403.4760. Bibcode:2014JMagR.242..233W. doi:10.1016/j.jmr.2014.02.005. PMID 24705364. S2CID 11545416.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1403.4760","url_text":"1403.4760"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JMagR.242..233W","url_text":"2014JMagR.242..233W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmr.2014.02.005","url_text":"10.1016/j.jmr.2014.02.005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24705364","url_text":"24705364"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11545416","url_text":"11545416"}]},{"reference":"\"Refractive Index of Fused Silica (Fused Quartz)\". Refractive Index. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quid_pro_quo_(disambiguation)

Quid pro quo (disambiguation)

["1 See also"]

Look up quid pro quo in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Quid pro quo is a Latin term meaning "something for something". Quid pro quo may also refer to: Quid Pro Quo (play), an 1844 play by Catherine Gore Quid Pro Quo (film), a 2008 film Quid Pro Quo (album), a 2011 album by English rock band Status Quo Quid Pro Quo, an album by Australian musician Brett Garsed Quid Pro Quo, an album by German medieval rock band In Extremo "Quid Pro Quo" (Constantine), an episode of the American television series Constantine "Quid Pro Quo", a season 2 episode of Hacks "Quid Pro Quoæ (Terriers), an episode of the American television series Terriers Quid Pro Quo (trotter) , Swedish trotter See also "There was no quid pro quo", a phrase employed by Donald Trump in reference to the Trump–Ukraine scandal Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Quid pro quo.If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand%27s_postulate

Bertrand's postulate

["1 Prime number theorem","2 Generalizations","3 Sylvester's theorem","4 Erdős's theorems","5 Better results","6 Consequences","7 See also","8 Notes","9 Bibliography","10 External links"]

Joseph Louis François Bertrand Existence of a prime number between any number and its double In number theory, Bertrand's postulate is the theorem that for any integer n > 3 {\displaystyle n>3} , there exists at least one prime number p {\displaystyle p} with n < p < 2 n − 2. {\displaystyle n<p<2n-2.} A less restrictive formulation is: for every n > 1 {\displaystyle n>1} , there is always at least one prime p {\displaystyle p} such that n < p < 2 n . {\displaystyle n<p<2n.} Another formulation, where p n {\displaystyle p_{n}} is the n {\displaystyle n} -th prime, is: for n ≥ 1 {\displaystyle n\geq 1} p n + 1 < 2 p n . {\displaystyle p_{n+1}<2p_{n}.} This statement was first conjectured in 1845 by Joseph Bertrand (1822–1900). Bertrand himself verified his statement for all integers 2 ≤ n ≤ 3 000 000 {\displaystyle 2\leq n\leq 3\,000\,000} . His conjecture was completely proved by Chebyshev (1821–1894) in 1852 and so the postulate is also called the Bertrand–Chebyshev theorem or Chebyshev's theorem. Chebyshev's theorem can also be stated as a relationship with π ( x ) {\displaystyle \pi (x)} , the prime-counting function (number of primes less than or equal to x {\displaystyle x} ): π ( x ) − π ( x 2 ) ≥ 1 ,  for all  x ≥ 2. {\displaystyle \pi (x)-\pi {\bigl (}{\tfrac {x}{2}}{\bigr )}\geq 1,{\text{ for all }}x\geq 2.} Prime number theorem The prime number theorem (PNT) implies that the number of primes up to x is roughly x/ln(x), so if we replace x with 2x then we see the number of primes up to 2x is asymptotically twice the number of primes up to x (the terms ln(2x) and ln(x) are asymptotically equivalent). Therefore, the number of primes between n and 2n is roughly n/ln(n) when n is large, and so in particular there are many more primes in this interval than are guaranteed by Bertrand's postulate. So Bertrand's postulate is comparatively weaker than the PNT. But PNT is a deep theorem, while Bertrand's Postulate can be stated more memorably and proved more easily, and also makes precise claims about what happens for small values of n. (In addition, Chebyshev's theorem was proved before the PNT and so has historical interest.) The similar and still unsolved Legendre's conjecture asks whether for every n ≥ 1, there is a prime p such that n2 < p < (n + 1)2. Again we expect that there will be not just one but many primes between n2 and (n + 1)2, but in this case the PNT doesn't help: the number of primes up to x2 is asymptotic to x2/ln(x2) while the number of primes up to (x + 1)2 is asymptotic to (x + 1)2/ln((x + 1)2), which is asymptotic to the estimate on primes up to x2. So unlike the previous case of x and 2x we don't get a proof of Legendre's conjecture even for all large n. Error estimates on the PNT are not (indeed, cannot be) sufficient to prove the existence of even one prime in this interval. Generalizations In 1919, Ramanujan (1887–1920) used properties of the Gamma function to give a simpler proof than Chebyshev's. His short paper included a generalization of the postulate, from which would later arise the concept of Ramanujan primes. Further generalizations of Ramanujan primes have also been discovered; for instance, there is a proof that 2 p i − n > p i  for  i > k  where  k = π ( p k ) = π ( R n ) , {\displaystyle 2p_{i-n}>p_{i}{\text{ for }}i>k{\text{ where }}k=\pi (p_{k})=\pi (R_{n})\,,} with pk the kth prime and Rn the nth Ramanujan prime. Other generalizations of Bertrand's postulate have been obtained using elementary methods. (In the following, n runs through the set of positive integers.) In 1973, Denis Hanson proved that there exists a prime between 3n and 4n. In 2006, apparently unaware of Hanson's result, M. El Bachraoui proposed a proof that there exists a prime between 2n and 3n. Bertrand’s postulate over the Gaussian integers is an extension of the idea of the distribution of primes, but in this case on the complex plane. Thus, as Gaussian primes extend over the plane and not only along a line, and doubling a complex number is not simply multiplying by 2 but doubling its norm (multiplying by 1+i), different definitions lead to different results, some are still conjectures, some proven. Sylvester's theorem Bertrand's postulate was proposed for applications to permutation groups. Sylvester (1814–1897) generalized the weaker statement with the statement: the product of k consecutive integers greater than k is divisible by a prime greater than k. Bertrand's (weaker) postulate follows from this by taking k = n, and considering the k numbers n + 1, n + 2, up to and including n + k = 2n, where n > 1. According to Sylvester's generalization, one of these numbers has a prime factor greater than k. Since all these numbers are less than 2(k + 1), the number with a prime factor greater than k has only one prime factor, and thus is a prime. Note that 2n is not prime, and thus indeed we now know there exists a prime p with n < p < 2n. Erdős's theorems In 1932, Erdős (1913–1996) also published a simpler proof using binomial coefficients and the Chebyshev function ϑ {\displaystyle \vartheta } , defined as: ϑ ( x ) = ∑ p = 2 x ln ⁡ ( p ) {\displaystyle \vartheta (x)=\sum _{p=2}^{x}\ln(p)} where p ≤ x runs over primes. See proof of Bertrand's postulate for the details. Erdős proved in 1934 that for any positive integer k, there is a natural number N such that for all n > N, there are at least k primes between n and 2n. An equivalent statement had been proved in 1919 by Ramanujan (see Ramanujan prime). Better results It follows from the prime number theorem that for any real ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} there is a n 0 > 0 {\displaystyle n_{0}>0} such that for all n > n 0 {\displaystyle n>n_{0}} there is a prime p {\displaystyle p} such that n < p < ( 1 + ε ) n {\displaystyle n<p<(1+\varepsilon )n} . It can be shown, for instance, that lim n → ∞ π ( ( 1 + ε ) n ) − π ( n ) n / log ⁡ n = ε , {\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {\pi ((1+\varepsilon )n)-\pi (n)}{n/\log n}}=\varepsilon ,} which implies that π ( ( 1 + ε ) n ) − π ( n ) {\displaystyle \pi ((1+\varepsilon )n)-\pi (n)} goes to infinity (and, in particular, is greater than 1 for sufficiently large n {\displaystyle n} ). Non-asymptotic bounds have also been proved. In 1952, Jitsuro Nagura proved that for n ≥ 25 {\displaystyle n\geq 25} there is always a prime between n {\displaystyle n} and ( 1 + 1 5 ) n {\displaystyle {\bigl (}1+{\tfrac {1}{5}}{\bigr )}n} . In 1976, Lowell Schoenfeld showed that for n ≥ 2 010 760 {\displaystyle n\geq 2\,010\,760} , there is always a prime p {\displaystyle p} in the open interval n < p < ( 1 + 1 16 597 ) n {\displaystyle n<p<{\bigl (}1+{\tfrac {1}{16\,597}}{\bigr )}n} . In his 1998 doctoral thesis, Pierre Dusart improved the above result, showing that for k ≥ 463 {\displaystyle k\geq 463} , p k + 1 ≤ ( 1 + 1 2 ln 2 ⁡ p k ) p k {\displaystyle p_{k+1}\leq \left(1+{\frac {1}{2\ln ^{2}{p_{k}}}}\right)p_{k}} , and in particular for x ≥ 3 275 {\displaystyle x\geq 3\,275} , there exists a prime p {\displaystyle p} in the interval x < p ≤ ( 1 + 1 2 ln 2 ⁡ x ) x {\displaystyle x<p\leq \left(1+{\frac {1}{2\ln ^{2}{x}}}\right)x} . In 2010 Pierre Dusart proved that for x ≥ 396 738 {\displaystyle x\geq 396\,738} there is at least one prime p {\displaystyle p} in the interval x < p ≤ ( 1 + 1 25 ln 2 ⁡ x ) x {\displaystyle x<p\leq \left(1+{\frac {1}{25\ln ^{2}{x}}}\right)x} . In 2016, Pierre Dusart improved his result from 2010, showing (Proposition 5.4) that if x ≥ 89 693 {\displaystyle x\geq 89\,693} , there is at least one prime p {\displaystyle p} in the interval x < p ≤ ( 1 + 1 ln 3 ⁡ x ) x {\displaystyle x<p\leq \left(1+{\frac {1}{\ln ^{3}{x}}}\right)x} . He also shows (Corollary 5.5) that for x ≥ 468 991 632 {\displaystyle x\geq 468\,991\,632} , there is at least one prime p {\displaystyle p} in the interval x < p ≤ ( 1 + 1 5 000 ln 2 ⁡ x ) x {\displaystyle x<p\leq \left(1+{\frac {1}{5\,000\ln ^{2}{x}}}\right)x} . Baker, Harman and Pintz proved that there is a prime in the interval [ x − x 0.525 , x ] {\displaystyle } for all sufficiently large x {\displaystyle x} . Dudek proved that for all n ≥ e e 33.3 {\displaystyle n\geq e^{e^{33.3}}} , there is at least one prime between n 3 {\displaystyle n^{3}} and ( n + 1 ) 3 {\displaystyle (n+1)^{3}} . Dudek also proved that the Riemann hypothesis implies that for all x ≥ 2 {\displaystyle x\geq 2} there is a prime p {\displaystyle p} satisfying x − 4 π x log ⁡ x < p ≤ x . {\displaystyle x-{\frac {4}{\pi }}{\sqrt {x}}\log x<p\leq x.} Consequences The sequence of primes, along with 1, is a complete sequence; any positive integer can be written as a sum of primes (and 1) using each at most once. The only harmonic number that is an integer is the number 1. See also Oppermann's conjecture Prime gap Proof of Bertrand's postulate Ramanujan prime Notes ^ Ribenboim, Paulo (2004). The Little Book of Bigger Primes. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-387-20169-6. ^ Bertrand, Joseph (1845), "Mémoire sur le nombre de valeurs que peut prendre une fonction quand on y permute les lettres qu'elle renferme.", Journal de l'École Royale Polytechnique (in French), 18 (Cahier 30): 123–140. ^ Tchebychev, P. (1852), "Mémoire sur les nombres premiers." (PDF), Journal de mathématiques pures et appliquées, Série 1 (in French): 366–390. (Proof of the postulate: 371-382). Also see Tchebychev, P. (1854), "Mémoire sur les nombres premiers.", Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg (in French), 7: 15–33 ^ Ramanujan, S. (1919), "A proof of Bertrand's postulate", Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 11: 181–182 ^ Hanson, Denis (1973), "On a theorem of Sylvester and Schur", Canadian Mathematical Bulletin, 16 (2): 195–199, doi:10.4153/CMB-1973-035-3. ^ El Bachraoui, Mohamed (2006), "Primes in the interval ", International Journal of Contemporary Mathematical Sciences, 1 ^ Madhuparna Das (2019), Generalization of Bertrand’s postulate for Gaussian primes, arXiv:1901.07086v2 ^ Erdős, P. (1932), "Beweis eines Satzes von Tschebyschef" (PDF), Acta Litt. Sci. (Szeged) (in German), 5 (1930-1932): 194–198 ^ G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright, An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, 6th ed., Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 494. ^ Nagura, J (1952), "On the interval containing at least one prime number", Proceedings of the Japan Academy, Series A, 28 (4): 177–181, doi:10.3792/pja/1195570997 ^ Lowell Schoenfeld (April 1976), "Sharper Bounds for the Chebyshev Functions θ(x) and ψ(x), II", Mathematics of Computation, 30 (134): 337–360, doi:10.2307/2005976, JSTOR 2005976 ^ Dusart, Pierre (1998), Autour de la fonction qui compte le nombre de nombres premiers (PDF) (PhD thesis) (in French) ^ Dusart, Pierre (2010). "Estimates of Some Functions Over Primes without R.H.". arXiv:1002.0442 . ^ Dusart, Pierre (2016), "Explicit estimates of some functions over primes", The Ramanujan Journal, 45: 227–251, doi:10.1007/s11139-016-9839-4, S2CID 125120533 ^ Baker, R. C.; Harman, G.; Pintz, J. (2001), "The difference between consecutive primes, II", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 83 (3): 532–562, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.360.3671, doi:10.1112/plms/83.3.532, S2CID 8964027 ^ Dudek, Adrian (December 2016), "An explicit result for primes between cubes", Funct. Approx., 55 (2): 177–197, arXiv:1401.4233, doi:10.7169/facm/2016.55.2.3, S2CID 119143089 ^ Dudek, Adrian W. (21 August 2014), "On the Riemann hypothesis and the difference between primes", International Journal of Number Theory, 11 (3): 771–778, arXiv:1402.6417, Bibcode:2014arXiv1402.6417D, doi:10.1142/S1793042115500426, ISSN 1793-0421, S2CID 119321107 ^ Ronald L., Graham; Donald E., Knuth; Oren, Patashnik (1994). Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-55802-9. Bibliography P. Erdős (1934), "A Theorem of Sylvester and Schur", Journal of the London Mathematical Society, 9 (4): 282–288, doi:10.1112/jlms/s1-9.4.282 Jitsuro Nagura (1952), "On the interval containing at least one prime number", Proc. Japan Acad., 28 (4): 177–181, doi:10.3792/pja/1195570997 Chris Caldwell, Bertrand's postulate at Prime Pages glossary. H. Ricardo (2005), "Goldbach's Conjecture Implies Bertrand's Postulate", Amer. Math. Monthly, 112: 492 Hugh L. Montgomery; Robert C. Vaughan (2007). Multiplicative number theory I. Classical theory. Cambridge tracts in advanced mathematics. Vol. 97. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-84903-6. J. Sondow (2009), "Ramanujan primes and Bertrand's postulate", Amer. Math. Monthly, 116 (7): 630–635, arXiv:0907.5232, doi:10.4169/193009709x458609 External links Sondow, Jonathan & Weisstein, Eric W. "Bertrand's Postulate". MathWorld. A proof of the weak version in the Mizar system: http://mizar.org/version/current/html/nat_4.html#T56 Bertrand's postulate − A proof of the weak version at www.dimostriamogoldbach.it/en/ vtePrime number classesBy formula Fermat (22n + 1) Mersenne (2p − 1) Double Mersenne (22p−1 − 1) Wagstaff (2p + 1)/3 Proth (k·2n + 1) Factorial (n! ± 1) Primorial (pn# ± 1) Euclid (pn# + 1) Pythagorean (4n + 1) Pierpont (2m·3n + 1) Quartan (x4 + y4) Solinas (2m ± 2n ± 1) Cullen (n·2n + 1) Woodall (n·2n − 1) Cuban (x3 − y3)/(x − y) Leyland (xy + yx) Thabit (3·2n − 1) Williams ((b−1)·bn − 1) Mills (⌊A3n⌋) By integer sequence Fibonacci Lucas Pell Newman–Shanks–Williams Perrin By property Wieferich (pair) Wall–Sun–Sun Wolstenholme Wilson Lucky Fortunate Ramanujan Pillai Regular Strong Stern Supersingular (elliptic curve) Supersingular (moonshine theory) Good Super Higgs Highly cototient Unique Base-dependent Palindromic Emirp Repunit (10n − 1)/9 Permutable Circular Truncatable Minimal Delicate Primeval Full reptend Unique Happy Self Smarandache–Wellin Strobogrammatic Dihedral Tetradic Patterns Twin (p, p + 2) Bi-twin chain (n ± 1, 2n ± 1, 4n ± 1, …) Triplet (p, p + 2 or p + 4, p + 6) Quadruplet (p, p + 2, p + 6, p + 8) k-tuple Cousin (p, p + 4) Sexy (p, p + 6) Chen Sophie Germain/Safe (p, 2p + 1) Cunningham (p, 2p ± 1, 4p ± 3, 8p ± 7, ...) Arithmetic progression (p + a·n, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...) Balanced (consecutive p − n, p, p + n) By size Mega (1,000,000+ digits) Largest known list Complex numbers Eisenstein prime Gaussian prime Composite numbers Pseudoprime Catalan Elliptic Euler Euler–Jacobi Fermat Frobenius Lucas Perrin Somer–Lucas Strong Carmichael number Almost prime Semiprime Sphenic number Interprime Pernicious Related topics Probable prime Industrial-grade prime Illegal prime Formula for primes Prime gap First 60 primes 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191 193 197 199 211 223 227 229 233 239 241 251 257 263 269 271 277 281 List of prime numbers

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"},{"link_name":"theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"prime number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"conjectured","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjecture"},{"link_name":"Joseph Bertrand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bertrand"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"proved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_Bertrand%27s_postulate"},{"link_name":"Chebyshev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pafnuty_Chebyshev"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"prime-counting function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime-counting_function"}],"text":"Existence of a prime number between any number and its doubleIn number theory, Bertrand's postulate is the theorem that for any integer \n \n \n \n n\n >\n 3\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n>3}\n \n, there exists at least one prime number \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n withn\n <\n p\n <\n 2\n n\n −\n 2.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n<p<2n-2.}A less restrictive formulation is: for every \n \n \n \n n\n >\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n>1}\n \n, there is always at least one prime \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n such thatn\n <\n p\n <\n 2\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n<p<2n.}Another formulation, where \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{n}}\n \n is the \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n-th prime, is: for \n \n \n \n n\n ≥\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\geq 1}p\n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n <\n 2\n \n p\n \n n\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{n+1}<2p_{n}.}\n \n[1]This statement was first conjectured in 1845 by Joseph Bertrand[2] (1822–1900). Bertrand himself verified his statement for all integers \n \n \n \n 2\n ≤\n n\n ≤\n 3\n \n 000\n \n 000\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2\\leq n\\leq 3\\,000\\,000}\n \n.His conjecture was completely proved by Chebyshev (1821–1894) in 1852[3] and so the postulate is also called the Bertrand–Chebyshev theorem or Chebyshev's theorem. Chebyshev's theorem can also be stated as a relationship with \n \n \n \n π\n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\pi (x)}\n \n, the prime-counting function (number of primes less than or equal to \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n):π\n (\n x\n )\n −\n π\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n \n x\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ≥\n 1\n ,\n \n  for all \n \n x\n ≥\n 2.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\pi (x)-\\pi {\\bigl (}{\\tfrac {x}{2}}{\\bigr )}\\geq 1,{\\text{ for all }}x\\geq 2.}","title":"Bertrand's postulate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"prime number theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number_theorem"},{"link_name":"interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Legendre's conjecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendre%27s_conjecture"}],"text":"The prime number theorem (PNT) implies that the number of primes up to x is roughly x/ln(x), so if we replace x with 2x then we see the number of primes up to 2x is asymptotically twice the number of primes up to x (the terms ln(2x) and ln(x) are asymptotically equivalent). Therefore, the number of primes between n and 2n is roughly n/ln(n) when n is large, and so in particular there are many more primes in this interval than are guaranteed by Bertrand's postulate. So Bertrand's postulate is comparatively weaker than the PNT. But PNT is a deep theorem, while Bertrand's Postulate can be stated more memorably and proved more easily, and also makes precise claims about what happens for small values of n. (In addition, Chebyshev's theorem was proved before the PNT and so has historical interest.)The similar and still unsolved Legendre's conjecture asks whether for every n ≥ 1, there is a prime p such that n2 < p < (n + 1)2. Again we expect that there will be not just one but many primes between n2 and (n + 1)2, but in this case the PNT doesn't help: the number of primes up to x2 is asymptotic to x2/ln(x2) while the number of primes up to (x + 1)2 is asymptotic to (x + 1)2/ln((x + 1)2), which is asymptotic to the estimate on primes up to x2. So unlike the previous case of x and 2x we don't get a proof of Legendre's conjecture even for all large n. Error estimates on the PNT are not (indeed, cannot be) sufficient to prove the existence of even one prime in this interval.","title":"Prime number theorem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ramanujan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srinivasa_Aaiyangar_Ramanujan"},{"link_name":"Gamma function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Ramanujan primes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramanujan_prime"},{"link_name":"Denis Hanson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Denis_Hanson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"M. El Bachraoui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M._El_Bachraoui&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"complex number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Madhuparna_Das-7"}],"text":"In 1919, Ramanujan (1887–1920) used properties of the Gamma function to give a simpler proof than Chebyshev's.[4] His short paper included a generalization of the postulate, from which would later arise the concept of Ramanujan primes. Further generalizations of Ramanujan primes have also been discovered; for instance, there is a proof that2\n \n p\n \n i\n −\n n\n \n \n >\n \n p\n \n i\n \n \n \n  for \n \n i\n >\n k\n \n  where \n \n k\n =\n π\n (\n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n )\n =\n π\n (\n \n R\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2p_{i-n}>p_{i}{\\text{ for }}i>k{\\text{ where }}k=\\pi (p_{k})=\\pi (R_{n})\\,,}with pk the kth prime and Rn the nth Ramanujan prime.Other generalizations of Bertrand's postulate have been obtained using elementary methods. (In the following, n runs through the set of positive integers.) In 1973, Denis Hanson proved that there exists a prime between 3n and 4n.[5]\nIn 2006, apparently unaware of Hanson's result, M. El Bachraoui proposed a proof that there exists a prime between 2n and 3n.[6]Bertrand’s postulate over the Gaussian integers is an extension of the idea of the distribution of primes, but in this case on the complex plane. Thus, as Gaussian primes extend over the plane and not only along a line, and doubling a complex number is not simply multiplying by 2 but doubling its norm (multiplying by 1+i), different definitions lead to different results, some are still conjectures, some proven.[7]","title":"Generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"permutation groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation_group"},{"link_name":"Sylvester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester"},{"link_name":"divisible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisible"}],"text":"Bertrand's postulate was proposed for applications to permutation groups. Sylvester (1814–1897) generalized the weaker statement with the statement: the product of k consecutive integers greater than k is divisible by a prime greater than k. Bertrand's (weaker) postulate follows from this by taking k = n, and considering the k numbers n + 1, n + 2, up to and including n + k = 2n, where n > 1. According to Sylvester's generalization, one of these numbers has a prime factor greater than k. Since all these numbers are less than 2(k + 1), the number with a prime factor greater than k has only one prime factor, and thus is a prime. Note that 2n is not prime, and thus indeed we now know there exists a prime p with n < p < 2n.","title":"Sylvester's theorem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Erdős","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s"},{"link_name":"binomial coefficients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_coefficient"},{"link_name":"Chebyshev function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chebyshev_function"},{"link_name":"proof of Bertrand's postulate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_Bertrand%27s_postulate"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Erdos-8"},{"link_name":"natural number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_number"},{"link_name":"Ramanujan prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramanujan_prime"}],"text":"In 1932, Erdős (1913–1996) also published a simpler proof using binomial coefficients and the Chebyshev function \n \n \n \n ϑ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vartheta }\n \n, defined as:ϑ\n (\n x\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n p\n =\n 2\n \n \n x\n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n (\n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\vartheta (x)=\\sum _{p=2}^{x}\\ln(p)}where p ≤ x runs over primes. See proof of Bertrand's postulate for the details.[8]Erdős proved in 1934 that for any positive integer k, there is a natural number N such that for all n > N, there are at least k primes between n and 2n. An equivalent statement had been proved in 1919 by Ramanujan (see Ramanujan prime).","title":"Erdős's theorems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"sufficiently large","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufficiently_large"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Lowell Schoenfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell_Schoenfeld"},{"link_name":"open interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_interval"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Pierre Dusart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Dusart"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-baker-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Riemann hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"It follows from the prime number theorem that for any real \n \n \n \n ε\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon >0}\n \n there is a \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{0}>0}\n \n such that for all \n \n \n \n n\n >\n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n>n_{0}}\n \n there is a prime \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n n\n <\n p\n <\n (\n 1\n +\n ε\n )\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n<p<(1+\\varepsilon )n}\n \n. It can be shown, for instance, thatlim\n \n n\n →\n ∞\n \n \n \n \n \n π\n (\n (\n 1\n +\n ε\n )\n n\n )\n −\n π\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n n\n \n /\n \n log\n ⁡\n n\n \n \n \n =\n ε\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lim _{n\\to \\infty }{\\frac {\\pi ((1+\\varepsilon )n)-\\pi (n)}{n/\\log n}}=\\varepsilon ,}which implies that \n \n \n \n π\n (\n (\n 1\n +\n ε\n )\n n\n )\n −\n π\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\pi ((1+\\varepsilon )n)-\\pi (n)}\n \n goes to infinity (and, in particular, is greater than 1 for sufficiently large \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n).[9]Non-asymptotic bounds have also been proved. In 1952, Jitsuro Nagura proved that for \n \n \n \n n\n ≥\n 25\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\geq 25}\n \n there is always a prime between \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bigl (}1+{\\tfrac {1}{5}}{\\bigr )}n}\n \n.[10]In 1976, Lowell Schoenfeld showed that for \n \n \n \n n\n ≥\n 2\n \n 010\n \n 760\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\geq 2\\,010\\,760}\n \n, there is always a prime \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n in the open interval \n \n \n \n n\n <\n p\n <\n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n 1\n \n 16\n \n 597\n \n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n<p<{\\bigl (}1+{\\tfrac {1}{16\\,597}}{\\bigr )}n}\n \n.[11]In his 1998 doctoral thesis, Pierre Dusart improved the above result, showing that for \n \n \n \n k\n ≥\n 463\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k\\geq 463}\n \n, \n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n +\n 1\n \n \n ≤\n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n ln\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{k+1}\\leq \\left(1+{\\frac {1}{2\\ln ^{2}{p_{k}}}}\\right)p_{k}}\n \n,\nand in particular for \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 3\n \n 275\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 3\\,275}\n \n, there exists a prime \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n in the interval \n \n \n \n x\n <\n p\n ≤\n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n ln\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x<p\\leq \\left(1+{\\frac {1}{2\\ln ^{2}{x}}}\\right)x}\n \n.[12]In 2010 Pierre Dusart proved that for \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 396\n \n 738\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 396\\,738}\n \n there is at least one prime \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n in the interval \n \n \n \n x\n <\n p\n ≤\n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n 1\n \n 25\n \n ln\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x<p\\leq \\left(1+{\\frac {1}{25\\ln ^{2}{x}}}\\right)x}\n \n.[13]In 2016, Pierre Dusart improved his result from 2010, showing (Proposition 5.4) that if \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 89\n \n 693\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 89\\,693}\n \n, there is at least one prime \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n in the interval \n \n \n \n x\n <\n p\n ≤\n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ln\n \n 3\n \n \n ⁡\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x<p\\leq \\left(1+{\\frac {1}{\\ln ^{3}{x}}}\\right)x}\n \n.[14] He also shows (Corollary 5.5) that for \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 468\n \n 991\n \n 632\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 468\\,991\\,632}\n \n, there is at least one prime \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n in the interval \n \n \n \n x\n <\n p\n ≤\n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n 1\n \n 5\n \n 000\n \n ln\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x<p\\leq \\left(1+{\\frac {1}{5\\,000\\ln ^{2}{x}}}\\right)x}\n \n.Baker, Harman and Pintz proved that there is a prime in the interval \n \n \n \n [\n x\n −\n \n x\n \n 0.525\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [x-x^{0.525},\\,x]}\n \n for all sufficiently large \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n.[15]Dudek proved that for all \n \n \n \n n\n ≥\n \n e\n \n \n e\n \n 33.3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\geq e^{e^{33.3}}}\n \n, there is at least one prime between \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n^{3}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n n\n +\n 1\n \n )\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (n+1)^{3}}\n \n.[16]Dudek also proved that the Riemann hypothesis implies that for all \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 2}\n \n there is a prime \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n satisfyingx\n −\n \n \n 4\n π\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n log\n ⁡\n x\n <\n p\n ≤\n x\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x-{\\frac {4}{\\pi }}{\\sqrt {x}}\\log x<p\\leq x.}\n \n[17]","title":"Better results"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_sequence"},{"link_name":"complete sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_sequence"},{"link_name":"harmonic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_number"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ConcreteMath-18"}],"text":"The sequence of primes, along with 1, is a complete sequence; any positive integer can be written as a sum of primes (and 1) using each at most once.\nThe only harmonic number that is an integer is the number 1.[18]","title":"Consequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"The Little Book of Bigger 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premiers.\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//sites.mathdoc.fr/JMPA/PDF/JMPA_1852_1_17_A19_0.pdf"},{"link_name":"Tchebychev, P.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pafnuty_Chebyshev"},{"link_name":"\"Mémoire sur les nombres premiers.\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/37114947"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"A proof of Bertrand's postulate\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.imsc.res.in/~rao/ramanujan/CamUnivCpapers/Cpaper24/page1.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Canadian Mathematical 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Tschebyschef\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.renyi.hu/~p_erdos/1932-01.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"On the interval containing at least one prime 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Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-201-55802-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-55802-9"}],"text":"^ Ribenboim, Paulo (2004). The Little Book of Bigger Primes. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-387-20169-6.\n\n^ Bertrand, Joseph (1845), \"Mémoire sur le nombre de valeurs que peut prendre une fonction quand on y permute les lettres qu'elle renferme.\", Journal de l'École Royale Polytechnique (in French), 18 (Cahier 30): 123–140.\n\n^ Tchebychev, P. (1852), \"Mémoire sur les nombres premiers.\" (PDF), Journal de mathématiques pures et appliquées, Série 1 (in French): 366–390. (Proof of the postulate: 371-382). Also see Tchebychev, P. (1854), \"Mémoire sur les nombres premiers.\", Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg (in French), 7: 15–33\n\n^ Ramanujan, S. (1919), \"A proof of Bertrand's postulate\", Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 11: 181–182\n\n^ Hanson, Denis (1973), \"On a theorem of Sylvester and Schur\", Canadian Mathematical Bulletin, 16 (2): 195–199, doi:10.4153/CMB-1973-035-3.\n\n^ El Bachraoui, Mohamed (2006), \"Primes in the interval [2n,3n]\", International Journal of Contemporary Mathematical Sciences, 1\n\n^ Madhuparna Das (2019), Generalization of Bertrand’s postulate for Gaussian primes, arXiv:1901.07086v2\n\n^ Erdős, P. (1932), \"Beweis eines Satzes von Tschebyschef\" (PDF), Acta Litt. Sci. (Szeged) (in German), 5 (1930-1932): 194–198\n\n^ G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright, An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, 6th ed., Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 494.\n\n^ Nagura, J (1952), \"On the interval containing at least one prime number\", Proceedings of the Japan Academy, Series A, 28 (4): 177–181, doi:10.3792/pja/1195570997\n\n^ Lowell Schoenfeld (April 1976), \"Sharper Bounds for the Chebyshev Functions θ(x) and ψ(x), II\", Mathematics of Computation, 30 (134): 337–360, doi:10.2307/2005976, JSTOR 2005976\n\n^ Dusart, Pierre (1998), Autour de la fonction qui compte le nombre de nombres premiers (PDF) (PhD thesis) (in French)\n\n^ Dusart, Pierre (2010). \"Estimates of Some Functions Over Primes without R.H.\". arXiv:1002.0442 [math.NT].\n\n^ Dusart, Pierre (2016), \"Explicit estimates of some functions over primes\", The Ramanujan Journal, 45: 227–251, doi:10.1007/s11139-016-9839-4, S2CID 125120533\n\n^ Baker, R. C.; Harman, G.; Pintz, J. (2001), \"The difference between consecutive primes, II\", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 83 (3): 532–562, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.360.3671, doi:10.1112/plms/83.3.532, S2CID 8964027\n\n^ Dudek, Adrian (December 2016), \"An explicit result for primes between cubes\", Funct. Approx., 55 (2): 177–197, arXiv:1401.4233, doi:10.7169/facm/2016.55.2.3, S2CID 119143089\n\n^ Dudek, Adrian W. (21 August 2014), \"On the Riemann hypothesis and the difference between primes\", International Journal of Number Theory, 11 (3): 771–778, arXiv:1402.6417, Bibcode:2014arXiv1402.6417D, doi:10.1142/S1793042115500426, ISSN 1793-0421, S2CID 119321107\n\n^ Ronald L., Graham; Donald E., Knuth; Oren, Patashnik (1994). Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-55802-9.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"P. Erdős","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s"},{"link_name":"Journal of the London Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_London_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1112/jlms/s1-9.4.282","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1112%2Fjlms%2Fs1-9.4.282"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.3792/pja/1195570997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.3792%2Fpja%2F1195570997"},{"link_name":"Bertrand's postulate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//primes.utm.edu/glossary/page.php?sort=BertrandsPostulate"},{"link_name":"Prime Pages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Pages"},{"link_name":"\"Goldbach's Conjecture Implies Bertrand's Postulate\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/280599894"},{"link_name":"Hugh L. Montgomery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Montgomery_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Robert C. Vaughan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Charles_Vaughan_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-84903-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84903-6"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0907.5232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/0907.5232"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.4169/193009709x458609","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.4169%2F193009709x458609"}],"text":"P. Erdős (1934), \"A Theorem of Sylvester and Schur\", Journal of the London Mathematical Society, 9 (4): 282–288, doi:10.1112/jlms/s1-9.4.282\nJitsuro Nagura (1952), \"On the interval containing at least one prime number\", Proc. Japan Acad., 28 (4): 177–181, doi:10.3792/pja/1195570997\nChris Caldwell, Bertrand's postulate at Prime Pages glossary.\nH. Ricardo (2005), \"Goldbach's Conjecture Implies Bertrand's Postulate\", Amer. Math. Monthly, 112: 492\nHugh L. Montgomery; Robert C. Vaughan (2007). Multiplicative number theory I. Classical theory. Cambridge tracts in advanced mathematics. Vol. 97. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-84903-6.\nJ. Sondow (2009), \"Ramanujan primes and Bertrand's postulate\", Amer. Math. Monthly, 116 (7): 630–635, arXiv:0907.5232, doi:10.4169/193009709x458609","title":"Bibliography"}]

[{"image_text":"Joseph Louis François Bertrand","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bertrand.jpg/220px-Bertrand.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Oppermann's conjecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppermann%27s_conjecture"},{"title":"Prime gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_gap"},{"title":"Proof of Bertrand's postulate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_Bertrand%27s_postulate"},{"title":"Ramanujan prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramanujan_prime"}]

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(1852), \"Mémoire sur les nombres premiers.\" (PDF), Journal de mathématiques pures et appliquées, Série 1 (in French): 366–390","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pafnuty_Chebyshev","url_text":"Tchebychev, P."},{"url":"http://sites.mathdoc.fr/JMPA/PDF/JMPA_1852_1_17_A19_0.pdf","url_text":"\"Mémoire sur les nombres premiers.\""}]},{"reference":"Tchebychev, P. (1854), \"Mémoire sur les nombres premiers.\", Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg (in French), 7: 15–33","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pafnuty_Chebyshev","url_text":"Tchebychev, P."},{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/37114947","url_text":"\"Mémoire sur les nombres premiers.\""}]},{"reference":"Ramanujan, S. (1919), \"A proof of Bertrand's postulate\", Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 11: 181–182","urls":[{"url":"http://www.imsc.res.in/~rao/ramanujan/CamUnivCpapers/Cpaper24/page1.htm","url_text":"\"A proof of Bertrand's postulate\""}]},{"reference":"Hanson, Denis (1973), \"On a theorem of Sylvester and Schur\", Canadian Mathematical Bulletin, 16 (2): 195–199, doi:10.4153/CMB-1973-035-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Mathematical_Bulletin","url_text":"Canadian Mathematical Bulletin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4153%2FCMB-1973-035-3","url_text":"10.4153/CMB-1973-035-3"}]},{"reference":"El Bachraoui, Mohamed (2006), \"Primes in the interval [2n,3n]\", International Journal of Contemporary Mathematical Sciences, 1","urls":[]},{"reference":"Madhuparna Das (2019), Generalization of Bertrand’s postulate for Gaussian primes, arXiv:1901.07086v2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.07086v2","url_text":"1901.07086v2"}]},{"reference":"Erdős, P. (1932), \"Beweis eines Satzes von Tschebyschef\" (PDF), Acta Litt. Sci. (Szeged) (in German), 5 (1930-1932): 194–198","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s","url_text":"Erdős, P."},{"url":"https://www.renyi.hu/~p_erdos/1932-01.pdf","url_text":"\"Beweis eines Satzes von Tschebyschef\""}]},{"reference":"Nagura, J (1952), \"On the interval containing at least one prime number\", Proceedings of the Japan Academy, Series A, 28 (4): 177–181, doi:10.3792/pja/1195570997","urls":[{"url":"http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?handle=euclid.pja/1195570997&view=body&content-type=pdf_1","url_text":"\"On the interval containing at least one prime number\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3792%2Fpja%2F1195570997","url_text":"10.3792/pja/1195570997"}]},{"reference":"Lowell Schoenfeld (April 1976), \"Sharper Bounds for the Chebyshev Functions θ(x) and ψ(x), II\", Mathematics of Computation, 30 (134): 337–360, doi:10.2307/2005976, JSTOR 2005976","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2005976","url_text":"10.2307/2005976"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2005976","url_text":"2005976"}]},{"reference":"Dusart, Pierre (1998), Autour de la fonction qui compte le nombre de nombres premiers (PDF) (PhD thesis) (in French)","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Dusart","url_text":"Dusart, Pierre"},{"url":"http://www.unilim.fr/laco/theses/1998/T1998_01.pdf","url_text":"Autour de la fonction qui compte le nombre de nombres premiers"}]},{"reference":"Dusart, Pierre (2010). \"Estimates of Some Functions Over Primes without R.H.\". arXiv:1002.0442 [math.NT].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Dusart","url_text":"Dusart, Pierre"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1002.0442","url_text":"1002.0442"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/archive/math.NT","url_text":"math.NT"}]},{"reference":"Dusart, Pierre (2016), \"Explicit estimates of some functions over primes\", The Ramanujan Journal, 45: 227–251, doi:10.1007/s11139-016-9839-4, S2CID 125120533","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Dusart","url_text":"Dusart, Pierre"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11139-016-9839-4","url_text":"10.1007/s11139-016-9839-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125120533","url_text":"125120533"}]},{"reference":"Baker, R. C.; Harman, G.; Pintz, J. (2001), \"The difference between consecutive primes, II\", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 83 (3): 532–562, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.360.3671, doi:10.1112/plms/83.3.532, S2CID 8964027","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.360.3671","url_text":"10.1.1.360.3671"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fplms%2F83.3.532","url_text":"10.1112/plms/83.3.532"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8964027","url_text":"8964027"}]},{"reference":"Dudek, Adrian (December 2016), \"An explicit result for primes between cubes\", Funct. Approx., 55 (2): 177–197, arXiv:1401.4233, doi:10.7169/facm/2016.55.2.3, S2CID 119143089","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1401.4233","url_text":"1401.4233"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.7169%2Ffacm%2F2016.55.2.3","url_text":"10.7169/facm/2016.55.2.3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119143089","url_text":"119143089"}]},{"reference":"Dudek, Adrian W. (21 August 2014), \"On the Riemann hypothesis and the difference between primes\", International Journal of Number Theory, 11 (3): 771–778, arXiv:1402.6417, Bibcode:2014arXiv1402.6417D, doi:10.1142/S1793042115500426, ISSN 1793-0421, S2CID 119321107","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1402.6417","url_text":"1402.6417"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014arXiv1402.6417D","url_text":"2014arXiv1402.6417D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS1793042115500426","url_text":"10.1142/S1793042115500426"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1793-0421","url_text":"1793-0421"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119321107","url_text":"119321107"}]},{"reference":"Ronald L., Graham; Donald E., Knuth; Oren, Patashnik (1994). Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-55802-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_Mathematics","url_text":"Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-55802-9","url_text":"978-0-201-55802-9"}]},{"reference":"P. Erdős (1934), \"A Theorem of Sylvester and Schur\", Journal of the London Mathematical Society, 9 (4): 282–288, doi:10.1112/jlms/s1-9.4.282","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s","url_text":"P. Erdős"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_London_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"Journal of the London Mathematical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fjlms%2Fs1-9.4.282","url_text":"10.1112/jlms/s1-9.4.282"}]},{"reference":"Jitsuro Nagura (1952), \"On the interval containing at least one prime number\", Proc. Japan Acad., 28 (4): 177–181, doi:10.3792/pja/1195570997","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3792%2Fpja%2F1195570997","url_text":"10.3792/pja/1195570997"}]},{"reference":"H. Ricardo (2005), \"Goldbach's Conjecture Implies Bertrand's Postulate\", Amer. Math. Monthly, 112: 492","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280599894","url_text":"\"Goldbach's Conjecture Implies Bertrand's Postulate\""}]},{"reference":"Hugh L. Montgomery; Robert C. Vaughan (2007). Multiplicative number theory I. Classical theory. Cambridge tracts in advanced mathematics. Vol. 97. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-84903-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Montgomery_(mathematician)","url_text":"Hugh L. Montgomery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Charles_Vaughan_(mathematician)","url_text":"Robert C. Vaughan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84903-6","url_text":"978-0-521-84903-6"}]},{"reference":"J. Sondow (2009), \"Ramanujan primes and Bertrand's postulate\", Amer. Math. Monthly, 116 (7): 630–635, arXiv:0907.5232, doi:10.4169/193009709x458609","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/0907.5232","url_text":"0907.5232"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4169%2F193009709x458609","url_text":"10.4169/193009709x458609"}]},{"reference":"Sondow, Jonathan & Weisstein, Eric W. \"Bertrand's Postulate\". MathWorld.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein","url_text":"Weisstein, Eric W."},{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BertrandsPostulate.html","url_text":"\"Bertrand's Postulate\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOAP

DOAP

["1 Adoption","2 Examples","3 References","4 External links"]

This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "DOAP" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2012) DOAP (Description of a Project) is an RDF Schema and XML vocabulary to describe software projects, in particular free and open source software. It was created and initially developed by Edd Dumbill to convey semantic information associated with open source software projects. Adoption There are currently generators, validators, viewers, and converters to enable more projects to be able to be included in the semantic web. Freecode's 43 000 projects are now available published with DOAP. It was used in the Python Package Index but is no longer supported there. Major properties include: homepage, developer, programming-language, os. Examples The following is an example in RDF/XML: <rdf:RDF xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#" xmlns:doap="http://usefulinc.com/ns/doap#"> <doap:Project> <doap:name>Example project</doap:name> <doap:homepage rdf:resource="http://example.com" /> <doap:programming-language>javascript</doap:programming-language> <doap:license rdf:resource="http://example.com/doap/licenses/gpl"/> </doap:Project> </rdf:RDF> Other properties include Implements specification, anonymous root, platform, browse, mailing list, category, description, helper, tester, short description, audience, screenshots, translator, module, documenter, wiki, repository, name, repository location, language, service endpoint, created, download mirror, vendor, old homepage, revision, download page, license, bug database, maintainer, blog, file-release and release. References ^ Giasson, Frederick (4 August 2007). "Freshmeat.net now available in DOAP: 43 000 new DOAP projects". Retrieved 2010-04-08. ^ "Description of a Project (DOAP) vocabulary". Retrieved 23 December 2017. External links Doap Project on GitHub OSS Watch DOAP Briefing Note doapamatic: DOAP generator vteSemantic WebBackground Databases Hypertext Internet Ontologies Semantics Semantic networks World Wide Web Sub-topics Dataspaces Hyperdata Linked data Rule-based systems Applications Semantic analytics Semantic broker Semantic computing Semantic mapper Semantic matching Semantic publishing Semantic reasoner Semantic search Semantic service-oriented architecture Semantic wiki Solid Related topics Collective intelligence Description logic Folksonomy Geotagging Information architecture Knowledge extraction Knowledge management Knowledge representation and reasoning Library 2.0 Digital library Digital humanities Metadata References Topic map Web 2.0 Web engineering Web Science Trust StandardsSyntax and supporting technologies HTTP IRI URI RDF triples RDF/XML JSON-LD Turtle TriG Notation3 N-Triples TriX (no W3C standard) RRID SPARQL XML Semantic HTML Schemas, ontologies and rules Common Logic OWL RDFS Rule Interchange Format Semantic Web Rule Language ALPS SHACL Semantic annotation eRDF GRDDL Microdata Microformats RDFa SAWSDL Facebook Platform Common vocabularies DOAP Dublin Core FOAF Schema.org SIOC SKOS Microformat vocabularies hAtom hCalendar hCard hProduct hRecipe hReview

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TrueBASIC

True BASIC

["1 History","2 Features","3 Reception","4 Further reading","5 References","6 External links"]

Programming language This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "True BASIC" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) True BASICDesigned byJohn G. KemenyThomas E. KurtzDeveloperTrue BASIC, Inc.First appeared1983; 41 years ago (1983)Websitewww.truebasic.comInfluenced byBASIC True BASIC is a variant of the BASIC programming language descended from Dartmouth BASIC—the original BASIC. Both were created by college professors John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz. History This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) True BASIC traces its history to an offshoot of Dartmouth BASIC called Structured BASIC, or SBASIC for short. This was released sometime in 1975 or 1976, but was not installed as the mainline version of BASIC on the Dartmouth Time Sharing System (DTSS) that supported the campus. Shortly after, Kemeny became involved in an effort to produce an ANSI standard BASIC in an attempt to bring together the many small variations of the language that had developed through the late 1960s and early 1970s. This effort initially focused on a system known as Minimal BASIC that was similar to earliest versions of Dartmouth BASIC, while later work was aimed at a Full BASIC that was essentially SBASIC with various extensions. By the early 1980s, tens of millions of home computers were running some variation of Microsoft BASIC, which had become the de facto standard. The ANSI efforts eventually became pointless, as it became clear that these versions were not going to have any market impact in a world dominated by MS. Both versions were eventually ratified but saw little or no adoption and the standards were later withdrawn. Kemeny and Kurtz, however, decided to continue their efforts to introduce the concepts from SBASIC and the ANSI Standard BASIC efforts. This became True BASIC. Initially based on Dartmouth BASIC 7, True BASIC was introduced in 1985. There are versions of the True BASIC compiler for MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, and Classic Mac OS. At one time, versions for TRS-80 Color Computer, Amiga and Atari ST computers were offered, as well as a UNIX command-line compiler. Features This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Being a structured programming implementation of the language, it dispenses with the need for line numbers and GOTO statements, although these can still be used. True BASIC provides statements for matrix arithmetic, a feature that had been present in Dartmouth BASIC since early times, but had been dropped in almost all microcomputer versions of BASIC interpreters. It implements global and local variables which make it possible to write recursive functions and subroutines. The designers wanted to make the language hardware-independent, so True BASIC source code would run equally well on any version of their compiler. For the most part, they succeed in this endeavor. The drawback for users was that direct access to some features of their machines was not available, but this could be remedied with callable functions and subroutines specially written in assembly language. Using newer versions of True BASIC, some of the older functions are blocked out. An example of the recent code would be more like this: RANDOMIZE SET WINDOW 0,20,0,20 SET COLOR 5 !Set the pen and text colour to 5 as true basic has 0-15 colours PRINT "Welcome To ..." !Print "Welcome To ..." on the user's screen. DO !Begin the loop LET x=rnd*20 !Let the value 'x' equal a random number between '0' and '20' LET y=rnd*20 !Let the value 'y' equal a random number between '0' and '20' Pause .1 !Waits 1/10 of a second PLOT TEXT, at x, y: "Fabulous Wikipedia!" !Plot 'Fabulous Wikipedia!' at coordinates 'x' and 'y' LOOP !End the loop END !End the program This simple program plots the text "Welcome To ..." at the top left-hand corner of the screen, and then continues into a never-ending loop plotting "Fabulous Wikipedia!" at random coordinates. An example of simple animation could be like this: !Draw the Car SET WINDOW 0,20,0,20 SET COLOR 5 BOX AREA 2,6,2,3 BOX AREA 9,13,2,3 BOX AREA 16,20,2,3 SET COLOR 249 PLOT LINES :0,5;20,5 FLOOD 10,1 BOX KEEP 0,20,0,5 IN road$ BOX CIRCLE 2,3,5,6 FLOOD 2.5,5.5 BOX CIRCLE 5,6,5,6 FLOOD 5.5,5.5 SET COLOR 35 PLOT LINES :2.5,6;5.5,6 PLOT LINES :5,6;8,6;8,8;6,8;6,10;2,10;2,8;0,8;0,6;3,6 FLOOD 4,8 SET COLOR 248 BOX AREA 4,5,8,9 BOX KEEP 0,8,5,10 IN car$ !Save the car in 'car$' FOR x=1 TO 20 STEP 1 !Create a 'for' loop BOX SHOW road$ AT 0,0 BOX SHOW car$ AT x,5 PAUSE .1 CLEAR NEXT x !End the 'for' loop END !End the programs Reception Jerry Pournelle in 1985 asked, "why do we need True BASIC at all? doesn't seem to do anything regular BASIC doesn't do, and what it does do isn't attacked in a logical or intuitive manner." He criticized the lack of output when encountering an error, preventing interactive debugging by "inserting print statements as diagnostics". Pournelle concluded, "I think I'll pass up the opportunity to become a born-again True BASIC believer. I'll enjoy my Microsoft and CBASIC heresies." Some users have complained about their programs and the editor using up 100% of their CPU (or core). This appears to be caused by the editor and user's programs using a loop which constantly polls the keyboard and mouse for events. The problem has been known since at least the end of 2010, yet as of early 2014 is still being worked on. Further reading Kemeny, John G.; Kurtz, Thomas E. (1985). Back To BASIC: The History, Corruption, and Future of the Language. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 141 pp. ISBN 0-201-13433-0. References ^ Kemp, Juliet. "BASIC: The Language that started a revolution" (PDF). Retrieved 25 June 2022. ^ Pournelle, Jerry (September 1985). "PCs, Peripherals, Programs, and People". BYTE. p. 347. Retrieved 20 March 2016. ^ a b "CPU Usage". True BASIC Support Forum Dec 31, 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2014. ^ "CPU usage at 100%". True BASIC Support Forum Aug 22, 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2014. ^ "CPU usage". True BASIC Support Forum Sep 24, 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2014. ^ a b "A few more editor bugs". True BASIC Support Forum reply Feb 18, 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014. External links Official website vteDialects of the BASIC programming language (list)ClassicMicrosoft Microsoft BASIC TRS-80 BASICs (Level I, Level II/III) Thomson BASIC 1.0 Texas Instruments TI-BASIC (calculators) TI Extended BASIC (aka XBasic) TI-BASIC 83 Hewlett-Packard HP Time-Shared BASIC Rocky Mountain BASIC HP Basic Locomotive Software Locomotive BASIC Mallard BASIC Microcomputers Atom BASIC Integer BASIC North Star BASIC SCELBAL Minicomputers BASIC-11 Business Basic (B32, Data General) Data General Extended BASIC Southampton BASIC System Wang BASIC Time-sharing computers BASIC-PLUS VSI BASIC for OpenVMS SUPER BASIC CALL/360:BASIC Other AlphaBasic Astro BASIC BASICODE BAL Casio BASIC CBASIC PBASIC SDS BASIC Tiny BASIC UBASIC ZBasic ETBASIC  Extenders BASIC 8 Graphics BASIC Simons' BASIC Super Expander Super Expander 64 YS MegaBasic Procedure-orientedProprietary AmigaBASIC AMOS BASIC ASIC BasicX Beta BASIC FutureBASIC GRASS Liberty BASIC LSE MapBasic Mobile BASIC OWBasic PowerBASIC PureBasic SmileBASIC ThinBasic Tiger-BASIC True BASIC Turbo Basic WordBASIC Free andopen source Basic-256 Basic4GL DarkBASIC Euphoria Indic BASIC Open Programming Language SdlBasic SmallBASIC QB64 wxBasic XBasic Xblite Yabasic With objectextensionsProprietary AutoIt Chipmunk Basic GLBasic LotusScript Morfik PowerBASIC ProvideX Run BASIC VBA VBScript VB 5 for Microsoft Excel 5.0 VSTO VSTA Embedded Visual Basic WinWrap Basic Free andopen source BlitzMax FreeBASIC Microsoft Small Basic Mono-Basic OpenOffice Basic ScriptBasic Roslyn RADdesignersProprietary CA-Realizer Visual Basic (classic) NS Basic RapidQ Visual Basic .NET (Mercury) Xojo Free andopen source B4X (Basic4android, Basic4ppc) Gambas WinFBE, Visual FB Editor Defunct Altair BASIC Applesoft BASIC Atari BASIC Atari Microsoft BASIC Atari ST BASIC BASIC A+ BASIC XE BASIC XL BASIC Programming (Atari 2600) BBC BASIC Benton Harbor BASIC Chinese BASIC Commodore BASIC Color BASIC Dartmouth BASIC Disk Extended Color BASIC Extended Color BASIC Family BASIC GFA BASIC GW-BASIC IBM BASIC JR-BASIC MacBASIC MBASIC MSX BASIC MS BASIC for Macintosh QBasic QuickBASIC Phoenix Object Basic S-BASIC Sinclair BASIC STOS BASIC SuperBASIC TI BASIC (TI 99/4A) Turbo-BASIC XL Vilnius BASIC Authority control databases: National Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BASIC programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC"},{"link_name":"Dartmouth BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_BASIC"},{"link_name":"John G. Kemeny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_George_Kemeny"},{"link_name":"Thomas E. Kurtz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Eugene_Kurtz"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"True BASIC is a variant of the BASIC programming language descended from Dartmouth BASIC—the original BASIC. Both were created by college professors John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz.[1]","title":"True BASIC"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dartmouth BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_BASIC"},{"link_name":"SBASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_BASIC#SBASIC"},{"link_name":"Dartmouth Time Sharing System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_Time_Sharing_System"},{"link_name":"Minimal BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_BASIC"},{"link_name":"Full BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_BASIC"},{"link_name":"home computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer"},{"link_name":"Microsoft BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_BASIC"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Classic Mac OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS"},{"link_name":"TRS-80 Color Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80_Color_Computer"},{"link_name":"Amiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga"},{"link_name":"Atari ST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_ST"},{"link_name":"UNIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIX"}],"text":"True BASIC traces its history to an offshoot of Dartmouth BASIC called Structured BASIC, or SBASIC for short. This was released sometime in 1975 or 1976, but was not installed as the mainline version of BASIC on the Dartmouth Time Sharing System (DTSS) that supported the campus. Shortly after, Kemeny became involved in an effort to produce an ANSI standard BASIC in an attempt to bring together the many small variations of the language that had developed through the late 1960s and early 1970s. This effort initially focused on a system known as Minimal BASIC that was similar to earliest versions of Dartmouth BASIC, while later work was aimed at a Full BASIC that was essentially SBASIC with various extensions.By the early 1980s, tens of millions of home computers were running some variation of Microsoft BASIC, which had become the de facto standard. The ANSI efforts eventually became pointless, as it became clear that these versions were not going to have any market impact in a world dominated by MS. Both versions were eventually ratified but saw little or no adoption and the standards were later withdrawn. Kemeny and Kurtz, however, decided to continue their efforts to introduce the concepts from SBASIC and the ANSI Standard BASIC efforts. This became True BASIC.Initially based on Dartmouth BASIC 7, True BASIC was introduced in 1985. There are versions of the True BASIC compiler for MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, and Classic Mac OS. At one time, versions for TRS-80 Color Computer, Amiga and Atari ST computers were offered, as well as a UNIX command-line compiler.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"structured programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_programming"},{"link_name":"line numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_number"},{"link_name":"GOTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goto"},{"link_name":"recursive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion#Functional_recursion"},{"link_name":"subroutines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"assembly language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language"}],"text":"Being a structured programming implementation of the language, it dispenses with the need for line numbers and GOTO statements, although these can still be used.True BASIC provides statements for matrix arithmetic, a feature that had been present in Dartmouth BASIC since early times, but had been dropped in almost all microcomputer versions of BASIC interpreters. It implements global and local variables which make it possible to write recursive functions and subroutines.The designers wanted to make the language hardware-independent, so True BASIC source code would run equally well on any version of their compiler.[citation needed] For the most part, they succeed in this endeavor. The drawback for users was that direct access to some features of their machines was not available, but this could be remedied with callable functions and subroutines specially written in assembly language.Using newer versions of True BASIC, some of the older functions are blocked out. An example of the recent code would be more like this:RANDOMIZE\nSET WINDOW 0,20,0,20\nSET COLOR 5 !Set the pen and text colour to 5 as true basic has 0-15 colours\nPRINT \"Welcome To ...\" !Print \"Welcome To ...\" on the user's screen.\n \nDO !Begin the loop\n LET x=rnd*20 !Let the value 'x' equal a random number between '0' and '20'\n LET y=rnd*20 !Let the value 'y' equal a random number between '0' and '20'\n Pause .1 !Waits 1/10 of a second\n PLOT TEXT, at x, y: \"Fabulous Wikipedia!\" !Plot 'Fabulous Wikipedia!' at coordinates 'x' and 'y'\nLOOP !End the loop\n \nEND !End the programThis simple program plots the text \"Welcome To ...\" at the top left-hand corner of the screen, and then continues into a never-ending loop plotting \"Fabulous Wikipedia!\" at random coordinates.An example of simple animation could be like this:!Draw the Car\nSET WINDOW 0,20,0,20\nSET COLOR 5\nBOX AREA 2,6,2,3\nBOX AREA 9,13,2,3\nBOX AREA 16,20,2,3\nSET COLOR 249\nPLOT LINES :0,5;20,5\nFLOOD 10,1\nBOX KEEP 0,20,0,5 IN road$\nBOX CIRCLE 2,3,5,6\nFLOOD 2.5,5.5\nBOX CIRCLE 5,6,5,6\nFLOOD 5.5,5.5\nSET COLOR 35\nPLOT LINES :2.5,6;5.5,6\nPLOT LINES :5,6;8,6;8,8;6,8;6,10;2,10;2,8;0,8;0,6;3,6\nFLOOD 4,8\nSET COLOR 248\nBOX AREA 4,5,8,9\n \nBOX KEEP 0,8,5,10 IN car$ !Save the car in 'car$'\n \nFOR x=1 TO 20 STEP 1 !Create a 'for' loop\n BOX SHOW road$ AT 0,0\n BOX SHOW car$ AT x,5 \n PAUSE .1\n CLEAR\nNEXT x !End the 'for' loop\n \nEND !End the programs","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jerry Pournelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Pournelle"},{"link_name":"inserting print statements as diagnostics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakpoint"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_BASIC"},{"link_name":"CBASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBASIC"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pournelle198509-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FirstComplaint-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LastComplaint-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FirstComplaint-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LastComplaint-6"}],"text":"Jerry Pournelle in 1985 asked, \"why do we need True BASIC at all? [It] doesn't seem to do anything regular BASIC doesn't do, and what it does do isn't attacked in a logical or intuitive manner.\" He criticized the lack of output when encountering an error, preventing interactive debugging by \"inserting print statements as diagnostics\". Pournelle concluded, \"I think I'll pass up the opportunity to become a born-again True BASIC believer. I'll enjoy my Microsoft and CBASIC heresies.\"[2]Some users have complained about their programs and the editor using up 100% of their CPU (or core).[3][4][5][6] This appears to be caused by the editor and user's programs using a loop which constantly polls the keyboard and mouse for events. The problem has been known since at least the end of 2010,[3] yet as of early 2014 is still being worked on.[6]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-13433-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-13433-0"}],"text":"Kemeny, John G.; Kurtz, Thomas E. (1985). Back To BASIC: The History, Corruption, and Future of the Language. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 141 pp. ISBN 0-201-13433-0.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventec

Inventec

["1 Group information","1.1 Inventec Corporation","1.2 Inventec BESTA","1.3 Inventec Micro-Electronics","1.4 Inventec Appliance Corporation","2 Tablets","3 Mobile phones","4 See also","5 References"]

Taiwanese manufacturer This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Inventec CorporationNative name英業達公司Company typePublicTraded asTWSE: 2356IndustryComputer hardwareFounded1975; 49 years ago (1975)HeadquartersTaipei, TaiwanRevenue$7.2 billion USD (2006)Operating income8,184,463,000 New Taiwan dollar (2016) Net income4,971,373,000 New Taiwan dollar (2016) Total assets182,373,217,000 New Taiwan dollar (2016) Number of employees23,000+SubsidiariesKohjinshaWebsitewww.inventec.com Inventec building in Taipei OKWAP subsidiary-branded RS-MMC card Inventec Enterprise Systems motherboard Inventec Corporation (Chinese: 英業達公司; pinyin: Yīngyèdá Gōngsī; TWSE: 2356) is a Taiwan-based Original Design Manufacturer (ODM) making notebook computers, servers and mobile devices. Originally established in 1975 to develop and manufacture electronic calculators, major customers include Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba, Acer, and Fujitsu-Siemens. Inventec Corporation has major development and manufacturing facilities in China and is one of their largest exporters. The company opened its first development center in China in 1991 and its first manufacturing facility in Shanghai in 1995. In addition, the company has configuration, and service centers in the United States, Europe, and Mexico. The company has a workforce of over 23,000 employees, including over 3,000 engineers. It partially owns a Japan-based mini notebook brand vendor, Kohjinsha (KJS), which was established in Yokohama. Group information Inventec Group comprises five companies: Inventec Corporation Noted above Inventec BESTA Inventec Besta 9200 Dictionary Inventec Besta 9200 Dictionary Besta booth at fair in Taipei A Besta CD-800. BESTA is an independent subsidiary company of the Inventec Group first launched in Taipei in 1989 to produce compact English/Chinese electronic dictionaries. BESTA has expanded its product line to PDAs, tablet computers and translators in multiple languages (including Korean and Japanese). BESTA currently produces over 30 models on the market in Taiwan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore. The Thai distributor CyberDict offers customized products with additional Thai dictionaries. BESTA also manufactures a line of language products designed specifically for the North American market, where it has become the leading provider of English/Chinese and English/Korean electronic dictionaries. In the US, BESTA products are sold under the BESTA (Chinese) or OPTIMEC (South Korean) labels and are exclusively distributed and serviced by Moy Sam Corporation (New York) and Maxmile Corporation (Los Angeles). In Canada, BESTA products are found in Toronto and Markham. Several BESTA models come with slots for inserting SD/MMC data cards containing additional specialized dictionaries (such as medical or business). It has been ranked in 1st place for "Taiwan's Ideal Electronic Dictionary Brand" for twelve consecutive years. Inventec Besta became a listed company in Taiwan Stock Exchange in 2007. Key Development of Inventec Besta Co: Year 1989—Inventec Besta Co., Ltd was founded. Year 1999—Merged with the Inventec's References System Division, Lin Kou Factory, and Inventec (Xi'an) Company Year 2000—Acquired Golden Atom Holdings Ltd. and invested in Besta Technology (HK) Co., Ltd.and Besta Technology (China) Co., Ltd Inventec Micro-Electronics Inventec Appliance Corporation Tablets Amazon Kindle Fire Barnes & Noble Nook N18C (Dr.Eye) Lyon Mobile phones OKWAP J98 PHS-I99 PHS-PG900 PHS-PG901 PHS-I92 PHS-i501 See also Portals: Companies Telecommunication Electronics Technology List of companies of Taiwan References ^ "Inventec subsidiary launches not-so-MIDs". DIGITIMES. 2008-10-24. Retrieved 2008-10-25. ^ "WinHEC 2008: Inventec KJS S32 UMPC awarded for connectivity". DIGITIMES. 2008-12-26. Retrieved 2008-12-26. ^ "The Company". CyberDict. 2014-12-22. Retrieved 2014-12-22. ^ "About". Inventec Besta. 2014-12-20. Retrieved 2014-12-20. Authority control databases ISNI

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Originally established in 1975 to develop and manufacture electronic calculators, major customers include Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba, Acer, and Fujitsu-Siemens.Inventec Corporation has major development and manufacturing facilities in China and is one of their largest exporters. The company opened its first development center in China in 1991 and its first manufacturing facility in Shanghai in 1995. In addition, the company has configuration, and service centers in the United States, Europe, and Mexico.The company has a workforce of over 23,000 employees, including over 3,000 engineers. It partially owns a Japan-based mini notebook brand vendor, Kohjinsha (KJS), which was established in Yokohama.[1]\n[2]","title":"Inventec"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Inventec Group comprises five companies:","title":"Group information"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Inventec Corporation","text":"Noted above","title":"Group information"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HK_Besta_9200_Mini_E-Dictionary_9.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HK_Besta_9200_Mini_E-Dictionary_3.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Besta_in_Taipei_3C_Fair_20130906.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Besta_CD-800.jpg"},{"link_name":"CyberDict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//eng.cyberdict.com/"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Taiwan Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Inventec BESTA","text":"Inventec Besta 9200 DictionaryInventec Besta 9200 DictionaryBesta booth at fair in TaipeiA Besta CD-800.BESTA is an independent subsidiary company of the Inventec Group first launched in Taipei in 1989 to produce compact English/Chinese electronic dictionaries. BESTA has expanded its product line to PDAs, tablet computers and translators in multiple languages (including Korean and Japanese).BESTA currently produces over 30 models on the market in Taiwan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore. The Thai distributor CyberDict offers customized products with additional Thai dictionaries.[3]BESTA also manufactures a line of language products designed specifically for the North American market, where it has become the leading provider of English/Chinese and English/Korean electronic dictionaries. In the US, BESTA products are sold under the BESTA (Chinese) or OPTIMEC (South Korean) labels and are exclusively distributed and serviced by Moy Sam Corporation (New York) and Maxmile Corporation (Los Angeles). In Canada, BESTA products are found in Toronto and Markham.Several BESTA models come with slots for inserting SD/MMC data cards containing additional specialized dictionaries (such as medical or business). It has been ranked in 1st place for \"Taiwan's Ideal Electronic Dictionary Brand\" for twelve consecutive years. Inventec Besta became a listed company in Taiwan Stock Exchange in 2007.[4]Key Development of Inventec Besta Co:Year 1989—Inventec Besta Co., Ltd was founded.Year 1999—Merged with the Inventec's References System Division, Lin Kou Factory, and Inventec (Xi'an) CompanyYear 2000—Acquired Golden Atom Holdings Ltd. and invested in Besta Technology (HK) Co., Ltd.and Besta Technology (China) Co., Ltd","title":"Group information"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Inventec Micro-Electronics","title":"Group information"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Inventec Appliance Corporation","title":"Group information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amazon Kindle Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Kindle_Fire"},{"link_name":"Barnes & Noble Nook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnes_%26_Noble_Nook"},{"link_name":"N18C (Dr.Eye)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N18C_(Dr.Eye)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"}],"text":"Amazon Kindle Fire\nBarnes & Noble Nook\nN18C (Dr.Eye)\nLyon","title":"Tablets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OKWAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OKWAP&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"J98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J98&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"PHS-I99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PHS-I99&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"PHS-PG900","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PHS-PG900&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"PHS-PG901","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PHS-PG901&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"PHS-I92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PHS-I92&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"PHS-i501","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PHS-i501&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"OKWAP\nJ98\nPHS-I99\nPHS-PG900\nPHS-PG901\nPHS-I92\nPHS-i501","title":"Mobile phones"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_privacy

Consumer privacy

["1 Legislation","2 History","2.1 1970s","2.2 1990s","2.3 2000s","3 See also","4 References"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Consumer privacy" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Consumer privacy is information privacy as it relates to the consumers of products and services. A variety of social, legal and political issues arise from the interaction of the public's potential expectation of privacy and the collection and dissemination of data by businesses or merchants. Consumer privacy concerns date back to the first commercial couriers and bankers who enforced strong measures to protect customer privacy. In modern times, the ethical codes of various professions specify measures to protect customer privacy, including medical privacy and client confidentiality. State interests include matters of national security. Consumer concerned about the invasion of individual information, thus doubtful when thinking about using certain services. Many organizations have a competitive incentive to collect, retain, and use customer data for various purposes, and many companies adopt security engineering measures to control this data and manage customer expectations and legal requirements for consumer privacy. Consumer privacy protection is the use of laws and regulations to protect individuals from privacy loss due to the failures and limitations of corporate customer privacy measures. Corporations may be inclined to share data for commercial advantage and fail to officially recognize it as sensitive to avoid legal liability in the chance that lapses of security may occur. Modern consumer privacy law originated from telecom regulation when it was recognized that a telephone company had access to unprecedented levels of information. Customer privacy measures were seen as deficient to deal with the many hazards of corporate data sharing, corporate mergers, employee turnover, and theft of data storage devices (e.g., hard drives) that could store a large amount of data in a portable location. Businesses have consumer data and information obtained from consumer and client purchases, products, and services. Thus, businesses have the responsibility to keep these data and information safe and confidential. Consumers expect that businesses will take an active stance when protecting consumer privacy issues and supporting confidential agreements. Whether a firm provides services or products to consumers, firms are expected to use methods such as obfuscation or encoding methods to cover up consumer data when analyzing data or trends for example. Firms are also expected to protect consumer privacy both within the organizations themselves and from outside third entities including third party providers of services, suppliers who provide product components and supplies, and government institutions or community partnership organizations. In addition, businesses are sometime required to provide an agreement/contract to service clients or product consumer that states customer or client information and data will be kept confidential and that it will not be used for advertising or promotional purposes for example. The US government, including the FTC, have consumer protection laws like The Telephone Consumer Protection Act and Data Transparency and Privacy Act. Individuals States have laws and regulation that protect consumers as well. One example of this is The California Consumer Privacy Act. Legislation Consumer privacy concerns date back to the first commercial couriers and bankers who enforced strong measures to protect customer privacy. Harsh punitive measures were passed as the result of failing to keep a customer's information private. In modern times, the ethical codes of most professions specify privacy measures for the consumer of any service, including medical privacy, client confidentiality, and national security. These codes are particularly important in a carceral state, where no privacy in any form nor limits on state oversight or data use exists. Corporate customer privacy practices are approaches taken by commercial organizations to ensure that confidential customer data is not stolen or abused. Since most organizations have strong competitive incentives to retain exclusive access to customer data, and since customer trust is usually a high priority, most companies take some security engineering measures to protect customer privacy. There is also a concern that companies may sell consumer data if they have to declare bankruptcy, although it often violates their own privacy policies. The measures companies take to protect consumer privacy vary in effectiveness, and would not typically meet the much higher standards of client confidentiality applied by ethical codes or legal codes in banking or law, nor patient privacy measures in medicine, nor rigorous national security measures in military and intelligence organizations. The California Consumer Privacy Act, for example, protects the use of consumer privacy data by firms and governments. This act makes it harder for firms to extract personal information from consumers and use it for commercial purposes. Some of the rights included in this act include: The right to know about the personal information a business collects about them and how it is used and shared The right to delete personal information collected from them (with some exceptions) The right to opt-out of the sale or sharing of their personal information The right to non-discrimination for exercising their CCPA rights Since companies operate to generate a profit, commercial organizations also cannot spend unlimited funds on precautions while remaining competitive; a commercial context tends to limit privacy measures and to motivate organizations to share data when working in partnership. The damage done by privacy loss is not measurable, nor can it be undone, and commercial organizations have little or no interest in taking unprofitable measures to drastically increase the privacy of customers. Corporations may be inclined to share data for commercial advantage and fail to officially recognize it as sensitive to avoid legal liability in the chance that lapses of security may occur. This has led to many moral hazards and customer privacy violation incidents. Some services—notably telecommunications, including Internet—require collecting a vast array of information about users' activities in the course of business, and may also require consultation of these data to prepare bills. In the US and Canada, telecom data must be kept for seven years to permit dispute and consultation about phone charges. These sensitivities have led telecom regulation to be a leader in consumer privacy regulation, enforcing a high level of confidentiality on the sensitive customer communication records. The focus of consumer rights activists on the telecoms industry has super-sided as other industries also gather sensitive consumer data. Such common commercial measures as software-based customer relationship management, rewards programs, and target marketing tend to drastically increase the amount of information gathered (and sometimes shared). These very drastically increase privacy risks and have accelerated the shift to regulation, rather than relying on the corporate desire to preserve goodwill. Concerns have led to consumer privacy laws in most countries, especially in the European Union, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Notably, among developed countries, the United States has no such law and relies on corporate customer privacy disclosed in privacy policies to ensure consumer privacy in general. Modern privacy law and regulation may be compared to parts of the Hippocratic Oath, which includes a requirement for doctors to avoid mentioning the ills of patients to others—not only to protect them, but to protect their families— and also recognizes that innocent third parties can be harmed by the loss of control of sensitive personal information. Modern consumer privacy law originated from telecom regulation when it was recognized that a telephone company—especially a monopoly (known in many nations as a PTT)—had access to unprecedented levels of information: the direct customer's communication habits and correspondents and the data of those who shared the household. Telephone operators could frequently hear conversations—inadvertently or deliberately—and their job required them to dial the exact numbers. The data gathering required for the process of billing began to become a privacy risk as well. Accordingly, strong rules on operator behaviour, customer confidentiality, records keeping and destruction were enforced on telephone companies in every country. Typically only police and military authorities had legal powers to wiretap or see records. Even stricter requirements emerged for various banks' electronic records. In some countries, financial privacy is a major focus of the economy, with severe criminal penalties for violating it. History 1970s Through the 1970s, many other organizations in developed nations began to acquire sensitive data, but there were few or no regulations in place to prevent them from sharing or abusing the data. Customer trust and goodwill were generally thought to be sufficient in first-world countries, notably the United States, to ensure the protection of truly sensitive data; caveat emptor was applied in these situations. But in the 1980s, smaller organizations also began to get access to computer hardware and software, and these simply did not have the procedures or personnel or expertise, nor less the time, to take rigorous measures to protect their customers. Meanwhile, via target marketing and rewards programs, companies were acquiring ever more data. Gradually, customer privacy measures were seen as deficient to deal with the many hazards of corporate data sharing, corporate mergers, employee turnover, and theft of data storage devices (e.g. hard drives) that could store a large amount of data in a portable location. Explicit regulation of consumer privacy gained further support, especially in the European Union, where each nation had laws that were incompatible (e.g., some restricted the data collection, the data compilation and the data dissemination); it was possible to violate privacy within the EU simply doing these things from different places in the European Common Market as it existed before 1992. 1990s Through the 1990s, the proliferation of mobile telecom, the introduction of customer relationship management, and the use of the Internet in developed nations brought the situation to the forefront, and most countries had to implement strong consumer privacy laws, often over the objections of business. The European Union and New Zealand passed particularly strong laws that were used as a template for more limited laws in Australia and Canada and some states of the United States (where no federal law for consumer privacy exists, although there are requirements specific to banking and telecom privacy). In Austria around the 1990s, the mere mention of a client's name in a semi-public social setting was enough to earn a junior bank executive a stiff jail sentence. 2000s After the terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, privacy took a back-seat to national security in legislators' minds. Accordingly, concerns of consumer privacy in the United States have tended to go unheard of as questions of citizen privacy versus the state, and the development of a police state or carceral state, have occupied advocates of strong privacy measures. Whereas it may have appeared prior to 2002 that commercial organizations and the consumer data they gathered were of primary concern, it has appeared since then in most developed nations to be much less of a concern than political privacy and medical privacy (e.g., as violated by biometrics). Indeed, people have recently been stopped at airports solely due to their political views, and there appears to be minimal public will to stop practices of this nature. The need for stricter laws is more pronounced after the American web service provider, Yahoo admitted that sensitive information (including email addresses and passwords) of half a billion users was stolen by hackers in 2014. The data breach was a massive setback for the company and raised several questions about the revelation of the news after two years of the hacking incident. See also Big data Information privacy Information technology management Management information systems Privacy Privacy law Privacy policy Personally identifiable information References ^ Foxman, Ellen R.; Kilcoyne, Paula (March 1993). "Information Technology, Marketing Practice, and Consumer Privacy: Ethical Issues". Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 12 (1): 106–119. doi:10.1177/074391569501200111. ISSN 0748-6766. S2CID 158361537. ^ Cao, Gaohui; Wang, Ping (2022-05-16). "Revealing or concealing: privacy information disclosure in intelligent voice assistant usage- a configurational approach". Industrial Management & Data Systems. 122 (5): 1215–1245. doi:10.1108/IMDS-08-2021-0485. ISSN 0263-5577. S2CID 248313942. ^ Morey, Timothy; Forbath, Theodore “Theo”; Schoop, Allison (2015-05-01). "Customer Data: Designing for Transparency and Trust". Harvard Business Review. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2024-04-22. ^ Lee, Dong-Joo (June 2011). "Managing Consumer Privacy Concerns in Personalization: A Strategic Analysis of Privacy Protection". MIS Quarterly. 35 (2): 428–A8. doi:10.2307/23044050. JSTOR 23044050. ^ a b Siam, Kayla (2017). "Coming to a Retailer near You: Consumer Privacy Protection in Retail Bankruptcies". Emory Bankruptcy Developments Journal. 33: 487–521. ^ "California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)". State of California - Department of Justice - Office of the Attorney General. 2018-10-15. Retrieved 2024-02-23. ^ Vagle, Jeffrey L. "Cybersecurity and Moral Hazard". Stanford Technology Law Review. 67 (2020): 71–113. ^ Skiera, Bernd (2022). The impact of the GDPR on the online advertising market. Klaus Matthias Miller, Yuxi Jin, Lennart Kraft, René Laub, Julia Schmitt. Frankfurt am Main. ISBN 978-3-9824173-0-1. OCLC 1303894344.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Hajar, Rachel (2017). "The Physician's Oath: Historical Perspectives". Heart Views. 18 (4): 154–159. doi:10.4103/HEARTVIEWS.HEARTVIEWS_131_17. ISSN 1995-705X. PMC 5755201. PMID 29326783. ^ Indla, Vishal; Radhika, M. S. (April 2019). "Hippocratic oath: Losing relevance in today's world?". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 61 (Suppl 4): S773–S775. doi:10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_140_19. ISSN 0019-5545. PMC 6482690. PMID 31040472. ^ Foxman, Ellen R., and Paula Kilcoyne (March 1, 1993). "Information Technology, Marketing Practice, and Consumer Privacy: Ethical Issues". Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 12: 106–119. doi:10.1177/074391569501200111. S2CID 158361537.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Papacharissi, Zizi, and Jan Fernback. "Online privacy and consumer protection: An analysis of portal privacy statements". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "Consumer Privacy: Meaning, Principles and Example". Essays, Research Papers and Articles on Business Management. 2016-06-22. Retrieved 2020-12-06. ^ "Yahoo faces questions after hack of half a billion accounts". The Guardian. 23 September 2016. vtePrivacyPrinciples Right of access to personal data Expectation of privacy Right to privacy Right to be forgotten Post-mortem privacy Privacy laws Australia Brazil Canada China Denmark England European Union Germany Ghana New Zealand Russia Singapore Switzerland United Kingdom United States California, amended in 2020 Data protection authorities Australia Denmark European Union France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Isle of Man Netherlands Norway Philippines Poland South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom Areas Consumer Digital Education Medical Workplace Information privacy Law Financial Internet Facebook Google Twitter Email Personal data Personal identifier Social networking services Privacy-enhancing technologies Privacy engineering Privacy-invasive software Privacy policy Secret ballot Virtual assistant privacy Advocacy organizations American Civil Liberties Union Center for Democracy and Technology Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility Data Privacy Lab Electronic Frontier Foundation Electronic Privacy Information Center European Digital Rights Future of Privacy Forum Global Network Initiative International Association of Privacy Professionals NOYB Privacy International See also Anonymity Cellphone surveillance Data security Eavesdropping Global surveillance Identity theft Mass surveillance Panopticon PRISM Search warrant Wiretapping Human rights Personality rights Category

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Firms are also expected to protect consumer privacy both within the organizations themselves and from outside third entities including third party providers of services, suppliers who provide product components and supplies, and government institutions or community partnership organizations. In addition, businesses are sometime required to provide an agreement/contract to service clients or product consumer that states customer or client information and data will be kept confidential and that it will not be used for advertising or promotional purposes for example. The US government, including the FTC, have consumer protection laws like The Telephone Consumer Protection Act and Data Transparency and Privacy Act. Individuals States have laws and regulation that protect consumers as well. One example of this is The California Consumer Privacy Act.","title":"Consumer privacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"couriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courier"},{"link_name":"bankers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank"},{"link_name":"ethical codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_code"},{"link_name":"medical privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_privacy"},{"link_name":"client confidentiality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_confidentiality"},{"link_name":"national security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security"},{"link_name":"carceral state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carceral_state"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siam-5"},{"link_name":"security engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_engineering"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siam-5"},{"link_name":"client confidentiality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_confidentiality"},{"link_name":"ethical codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_code"},{"link_name":"legal codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_code"},{"link_name":"banking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking"},{"link_name":"law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"},{"link_name":"patient privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_privacy"},{"link_name":"national security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security"},{"link_name":"intelligence organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_agency"},{"link_name":"California Consumer Privacy Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Consumer_Privacy_Act"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_(accounting)"},{"link_name":"moral hazards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_hazard"},{"link_name":"privacy violation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_violation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"bills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invoice"},{"link_name":"customer relationship management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_relationship_management"},{"link_name":"target marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_market"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Hippocratic Oath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"telephone company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_company"},{"link_name":"monopoly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly"},{"link_name":"PTT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal,_telegraph_and_telephone_service"},{"link_name":"wiretap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiretap"},{"link_name":"financial privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_privacy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Consumer privacy concerns date back to the first commercial couriers and bankers who enforced strong measures to protect customer privacy. Harsh punitive measures were passed as the result of failing to keep a customer's information private. In modern times, the ethical codes of most professions specify privacy measures for the consumer of any service, including medical privacy, client confidentiality, and national security. These codes are particularly important in a carceral state, where no privacy in any form nor limits on state oversight or data use exists.[4] Corporate customer privacy practices are approaches taken by commercial organizations to ensure that confidential customer data is not stolen or abused.[5] Since most organizations have strong competitive incentives to retain exclusive access to customer data, and since customer trust is usually a high priority, most companies take some security engineering measures to protect customer privacy. There is also a concern that companies may sell consumer data if they have to declare bankruptcy, although it often violates their own privacy policies.[5]The measures companies take to protect consumer privacy vary in effectiveness, and would not typically meet the much higher standards of client confidentiality applied by ethical codes or legal codes in banking or law, nor patient privacy measures in medicine, nor rigorous national security measures in military and intelligence organizations. The California Consumer Privacy Act, for example, protects the use of consumer privacy data by firms and governments. This act makes it harder for firms to extract personal information from consumers and use it for commercial purposes. Some of the rights included in this act include:[6]The right to know about the personal information a business collects about them and how it is used and shared\nThe right to delete personal information collected from them (with some exceptions)\nThe right to opt-out of the sale or sharing of their personal information\nThe right to non-discrimination for exercising their CCPA rightsSince companies operate to generate a profit, commercial organizations also cannot spend unlimited funds on precautions while remaining competitive; a commercial context tends to limit privacy measures and to motivate organizations to share data when working in partnership. The damage done by privacy loss is not measurable, nor can it be undone, and commercial organizations have little or no interest in taking unprofitable measures to drastically increase the privacy of customers. Corporations may be inclined to share data for commercial advantage and fail to officially recognize it as sensitive to avoid legal liability in the chance that lapses of security may occur. This has led to many moral hazards and customer privacy violation incidents.[7]Some services—notably telecommunications, including Internet—require collecting a vast array of information about users' activities in the course of business, and may also require consultation of these data to prepare bills. In the US and Canada, telecom data must be kept for seven years to permit dispute and consultation about phone charges. These sensitivities have led telecom regulation to be a leader in consumer privacy regulation, enforcing a high level of confidentiality on the sensitive customer communication records. The focus of consumer rights activists on the telecoms industry has super-sided as other industries also gather sensitive consumer data. Such common commercial measures as software-based customer relationship management, rewards programs, and target marketing tend to drastically increase the amount of information gathered (and sometimes shared). These very drastically increase privacy risks and have accelerated the shift to regulation, rather than relying on the corporate desire to preserve goodwill.[citation needed]Concerns have led to consumer privacy laws in most countries, especially in the European Union,[8] Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Notably, among developed countries, the United States has no such law and relies on corporate customer privacy disclosed in privacy policies to ensure consumer privacy in general. Modern privacy law and regulation may be compared to parts of the Hippocratic Oath, which includes a requirement for doctors to avoid mentioning the ills of patients to others—not only to protect them, but to protect their families— and also recognizes that innocent third parties can be harmed by the loss of control of sensitive personal information.[9][10]Modern consumer privacy law originated from telecom regulation when it was recognized that a telephone company—especially a monopoly (known in many nations as a PTT)—had access to unprecedented levels of information: the direct customer's communication habits and correspondents and the data of those who shared the household. Telephone operators could frequently hear conversations—inadvertently or deliberately—and their job required them to dial the exact numbers. The data gathering required for the process of billing began to become a privacy risk as well. Accordingly, strong rules on operator behaviour, customer confidentiality, records keeping and destruction were enforced on telephone companies in every country. Typically only police and military authorities had legal powers to wiretap or see records. Even stricter requirements emerged for various banks' electronic records. In some countries, financial privacy is a major focus of the economy, with severe criminal penalties for violating it.[citation needed]","title":"Legislation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"developed nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_nation"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"caveat emptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caveat_emptor"},{"link_name":"target marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_marketing"},{"link_name":"rewards programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewards_programs"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"employee turnover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee_turnover"},{"link_name":"hard drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drives"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"data collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collection"},{"link_name":"data dissemination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dissemination"},{"link_name":"European Common Market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Common_Market"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"1970s","text":"Through the 1970s, many other organizations in developed nations began to acquire sensitive data, but there were few or no regulations in place to prevent them from sharing or abusing the data. Customer trust and goodwill were generally thought to be sufficient in first-world countries, notably the United States, to ensure the protection of truly sensitive data; caveat emptor was applied in these situations. But in the 1980s, smaller organizations also began to get access to computer hardware and software, and these simply did not have the procedures or personnel or expertise, nor less the time, to take rigorous measures to protect their customers. Meanwhile, via target marketing and rewards programs, companies were acquiring ever more data.[citation needed][11]Gradually, customer privacy measures were seen as deficient to deal with the many hazards of corporate data sharing, corporate mergers, employee turnover, and theft of data storage devices (e.g. hard drives) that could store a large amount of data in a portable location. Explicit regulation of consumer privacy gained further support, especially in the European Union, where each nation had laws that were incompatible (e.g., some restricted the data collection, the data compilation and the data dissemination); it was possible to violate privacy within the EU simply doing these things from different places in the European Common Market as it existed before 1992.[citation needed][12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mobile telecom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telecom"},{"link_name":"customer relationship management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_relationship_management"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"developed nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_nation"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"1990s","text":"Through the 1990s, the proliferation of mobile telecom, the introduction of customer relationship management, and the use of the Internet in developed nations brought the situation to the forefront, and most countries had to implement strong consumer privacy laws, often over the objections of business. The European Union and New Zealand passed particularly strong laws that were used as a template for more limited laws in Australia and Canada and some states of the United States (where no federal law for consumer privacy exists, although there are requirements specific to banking and telecom privacy). In Austria around the 1990s, the mere mention of a client's name in a semi-public social setting was enough to earn a junior bank executive a stiff jail sentence.[13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"terrorist attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11,_2001,_terrorist_attacks"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"September 11, 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11,_2001,_terrorist_attacks"},{"link_name":"national security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"police state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_state"},{"link_name":"carceral state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carceral_state"},{"link_name":"developed nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_nation"},{"link_name":"political privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_privacy"},{"link_name":"medical privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_privacy"},{"link_name":"biometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biometrics"},{"link_name":"stopped at airports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Fly_List"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"2000s","text":"After the terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, privacy took a back-seat to national security in legislators' minds. Accordingly, concerns of consumer privacy in the United States have tended to go unheard of as questions of citizen privacy versus the state, and the development of a police state or carceral state, have occupied advocates of strong privacy measures. Whereas it may have appeared prior to 2002 that commercial organizations and the consumer data they gathered were of primary concern, it has appeared since then in most developed nations to be much less of a concern than political privacy and medical privacy (e.g., as violated by biometrics). Indeed, people have recently been stopped at airports solely due to their political views, and there appears to be minimal public will to stop practices of this nature.[citation needed] The need for stricter laws is more pronounced after the American web service provider, Yahoo admitted that sensitive information (including email addresses and passwords) of half a billion users was stolen by hackers in 2014. The data breach was a massive setback for the company and raised several questions about the revelation of the news after two years of the hacking incident.[14]","title":"History"}]

[]

[{"title":"Big data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data"},{"title":"Information privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_privacy"},{"title":"Information technology management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_management"},{"title":"Management information systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_systems"},{"title":"Privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy"},{"title":"Privacy law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_law"},{"title":"Privacy policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_policy"},{"title":"Personally identifiable information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personally_identifiable_information"}]

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Industrial Management & Data Systems. 122 (5): 1215–1245. doi:10.1108/IMDS-08-2021-0485. ISSN 0263-5577. S2CID 248313942.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IMDS-08-2021-0485/full/html","url_text":"\"Revealing or concealing: privacy information disclosure in intelligent voice assistant usage- a configurational approach\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2FIMDS-08-2021-0485","url_text":"10.1108/IMDS-08-2021-0485"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0263-5577","url_text":"0263-5577"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248313942","url_text":"248313942"}]},{"reference":"Morey, Timothy; Forbath, Theodore “Theo”; Schoop, Allison (2015-05-01). \"Customer Data: Designing for Transparency and Trust\". Harvard Business Review. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2024-04-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://hbr.org/2015/05/customer-data-designing-for-transparency-and-trust","url_text":"\"Customer Data: Designing for Transparency and Trust\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0017-8012","url_text":"0017-8012"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Dong-Joo (June 2011). \"Managing Consumer Privacy Concerns in Personalization: A Strategic Analysis of Privacy Protection\". MIS Quarterly. 35 (2): 428–A8. doi:10.2307/23044050. 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Retrieved 2024-02-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://oag.ca.gov/privacy/ccpa","url_text":"\"California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)\""}]},{"reference":"Vagle, Jeffrey L. \"Cybersecurity and Moral Hazard\". Stanford Technology Law Review. 67 (2020): 71–113.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Skiera, Bernd (2022). The impact of the GDPR on the online advertising market. Klaus Matthias Miller, Yuxi Jin, Lennart Kraft, René Laub, Julia Schmitt. Frankfurt am Main. ISBN 978-3-9824173-0-1. 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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 12: 106–119. doi:10.1177/074391569501200111. S2CID 158361537.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F074391569501200111","url_text":"10.1177/074391569501200111"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158361537","url_text":"158361537"}]},{"reference":"Papacharissi, Zizi, and Jan Fernback. \"Online privacy and consumer protection: An analysis of portal privacy statements\". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Consumer Privacy: Meaning, Principles and Example\". Essays, Research Papers and Articles on Business Management. 2016-06-22. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_style_(architecture)

International Style

["1 Concept and definition","2 Background","3 1932 MoMA exhibition","3.1 Curators","3.2 Publications","3.3 Exemplary Uses of the International Style","3.4 Notable omissions","4 Before 1932","5 1932–1944","6 1945–present","7 Criticism","8 Architects","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]

20th-century modern architectural style International Style architectureLovell House in Los Angeles, by Richard NeutraVilla Savoye in Paris, by Le CorbusierEquitable Building in Atlanta, by Skidmore, Owings & MerrillLoews Philadelphia Hotel in Philadelphia, by George Howe and William LescazeSeagram Building in New York City, by Mies van der RohePaimio Sanatorium in Finland, by Alvar AaltoIstiqlal Mosque in Jakarta, by Friedrich SilabanYears active1920s–1970sLocationWorldwide Cover of The International Style (1932, reprinted 1996) by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson Kiefhoek housing, Rotterdam, by Jacobus Oud The International Style or internationalism is a major architectural style that developed in the 1920s and 1930s and was closely related to modernism and modernist architecture. It was first defined by Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) curators Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson in 1932, based on works of architecture from the 1920s. The terms rationalist architecture and modern movement are often used interchangeably with International Style, although the former is mostly used in the English-speaking world to specifically refer to the Italian rationalism, or even the International Style that developed in Europe as a whole. The Getty Research Institute defines it as "the style of architecture that emerged in The Netherlands, France, and Germany after World War I and spread throughout the world, becoming the dominant architectural style until the 1970s. The style is characterized by an emphasis on volume over mass, the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, rejection of all ornament and colour, repetitive modular forms, and the use of flat surfaces, typically alternating with areas of glass." Some researchers consider the International Style as one of the attempts to create an ideal and utilitarian form. Concept and definition International style is an ambiguous term; the unity and integrity of this direction is deceptive. Its formal features were revealed differently in different countries. Despite the unconditional commonality, the international style has never been a single phenomenon. However, International Style architecture demonstrates a unity of approach and general principles: lightweight structures, skeletal frames, new materials, a modular system, an open plan, and the use of simple geometric shapes. The problem of the International Style is that it is not obvious what type of material the term should be applied to: at the same time, there are key monuments of the 20th century (Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye; Wright's Fallingwater House) and mass-produced architectural products of their time. Here it is appropriate to talk about the use of recognizable formal techniques and the creation of a standard architectural product, rather than iconic objects. Hitchcock and Johnson's 1932 MoMA exhibition catalog identified three principles of the style: volume of internal space (as opposed to mass and solidity), flexibility and regularity (liberation from classical symmetry). and the expulsion of applied ornamentation ('artificial accents'). Common characteristics of the International Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of superfluous ornamentation, bold repetition and embracement of sleek glass, steel and efficient concrete as preferred materials. Accents were found to be suitably derived from natural design irregularities, such as the poisition of doors and fire escapes, stair towers, ventilators and even electric signs. Further, the transparency of buildings, construction (called the honest expression of structure), and acceptance of industrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's design philosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic, and logical design decisions leading to support building function were used by the International architect to create buildings reaching beyond historicism. The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament is a crime, truth to materials, form follows function; and Le Corbusier's description: "A house is a machine to live in". International style is sometimes understood as a general term associated with such architectural phenomena as Brutalist architecture, constructivism, functionalism, and rationalism. Phenomena similar in nature also existed in other artistic fields, for example in graphics, such as the International Typographic Style and Swiss Style. Background Around the start of the 20th century, a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technological possibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels, Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. These architects were not considered part of the International Style because they practiced in an "individualistic manner" and seen as the last representatives of Romanticism. The International Style can be traced to buildings designed by a small group of modernists, the major figures of which include Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Jacobus Oud, Le Corbusier, Richard Neutra and Philip Johnson. The founder of the Bauhaus school, Walter Gropius, along with prominent Bauhaus instructor, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, became known for steel frame structures employing glass curtain walls.  One of the world's earliest modern buildings where this can be seen is a shoe factory designed by Gropius in 1911 in Alfeld, Germany, called the Fagus Works building. The first building built entirely on Bauhaus design principles was the concrete and steel Haus am Horn, built in 1923 in Weimar, Germany, designed by Georg Muche. The Gropius-designed Bauhaus school building in Dessau, built 1925–26 and the Harvard Graduate Center (Cambridge, Massachusetts; 1949–50) also known as the Gropius Complex, exhibit clean lines and a "concern for uncluttered interior spaces". Marcel Breuer, a recognized leader in Béton Brut (Brutalist) architecture and notable alumni of the Bauhaus, who also pioneered the use of plywood and tubular steel in furniture design, and who after leaving the Bauhaus would later teach alongside Gropius at Harvard, is as well an important contributor to Modernism and the International Style. Prior to use of the term 'International Style', some American architects—such as Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Irving Gill—exemplified qualities of simplification, honesty and clarity. Frank Lloyd Wright's Wasmuth Portfolio had been exhibited in Europe and influenced the work of European modernists, and his travels there probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them. His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly showed a change in the style of the architect, but in a different direction than the International Style. In Europe the modern movement in architecture had been called Functionalism or Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity), L'Esprit Nouveau, or simply Modernism and was very much concerned with the coming together of a new architectural form and social reform, creating a more open and transparent society. The Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany (1927) The "International Style", as defined by Hitchcock and Johnson, had developed in 1920s Western Europe, shaped by the activities of the Dutch De Stijl movement, Le Corbusier, and the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus. Le Corbusier had embraced Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models in order to reorganize society. He contributed to a new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that advocated the use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to create a higher standard of living on all socio-economic levels. In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was the Weissenhof Estate in Stuttgart, overseen by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors. 1932 MoMA exhibition Philip Johnson co-defined the International Style with Henry-Russell Hitchcock as a young college graduate, and later became one of its practitioners. The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition ran from February 9 to March 23, 1932, at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. Beyond a foyer and office, the exhibition was divided into six rooms: the "Modern Architects" section began in the entrance room, featuring a model of William Lescaze's Chrystie-Forsyth Street Housing Development in New York. From there visitors moved to the centrally placed Room A, featuring a model of a mid-rise housing development for Evanston, Illinois, by Chicago architect brothers Monroe Bengt Bowman and Irving Bowman, as well as a model and photos of Walter Gropius's Bauhaus building in Dessau. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, J. J. P. Oud and Frank Lloyd Wright (including a project for a house on the Mesa in Denver, 1932). Room B was a section titled "Housing", presenting "the need for a new domestic environment" as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood (including "Apartment Tower in the Country" and the McGraw-Hill Building) and Richard Neutra. In Room E was a section titled "The extent of modern architecture", added at the last minute, which included the works of thirty seven modern architects from fifteen countries who were said to be influenced by the works of Europeans of the 1920s. Among these works was shown Alvar Aalto's Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland. After a six-week run in New York City, the exhibition then toured the US – the first such "traveling-exhibition" of architecture in the US – for six years. Curators MoMA director Alfred H. Barr hired architectural historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson to curate the museum's first architectural exhibition. The three of them toured Europe together in 1929 and had also discussed Hitchcock's book about modern art. By December 1930, the first written proposal for an exhibition of the "new architecture" was set down, yet the first draft of the book was not complete until some months later. Publications The 1932 exhibition led to two publications by Hitchcock and Johnson: The exhibition catalog, "Modern Architecture: International Exhibition" The book, The International Style: Architecture Since 1922, published by W. W. Norton & Co. in 1932. reprinted in 1997 by W. W. Norton & Company Previous to the 1932 exhibition and book, Hitchcock had concerned himself with the themes of modern architecture in his 1929 book Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration. According to Terence Riley: "Ironically the (exhibition) catalogue, and to some extent, the book The International Style, published at the same time of the exhibition, have supplanted the actual historical event." Exemplary Uses of the International Style The following architects and buildings were selected by Hitchcock and Johnson for display at the exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition: Architect Building Location Date Jacobus Oud Workers Houses (house blocks Kiefhoek) Rotterdam, The Netherlands 1924–1927 Otto Eisler Semi-detached Villa Brno, Czech Republic 1926–1927 Walter Gropius Fagus Factory Alfeld, Germany 1911 Bauhaus School Dessau, Germany 1926 City Employment Office Dessau, Germany 1928 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Apartment House, Weissenhof Estate Stuttgart, Germany 1927 German pavilion at the Barcelona Expo Barcelona, Spain 1929 Villa Tugendhat Brno, Czech Republic 1930 Le Corbusier Villa Stein Garches, France 1927 Villa Savoye Poissy, France 1930 Carlos de Beistegui Champs-Élysées Penthouse Paris, France 1931 Erich Mendelsohn Schocken Department Store Chemnitz, Germany 1928–1930 Frederick John Kiesler Film Guild Cinema New York City, US 1929 Raymond Hood McGraw-Hill Building New York City, US 1931 George Howe & William Lescaze Loews Philadelphia Hotel Philadelphia, US 1932 Monroe Bengt Bowman & Irving Bowman Lux apartment block Evanston, US 1931 Richard Neutra Lovell House Los Angeles, US 1929 Otto Haesler Rothenberg Siedlung Kassel, Germany 1930 Karl Schneider Kunstverein Hamburg, Germany 1930 Alvar Aalto Turun Sanomat building Turku, Finland 1930 Villa Savoye, Paris, Le Corbusier Bauhaus School, Dessau, Walter Gropius Fagus Factory, Alfeld, Walter Gropius German Pavilion, Barcelona, Mies van der Rohe Villa Tugendhat, Brno, Mies van der Rohe Rothenberg Siedlung, Kassel, Otto Haesler Lovell House, Los Angeles, Rudolph Schindler (garden by Richard Neutra) McGraw-Hill Building, New York City, Raymond Hood Loews Philadelphia Hotel, Philadelphia, George Howe and William Lescaze Turun Sanomat, Turku, Alvar Aalto Notable omissions The exhibition excluded other contemporary styles that were exploring the boundaries of architecture at the time, including: Art Deco; German Expressionism, for instance the works of Hermann Finsterlin; and the organicist movement, popularized in the work of Antoni Gaudí. As a result of the 1932 exhibition, the principles of the International Style were endorsed, while other styles were classed less significant. In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen gave some indication of what was to come, though these works would not have been accepted by Hitchcock and Johnson as representing the "International Style". Similarly, Johnson, writing about Joseph Urban's recently completed New School for Social Research in New York, stated: "In the New School we have an anomaly of a building supposed to be in a style of architecture based on the development of the plan from function and facade from plan but which is a formally and pretentiously conceived as a Renaissance palace. Urban's admiration for the New Style is more complete than his understanding." California architect Rudolph Schindler's work was not a part of the exhibit, though Schindler had pleaded with Hitchcock and Johnson to be included. Then, "or more than 20 years, Schindler had intermittently launched a series of spirited, cantankerous exchanges with the museum." Before 1932 Architect Building Location Date Johannes Duiker and Bernard Bijvoet Zonnestraal Sanatorium Hilversum, Netherlands 1926–1928 Robert Mallet-Stevens houses on Rue Mallet-Stevens Paris, France 1927 Villa Cavrois Croix, France 1929 Eileen Gray E-1027 Cap Martin, France 1929 Alejandro Bustillo House of Victoria Ocampo Buenos Aires, Argentina 1929 Alvar Aalto Paimio Sanatorium Turku, Finland 1930 Leendert van der Vlugt Van Nelle Factory Rotterdam, Netherlands 1926–1930 Joseph Emberton Royal Corinthian Yacht Club Essex, England 1931 1932–1944 The Glass Palace, Heerlen, Netherlands, Frits Peutz (1935). The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis' rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of avant-gardist architects, many of them Jews, were forced out of continental Europe. Some, such as Mendelsohn, found shelter in England, while a considerable number of the Jewish architects made their way to Palestine, and others to the US. However, American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection of functionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important architects, including contributors to the original Weissenhof project, fled to the Soviet Union. This group also tended to be far more concerned with functionalism and its social agenda. Bruno Taut, Mart Stam, the second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer, Ernst May and other important figures of the International Style went to the Soviet Union in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, building entire cities from scratch. In 1936, when Stalin ordered them out of the country, many of these architects became stateless and sought refuge elsewhere; for example, Ernst May moved to Kenya. Dizengoff Circle, White City, Tel Aviv, by Genia Averbuch, 1934 The White City of Tel Aviv is a collection of over 4,000 buildings built in the International Style in the 1930s. Many Jewish architects who had studied at the German Bauhaus school designed significant buildings here. A large proportion of the buildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes, north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. In 1994, UNESCO proclaimed the White City a World Heritage Site, describing the city as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century". In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City was listed as a World Monuments Fund endangered site. The Kavanagh Building in Buenos Aires, by Sánchez, Lagos & de la Torre (1936). The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended an international or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, most of them designed by Edvin Engström, it remains the largest coherent functionalist or "International Style" villa area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction in 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage. Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement. Tomas Bata Memorial is the most valuable monument of the Zlín functionalism. It is a modern paraphrase of the constructions of high gothic style period: the supporting system and colourful stained glass and the reinforced concrete skeleton and glass. With the rise of Nazism, a number of key European modern architects fled to the US. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany they both arrived at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in an excellent position to extend their influence and promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies fled in 1938, he first fled to England, but on emigrating to the US he went to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidified his reputation as a prototypical modern architect. Architect Building Location Date Ove Arup Labworth Café Essex, England 1932–1933 Jorge Kálnay Luna Park Buenos Aires, Argentina 1932 Leendert van der Vlugt Sonneveld House Rotterdam, Netherlands 1932–1933 Carlos Ramos Radio Pavilion of the Oncology Institute Lisbon, Portugal 1933 Hans Scharoun Schminke House Löbau, Germany 1933 Frits Peutz Glaspaleis Heerlen, Netherlands 1933 František Lydie Gahura Tomas Bata Memorial Zlín, Czech Republic 1933 Oscar Stonorov and Alfred Kastner Carl Mackley Houses Philadelphia, US 1933–1934 Edvin Engström Södra Ängby Stockholm, Sweden 1933–1939 Genia Averbuch Dizengoff Square Tel Aviv, Israel 1934–1938 Dov Karmi Max-Liebling House Tel Aviv, Israel 1936 Yehuda Lulka Thermometer House Tel Aviv, Israel 1935 Erich Mendelsohn Weizmann House Rehovot, Israel 1936 Wells Coates Isokon building London, England 1934 Berthold Lubetkin Highpoint I London, England 1935 Maxwell Fry Sun House London, England 1935 Neil & Hurd Ravelston Garden Edinburgh, Scotland 1936 Sánchez, Lagos & de la Torre Kavanagh Building Buenos Aires, Argentina 1936 Walter Gropius Gropius House Lincoln, Massachusetts, US 1937–1938 William Ganster and William Pereira Lake County Tuberculosis Sanatorium Waukegan, Illinois, US 1938–1939 1945–present Seagram Building, New York, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1958) Tower C of Place de Ville After World War II, the International Style matured; Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum (later renamed HOK) and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) perfected the corporate practice, and it became the dominant approach for decades in the US and Canada. Beginning with the initial technical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago, its most famous examples include the United Nations headquarters, the Lever House, the Seagram Building in New York City, and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto. Further examples can be found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and the "corporate architecture" spread from there, especially to Europe. In Canada, this period coincided with a major building boom and few restrictions on massive building projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's major cities, especially Ottawa, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Hamilton, and Toronto. While these glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to the point of ubiquity. A typical example is the development of so-called Place de Ville, a conglomeration of three glass skyscrapers in downtown Ottawa, where the plans of the property developer Robert Campeau in the mid-1960s and early 1970s—in the words of historian Robert W. Collier, were "forceful and abrasive he was not well-loved at City Hall"—had no regard for existing city plans, and "built with contempt for the existing city and for city responsibilities in the key areas of transportation and land use". Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as the Toronto City Hall by Finnish architect Viljo Revell. By the late 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism—prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Baird were partly based in Toronto. The typical International Style or "corporate architecture" high-rise usually consists of the following: Square or rectangular footprint Simple cubic "extruded rectangle" form Windows running in broken horizontal rows forming a grid All facade angles are 90 degrees. In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed University City of Caracas in Caracas, Venezuela, as a World Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architecture and art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group of distinguished avant-garde artists". In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City, a World Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international style movement. It was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid-1950s based upon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral. His original idea was enriched by other students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The university houses murals by Diego Rivera, Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also features Olympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexican architect Luis Barragán designed buildings in the International Style. But later he evolved to a more traditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the International Style or modern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia, Augusto H. Alvarez, Mario Pani, Federico Mariscal , Vladimir Kaspé, Enrique del Moral, Juan Sordo Madaleno, Max Cetto, among many others. In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed a more organic and sensual International Style. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of the new, planned capital Brasilia. The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lúcio Costa. Architect Building Location Date Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Illinois Institute of Technology campus (including S. R. Crown Hall) Chicago, US 1945–1960 860–880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments Chicago, US 1949 Pietro Belluschi Commonwealth Building Portland, Oregon, US 1948 Oscar Niemeyer, Le Corbusier, Harrison & Abramovitz Headquarters of the United Nations New York City, US 1950s Michael Scott Busaras Dublin, Ireland 1945–1953 Kemp, Bunch & Jackson Eight Forty One Jacksonville, US 1955 Ron Phillips and Alan Fitch City Hall, Hong Kong Victoria City, Hong Kong 1956 Alberto Belgrano Blanco, José A. Hortal and Marcelo Martínez de Hoz Alas Building Buenos Aires, Argentina 1957 John Bland Old City Hall Ottawa, Canada 1958 Emery Roth & Sons 10 Lafayette Square Buffalo, New York, US 1958–1959 Kelly & Gruzen High School of Graphic Communication Arts Manhattan, New York City, US 1959 Arne Jacobsen SAS Royal Hotel Copenhagen, Denmark 1958–60 Stanley Roscoe Hamilton City Hall Hamilton, Canada 1960 John Lautner Chemosphere Los Angeles, US 1960 Carlos Arguelles Philamlife Building Manila, Philippines 1961 I. M. Pei Place Ville-Marie Montreal, Canada 1962 Charles Luckman Prudential Tower Boston, US 1964 George Dahl First National Bank Tower Dallas, US 1965 Abugov & Sunderland CN Tower Edmonton, Canada 1966 Various architects Montreal Metro, initial network Montreal, Canada 1966 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Toronto-Dominion Centre Toronto, Canada 1967 Westmount Square Montreal, Canada 1967 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Equitable Building Atlanta, US 1968 Hermann Henselmann et al. Berlin TV Tower Berlin, Germany 1969 Michael Manser Capel Manor House Horsmonden, UK 1971 Campeau Corporation Place de Ville Ottawa, Canada 1967–1972 Arthur C.F. Lau Stelco Tower Hamilton, Canada 1973 Crang & Boake Hudson's Bay Centre Toronto, Canada 1974 Jerzy Skrzypczak Chałubińskiego 8 Warsaw, Poland 1975–1978 Friedrich Silaban Borobudur Hotel Jakarta, Indonesia 1974 Istiqlal Mosque Jakarta, Indonesia 1978 Pedro Moctezuma Díaz Infante Torre Ejecutiva Pemex Mexico City, Mexico 1982 Criticism In 1930, Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: "Human houses should not be like boxes, blazing in the sun, nor should we outrage the Machine by trying to make dwelling-places too complementary to Machinery." In Elizabeth Gordon's well-known 1953 essay, "The Threat to the Next America", she criticized the style as non-practical, citing many instances where "glass houses" are too hot in summer and too cold in winter, empty, take away private space, lack beauty and generally are not livable. Moreover, she accused this style's proponents of taking away a sense of beauty from people and thus covertly pushing for a totalitarian society. In 1966, architect Robert Venturi published Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, essentially a book-length critique of the International Style. Architectural historian Vincent Scully regarded Venturi's book as 'probably the most important writing on the making of architecture since Le Corbusier's Vers une Architecture. It helped to define postmodernism. Best-selling American author Tom Wolfe wrote a book-length critique, From Bauhaus to Our House, portraying the style as elitist. One of the supposed strengths of the International Style has been said to be that the design solutions were indifferent to location, site, and climate; the solutions were supposed to be universally applicable; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. This was soon identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses. In 2006, Hugh Pearman, the British architectural critic of The Times, observed that those using the style today are simply "another species of revivalist", noting the irony. The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked to public antipathy to overall development. In the preface to the fourth edition of his book Modern Architecture: A Critical History (2007), Kenneth Frampton argued that there had been a "disturbing Eurocentric bias" in histories of modern architecture. This "Eurocentrism" included the US. Architects Alvar Aalto Max Abramovitz Luis Barragán Welton Becket Pietro Belluschi Geoffrey Bazeley Max Bill Marcel Breuer Roberto Burle Marx Gordon Bunshaft Natalie de Blois Henry N. Cobb George Dahl Sir Frederick Gibberd Charles and Ray Eames Otto Eisler Joseph Emberton Bohuslav Fuchs Paul Furiet Heydar Ghiai Landis Gores Bruce Graham Eileen Gray Walter Gropius Otto Haesler Arieh El-Hanani Wallace Harrison Hermann Henselmann Raymond Hood George Howe Muzharul Islam Arne Jacobsen Marcel Janco John M. Johansen Philip Johnson Roger Johnson Louis Kahn Dov Karmi Oskar Kaufmann Richard Kauffmann Fazlur Khan Frederick John Kiesler Le Corbusier William Lescaze Charles Luckman Yehuda Magidovitch Michael Manser Alfred Mansfeld Erich Mendelsohn John O. Merrill Hannes Meyer Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Richard Neutra Oscar Niemeyer Eliot Noyes Gyo Obata Jacobus Oud Nathaniel A. Owings Mario Pani I. M. Pei Frits Peutz Ernst Plischke Ralph Rapson Zeev Rechter Viljo Revell Gerrit Rietveld Carl Rubin Eero Saarinen Rudolph Schindler Michael Scott Arieh Sharon Louis Skidmore Ben-Ami Shulman Jerzy Sołtan Raphael Soriano Edward Durell Stone Carlos Raúl Villanueva Leendert van der Vlugt Munio Weinraub Lloyd Wright Minoru Yamasaki The Architects Collaborative Toyo Ito See also Critical regionalism Expressionist architecture Functionalism (architecture) High-tech architecture Modern architecture Northwest Regional style Organic architecture Swiss Style (design) International Typographic Style References ^ a b Khan, Hasan-Uddin (2009). El Estilo Internacional (in Spanish). Köln: Taschen. pp. 7–11. ISBN 9783836510530. ^ Turner, Jane (1996). The Dictionary of Art. 26 Raphon to Rome, ancient, §II: Architecture. London: Grove. p. 14. ISBN 1-884446-00-0. ^ Poletti, Federico (2006). El siglo XX. Vanguardias (in Spanish). Milan: Electa. p. 101. ISBN 84-8156-404-4. ^ Baldellou, Miguel Ángel; Capitel, Antón (1995). Summa Artis XL: Arquitectura española del siglo XX (in Spanish). Madrid: Espasa Calpe. p. 13. ISBN 84-239-5482-X. ^ Frampton, Kenneth (2007). Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 203. ISBN 9780500203958. ^ Bussagli, Marco (2009). Atlas ilustrado de la arquitectura (in Spanish). Madrid: Susaeta. p. 176. ISBN 978-84-305-4483-7. ^ "International Style (modern European architecture style)". Art & Architecture Thesaurus. Getty Research Institute. ^ a b Vasileva E. (2016) Ideal and utilitarian in the international style system: subject and object in the design concept of the 20th century // International Journal of Cultural Research, 4 (25), 72–80. ^ Frampton K. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. London: Thames and Hudson, 1980. ^ a b c Hitchcock, Henry-Russell; Johnson, Philip (1932). Modern Architecture: International Exhibition (PDF). Museum of Modern Art. ^ Evenson, Norma (1969). Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design. New York: George Braziller. p. 7. ^ Le Corbusier, Vers une architecture (Towards an Architecture) (frequently mistranslated as "Towards a New Architecture"), 1923 ^ Hollis R. Swiss Graphic Design: The Origins and Growth of an International Style, 1920–1965. New Haven: Yale University Press: 2001. ^ Vasileva E. (2021) The Swiss Style: It's Prototypes, Origins and the Regulation Problem // Terra Artis. Arts and Design, 3, 84–101. ^ a b "International Style | architecture". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-09-17. ^ "Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau". UNESCO. Retrieved 8 December 2018. ^ "How to visit the building at the heart of Germany's Bauhaus movement". The Independent. Retrieved 2018-09-19. ^ "Marcel Breuer's Iconic Atlanta Library: Archived October 2010". centralbranchlibrary.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2018-09-19. ^ "About: Marcel Breuer". Marcel Breuer's Central Public Library – Atlanta. 2008-12-22. Retrieved 2018-09-19. ^ "A Movement in a Moment: The International Style | Architecture | Agenda | Phaidon". Phaidon. Retrieved 2018-09-19. ^ a b Wright, Frank Lloyd (2005). Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography. Petaluma, CA: Pomegranate Communications. pp. 60–63. ISBN 0-7649-3243-8. ^ Panayotis Tournikiotis, The Historiography of Modern Architecture, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1999 ISBN 0-262-70085-9 ^ "The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 19 July 2016. ^ "Siedlungshäuser: Die Häuser der Weissenhofsiedlung". Weissenhofsiedlung. Retrieved 10 August 2011. ^ "Modern Architecture: International Exhibition". Museum of Modern Art. ^ Monroe Bengt Bowman (1901–1994), Art Institute Chicago ^ a b c Terence Riley, "Portrait of the curator as a young man", in John Elderfield (ed), Philip Johnson and the Museum of Modern Art, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1998, pp.35–69 ^ Baharak Tabibi, Exhibitions as the Medium of Architectural Reproduction – "Modern Architecture: International Exhibition", Department of Architecture, Middle East Technical University, 2005. ^ Henry Russell Hitchcock, Philip Johnson.The International Style. W. W. Norton & Co. in 1997. ISBN 0-393-31518-5 ^ Terence Riley, The International Style: Exhibition 15 and The Museum of Modern Art. New York, Rizzoli, 1992. ^ Hines, Thomas (1982). Richard Neutra and the Search for Modern Architecture. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 0-19-503028-1. ^ Morgan, Susan (2015). "Not Another International Style Ballyhoo: A Short History of the Schindler House". MAK Center for Art and Architecture. ^ Claudia Quiring, Wolfgang Voigt, Peter Cachola Schmal, Eckhard Herrel (eds), Ernst May 1886–1970, Munich, Prestel, 2011. ^ Ina Rottscheidt, Kate Bowen, Jewish refugees put their own twist on Bauhaus homes in Israel, Deutsche Welle, 1 April 2009 ^ The New York Times. "A City Reinvents Itself Beyond Conflict". Accessed 25 February 2010. ^ White City of Tel-Aviv – the Modern Movement, World Heritage Centre, Unesco, retrieved 2009-09-14 ^ World Monuments Fund, World Monuments Watch 1996–2006 Archived 2009-09-28 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 16 September 2009 ^ Robert W. Collier, Contemporary Cathedrals – Large scale developments in Canadian cities, Harvest House, Montreal, 1975. ^ Botey, Josep (1996). Oscar Niemeyer. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili. ISBN 8425215765. ^ Wright, Frank Lloyd (2008), Modern Architecture: Being the Kahn Lectures for 1930, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691129372 ^ Gordon, Elizabeth, "The Threat to the Next America", House Beautiful (April 1953): 126–130 ^ Venturi, Robert (1966). Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (PDF). Museum of Modern Art. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-10. Retrieved 2017-11-18 – via Monoskop. ^ Stierli, Martino (December 22, 2016). "Complexity and Contradiction changed how we look at, think and talk about architecture". Architectural Review. Archived from the original on May 22, 2020. ^ "International Style of Modern Architecture: Origins, Characteristics". Visual Arts Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on Dec 10, 2023. ^ "Modernism – or should that be Modernwasm?". Hugh Pearman. 1 Apr 2006. Archived from the original on 2020-01-06. Retrieved 2014-04-02. ^ Herbert Muschamp, "Fear, Hope and the Changing of the Guard", New York Times, November 14, 1993, accessed February 17, 2008. ("the preservation movement ... was a tool directed against real estate development, but inevitably it was turned against architecture. Its particular target was modern architecture"). ^ R. Jobst, Charm is not an antiquated notion, FFWD Weekly: March 31, 2005 Archived June 3, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ("At the root of the public's apprehension about new development is that we've been getting screwed for 60 years by brutal, soulless and downright crappy architecture that arrogantly dismisses the human requirement for beauty") ^ Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, London, Thames and Hudson, 2007. Further reading Boness, Stefan. Tel Aviv: The White City, Jovis, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-939633-75-4 Elderfield, John (ed.). Philip Johnson and the Museum of Modern Art, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1998 Gössel, Gabriel. Functional Architecture. Funktionale Architektur. Le Style International. 1925–1940, Taschen, Berlin, 1990 Riley, Terence. The International Style: Exhibition 15 and The Museum of Modern Art, Rizzoli, New York, 1992 Tabibi, Baharak Exhibitions as the Medium of Architectural Reproduction – "Modern Architecture: International Exhibition", Department of Architecture, Middle East Technical University, 2005] Vasileva E. (2016) Ideal and utilitarian in the international style system: subject and object in the design concept of the 20th century // International Journal of Cultural Research, 4 (25), 72–80. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to International style. "How Chicago Sparked the International Style of Architecture in America". 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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cover_of_the_1932_book_The_International_Style.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Overzicht_uiteinde_straat_eindigend_in_winkel_in_de_wijk_Kiefhoek_van_J.J.P._Oud_-_Rotterdam_-_20536890_-_RCE.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kiefhoek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiefhoek"},{"link_name":"Rotterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam"},{"link_name":"Jacobus Oud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Oud"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-khantaschen-1"},{"link_name":"architectural style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_style"},{"link_name":"modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism"},{"link_name":"modernist architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture"},{"link_name":"Museum of Modern Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art"},{"link_name":"Henry-Russell Hitchcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry-Russell_Hitchcock"},{"link_name":"Philip Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Johnson"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-khantaschen-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Italian rationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Getty Research Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getty_Research_Institute"},{"link_name":"modular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modularity"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-researchgate.net-8"}],"text":"Cover of The International Style (1932, reprinted 1996) by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip JohnsonKiefhoek housing, Rotterdam, by Jacobus OudThe International Style or internationalism[1] is a major architectural style that developed in the 1920s and 1930s and was closely related to modernism and modernist architecture. It was first defined by Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) curators Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson in 1932, based on works of architecture from the 1920s. The terms rationalist architecture and modern movement are often used interchangeably with International Style,[1][2][3][4] although the former is mostly used in the English-speaking world to specifically refer to the Italian rationalism,[5] or even the International Style that developed in Europe as a whole.[6]The Getty Research Institute defines it as \"the style of architecture that emerged in The Netherlands, France, and Germany after World War I and spread throughout the world, becoming the dominant architectural style until the 1970s. The style is characterized by an emphasis on volume over mass, the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, rejection of all ornament and colour, repetitive modular forms, and the use of flat surfaces, typically alternating with areas of glass.\"[7] Some researchers consider the International Style as one of the attempts to create an ideal and utilitarian form.[8]","title":"International Style"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture"},{"link_name":"Villa Savoye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye"},{"link_name":"Fallingwater House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallingwater"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-researchgate.net-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-momacatalog-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-momacatalog-10"},{"link_name":"historicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicism_(art)"},{"link_name":"ornament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornament_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"truth to materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_to_materials"},{"link_name":"form follows function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_follows_function"},{"link_name":"Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-evenson-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Brutalist architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brutalist_architecture"},{"link_name":"constructivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(art)"},{"link_name":"functionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"rationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"International Typographic Style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Typographic_Style"},{"link_name":"Swiss Style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Style_(design)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"International style is an ambiguous term; the unity and integrity of this direction is deceptive. Its formal features were revealed differently in different countries. Despite the unconditional commonality, the international style has never been a single phenomenon.[9] However, International Style architecture demonstrates a unity of approach and general principles: lightweight structures, skeletal frames, new materials, a modular system, an open plan, and the use of simple geometric shapes.The problem of the International Style is that it is not obvious what type of material the term should be applied to: at the same time, there are key monuments of the 20th century (Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye; Wright's Fallingwater House) and mass-produced architectural products of their time.[8] Here it is appropriate to talk about the use of recognizable formal techniques and the creation of a standard architectural product, rather than iconic objects.Hitchcock and Johnson's 1932 MoMA exhibition catalog identified three principles of the style: volume of internal space (as opposed to mass and solidity), flexibility and regularity (liberation from classical symmetry). and the expulsion of applied ornamentation ('artificial accents').[10]Common characteristics of the International Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of superfluous ornamentation, bold repetition and embracement of sleek glass, steel and efficient concrete as preferred materials. Accents were found to be suitably derived from natural design irregularities, such as the poisition of doors and fire escapes, stair towers, ventilators and even electric signs.[10]Further, the transparency of buildings, construction (called the honest expression of structure), and acceptance of industrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's design philosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic, and logical design decisions leading to support building function were used by the International architect to create buildings reaching beyond historicism. The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament is a crime, truth to materials, form follows function; and Le Corbusier's description: \"A house is a machine to live in\".[11][12]International style is sometimes understood as a general term associated with such architectural phenomena as Brutalist architecture, constructivism, functionalism, and rationalism.Phenomena similar in nature also existed in other artistic fields, for example in graphics, such as the International Typographic Style and Swiss Style.[13][14]","title":"Concept and definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Victor Horta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Horta"},{"link_name":"Henry van de Velde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_van_de_Velde"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"Antoni Gaudí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoni_Gaud%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona"},{"link_name":"Otto Wagner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Wagner"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Charles Rennie Mackintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rennie_Mackintosh"},{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"Romanticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"link_name":"Jacobus Oud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Oud"},{"link_name":"Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"Richard Neutra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Neutra"},{"link_name":"Philip Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Johnson"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Britannica-15"},{"link_name":"Bauhaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus"},{"link_name":"Walter Gropius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Gropius"},{"link_name":"Alfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfeld"},{"link_name":"Fagus Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagus_Factory"},{"link_name":"Haus am Horn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haus_am_Horn"},{"link_name":"Weimar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar"},{"link_name":"Georg Muche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Muche"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Dessau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dessau"},{"link_name":"Harvard Graduate Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_Center"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Britannica-15"},{"link_name":"Marcel Breuer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Breuer"},{"link_name":"Béton Brut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9ton_brut"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Louis Sullivan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Sullivan"},{"link_name":"Frank Lloyd Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright"},{"link_name":"Irving Gill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Gill"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wright-21"},{"link_name":"Wasmuth Portfolio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasmuth_Portfolio"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wright-21"},{"link_name":"Functionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"New Objectivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Objectivity_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tournikiotis-22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Weissenhof-Luftbild-2004.01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Weissenhof Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weissenhof_Estate"},{"link_name":"De Stijl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Stijl"},{"link_name":"Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"Deutscher Werkbund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutscher_Werkbund"},{"link_name":"Bauhaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus"},{"link_name":"Taylorist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management"},{"link_name":"Fordist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordism"},{"link_name":"Weissenhof Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weissenhof_Estate"},{"link_name":"Stuttgart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Around the start of the 20th century, a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technological possibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels, Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. These architects were not considered part of the International Style because they practiced in an \"individualistic manner\" and seen as the last representatives of Romanticism.The International Style can be traced to buildings designed by a small group of modernists, the major figures of which include Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Jacobus Oud, Le Corbusier, Richard Neutra and Philip Johnson.[15]The founder of the Bauhaus school, Walter Gropius, along with prominent Bauhaus instructor, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, became known for steel frame structures employing glass curtain walls.  One of the world's earliest modern buildings where this can be seen is a shoe factory designed by Gropius in 1911 in Alfeld, Germany, called the Fagus Works building. The first building built entirely on Bauhaus design principles was the concrete and steel Haus am Horn, built in 1923 in Weimar, Germany, designed by Georg Muche.[16] The Gropius-designed Bauhaus school building in Dessau, built 1925–26 and the Harvard Graduate Center (Cambridge, Massachusetts; 1949–50) also known as the Gropius Complex, exhibit clean lines[17] and a \"concern for uncluttered interior spaces\".[15]Marcel Breuer, a recognized leader in Béton Brut (Brutalist) architecture and notable alumni of the Bauhaus,[18] who also pioneered the use of plywood and tubular steel in furniture design,[19] and who after leaving the Bauhaus would later teach alongside Gropius at Harvard, is as well an important contributor to Modernism and the International Style.[20]Prior to use of the term 'International Style', some American architects—such as Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Irving Gill—exemplified qualities of simplification, honesty and clarity.[21]\nFrank Lloyd Wright's Wasmuth Portfolio had been exhibited in Europe and influenced the work of European modernists, and his travels there probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them. His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly showed a change in the style of the architect, but in a different direction than the International Style.[21]In Europe the modern movement in architecture had been called Functionalism or Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity), L'Esprit Nouveau, or simply Modernism and was very much concerned with the coming together of a new architectural form and social reform, creating a more open and transparent society.[22]The Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)The \"International Style\", as defined by Hitchcock and Johnson, had developed in 1920s Western Europe, shaped by the activities of the Dutch De Stijl movement, Le Corbusier, and the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus. Le Corbusier had embraced Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models in order to reorganize society. He contributed to a new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that advocated the use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to create a higher standard of living on all socio-economic levels. In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was the Weissenhof Estate in Stuttgart, overseen by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors.[23][24]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_Johnson2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Henry-Russell Hitchcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry-Russell_Hitchcock"},{"link_name":"Heckscher Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Building_(Manhattan)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Evanston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evanston,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Monroe Bengt Bowman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monroe_Bengt_Bowman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Irving Bowman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irving_Bowman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"J. J. P. Oud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._P._Oud"},{"link_name":"Lewis Mumford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Mumford"},{"link_name":"McGraw-Hill Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/330_West_42nd_Street"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Riley-27"},{"link_name":"Turku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turku"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"Philip Johnson co-defined the International Style with Henry-Russell Hitchcock as a young college graduate, and later became one of its practitioners.The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition ran from February 9 to March 23, 1932, at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York.[25] Beyond a foyer and office, the exhibition was divided into six rooms: the \"Modern Architects\" section began in the entrance room, featuring a model of William Lescaze's Chrystie-Forsyth Street Housing Development in New York. From there visitors moved to the centrally placed Room A, featuring a model of a mid-rise housing development for Evanston, Illinois, by Chicago architect brothers Monroe Bengt Bowman and Irving Bowman,[26] as well as a model and photos of Walter Gropius's Bauhaus building in Dessau. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, J. J. P. Oud and Frank Lloyd Wright (including a project for a house on the Mesa in Denver, 1932). Room B was a section titled \"Housing\", presenting \"the need for a new domestic environment\" as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood (including \"Apartment Tower in the Country\" and the McGraw-Hill Building) and Richard Neutra. In Room E was a section titled \"The extent of modern architecture\", added at the last minute,[27] which included the works of thirty seven modern architects from fifteen countries who were said to be influenced by the works of Europeans of the 1920s. Among these works was shown Alvar Aalto's Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland.After a six-week run in New York City, the exhibition then toured the US – the first such \"traveling-exhibition\" of architecture in the US – for six years.[28]","title":"1932 MoMA exhibition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MoMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art"},{"link_name":"Alfred H. Barr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_H._Barr,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Henry-Russell Hitchcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry-Russell_Hitchcock"},{"link_name":"Philip Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Johnson"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Riley-27"}],"sub_title":"Curators","text":"MoMA director Alfred H. Barr hired architectural historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson[27] to curate the museum's first architectural exhibition. The three of them toured Europe together in 1929 and had also discussed Hitchcock's book about modern art. By December 1930, the first written proposal for an exhibition of the \"new architecture\" was set down, yet the first draft of the book was not complete until some months later.","title":"1932 MoMA exhibition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-momacatalog-10"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hitchcock-29"},{"link_name":"Terence Riley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence_Riley_(curator)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Publications","text":"The 1932 exhibition led to two publications by Hitchcock and Johnson:The exhibition catalog, \"Modern Architecture: International Exhibition\"[10]\nThe book, The International Style: Architecture Since 1922, published by W. W. Norton & Co. in 1932.\nreprinted in 1997 by W. W. Norton & Company[29]Previous to the 1932 exhibition and book, Hitchcock had concerned himself with the themes of modern architecture in his 1929 book Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration.According to Terence Riley: \"Ironically the (exhibition) catalogue, and to some extent, the book The International Style, published at the same time of the exhibition, have supplanted the actual historical event.\"[30]","title":"1932 MoMA exhibition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillaSavoye.jpg"},{"link_name":"Villa Savoye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bauhaus.JPG"},{"link_name":"Bauhaus School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus#Dessau"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fagus-Werke-01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fagus Factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagus_Factory"},{"link_name":"Alfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfeld"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Barcelona_Pavilion,_Barcelona,_2010.jpg"},{"link_name":"German Pavilion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_Pavilion"},{"link_name":"Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Villa_Tugendhat,_Brno,_CZ_(2).jpg"},{"link_name":"Villa Tugendhat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Tugendhat"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rothenberg-Siedlung_(4).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lovell_House,_Los_Angeles,_California.JPG"},{"link_name":"Lovell House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_House"},{"link_name":"Rudolph Schindler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Schindler_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Richard Neutra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Neutra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mcgraw-hill-42nd-st_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"McGraw-Hill Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/330_West_42nd_Street"},{"link_name":"Raymond Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Hood"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PSFSBuilding1985.jpg"},{"link_name":"Loews Philadelphia Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loews_Philadelphia_Hotel"},{"link_name":"George Howe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Howe_(architect)"},{"link_name":"William Lescaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lescaze"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turunsanomat.jpg"},{"link_name":"Turku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turku"},{"link_name":"Alvar Aalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvar_Aalto"}],"sub_title":"Exemplary Uses of the International Style","text":"The following architects and buildings were selected by Hitchcock and Johnson for display at the exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition:Villa Savoye, Paris, Le Corbusier\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBauhaus School, Dessau, Walter Gropius\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFagus Factory, Alfeld, Walter Gropius\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGerman Pavilion, Barcelona, Mies van der Rohe\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVilla Tugendhat, Brno, Mies van der Rohe\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRothenberg Siedlung, Kassel, Otto Haesler\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLovell House, Los Angeles, Rudolph Schindler (garden by Richard Neutra)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMcGraw-Hill Building, New York City, Raymond Hood\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLoews Philadelphia Hotel, Philadelphia, George Howe and William Lescaze\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTurun Sanomat, Turku, Alvar Aalto","title":"1932 MoMA exhibition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Art Deco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco"},{"link_name":"Hermann Finsterlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Finsterlin"},{"link_name":"organicist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_architecture"},{"link_name":"Antoni Gaudí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoni_Gaud%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"Tribune Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribune_Tower"},{"link_name":"second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliel_Saarinen%27s_Tribune_Tower_design"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Riley-27"},{"link_name":"Rudolph Schindler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Schindler_(architect)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Notable omissions","text":"The exhibition excluded other contemporary styles that were exploring the boundaries of architecture at the time, including: Art Deco; German Expressionism, for instance the works of Hermann Finsterlin; and the organicist movement, popularized in the work of Antoni Gaudí. As a result of the 1932 exhibition, the principles of the International Style were endorsed, while other styles were classed less significant.In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen gave some indication of what was to come, though these works would not have been accepted by Hitchcock and Johnson as representing the \"International Style\". Similarly, Johnson, writing about Joseph Urban's recently completed New School for Social Research in New York, stated: \"In the New School we have an anomaly of a building supposed to be in a style of architecture based on the development of the plan from function and facade from plan but which is a formally and pretentiously conceived as a Renaissance palace. Urban's admiration for the New Style is more complete than his understanding.\"[27]California architect Rudolph Schindler's work was not a part of the exhibit, though Schindler had pleaded with Hitchcock and Johnson to be included.[31] Then, \"[f]or more than 20 years, Schindler had intermittently launched a series of spirited, cantankerous exchanges with the museum.\"[32]","title":"1932 MoMA exhibition"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Before 1932"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glaspaleis_front-east.jpg"},{"link_name":"Glass Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaspaleis"},{"link_name":"Heerlen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heerlen"},{"link_name":"Frits Peutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frits_Peutz"},{"link_name":"Nazi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi"},{"link_name":"Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine"},{"link_name":"functionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Bruno Taut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Taut"},{"link_name":"Mart Stam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mart_Stam"},{"link_name":"Hannes Meyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannes_Meyer"},{"link_name":"Ernst May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_May"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dizengoff_Square_Tel_Aviv3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dizengoff Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizengoff_Circle"},{"link_name":"White City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_City_(Tel_Aviv)"},{"link_name":"Genia Averbuch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genia_Averbuch"},{"link_name":"White City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_City_(Tel_Aviv)"},{"link_name":"Tel Aviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv"},{"link_name":"Bauhaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Patrick Geddes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Geddes"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unesco-36"},{"link_name":"listed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_World_Monuments_Watch_List_of_Most_Endangered_Sites"},{"link_name":"World Monuments Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Monuments_Fund"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edificio_Kavanagh_(gevaert).jpg"},{"link_name":"Kavanagh Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavanagh_Building"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"residential area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_area"},{"link_name":"Södra Ängby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6dra_%C3%84ngby"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"functionalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"garden city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_city_movement"},{"link_name":"villa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa"},{"link_name":"national cultural heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_buildings_in_Sweden"},{"link_name":"Zlín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zl%C3%ADn"},{"link_name":"Bata Shoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bata_Shoes"},{"link_name":"Garden city movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_city_movement"},{"link_name":"Tomas Bata Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomas_Bata_Memorial"},{"link_name":"Zlín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zl%C3%ADn_Region"},{"link_name":"functionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Walter Gropius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Gropius"},{"link_name":"Marcel Breuer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Breuer"},{"link_name":"Harvard Graduate School of Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design"},{"link_name":"Bauhaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus"},{"link_name":"IIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Institute_of_Technology"}],"text":"The Glass Palace, Heerlen, Netherlands, Frits Peutz (1935).The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis' rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of avant-gardist architects, many of them Jews, were forced out of continental Europe. Some, such as Mendelsohn, found shelter in England, while a considerable number of the Jewish architects made their way to Palestine, and others to the US. However, American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection of functionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important architects, including contributors to the original Weissenhof project, fled to the Soviet Union. This group also tended to be far more concerned with functionalism and its social agenda. Bruno Taut, Mart Stam, the second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer, Ernst May and other important figures of the International Style went to the Soviet Union in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, building entire cities from scratch. In 1936, when Stalin ordered them out of the country, many of these architects became stateless and sought refuge elsewhere; for example, Ernst May moved to Kenya.[33]Dizengoff Circle, White City, Tel Aviv, by Genia Averbuch, 1934The White City of Tel Aviv is a collection of over 4,000 buildings built in the International Style in the 1930s. Many Jewish architects who had studied at the German Bauhaus school designed significant buildings here.[34] A large proportion of the buildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes, north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center.[35] In 1994, UNESCO proclaimed the White City a World Heritage Site, describing the city as \"a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century\".[36] In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City was listed as a World Monuments Fund endangered site.[37]The Kavanagh Building in Buenos Aires, by Sánchez, Lagos & de la Torre (1936).The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended an international or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, most of them designed by Edvin Engström, it remains the largest coherent functionalist or \"International Style\" villa area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction in 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage.Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement. Tomas Bata Memorial is the most valuable monument of the Zlín functionalism. It is a modern paraphrase of the constructions of high gothic style period: the supporting system and colourful stained glass and the reinforced concrete skeleton and glass.With the rise of Nazism, a number of key European modern architects fled to the US. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany they both arrived at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in an excellent position to extend their influence and promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies fled in 1938, he first fled to England, but on emigrating to the US he went to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidified his reputation as a prototypical modern architect.","title":"1932–1944"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NewYorkSeagram_04.30.2008.JPG"},{"link_name":"Seagram Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagram_Building"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Place_de_Ville_C.JPG"},{"link_name":"Place de Ville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_de_Ville"},{"link_name":"Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellmuth,_Obata_%26_Kassabaum"},{"link_name":"HOK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HOK_(firm)"},{"link_name":"Skidmore, Owings & Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill"},{"link_name":"860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/860-880_Lake_Shore_Drive_Apartments"},{"link_name":"United Nations headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_headquarters"},{"link_name":"Lever House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lever_House"},{"link_name":"Seagram Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagram_Building"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy#Campus_and_facilities"},{"link_name":"Toronto-Dominion Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto-Dominion_Centre"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Canada#Modern_period"},{"link_name":"Ottawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa"},{"link_name":"Montreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal"},{"link_name":"Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"Calgary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary"},{"link_name":"Edmonton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton"},{"link_name":"Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Toronto"},{"link_name":"Place de Ville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_de_Ville"},{"link_name":"Robert Campeau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Campeau"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Collier-38"},{"link_name":"Toronto City Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_City_Hall"},{"link_name":"Viljo Revell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viljo_Revell"},{"link_name":"Jane Jacobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Jacobs"},{"link_name":"George Baird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Baird_(architect)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"University City of Caracas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_City_of_Caracas"},{"link_name":"Caracas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracas"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"Carlos Raúl Villanueva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Ra%C3%BAl_Villanueva"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ciudad Universitaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_City_of_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico"},{"link_name":"Mexico City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_City"},{"link_name":"Enrique del Moral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrique_del_Moral"},{"link_name":"murals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural"},{"link_name":"Diego Rivera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Rivera"},{"link_name":"Juan O'Gorman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_O%27Gorman"},{"link_name":"Pritzker Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pritzker_Prize"},{"link_name":"Luis Barragán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Barrag%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"Carlos Obregón Santacilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Obreg%C3%B3n_Santacilia"},{"link_name":"Augusto H. Alvarez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_H._Alvarez"},{"link_name":"Mario Pani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Pani"},{"link_name":"Federico Mariscal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federico_Ernesto_Mariscal_Pi%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"es","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Ernesto_Mariscal_Pi%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Kaspé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Kasp%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Enrique del Moral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrique_del_Moral"},{"link_name":"Juan Sordo Madaleno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Sordo_Madaleno"},{"link_name":"Max Cetto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Cetto"},{"link_name":"Oscar Niemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Brasilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasilia"},{"link_name":"Lúcio Costa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Costa"}],"text":"Seagram Building, New York, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1958)Tower C of Place de VilleAfter World War II, the International Style matured; Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum (later renamed HOK) and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) perfected the corporate practice, and it became the dominant approach for decades in the US and Canada. Beginning with the initial technical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago, its most famous examples include the United Nations headquarters, the Lever House, the Seagram Building in New York City, and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto. Further examples can be found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and the \"corporate architecture\" spread from there, especially to Europe.In Canada, this period coincided with a major building boom and few restrictions on massive building projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's major cities, especially Ottawa, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Hamilton, and Toronto. While these glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to the point of ubiquity. A typical example is the development of so-called Place de Ville, a conglomeration of three glass skyscrapers in downtown Ottawa, where the plans of the property developer Robert Campeau in the mid-1960s and early 1970s—in the words of historian Robert W. Collier, were \"forceful and abrasive[;] he was not well-loved at City Hall\"—had no regard for existing city plans, and \"built with contempt for the existing city and for city responsibilities in the key areas of transportation and land use\".[38] Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as the Toronto City Hall by Finnish architect Viljo Revell. By the late 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism—prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Baird were partly based in Toronto.The typical International Style or \"corporate architecture\" high-rise usually consists of the following:Square or rectangular footprint\nSimple cubic \"extruded rectangle\" form\nWindows running in broken horizontal rows forming a grid\nAll facade angles are 90 degrees.[citation needed]In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed University City of Caracas in Caracas, Venezuela, as a World Heritage Site, describing it as \"a masterpiece of modern city planning, architecture and art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group of distinguished avant-garde artists\".[citation needed]In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City, a World Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international style movement. It was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid-1950s based upon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral. His original idea was enriched by other students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The university houses murals by Diego Rivera, Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also features Olympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexican architect Luis Barragán designed buildings in the International Style. But later he evolved to a more traditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the International Style or modern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia, Augusto H. Alvarez, Mario Pani, Federico Mariscal [es], Vladimir Kaspé, Enrique del Moral, Juan Sordo Madaleno, Max Cetto, among many others.In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed a more organic and sensual[39] International Style. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of the new, planned capital Brasilia. The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lúcio Costa.","title":"1945–present"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frank Lloyd Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Gordon_(editor)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Robert Venturi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Venturi"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Vincent Scully","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Scully"},{"link_name":"Vers une Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toward_an_Architecture"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"postmodernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_architecture"},{"link_name":"Tom Wolfe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Wolfe"},{"link_name":"From Bauhaus to Our House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Bauhaus_to_Our_House"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Hugh Pearman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Pearman_(architecture_critic)"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"revivalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Frampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Frampton"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"text":"In 1930, Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: \"Human houses should not be like boxes, blazing in the sun, nor should we outrage the Machine by trying to make dwelling-places too complementary to Machinery.\"[40]In Elizabeth Gordon's well-known 1953 essay, \"The Threat to the Next America\", she criticized the style as non-practical, citing many instances where \"glass houses\" are too hot in summer and too cold in winter, empty, take away private space, lack beauty and generally are not livable. Moreover, she accused this style's proponents of taking away a sense of beauty from people and thus covertly pushing for a totalitarian society.[41]In 1966, architect Robert Venturi published Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture,[42] essentially a book-length critique of the International Style. Architectural historian Vincent Scully regarded Venturi's book as 'probably the most important writing on the making of architecture since Le Corbusier's Vers une Architecture.[43] It helped to define postmodernism.Best-selling American author Tom Wolfe wrote a book-length critique, From Bauhaus to Our House, portraying the style as elitist.One of the supposed strengths of the International Style has been said to be that the design solutions were indifferent to location, site, and climate; the solutions were supposed to be universally applicable; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. This was soon identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses.[44]In 2006, Hugh Pearman, the British architectural critic of The Times, observed that those using the style today are simply \"another species of revivalist\", noting the irony.[45] The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked to public antipathy to overall development.[46][47]In the preface to the fourth edition of his book Modern Architecture: A Critical History (2007), Kenneth Frampton argued that there had been a \"disturbing Eurocentric bias\" in histories of modern architecture. This \"Eurocentrism\" included the US.[48]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alvar Aalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvar_Aalto"},{"link_name":"Max Abramovitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Abramovitz"},{"link_name":"Luis Barragán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Barrag%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"Welton Becket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welton_Becket"},{"link_name":"Pietro Belluschi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Belluschi"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Bazeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Bazeley"},{"link_name":"Max Bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Bill"},{"link_name":"Marcel Breuer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Breuer"},{"link_name":"Roberto Burle Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Burle_Marx"},{"link_name":"Gordon Bunshaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Bunshaft"},{"link_name":"Natalie de Blois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_de_Blois"},{"link_name":"Henry N. Cobb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_N._Cobb"},{"link_name":"George Dahl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Dahl"},{"link_name":"Sir Frederick Gibberd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Frederick_Gibberd"},{"link_name":"Charles and Ray Eames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_and_Ray_Eames"},{"link_name":"Otto Eisler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Eisler"},{"link_name":"Joseph Emberton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Emberton"},{"link_name":"Bohuslav Fuchs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohuslav_Fuchs"},{"link_name":"Paul Furiet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul_Furiet&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Heydar Ghiai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heydar_Ghiai"},{"link_name":"Landis Gores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landis_Gores"},{"link_name":"Bruce Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Graham"},{"link_name":"Eileen Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eileen_Gray"},{"link_name":"Walter Gropius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Gropius"},{"link_name":"Otto Haesler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Haesler"},{"link_name":"Arieh El-Hanani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arieh_El-Hanani"},{"link_name":"Wallace Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Harrison"},{"link_name":"Hermann Henselmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Henselmann"},{"link_name":"Raymond Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Hood"},{"link_name":"George Howe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Howe_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Muzharul Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzharul_Islam"},{"link_name":"Arne Jacobsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arne_Jacobsen"},{"link_name":"Marcel Janco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Janco"},{"link_name":"John M. Johansen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_M._Johansen"},{"link_name":"Philip Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Roger Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Kirk_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Louis Kahn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Kahn"},{"link_name":"Dov Karmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dov_Karmi"},{"link_name":"Oskar Kaufmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar_Kaufmann"},{"link_name":"Richard Kauffmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Kauffmann"},{"link_name":"Fazlur Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazlur_Khan"},{"link_name":"Frederick John Kiesler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_John_Kiesler"},{"link_name":"Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"William Lescaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lescaze"},{"link_name":"Charles Luckman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Luckman"},{"link_name":"Yehuda Magidovitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehuda_Magidovitch"},{"link_name":"Michael Manser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Manser"},{"link_name":"Alfred Mansfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Mansfeld"},{"link_name":"Erich Mendelsohn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn"},{"link_name":"John O. Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_O._Merrill"},{"link_name":"Hannes Meyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannes_Meyer"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"link_name":"Richard Neutra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Neutra"},{"link_name":"Oscar Niemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer"},{"link_name":"Eliot Noyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliot_Noyes"},{"link_name":"Gyo Obata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyo_Obata"},{"link_name":"Jacobus Oud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Oud"},{"link_name":"Nathaniel A. Owings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_A._Owings"},{"link_name":"Mario Pani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Pani"},{"link_name":"I. M. Pei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._M._Pei"},{"link_name":"Frits Peutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frits_Peutz"},{"link_name":"Ernst Plischke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Plischke"},{"link_name":"Ralph Rapson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Rapson"},{"link_name":"Zeev Rechter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeev_Rechter"},{"link_name":"Viljo Revell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viljo_Revell"},{"link_name":"Gerrit Rietveld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld"},{"link_name":"Carl Rubin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rubin_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Eero Saarinen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eero_Saarinen"},{"link_name":"Rudolph Schindler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Schindler_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Michael Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Scott_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Arieh Sharon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arieh_Sharon"},{"link_name":"Louis Skidmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Skidmore"},{"link_name":"Ben-Ami Shulman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben-Ami_Shulman"},{"link_name":"Jerzy Sołtan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy_So%C5%82tan"},{"link_name":"Raphael Soriano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael_Soriano"},{"link_name":"Edward Durell Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Durell_Stone"},{"link_name":"Carlos Raúl Villanueva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Ra%C3%BAl_Villanueva"},{"link_name":"Leendert van der Vlugt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leendert_van_der_Vlugt"},{"link_name":"Munio Weinraub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munio_Weinraub"},{"link_name":"Lloyd Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_Wright"},{"link_name":"Minoru Yamasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoru_Yamasaki"},{"link_name":"The Architects Collaborative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Architects_Collaborative"},{"link_name":"Toyo Ito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyo_Ito"}],"text":"Alvar Aalto\nMax Abramovitz\nLuis Barragán\nWelton Becket\nPietro Belluschi\nGeoffrey Bazeley\nMax Bill\nMarcel Breuer\nRoberto Burle Marx\nGordon Bunshaft\nNatalie de Blois\nHenry N. Cobb\nGeorge Dahl\nSir Frederick Gibberd\nCharles and Ray Eames\nOtto Eisler\nJoseph Emberton\nBohuslav Fuchs\nPaul Furiet\nHeydar Ghiai\nLandis Gores\nBruce Graham\nEileen Gray\nWalter Gropius\nOtto Haesler\nArieh El-Hanani\nWallace Harrison\nHermann Henselmann\nRaymond Hood\nGeorge Howe\nMuzharul Islam\nArne Jacobsen\nMarcel Janco\nJohn M. Johansen\nPhilip Johnson\nRoger Johnson\nLouis Kahn\nDov Karmi\nOskar Kaufmann\nRichard Kauffmann\nFazlur Khan\nFrederick John Kiesler\nLe Corbusier\nWilliam Lescaze\nCharles Luckman\nYehuda Magidovitch\nMichael Manser\nAlfred Mansfeld\nErich Mendelsohn\nJohn O. Merrill\nHannes Meyer\nLudwig Mies van der Rohe\nRichard Neutra\nOscar Niemeyer\nEliot Noyes\nGyo Obata\nJacobus Oud\nNathaniel A. Owings\nMario Pani\nI. M. Pei\nFrits Peutz\nErnst Plischke\nRalph Rapson\nZeev Rechter\nViljo Revell\nGerrit Rietveld\nCarl Rubin\nEero Saarinen\nRudolph Schindler\nMichael Scott\nArieh Sharon\nLouis Skidmore\nBen-Ami Shulman\nJerzy Sołtan\nRaphael Soriano\nEdward Durell Stone\nCarlos Raúl Villanueva\nLeendert van der Vlugt\nMunio Weinraub\nLloyd Wright\nMinoru Yamasaki\nThe Architects Collaborative\nToyo Ito","title":"Architects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-939633-75-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-939633-75-4"},{"link_name":"Exhibitions as the Medium of Architectural Reproduction – \"Modern Architecture: International Exhibition\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12606077/index.pdf"},{"link_name":"Vasileva E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekaterina_Vasileva_(art_historian)"},{"link_name":"Ideal and utilitarian in the international style system: subject and object in the design concept of the 20th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/374443683_Vasileva_E_2016_Ideal_and_utilitarian_in_the_international_style_system_subject_and_object_in_the_design_concept_of_the_20th_century_International_Journal_of_Cultural_Research_4_25_72-80"}],"text":"Boness, Stefan. Tel Aviv: The White City, Jovis, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-939633-75-4\nElderfield, John (ed.). Philip Johnson and the Museum of Modern Art, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1998\nGössel, Gabriel. Functional Architecture. Funktionale Architektur. Le Style International. 1925–1940, Taschen, Berlin, 1990\nRiley, Terence. The International Style: Exhibition 15 and The Museum of Modern Art, Rizzoli, New York, 1992\nTabibi, Baharak Exhibitions as the Medium of Architectural Reproduction – \"Modern Architecture: International Exhibition\", Department of Architecture, Middle East Technical University, 2005]\nVasileva E. (2016) Ideal and utilitarian in the international style system: subject and object in the design concept of the 20th century // International Journal of Cultural Research, 4 (25), 72–80.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Cover of The International Style (1932, reprinted 1996) by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e6/Cover_of_the_1932_book_The_International_Style.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kiefhoek housing, Rotterdam, by Jacobus Oud","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Overzicht_uiteinde_straat_eindigend_in_winkel_in_de_wijk_Kiefhoek_van_J.J.P._Oud_-_Rotterdam_-_20536890_-_RCE.jpg/220px-Overzicht_uiteinde_straat_eindigend_in_winkel_in_de_wijk_Kiefhoek_van_J.J.P._Oud_-_Rotterdam_-_20536890_-_RCE.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Weissenhof-Luftbild-2004.01.jpg/220px-Weissenhof-Luftbild-2004.01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Philip Johnson co-defined the International Style with Henry-Russell Hitchcock as a young college graduate, and later became one of its practitioners.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Philip_Johnson2.jpg/220px-Philip_Johnson2.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Glass Palace, Heerlen, Netherlands, Frits Peutz (1935).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Glaspaleis_front-east.jpg/220px-Glaspaleis_front-east.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dizengoff Circle, White City, Tel Aviv, by Genia Averbuch, 1934","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Dizengoff_Square_Tel_Aviv3.jpg/220px-Dizengoff_Square_Tel_Aviv3.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Kavanagh Building in Buenos Aires, by Sánchez, Lagos & de la Torre (1936).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Edificio_Kavanagh_%28gevaert%29.jpg/170px-Edificio_Kavanagh_%28gevaert%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Seagram Building, New York, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1958)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/NewYorkSeagram_04.30.2008.JPG/220px-NewYorkSeagram_04.30.2008.JPG"},{"image_text":"Tower C of Place de Ville","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Place_de_Ville_C.JPG/220px-Place_de_Ville_C.JPG"}]

[{"title":"Critical regionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_regionalism"},{"title":"Expressionist architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionist_architecture"},{"title":"Functionalism (architecture)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"title":"High-tech architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-tech_architecture"},{"title":"Modern architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture"},{"title":"Northwest Regional style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Regional_style"},{"title":"Organic architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_architecture"},{"title":"Swiss Style (design)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Style_(design)"},{"title":"International Typographic Style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Typographic_Style"}]

[{"reference":"Khan, Hasan-Uddin (2009). El Estilo Internacional (in Spanish). Köln: Taschen. pp. 7–11. ISBN 9783836510530.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taschen","url_text":"Taschen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783836510530","url_text":"9783836510530"}]},{"reference":"Turner, Jane (1996). The Dictionary of Art. 26 Raphon to Rome, ancient, §II: Architecture. London: Grove. p. 14. ISBN 1-884446-00-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-884446-00-0","url_text":"1-884446-00-0"}]},{"reference":"Poletti, Federico (2006). El siglo XX. Vanguardias (in Spanish). Milan: Electa. p. 101. ISBN 84-8156-404-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-8156-404-4","url_text":"84-8156-404-4"}]},{"reference":"Baldellou, Miguel Ángel; Capitel, Antón (1995). Summa Artis XL: Arquitectura española del siglo XX (in Spanish). Madrid: Espasa Calpe. p. 13. ISBN 84-239-5482-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-239-5482-X","url_text":"84-239-5482-X"}]},{"reference":"Frampton, Kenneth (2007). Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 203. ISBN 9780500203958.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780500203958","url_text":"9780500203958"}]},{"reference":"Bussagli, Marco (2009). Atlas ilustrado de la arquitectura (in Spanish). Madrid: Susaeta. p. 176. ISBN 978-84-305-4483-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-305-4483-7","url_text":"978-84-305-4483-7"}]},{"reference":"\"International Style (modern European architecture style)\". Art & Architecture Thesaurus. Getty Research Institute.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.getty.edu/vow/AATFullDisplay?find=international+style&logic=AND&note=&page=1&subjectid=300021472","url_text":"\"International Style (modern European architecture style)\""}]},{"reference":"Hitchcock, Henry-Russell; Johnson, Philip (1932). Modern Architecture: International Exhibition (PDF). Museum of Modern Art.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.moma.org/documents/moma_catalogue_2044_300061855.pdf","url_text":"Modern Architecture: International Exhibition"}]},{"reference":"Evenson, Norma (1969). Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design. New York: George Braziller. p. 7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lecorbusiermachi00even","url_text":"Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lecorbusiermachi00even/page/7","url_text":"7"}]},{"reference":"\"International Style | architecture\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/art/International-Style-architecture","url_text":"\"International Style | architecture\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau\". UNESCO. Retrieved 8 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/729","url_text":"\"Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO","url_text":"UNESCO"}]},{"reference":"\"How to visit the building at the heart of Germany's Bauhaus movement\". The Independent. Retrieved 2018-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/europe/bauhaus-dessau-building-architecture-design-how-to-visit-masters-house-berlin-a8292851.html","url_text":"\"How to visit the building at the heart of Germany's Bauhaus movement\""}]},{"reference":"\"Marcel Breuer's Iconic Atlanta Library: Archived October 2010\". centralbranchlibrary.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2018-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://centralbranchlibrary.blogspot.com/","url_text":"\"Marcel Breuer's Iconic Atlanta Library: Archived October 2010\""}]},{"reference":"\"About: Marcel Breuer\". Marcel Breuer's Central Public Library – Atlanta. 2008-12-22. Retrieved 2018-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://marcelbreuer.wordpress.com/about-marcel-breuer/","url_text":"\"About: Marcel Breuer\""}]},{"reference":"\"A Movement in a Moment: The International Style | Architecture | Agenda | Phaidon\". Phaidon. Retrieved 2018-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.phaidon.com/agenda/architecture/articles/2016/june/30/a-movement-in-a-moment-the-international-style/","url_text":"\"A Movement in a Moment: The International Style | Architecture | Agenda | Phaidon\""}]},{"reference":"Wright, Frank Lloyd (2005). Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography. Petaluma, CA: Pomegranate Communications. pp. 60–63. ISBN 0-7649-3243-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7649-3243-8","url_text":"0-7649-3243-8"}]},{"reference":"\"The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier\". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 19 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/","url_text":"\"The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier\""}]},{"reference":"\"Siedlungshäuser: Die Häuser der Weissenhofsiedlung\". Weissenhofsiedlung. Retrieved 10 August 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.weissenhof2002.de/weissenhof.html","url_text":"\"Siedlungshäuser: Die Häuser der Weissenhofsiedlung\""}]},{"reference":"\"Modern Architecture: International Exhibition\". Museum of Modern Art.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/2044","url_text":"\"Modern Architecture: International Exhibition\""}]},{"reference":"Hines, Thomas (1982). Richard Neutra and the Search for Modern Architecture. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 0-19-503028-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-503028-1","url_text":"0-19-503028-1"}]},{"reference":"Morgan, Susan (2015). \"Not Another International Style Ballyhoo: A Short History of the Schindler House\". MAK Center for Art and Architecture.","urls":[{"url":"http://schindlerlab.org/history/#_edn2","url_text":"\"Not Another International Style Ballyhoo: A Short History of the Schindler House\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAK_Center_for_Art_and_Architecture","url_text":"MAK Center for Art and Architecture"}]},{"reference":"White City of Tel-Aviv – the Modern Movement, World Heritage Centre, Unesco, retrieved 2009-09-14","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1096","url_text":"White City of Tel-Aviv – the Modern Movement"}]},{"reference":"Botey, Josep (1996). Oscar Niemeyer. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili. ISBN 8425215765.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8425215765","url_text":"8425215765"}]},{"reference":"Wright, Frank Lloyd (2008), Modern Architecture: Being the Kahn Lectures for 1930, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691129372","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=U2m-aIT_xUsC&pg=PA65","url_text":"Modern Architecture: Being the Kahn Lectures for 1930"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691129372","url_text":"978-0691129372"}]},{"reference":"Gordon, Elizabeth, \"The Threat to the Next America\", House Beautiful (April 1953): 126–130","urls":[]},{"reference":"Venturi, Robert (1966). Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (PDF). Museum of Modern Art. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-10. Retrieved 2017-11-18 – via Monoskop.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160810140319/https://monoskop.org/images/2/2f/Venturi_Robert_Complexity_and_Contradiction_in_Architecture_2nd_ed.pdf","url_text":"Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture"},{"url":"https://monoskop.org/images/2/2f/Venturi_Robert_Complexity_and_Contradiction_in_Architecture_2nd_ed.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Stierli, Martino (December 22, 2016). \"Complexity and Contradiction changed how we look at, think and talk about architecture\". Architectural Review. Archived from the original on May 22, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.architectural-review.com/rethink/reviews/complexity-and-contradiction-changed-how-we-look-at-think-and-talk-about-architecture/10015872.article","url_text":"\"Complexity and Contradiction changed how we look at, think and talk about architecture\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200522081750/https://www.architectural-review.com/rethink/reviews/complexity-and-contradiction-changed-how-we-look-at-think-and-talk-about-architecture/10015872.article","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"International Style of Modern Architecture: Origins, Characteristics\". Visual Arts Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on Dec 10, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/international-style.htm","url_text":"\"International Style of Modern Architecture: Origins, Characteristics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231210164009/http://visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/international-style.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Modernism – or should that be Modernwasm?\". Hugh Pearman. 1 Apr 2006. Archived from the original on 2020-01-06. Retrieved 2014-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200106060515/http://hughpearman.com/modernism-or-should-that-be-modernwasm/","url_text":"\"Modernism – or should that be Modernwasm?\""},{"url":"http://hughpearman.com/modernism-or-should-that-be-modernwasm/","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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Jobst, Charm is not an antiquated notion, FFWD Weekly: March 31, 2005"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080603061301/http://ffwdweekly.com/Issues/2005/0331/in.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12606077/index.pdf","external_links_name":"Exhibitions as the Medium of Architectural Reproduction – \"Modern Architecture: International Exhibition\""},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374443683_Vasileva_E_2016_Ideal_and_utilitarian_in_the_international_style_system_subject_and_object_in_the_design_concept_of_the_20th_century_International_Journal_of_Cultural_Research_4_25_72-80","external_links_name":"Ideal and utilitarian in the international style system: subject and object in the design concept of the 20th century"},{"Link":"https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/how-chicago-sparked-international-style-of-architecture-in-america","external_links_name":"\"How Chicago Sparked the International Style of Architecture in America\""}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_to_the_Hundred_Acre_Wood

Return to the Hundred Acre Wood

["1 Chapters","2 Lottie the Otter","3 References","4 External links"]

Book by David Benedictus Return to the Hundred Acre Wood First edition, Dutton PressAuthorDavid BenedictusIllustratorMark BurgessLanguageEnglishSeriesWinnie-the-PoohGenreChildren's booksPublisherEgmont Books (UK)Dutton (USA)Publication placeUnited KingdomUnited StatesPublished in English5 October 2009Pages216 pagesISBN978-0-525-42160-3Preceded byThe House at Pooh Corner Followed byThe Best Bear in All the World  Return to the Hundred Acre Wood is a Winnie-the-Pooh novel published on 5 October 2009. Written by David Benedictus and illustrated by Mark Burgess, it was the first such book since 1928 and introduced the character Lottie the Otter. In the mid-1990s, after completing an audio adaptation of A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh stories, Benedictus wrote two Pooh short stories of his own and submitted them to the trustees of the Milne estate. The trustees replied that they were unable to publish the stories because "Walt Disney owned all the rights." However, ten years later, Benedictus was contacted by the trustees, who explained that "the sequel rights had reverted to them" and asked Benedictus to make changes to one of the short stories and to submit some more. This collection of stories was published as Return to the Hundred Acre Wood. Chapters In Which Christopher Robin Returns In Which Owl Does a Crossword and a Spelling Bee Is Held In Which Rabbit Organizes Almost Everything In Which It Stops Raining for Ever and Something Slinky Comes Out of the River In Which Pooh Goes in Search of Honey In Which Owl Becomes an Author and Then Unbecomes One In Which Lottie Starts an Academy and Everybody Learns Something In Which We Are Introduced to the Game of Cricket In Which Tigger Dreams of Africa In Which a Harvest Festival Is Held in the Forest and Christopher Robin Springs a Surprise Lottie the Otter Lottie is a new character in Return to the Hundred Acre Wood. Lottie is said to be a "feisty" character who is also said to be good at cricket and insists on proper etiquette. According to Benedictus, "Lottie the Otter truly embodies Winnie-the-Pooh's values of friendship and adventure seen throughout Milne's work, thus making the perfect companion for everyone's favourite bear." References ^ a b "New friend joins Winnie-the-Pooh". BBC. 2009-09-30. Retrieved 2009-10-01. ^ Return to The Hundred Acre Woods: writing the Winnie-the-Pooh sequel (by David Benedictus), Daily Telegraph, September 30, 2009 External links After 80 years, Pooh returns to Hundred Acre Woods in sequel Extract and sample illustration Publishers Weekly review "Return to the Hundred Acre Wood". Retrieved 5 January 2015. vteDavid BenedictusNovels The Fourth of June (1962) You're a Big Boy Now (1963) This Animal Is Mischievous (1965) The Rabbi's Wife (1977) Floating Down to Camelot (1985) Winnie-the-Pooh Return to the Hundred Acre Wood (2009) vteWinnie-the-Pooh by A. A. MilneBooksMilne books When We Were Very Young (1924) Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) Now We Are Six (1927) The House at Pooh Corner (1928) Other authors Winnie ille Pu (1958) The Pooh Perplex (1963) The Tao of Pooh (1982) The Te of Piglet (1992) Pooh and the Philosophers (1995) Return to the Hundred Acre Wood (2009) Finding Winnie (2015) The Best Bear in All the World (2016) Winnie-the-Pooh Meets the Queen (2016) Characters Winnie-the-Pooh Disney version Tigger Piglet Eeyore Christopher Robin Rabbit Roo Heffalumps Gopher People Christopher Robin Milne E. H. Shepard Harry Colebourn Shirley Slesinger Lasswell Stephen Slesinger Sherman Brothers David Benedictus Mark Burgess Sterling Holloway Related Ashdown Forest Hundred Acre Wood Poohsticks Eeyore's Birthday Party Winnie-the-Pooh: Exploring a Classic Winnipeg the Bear Censorship in China Disney franchiseFeaturettes Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree (1966) Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day (1968) Winnie the Pooh and Tigger Too (1974) Winnie the Pooh and a Day for Eeyore (1983) Short films Winnie the Pooh Discovers the Seasons (1981) Once Upon a Studio (2023) Feature filmsTheatrical The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh (1977) The Tigger Movie (2000) Piglet's Big Movie (2003) Pooh's Heffalump Movie (2005) Winnie the Pooh (2011) Christopher Robin (2018) Direct-to-video Pooh's Grand Adventure: The Search for Christopher Robin (1997) Seasons of Giving (1999) The Book of Pooh: Stories from the Heart (2001) A Very Merry Pooh Year (2002) Springtime with Roo (2004) Pooh's Heffalump Halloween Movie (2005) Super Sleuth Christmas Movie (2007) Tigger & Pooh and a Musical Too (2009) Televisionseries Welcome to Pooh Corner (1983–1984) The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh (1988–1991) episodes The Book of Pooh (2001–2003) My Friends Tigger & Pooh (2007–2010) episodes Televisionspecials Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue (1990) Winnie the Pooh and Christmas Too (1991) Boo to You Too! Winnie the Pooh (1996) A Winnie the Pooh Thanksgiving (1998) A Valentine for You (1999) Video games Winnie the Pooh in the Hundred Acre Wood (1986) Disney's Animated Storybook Ready to Read with Pooh (1997) Disney Learning: Winnie the Pooh (1999) Adventures in the 100 Acre Wood (2000) Tigger's Honey Hunt (2000) Party Time with Winnie the Pooh (2001) Piglet's Big Game (2003) Winnie the Pooh's Rumbly Tumbly Adventure (2005) Winnie the Pooh's Home Run Derby (2007) Related Kingdom Hearts series Kingdom Hearts (2002) Chain of Memories (2004) II (2005) Birth by Sleep (2010) III (2019) Disney Friends (2007) Disney Magic Kingdoms (2018) Disney Mirrorverse (2022) Music "Winnie the Pooh" (1965) Winnie the Pooh soundtrack (2011) Christopher Robin soundtrack (2018) Attractions The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh Pooh's Hunny Hunt Other Comic strip The New Musical Adaptation Other adaptations and mediaFilmsSoyuzmultfilmfeaturettes Winnie-the-Pooh (1969) Winnie-the-Pooh Pays a Visit (1971) Winnie-the-Pooh and a Busy Day (1972) The Twisted Childhood Universe Blood and Honey (2023) Blood and Honey 2 (2024) Biographical A Bear Named Winnie (2004) Goodbye Christopher Robin (2017) Music "House at Pooh Corner" (1970) Return to Pooh Corner (1994) More Songs from Pooh Corner (2000) Other Bother! The Brain of Pooh "Band in China" (2019) "Winnie-the-Screwed" (2022) Winnie's Hole (2023) Category This article about a children's novel of the 2000s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Davies

Emily Davies

["1 Early life","2 Women's rights","3 Girton College","4 Later life","5 Legacy and recognition","6 Selected works","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links and references"]

English campaigner for women's university access, 1830–1921 This article is about the women's education advocate. For the pottery decorator, see Emily Grace Davies. Emily DaviesEmily Davies portrait by Rudolph Lehmann, 1880BornSarah Emily Davies(1830-04-22)22 April 1830Carlton Crescent, Southampton, EnglandDied13 July 1921(1921-07-13) (aged 91)Belsize Park, London, EnglandNationalityBritishKnown forEditor of English Woman's JournalFounder of Girton College, CambridgeMovementFeministSuffragist Sarah Emily Davies (22 April 1830 – 13 July 1921) was an English feminist who founded Girton College, Cambridge. She campaigned as a suffragist and for women's rights to university education. In her early life, she attended meetings of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science and befriended Barbara Bodichon and Elizabeth Garrett Anderson. After moving to London with her mother in 1862, she wrote for and edited the English Woman's Journal and joined the Langham Place Group. She co-founded the London Schoolmistresses' Association and the Kensington Society, which pressured for universal suffrage, although she herself believed only unmarried women and widows should gain the vote. After resigning from Girton in 1904, Davies became secretary of the London branch of the National Society for Women's Suffrage, later leaving to join the Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Association. She died in London at the age of 91. During her lifetime, Davies' rigid views on education were controversial whilst recently historians have seen her achievements in a more sympathetic light. In 2019, Baroness Hale unveiled a blue plaque jointly commemorating founders Emily Davies and Barbara Bodichon, to mark the 150th anniversary of Girton College. Early life Davies was born on 22 April 1830 at Carlton Crescent, Southampton, England, to a teacher, Mary (née Hopkinson), and an evangelical clergyman, John D. Davies. The family was in Southampton because her father was covering for another priest; his parish was in nearby Chichester. They moved to Normandy in France in 1836, then back to Chichester and then to Gateshead, in County Durham in 1839. John D. Davies had traditionally patriarchal views on education, so whilst her three brothers attended private schools and two of them studied at the University of Cambridge, Davies and her older sister Jane were not educated and instead lived at home practising needlework and philanthropy. In the 1850s, Davies cared for Jane and a brother, Henry, both of whom had separately contracted tuberculosis. The two both died in 1858, as did another brother, William, who had been wounded fighting in the Crimean War. Women's rights Davies was introduced to women's rights in her twenties. Whilst caring for Henry in Algiers, she met Barbara Bodichon and later, staying with her brother Llewelyn in London, she attended lectures by Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female doctor in the UK, with Elizabeth Garrett Anderson. Andersen and Bodichon inspired Davies to become a suffragist and to campaign for better education for women. She also went to meetings of the feminist National Association for the Promotion of Social Science with Llewelyn, who had joined the group, and supported her friend Garrett Anderson in her medical studies. Living in Gateshead again from 1860 until 1862, she set up a local branch of the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women and wrote letters promoting women's rights. After the death of her father in January 1862, Davies moved to London with her mother. In London, Davies wrote for and edited the English Woman's Journal, also joining the Langham Place Group, a club for women. She helped to set up the Victoria Magazine, later disassociating from it when Emily Faithfull was named in the Codrington divorce case, since she did not want to appear to be endorsing immorality. Her paper "'Medicine as a profession for women" was read on her behalf by Russell Gurney to the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science in June 1862. Working from October as secretary to a committee tasked with enabling women to enter university, Davies found 83 girls to sit local examinations in Cambridge in a trial run. This led to a petition signed by almost 1,000 teachers and the decision in 1865 to permanently allow girls to sit examination in Cambridge. After that success, Davies became one of the first women to address a royal commission as an expert witness. She pressed for admission of women to the universities of London, Oxford and Cambridge. In 1866 she published The Higher Education of Women. Along with other women's rights advocates such as Dorothea Beale, Barbara Bodichon, Frances Mary Buss and Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, Davies founded a women's discussion group, the Kensington Society in 1865. Later the London Suffrage Committee was formed as an offshoot and asked Parliament to grant women voting rights via a petition presented by John Stuart Mill. Davies' belief that only unmarried women and widows should gain the vote brought her into conflict with the majority of women in the group, who wanted universal suffrage, so she stepped aside from campaigning for voting rights and concentrated instead on higher education for women. Girton College Girton College, Cambridge Davies founded the London Schoolmistresses' Association in 1866 to discuss female education. At first she thought it best to build up Queen's College, London into a college for women over 18, but this plan failed, so then she set up a committee to fundraise for Britain's first women's university college. With the support of Frances Buss, Dorothea Beale and Barbara Bodichon, she set up a college at Benslow House, a rented villa in Hitchin, Hertfordshire, roughly halfway between Cambridge and London. Initially there were five students. She then moved the project in 1873 to the outskirts of Cambridge, where it became Girton College. Davies was keen to both keep her young female students away from men and to give them the same educational courses as their male contemporaries. She pressed for a curriculum equivalent to the one offered to men at the time. The Senate rejected her proposals to let women officially sit the Tripos examinations, but Davies continued to train students for them on an unofficial basis. Following the Elementary Education Act 1870, Davies was elected to the London School Board, representing Greenwich. She did not stand again in 1873, preferring to concentrate on Girton College. In 1871, a second women-only college was founded by Anne Clough and Henry Sidgwick; it was called Newnham College. Davies served as Mistress of Girton College from 1873 until 1875, then acted as honorary secretary for three decades. Caroline Croom Robertson joined the management in 1877 in order to reduce the load on Davies. In 1896, Davies published Women in the universities of England and Scotland, criticising the state of higher education in England and lauded Scottish and Welsh universities for putting female and male students on an equal footing. Cambridge University only began to grant full university degrees to women in 1940. Later life From left to right in foreground: Frances Balfour, Millicent Fawcett, Ethel Snowden, Emily Davies (with black bonnet) and Sophie Bryant After resigning from Girton in 1904, Davies became secretary of the London branch of the National Society for Women's Suffrage and two years later led members to a discussion with Prime Minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman. She left the London group when the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies decided to support the Labour Party in 1912 and instead joined the Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Association. She was known for opposing the militant tactics used by the Suffragettes. In 1910, Davies published a collection of her writings entitled Thoughts on some questions relating to women, with a foreword by Constance Jones. Davies moved to Hampstead in London in 1914, living near her brother Llewelyn until he died in 1916. She was one of the few original suffrage activists (and the only remaining member of the Langham Place Group) still alive to be able to vote in an election, after the passing of the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918. At the age of 91, Davies died at home in Belsize Park, Hampstead, London, on 13 July 1921 and was buried at St Marylebone Cemetery two days later, leaving an estate of £5440 17s 2d (equivalent to £257,000 in 2021). Legacy and recognition In June 1901, Davies received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) from the University of Glasgow. During her lifetime, she was supported by some feminists and criticised by others for her rigid views on how education for women should be organised. Lady Stephen published Emily Davies and Girton College in 1927. More recently, historians have seen her achievements in a more sympathetic light, although it is still open to question whether she was a conservative reformer or she only allied herself with those in power to further her aims. A biography entitled Emily Davies and the Liberation of Women 1830-1921 was published in 1990. Owing to the activism of Emily Davies and others, more women began to enter higher education in the UK. On 30 June 2019, Baroness Hale unveiled a blue plaque jointly commemorating founders Davies and Barbara Bodichon, to mark the 150th anniversary of Girton College. The plaque was installed on the main tower of the college. Selected works Davies, Emily (2004). Murphy, Ann B.; Raftery, Deirdre (eds.). Emily Davies: Collected Letters, 1861–1875. University of Virginia. ISBN 978-0-8139-2232-4. Davies, Emily (1910). Thoughts on some questions relating to women. OCLC 788783. Davies, Emily (1999) . The Higher Education of Women. Adegi Graphics. ISBN 978-0-543-98292-6. Davies, Emily (11 June 1862). "Medicine as a profession for women". Paper Read Out by Russell Gurney at the London Meeting of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science. Davies, Emily (May 1860). "Female physicians". English Woman's Journal. See also History of feminism References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Delamont, Sara (2004). "Davies, (Sarah) Emily". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/32741. ^ Leonard, A. G. K. (Autumn 2010). "Carlton Crescent: Southampton's most spectacular Regency development" (PDF). Southampton Local History Forum Journal. Southampton City Council. pp. 41–42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2012. (Note: birth date incorrect here.) ^ Blain, Virginia; Clements, Patricia; Grundy, Isobel (1990). The feminist companion to literature in English: Women writers from the Middle Ages to the present. New Haven, US: Yale University Press. pp. 268–269. ISBN 978-0-300-04854-4. ^ a b c d Simkin, John (1997). "Emily Davies". Spartacus Educational. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2015. ^ Blake, Catriona (1990). The Charge of the Parasols: Women's Entry to the Medical Profession (First ed.). London, UK: The Women's Press Limited. p. 57. ISBN 0-7043-4239-1. ^ a b c d e Lewis, Jone Johnson (18 June 2019). "Emily Davies". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2019. ^ a b Gould, Paula (June 1997). "Women and the Culture of University Physics in Late Nineteenth-Century Cambridge". The British Journal for the History of Science. 30 (2): 127–149. doi:10.1017/s0007087497002987. ^ Megson, Barbara E. (2004). "Robertson , Caroline Anna Croom". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/48679. Retrieved 18 July 2020. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b c "Biography of Emily Davies". www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk. University of Glasgow. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021. ^ "Glasgow University Jubilee". The Times. No. 36481. London. 14 June 1901. p. 10. Gale CS168093902. Retrieved 5 January 2024 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Royce, Marion (February 1972). "Emily Davies and English Higher Education of Women". Improving College and University Teaching. 20 (1): 63–63. doi:10.1080/00193089.1972.10533213. ^ C., T. (1927). "Review of Emily Davies and Girton College". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review. 16 (62): 335–337. ISSN 0039-3495. ^ Mangan, J. A. (1991). "Review of Emily Davies and the Liberation of Women 1830-1921". British Journal of Educational Studies. 39 (3): 357–359. doi:10.2307/3121161. ISSN 0007-1005. ^ Stone, Alison; Alderwick, Charlotte (4 March 2021). "Introduction to nineteenth-century British and American women philosophers". British Journal for the History of Philosophy. 29 (2): 193–207. doi:10.1080/09608788.2020.1864282. ^ "Cambridge college unveils blue plaque for 'pioneering' women founders". BBC News. 1 July 2019. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2019. Further reading Daphne Bennett, Emily Davies and the Liberation of Women 1830-1921 (André Deutsch, 1990) ISBN 978-0-233-98494-0 Val Campion, Pioneering Women (Hitchin Historical Society, 2008) ISBN 978-0-9552411-3-0 Margaret Forster, Significant Sisters (Secker and Warburg, 1984) ISBN 978-0-14-008172-5 Lady Stephen, Emily Davies and Girton College (Constable, 1927) OCLC 1053637024 External links and references Wikisource has original works by or about:Emily Davies Library resources about Emily Davies Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Emily Davies Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by or about Emily Davies at Internet Archive Columbia Encyclopedia entry Archived 4 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine Academic offices Preceded byAnnie Austin Mistress of Girton College, Cambridge 1872–1875 Succeeded byMarianne Bernard vteMistresses of Girton College, Cambridge 1869 Charlotte Manning 1870 Emily Anne Eliza Shirreff 1870–1872 Annie Austin 1872–1875 Emily Davies 1875–1884 Marianne Bernard 1885–1903 Elizabeth Welsh 1903–1916 Emily Elizabeth Constance Jones 1916–1922 Katharine Jex-Blake 1922–1925 Bertha Surtees Phillpotts 1925–1931 Edith Helen Major 1931–1942 Helen Marion Wodehouse 1942–1949 Kathleen Teresa Blake Butler 1949–1968 Mary Cartwright 1968–1976 Muriel Clara Bradbrook 1976–1983 Brenda Ryman 1984–1991 Mary Warnock 1992–1998 Juliet Campbell 1998–2009 Marilyn Strathern 2009–present Susan J. Smith vteUniversity of CambridgePeople Chancellor The Lord Sainsbury of Turville Vice-Chancellor Deborah Prentice List of University of Cambridge people Colleges Christ's Churchill Clare Clare Hall Corpus Christi Darwin Downing Emmanuel Fitzwilliam Girton Gonville and Caius Homerton Hughes Hall Jesus King’s Lucy Cavendish Magdalene Murray Edwards Newnham Pembroke Peterhouse Queens’ Robinson St Catharine’s St Edmund’s St John’s Selwyn Sidney Sussex Trinity Trinity Hall Wolfson Faculties anddepartments, by schoolArts andHumanities English Anglo-Saxon Norse and Celtic Architecture CRASSH Existential Risk Classics Divinity Music Philosophy Biological sciences Genetics Gurdon Institute Physiology, Development and Neuroscience Plant Sciences Botanic Garden Sainsbury Laboratory Stem Cell Institute Clinical Medicine Autism Research Centre Cancer Unit Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit Mitochondrial Biology Unit Oncology Brain Imaging Centre Humanities and Social sciences Economics Education History History and Philosophy of Science Human, Social, and Political Science Archaeological Research Politics and International Studies Law Criminology Physical sciences Astronomy Chemistry Earth Sciences Palaeoclimate Research Geography Scott Polar Research Institute Mathematical Sciences Mathematics Theoretical Cosmology Materials Science and Metallurgy Physics Technology Business School Alternative Finance Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology Computer Science and Technology Engineering Manufacturing Others ADC Theatre Institute of Continuing Education Library Press (journals) Student life Students' Union Graduate Union Air Squadron Amateur Dramatic Club Apostles BlueSci Cam FM Christian Union Conservatives Footlights May Week May Ball Labour Club Liberal Democrats Light Entertainment Society Moral Sciences Club Musical Society Philosophical Society Railway Club SCA Spaceflight Union Society Cambridge University Wine Society Varsity (student newspaper) The Mays Sport Association football Rules Aussie Rules Boxing Cricket Cross Country Dancing Golf Handball Ice Hockey Real Tennis Rifle shooting Rowing Openweight Men (CUBC) Lightweight Men (CULRC) Women (CUWBC) Rugby union Tennis Competitions Cuppers The Boat Race Women's Boat Race Henley Boat Races The Varsity Polo Match Rugby League Varsity Match Rugby Union Varsity Match University Cricket Match University Golf Match Affiliates Alan Turing Institute Cambridge Theological Federation Cambridge University Health Partners Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust Royal Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust Partner institutions Animal Health Trust Babraham Institute British Antarctic Survey CCDC EMBL-EBI Laboratory of Molecular Biology NIAB Wellcome Sanger Institute Museums Fitzwilliam Museum Hamilton Kerr Institute Kettle's Yard Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Museum of Classical Archaeology Museum of Zoology Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences Polar Museum Whipple Museum of the History of Science Related Awards and prizes Cambridge Zero Regent House Senate House Cambridge University Council Fictional Cambridge colleges Cambridge University Reporter Category Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Netherlands 2 Academics CiNii Other SNAC 2 IdRef

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For the pottery decorator, see Emily Grace Davies.Sarah Emily Davies (22 April 1830 – 13 July 1921) was an English feminist who founded Girton College, Cambridge. She campaigned as a suffragist and for women's rights to university education. In her early life, she attended meetings of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science and befriended Barbara Bodichon and Elizabeth Garrett Anderson. After moving to London with her mother in 1862, she wrote for and edited the English Woman's Journal and joined the Langham Place Group. She co-founded the London Schoolmistresses' Association and the Kensington Society, which pressured for universal suffrage, although she herself believed only unmarried women and widows should gain the vote.After resigning from Girton in 1904, Davies became secretary of the London branch of the National Society for Women's Suffrage, later leaving to join the Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Association. She died in London at the age of 91. During her lifetime, Davies' rigid views on education were controversial whilst recently historians have seen her achievements in a more sympathetic light. In 2019, Baroness Hale unveiled a blue plaque jointly commemorating founders Emily Davies and Barbara Bodichon, to mark the 150th anniversary of Girton College.","title":"Emily Davies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Southampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton"},{"link_name":"née","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_name#Maiden_and_married_names"},{"link_name":"evangelical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicalism"},{"link_name":"John D. Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Davies_(priest_and_philosopher)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leonard-2"},{"link_name":"Chichester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichester"},{"link_name":"Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy"},{"link_name":"Gateshead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateshead"},{"link_name":"County Durham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Durham"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blain-3"},{"link_name":"private schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_schools_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"needlework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needlework"},{"link_name":"philanthropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spartacus-4"},{"link_name":"tuberculosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis"},{"link_name":"Crimean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_War"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"}],"text":"Davies was born on 22 April 1830 at Carlton Crescent, Southampton, England, to a teacher, Mary (née Hopkinson), and an evangelical clergyman, John D. Davies.[1][2] The family was in Southampton because her father was covering for another priest; his parish was in nearby Chichester. They moved to Normandy in France in 1836, then back to Chichester and then to Gateshead, in County Durham in 1839.[1][3]John D. Davies had traditionally patriarchal views on education, so whilst her three brothers attended private schools and two of them studied at the University of Cambridge, Davies and her older sister Jane were not educated and instead lived at home practising needlework and philanthropy.[1][4] In the 1850s, Davies cared for Jane and a brother, Henry, both of whom had separately contracted tuberculosis. The two both died in 1858, as did another brother, William, who had been wounded fighting in the Crimean War.[1]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"women's rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_rights"},{"link_name":"Algiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers"},{"link_name":"Barbara Bodichon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Bodichon"},{"link_name":"Llewelyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Llewelyn_Davies"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Blackwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackwell"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Garrett Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Garrett_Anderson"},{"link_name":"suffragist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragist"},{"link_name":"feminist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist"},{"link_name":"National Association for the Promotion of Social Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Promotion_of_Social_Science"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Society for Promoting the Employment of Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Promoting_the_Employment_of_Women"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"English Woman's Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Woman%27s_Journal"},{"link_name":"Langham Place Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langham_Place_Group"},{"link_name":"Victoria Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Faithfull#Victoria_Press_and_Victoria_Magazine"},{"link_name":"Emily Faithfull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Faithfull"},{"link_name":"Russell Gurney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Gurney"},{"link_name":"National Association for the Promotion of Social Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Promotion_of_Social_Science"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"royal commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_commission#United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_London"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thoughtco-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thoughtco-6"},{"link_name":"Dorothea Beale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothea_Beale"},{"link_name":"Frances Mary Buss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Mary_Buss"},{"link_name":"Kensington Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington_Society_(suffragette_group)"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"John Stuart Mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spartacus-4"},{"link_name":"universal suffrage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage"},{"link_name":"higher education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spartacus-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"}],"text":"Davies was introduced to women's rights in her twenties. Whilst caring for Henry in Algiers, she met Barbara Bodichon and later, staying with her brother Llewelyn in London, she attended lectures by Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female doctor in the UK, with Elizabeth Garrett Anderson. Andersen and Bodichon inspired Davies to become a suffragist and to campaign for better education for women. She also went to meetings of the feminist National Association for the Promotion of Social Science with Llewelyn, who had joined the group, and supported her friend Garrett Anderson in her medical studies.[1][5] Living in Gateshead again from 1860 until 1862, she set up a local branch of the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women and wrote letters promoting women's rights. After the death of her father in January 1862, Davies moved to London with her mother.[1]In London, Davies wrote for and edited the English Woman's Journal, also joining the Langham Place Group, a club for women. She helped to set up the Victoria Magazine, later disassociating from it when Emily Faithfull was named in the Codrington divorce case, since she did not want to appear to be endorsing immorality. Her paper \"'Medicine as a profession for women\" was read on her behalf by Russell Gurney to the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science in June 1862.[1] Working from October as secretary to a committee tasked with enabling women to enter university, Davies found 83 girls to sit local examinations in Cambridge in a trial run. This led to a petition signed by almost 1,000 teachers and the decision in 1865 to permanently allow girls to sit examination in Cambridge. After that success, Davies became one of the first women to address a royal commission as an expert witness.[1] She pressed for admission of women to the universities of London, Oxford and Cambridge.[6] In 1866 she published The Higher Education of Women.[6]Along with other women's rights advocates such as Dorothea Beale, Barbara Bodichon, Frances Mary Buss and Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, Davies founded a women's discussion group, the Kensington Society in 1865. Later the London Suffrage Committee was formed as an offshoot and asked Parliament to grant women voting rights via a petition presented by John Stuart Mill.[4] Davies' belief that only unmarried women and widows should gain the vote brought her into conflict with the majority of women in the group, who wanted universal suffrage, so she stepped aside from campaigning for voting rights and concentrated instead on higher education for women.[4][1]","title":"Women's rights"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cambridge._Girton_College,_Main_Entrance_(3611635080).jpg"},{"link_name":"Girton College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girton_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Queen's College, London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_College,_London"},{"link_name":"university college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colleges_within_universities_in_the_United_Kingdom#Oxford_and_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Frances Buss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Buss"},{"link_name":"Dorothea Beale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothea_Beale"},{"link_name":"Barbara Bodichon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Bodichon"},{"link_name":"Hitchin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchin"},{"link_name":"Hertfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertfordshire"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_senate"},{"link_name":"Tripos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripos"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"},{"link_name":"Elementary Education Act 1870","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_Education_Act_1870"},{"link_name":"London School Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_Board"},{"link_name":"Greenwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Anne Clough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Clough"},{"link_name":"Henry Sidgwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick"},{"link_name":"Newnham College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newnham_College"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Caroline Croom Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Croom_Robertson"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ooo-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thoughtco-6"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glasgow-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thoughtco-6"}],"text":"Girton College, CambridgeDavies founded the London Schoolmistresses' Association in 1866 to discuss female education. At first she thought it best to build up Queen's College, London into a college for women over 18, but this plan failed, so then she set up a committee to fundraise for Britain's first women's university college. With the support of Frances Buss, Dorothea Beale and Barbara Bodichon, she set up a college at Benslow House, a rented villa in Hitchin, Hertfordshire, roughly halfway between Cambridge and London. Initially there were five students. She then moved the project in 1873 to the outskirts of Cambridge, where it became Girton College. Davies was keen to both keep her young female students away from men and to give them the same educational courses as their male contemporaries.[7][1] She pressed for a curriculum equivalent to the one offered to men at the time. The Senate rejected her proposals to let women officially sit the Tripos examinations, but Davies continued to train students for them on an unofficial basis.[7]Following the Elementary Education Act 1870, Davies was elected to the London School Board, representing Greenwich. She did not stand again in 1873, preferring to concentrate on Girton College.[1] In 1871, a second women-only college was founded by Anne Clough and Henry Sidgwick; it was called Newnham College.[1] Davies served as Mistress of Girton College from 1873 until 1875, then acted as honorary secretary for three decades. Caroline Croom Robertson joined the management in 1877 in order to reduce the load on Davies.[8][6] In 1896, Davies published Women in the universities of England and Scotland, criticising the state of higher education in England and lauded Scottish and Welsh universities for putting female and male students on an equal footing.[9] Cambridge University only began to grant full university degrees to women in 1940.[6]","title":"Girton College"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frances_Balfour,_Millicent_Fawcett,_Emily_Davies_and_others,_c.1910._(22981372035).jpg"},{"link_name":"Frances Balfour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Balfour"},{"link_name":"Millicent Fawcett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millicent_Fawcett"},{"link_name":"Ethel Snowden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Snowden"},{"link_name":"Sophie Bryant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Bryant"},{"link_name":"National Society for Women's Suffrage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Society_for_Women%27s_Suffrage"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Henry Campbell-Bannerman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Campbell-Bannerman"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Union_of_Women%27s_Suffrage_Societies"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_and_Unionist_Women%27s_Franchise_Association"},{"link_name":"Suffragettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragettes"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thoughtco-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Constance Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance_Jones"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Hampstead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampstead"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_(Qualification_of_Women)_Act_1918"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spartacus-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Belsize Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belsize_Park"},{"link_name":"Hampstead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampstead"},{"link_name":"St Marylebone Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Marylebone_Cemetery"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glasgow-9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"}],"text":"From left to right in foreground: Frances Balfour, Millicent Fawcett, Ethel Snowden, Emily Davies (with black bonnet) and Sophie BryantAfter resigning from Girton in 1904, Davies became secretary of the London branch of the National Society for Women's Suffrage and two years later led members to a discussion with Prime Minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman.[1] She left the London group when the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies decided to support the Labour Party in 1912 and instead joined the Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Association. She was known for opposing the militant tactics used by the Suffragettes.[6][1] In 1910, Davies published a collection of her writings entitled Thoughts on some questions relating to women, with a foreword by Constance Jones.[1]Davies moved to Hampstead in London in 1914, living near her brother Llewelyn until he died in 1916.[1] She was one of the few original suffrage activists (and the only remaining member of the Langham Place Group) still alive to be able to vote in an election, after the passing of the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918.[4][1] At the age of 91, Davies died at home in Belsize Park, Hampstead, London, on 13 July 1921 and was buried at St Marylebone Cemetery two days later, leaving an estate of £5440 17s 2d (equivalent to £257,000 in 2021).[9][1]","title":"Later life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Doctor of Laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legum_Doctor"},{"link_name":"University of Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Glasgow"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glasgow-9"},{"link_name":"Lady Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Stephen"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Royce-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TC-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mangan-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BJHP-14"},{"link_name":"Baroness Hale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Hale,_Baroness_Hale_of_Richmond"},{"link_name":"blue plaque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_plaque"},{"link_name":"Barbara Bodichon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Bodichon"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"In June 1901, Davies received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) from the University of Glasgow.[10][9] During her lifetime, she was supported by some feminists and criticised by others for her rigid views on how education for women should be organised. Lady Stephen published Emily Davies and Girton College in 1927. More recently, historians have seen her achievements in a more sympathetic light, although it is still open to question whether she was a conservative reformer or she only allied herself with those in power to further her aims.[1][11][12] A biography entitled Emily Davies and the Liberation of Women 1830-1921 was published in 1990.[13]Owing to the activism of Emily Davies and others, more women began to enter higher education in the UK.[14] On 30 June 2019, Baroness Hale unveiled a blue plaque jointly commemorating founders Davies and Barbara Bodichon, to mark the 150th anniversary of Girton College. The plaque was installed on the main tower of the college.[15]","title":"Legacy and recognition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Emily Davies: Collected Letters, 1861–1875","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=DtR3QVfG2YcC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8139-2232-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2232-4"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"788783","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/788783"},{"link_name":"The Higher Education of Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=eT5w5oMcddQC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-543-98292-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-543-98292-6"}],"text":"Davies, Emily (2004). Murphy, Ann B.; Raftery, Deirdre (eds.). Emily Davies: Collected Letters, 1861–1875. University of Virginia. ISBN 978-0-8139-2232-4.\nDavies, Emily (1910). Thoughts on some questions relating to women. OCLC 788783.\nDavies, Emily (1999) [1866]. The Higher Education of Women. Adegi Graphics. ISBN 978-0-543-98292-6.\nDavies, Emily (11 June 1862). \"Medicine as a profession for women\". Paper Read Out by Russell Gurney at the London Meeting of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science.\nDavies, Emily (May 1860). \"Female physicians\". English Woman's Journal.","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-233-98494-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-233-98494-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9552411-3-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9552411-3-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-14-008172-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-008172-5"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1053637024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1053637024"}],"text":"Daphne Bennett, Emily Davies and the Liberation of Women 1830-1921 (André Deutsch, 1990) ISBN 978-0-233-98494-0\nVal Campion, Pioneering Women (Hitchin Historical Society, 2008) ISBN 978-0-9552411-3-0\nMargaret Forster, Significant Sisters (Secker and Warburg, 1984) ISBN 978-0-14-008172-5\nLady Stephen, Emily Davies and Girton College (Constable, 1927) OCLC 1053637024","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"Emily Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Sarah_Emily_Davies"},{"link_name":"Library resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=36956940"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=36956940&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"Online books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=36956940&library=OLBP"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=36956940"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=36956940&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"Works by or about Emily Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Davies%2C%20Emily%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Emily%20Davies%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Davies%2C%20Emily%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Emily%20Davies%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Emily%20Davies%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Davies%2C%20Emily%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Emily%20Davies%22%29%20OR%20%28%221830-1921%22%20AND%20Davies%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive"},{"link_name":"Columbia Encyclopedia entry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/davies-emily.jsp?l=D&p=1"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110604205415/http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/davies-emily.jsp?l=D&p=1"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Mistresses_of_Girton_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Mistresses_of_Girton_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mistresses_of_Girton_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Mistresses of Girton College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mistresses_of_Girton_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Manning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Manning"},{"link_name":"Emily Anne Eliza 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Butler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Teresa_Blake_Butler"},{"link_name":"Mary Cartwright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Cartwright"},{"link_name":"Muriel Clara Bradbrook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriel_Clara_Bradbrook"},{"link_name":"Brenda Ryman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Ryman"},{"link_name":"Mary Warnock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Warnock"},{"link_name":"Juliet Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliet_Campbell_(British_diplomat)"},{"link_name":"Marilyn Strathern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn_Strathern"},{"link_name":"Susan J. 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librariesWorks by or about Emily Davies at Internet Archive\nColumbia Encyclopedia entry Archived 4 June 2011 at the Wayback MachinevteMistresses of Girton College, Cambridge\n1869 Charlotte Manning\n1870 Emily Anne Eliza Shirreff\n1870–1872 Annie Austin\n1872–1875 Emily Davies\n1875–1884 Marianne Bernard\n1885–1903 Elizabeth Welsh\n1903–1916 Emily Elizabeth Constance Jones\n1916–1922 Katharine Jex-Blake\n1922–1925 Bertha Surtees Phillpotts\n1925–1931 Edith Helen Major\n1931–1942 Helen Marion Wodehouse\n1942–1949 Kathleen Teresa Blake Butler\n1949–1968 Mary Cartwright\n1968–1976 Muriel Clara Bradbrook\n1976–1983 Brenda Ryman\n1984–1991 Mary Warnock\n1992–1998 Juliet Campbell\n1998–2009 Marilyn Strathern\n2009–present Susan J. SmithvteUniversity of CambridgePeople\nChancellor\nThe Lord Sainsbury of Turville\nVice-Chancellor\nDeborah Prentice\nList of University of Cambridge people\nColleges\nChrist's\nChurchill\nClare\nClare Hall\nCorpus Christi\nDarwin\nDowning\nEmmanuel\nFitzwilliam\nGirton\nGonville and Caius\nHomerton\nHughes Hall\nJesus\nKing’s\nLucy Cavendish\nMagdalene\nMurray Edwards\nNewnham\nPembroke\nPeterhouse\nQueens’\nRobinson\nSt Catharine’s\nSt Edmund’s\nSt John’s\nSelwyn\nSidney Sussex\nTrinity\nTrinity Hall\nWolfson\nFaculties anddepartments, by schoolArts andHumanities\nEnglish\nAnglo-Saxon Norse and Celtic\nArchitecture\nCRASSH\nExistential Risk\nClassics\nDivinity\nMusic\nPhilosophy\nBiological sciences\nGenetics\nGurdon Institute\nPhysiology, Development and Neuroscience\nPlant Sciences\nBotanic Garden\nSainsbury Laboratory\nStem Cell Institute\nClinical Medicine\nAutism Research Centre\nCancer Unit\nCognition and Brain Sciences Unit\nMitochondrial Biology Unit\nOncology\nBrain Imaging Centre\nHumanities and Social sciences\nEconomics\nEducation\nHistory\nHistory and Philosophy of Science\nHuman, Social, and Political Science\nArchaeological Research\nPolitics and International Studies\nLaw\nCriminology\nPhysical sciences\nAstronomy\nChemistry\nEarth Sciences\nPalaeoclimate Research\nGeography\nScott Polar Research Institute\nMathematical Sciences\nMathematics\nTheoretical Cosmology\nMaterials Science and Metallurgy\nPhysics\nTechnology\nBusiness School\nAlternative Finance\nChemical Engineering and Biotechnology\nComputer Science and Technology\nEngineering\nManufacturing\nOthers\nADC Theatre\nInstitute of Continuing Education\nLibrary\nPress (journals)\nStudent life\nStudents' Union\nGraduate Union\nAir Squadron\nAmateur Dramatic Club\nApostles\nBlueSci\nCam FM\nChristian Union\nConservatives\nFootlights\nMay Week\nMay Ball\nLabour Club\nLiberal Democrats\nLight Entertainment Society\nMoral Sciences Club\nMusical Society\nPhilosophical Society\nRailway Club\nSCA\nSpaceflight\nUnion Society\nCambridge University Wine Society\nVarsity (student newspaper)\nThe Mays\nSport\nAssociation football\nRules\nAussie Rules\nBoxing\nCricket\nCross Country\nDancing\nGolf\nHandball\nIce Hockey\nReal Tennis\nRifle shooting\nRowing\nOpenweight Men (CUBC)\nLightweight Men (CULRC)\nWomen (CUWBC)\nRugby union\nTennis\nCompetitions\nCuppers\nThe Boat Race\nWomen's Boat Race\nHenley Boat Races\nThe Varsity Polo Match\nRugby League Varsity Match\nRugby Union Varsity Match\nUniversity Cricket Match\nUniversity Golf Match\nAffiliates\nAlan Turing Institute\nCambridge Theological Federation\nCambridge University Health Partners\nCambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust\nCambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust\nRoyal Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust\nPartner institutions\nAnimal Health Trust\nBabraham Institute\nBritish Antarctic Survey\nCCDC\nEMBL-EBI\nLaboratory of Molecular Biology\nNIAB\nWellcome Sanger Institute\nMuseums\nFitzwilliam Museum\nHamilton Kerr Institute\nKettle's Yard\nMuseum of Archaeology and Anthropology\nMuseum of Classical Archaeology\nMuseum of Zoology\nSedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences\nPolar Museum\nWhipple Museum of the History of Science\nRelated\nAwards and prizes\nCambridge Zero\nRegent House\nSenate House\nCambridge University Council\nFictional Cambridge colleges\nCambridge University Reporter\n\n CategoryAuthority control databases International\nFAST\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nNorway\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States\nJapan\nNetherlands\n2\nAcademics\nCiNii\nOther\nSNAC\n2\nIdRef","title":"External links and references"}]

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[{"title":"History of feminism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_feminism"}]

[{"reference":"Davies, Emily (2004). Murphy, Ann B.; Raftery, Deirdre (eds.). Emily Davies: Collected Letters, 1861–1875. University of Virginia. ISBN 978-0-8139-2232-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DtR3QVfG2YcC","url_text":"Emily Davies: Collected Letters, 1861–1875"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2232-4","url_text":"978-0-8139-2232-4"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Emily (1910). Thoughts on some questions relating to women. OCLC 788783.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/788783","url_text":"788783"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Emily (1999) [1866]. The Higher Education of Women. Adegi Graphics. ISBN 978-0-543-98292-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eT5w5oMcddQC","url_text":"The Higher Education of Women"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-543-98292-6","url_text":"978-0-543-98292-6"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Emily (11 June 1862). \"Medicine as a profession for women\". Paper Read Out by Russell Gurney at the London Meeting of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Davies, Emily (May 1860). \"Female physicians\". English Woman's Journal.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Delamont, Sara (2004). \"Davies, (Sarah) Emily\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/32741.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F32741","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/32741"}]},{"reference":"Leonard, A. G. K. (Autumn 2010). \"Carlton Crescent: Southampton's most spectacular Regency development\" (PDF). Southampton Local History Forum Journal. Southampton City Council. pp. 41–42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130127070142/http://southampton.gov.uk/Images/LHF2010autumn_tcm46-309725.pdf","url_text":"\"Carlton Crescent: Southampton's most spectacular Regency development\""},{"url":"http://www.southampton.gov.uk/Images/LHF2010autumn_tcm46-309725.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Blain, Virginia; Clements, Patricia; Grundy, Isobel (1990). The feminist companion to literature in English: Women writers from the Middle Ages to the present. New Haven, US: Yale University Press. pp. 268–269. ISBN 978-0-300-04854-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/feministcompanio00blai","url_text":"The feminist companion to literature in English: Women writers from the Middle Ages to the present"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04854-4","url_text":"978-0-300-04854-4"}]},{"reference":"Simkin, John (1997). \"Emily Davies\". Spartacus Educational. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170525122037/http://spartacus-educational.com/Wdavies.htm","url_text":"\"Emily Davies\""},{"url":"http://spartacus-educational.com/Wdavies.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Blake, Catriona (1990). The Charge of the Parasols: Women's Entry to the Medical Profession (First ed.). London, UK: The Women's Press Limited. p. 57. ISBN 0-7043-4239-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Women%27s_Press_Limited","url_text":"The Women's Press Limited"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7043-4239-1","url_text":"0-7043-4239-1"}]},{"reference":"Lewis, Jone Johnson (18 June 2019). \"Emily Davies\". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thoughtco.com/emily-davies-biography-3528806","url_text":"\"Emily Davies\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200806062609/https://www.thoughtco.com/emily-davies-biography-3528806","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gould, Paula (June 1997). \"Women and the Culture of University Physics in Late Nineteenth-Century Cambridge\". The British Journal for the History of Science. 30 (2): 127–149. doi:10.1017/s0007087497002987.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0007087497002987","url_text":"\"Women and the Culture of University Physics in Late Nineteenth-Century Cambridge\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0007087497002987","url_text":"10.1017/s0007087497002987"}]},{"reference":"Megson, Barbara E. (2004). \"Robertson [née Crompton], Caroline Anna Croom\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/48679. Retrieved 18 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-48679","url_text":"\"Robertson [née Crompton], Caroline Anna Croom\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F48679","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/48679"}]},{"reference":"\"Biography of Emily Davies\". www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk. University of Glasgow. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210422025940/https://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/biography/?id=WH27583&type=P","url_text":"\"Biography of Emily Davies\""},{"url":"https://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/biography/?id=WH27583&type=P","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Glasgow University Jubilee\". The Times. No. 36481. London. 14 June 1901. p. 10. Gale CS168093902. Retrieved 5 January 2024 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-glasgow-university-jubilee/131294008/","url_text":"\"Glasgow University Jubilee\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times","url_text":"The Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gale_(identifier)","url_text":"Gale"},{"url":"https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CCS168093902","url_text":"CS168093902"}]},{"reference":"Royce, Marion (February 1972). \"Emily Davies and English Higher Education of Women\". Improving College and University Teaching. 20 (1): 63–63. doi:10.1080/00193089.1972.10533213.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00193089.1972.10533213","url_text":"10.1080/00193089.1972.10533213"}]},{"reference":"C., T. (1927). \"Review of Emily Davies and Girton College\". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review. 16 (62): 335–337. ISSN 0039-3495.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/30093316","url_text":"\"Review of Emily Davies and Girton College\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-3495","url_text":"0039-3495"}]},{"reference":"Mangan, J. A. (1991). \"Review of Emily Davies and the Liberation of Women 1830-1921\". British Journal of Educational Studies. 39 (3): 357–359. doi:10.2307/3121161. ISSN 0007-1005.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3121161","url_text":"\"Review of Emily Davies and the Liberation of Women 1830-1921\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3121161","url_text":"10.2307/3121161"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1005","url_text":"0007-1005"}]},{"reference":"Stone, Alison; Alderwick, Charlotte (4 March 2021). \"Introduction to nineteenth-century British and American women philosophers\". British Journal for the History of Philosophy. 29 (2): 193–207. doi:10.1080/09608788.2020.1864282.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09608788.2020.1864282","url_text":"\"Introduction to nineteenth-century British and American women philosophers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09608788.2020.1864282","url_text":"10.1080/09608788.2020.1864282"}]},{"reference":"\"Cambridge college unveils blue plaque for 'pioneering' women founders\". BBC News. 1 July 2019. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-48831780","url_text":"\"Cambridge college unveils blue plaque for 'pioneering' women founders\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190702074407/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-48831780","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-vertex-connected_graph

k-vertex-connected graph

["1 Definitions","2 Applications","2.1 Components","2.2 Polyhedral combinatorics","3 Computational complexity","4 Properties","5 k-linked graph","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References"]

Graph which remains connected when k or fewer nodes removed A graph with connectivity 4. In graph theory, a connected graph G is said to be k-vertex-connected (or k-connected) if it has more than k vertices and remains connected whenever fewer than k vertices are removed. The vertex-connectivity, or just connectivity, of a graph is the largest k for which the graph is k-vertex-connected. Definitions A graph (other than a complete graph) has connectivity k if k is the size of the smallest subset of vertices such that the graph becomes disconnected if you delete them. In complete graphs, there is no subset whose removal would disconnect the graph. Some sources modify the definition of connectivity to handle this case, by defining it as the size of the smallest subset of vertices whose deletion results in either a disconnected graph or a single vertex. For this variation, the connectivity of a complete graph K n {\displaystyle K_{n}} is n − 1 {\displaystyle n-1} . An equivalent definition is that a graph with at least two vertices is k-connected if, for every pair of its vertices, it is possible to find k vertex-independent paths connecting these vertices; see Menger's theorem (Diestel 2005, p. 55). This definition produces the same answer, n − 1, for the connectivity of the complete graph Kn. Clearly the complete graph with n vertices has connectivity n − 1 under this definition. A 1-connected graph is called connected; a 2-connected graph is called biconnected. A 3-connected graph is called triconnected. Applications Components Every graph decomposes into a tree of 1-connected components. 1-connected graphs decompose into a tree of biconnected components. 2-connected graphs decompose into a tree of triconnected components. Polyhedral combinatorics The 1-skeleton of any k-dimensional convex polytope forms a k-vertex-connected graph (Balinski's theorem). As a partial converse, Steinitz's theorem states that any 3-vertex-connected planar graph forms the skeleton of a convex polyhedron. Computational complexity The vertex-connectivity of an input graph G can be computed in polynomial time in the following way consider all possible pairs ( s , t ) {\displaystyle (s,t)} of nonadjacent nodes to disconnect, using Menger's theorem to justify that the minimal-size separator for ( s , t ) {\displaystyle (s,t)} is the number of pairwise vertex-independent paths between them, encode the input by doubling each vertex as an edge to reduce to a computation of the number of pairwise edge-independent paths, and compute the maximum number of such paths by computing the maximum flow in the graph between s {\displaystyle s} and t {\displaystyle t} with capacity 1 to each edge, noting that a flow of k {\displaystyle k} in this graph corresponds, by the integral flow theorem, to k {\displaystyle k} pairwise edge-independent paths from s {\displaystyle s} to t {\displaystyle t} . Properties Let k≥2. Every k {\displaystyle k} -connected graph of order at least 2 k {\displaystyle 2k} contains a cycle of length at least 2 k {\displaystyle 2k} In a k {\displaystyle k} -connected graph, any k {\displaystyle k} vertices in G {\displaystyle G} lie on a common cycle. The cycle space of a 3 {\displaystyle 3} -connected graph is generated by its non-separating induced cycles. k-linked graph A graph with at least 2 k {\displaystyle 2k} vertices is called k {\displaystyle k} -linked if there are k {\displaystyle k} disjoint paths for any sequences a 1 , … , a k {\displaystyle a_{1},\dots ,a_{k}} and b 1 , … , b k {\displaystyle b_{1},\dots ,b_{k}} of 2 k {\displaystyle 2k} distinct vertices. Every k {\displaystyle k} -linked graph is ( 2 k − 1 ) {\displaystyle (2k-1)} -connected graph, but not necessarily 2 k {\displaystyle 2k} -connected. If a graph is 2 k {\displaystyle 2k} -connected and has average degree of at least 16 k {\displaystyle 16k} , then it is k {\displaystyle k} -linked. See also k-edge-connected graph Connectivity (graph theory) Menger's theorem Structural cohesion Tutte embedding Vertex separator Notes ^ a b Schrijver (12 February 2003), Combinatorial Optimization, Springer, ISBN 9783540443896 ^ Beineke, Lowell W.; Bagga, Jay S. (2021), Line Graphs and Line Digraphs, Developments in Mathematics, vol. 68, Springer Nature, p. 87, ISBN 9783030813864 ^ Balinski, M. L. (1961), "On the graph structure of convex polyhedra in n-space", Pacific Journal of Mathematics, 11 (2): 431–434, doi:10.2140/pjm.1961.11.431. ^ The algorithm design manual, p 506, and Computational discrete mathematics: combinatorics and graph theory with Mathematica, p. 290-291 ^ Diestel (2016), p.84 ^ Diestel (2012), p.65. ^ Diestel (2016), p.85 ^ Diestel (2016), p.75 References Diestel, Reinhard (2005), Graph Theory (3rd ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-26183-4 Diestel, Reinhard (2012), Graph Theory (corrected 4th electronic ed.) Diestel, Reinhard (2016), Graph Theory (5th ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-662-53621-6

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4-connected_graph.svg"},{"link_name":"graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)"},{"link_name":"vertices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"connected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivity_(graph_theory)"}],"text":"A graph with connectivity 4.In graph theory, a connected graph G is said to be k-vertex-connected (or k-connected) if it has more than k vertices and remains connected whenever fewer than k vertices are removed.The vertex-connectivity, or just connectivity, of a graph is the largest k for which the graph is k-vertex-connected.","title":"k-vertex-connected graph"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"complete graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_graph"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schrijver-1"},{"link_name":"complete graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_graph"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"paths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"Menger's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menger%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"Diestel 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDiestel2005"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schrijver-1"},{"link_name":"connected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_graph"},{"link_name":"biconnected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biconnected_graph"}],"text":"A graph (other than a complete graph) has connectivity k if k is the size of the smallest subset of vertices such that the graph becomes disconnected if you delete them.[1] In complete graphs, there is no subset whose removal would disconnect the graph. Some sources modify the definition of connectivity to handle this case, by defining it as the size of the smallest subset of vertices whose deletion results in either a disconnected graph or a single vertex. For this variation, the connectivity of a complete graph \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K_{n}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n-1}\n \n.[2]An equivalent definition is that a graph with at least two vertices is k-connected if, for every pair of its vertices, it is possible to find k vertex-independent paths connecting these vertices; see Menger's theorem (Diestel 2005, p. 55). This definition produces the same answer, n − 1, for the connectivity of the complete graph Kn.[1] Clearly the complete graph with n vertices has connectivity n − 1 under this definition.A 1-connected graph is called connected; a 2-connected graph is called biconnected. A 3-connected graph is called triconnected.","title":"Definitions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1-connected components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"biconnected components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biconnected_component"},{"link_name":"triconnected components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triconnected_component"}],"sub_title":"Components","text":"Every graph decomposes into a tree of 1-connected components. 1-connected graphs decompose into a tree of biconnected components. 2-connected graphs decompose into a tree of triconnected components.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"skeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton_(topology)"},{"link_name":"polytope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytope"},{"link_name":"Balinski's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balinski%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Steinitz's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinitz%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"planar graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planar_graph"},{"link_name":"polyhedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedron"}],"sub_title":"Polyhedral combinatorics","text":"The 1-skeleton of any k-dimensional convex polytope forms a k-vertex-connected graph (Balinski's theorem).[3] As a partial converse, Steinitz's theorem states that any 3-vertex-connected planar graph forms the skeleton of a convex polyhedron.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Menger's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menger%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"maximum flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_flow"},{"link_name":"integral flow theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral_flow_theorem"}],"text":"The vertex-connectivity of an input graph G can be computed in polynomial time in the following way[4] consider all possible pairs \n \n \n \n (\n s\n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (s,t)}\n \n of nonadjacent nodes to disconnect, using Menger's theorem to justify that the minimal-size separator for \n \n \n \n (\n s\n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (s,t)}\n \n is the number of pairwise vertex-independent paths between them, encode the input by doubling each vertex as an edge to reduce to a computation of the number of pairwise edge-independent paths, and compute the maximum number of such paths by computing the maximum flow in the graph between \n \n \n \n s\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s}\n \n and \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n with capacity 1 to each edge, noting that a flow of \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n in this graph corresponds, by the integral flow theorem, to \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n pairwise edge-independent paths from \n \n \n \n s\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s}\n \n to \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n.","title":"Computational complexity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"cycle space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_space"},{"link_name":"induced cycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induced_path"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Let k≥2.Every \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n-connected graph of order at least \n \n \n \n 2\n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2k}\n \n contains a cycle of length at least \n \n \n \n 2\n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2k}\n \n\nIn a \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n-connected graph, any \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n vertices in \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n lie on a common cycle.[5]The cycle space of a \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 3}\n \n-connected graph is generated by its non-separating induced cycles.\n[6]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"A graph with at least \n \n \n \n 2\n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2k}\n \n vertices is called \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n-linked if there are \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n disjoint paths for any sequences\n\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n a\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{1},\\dots ,a_{k}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n b\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n b\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle b_{1},\\dots ,b_{k}}\n \n of \n \n \n \n 2\n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2k}\n \n distinct vertices. Every \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n-linked graph is \n \n \n \n (\n 2\n k\n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (2k-1)}\n \n-connected graph, but not necessarily \n \n \n \n 2\n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2k}\n \n-connected. [7]If a graph is \n \n \n \n 2\n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2k}\n \n-connected and has average degree of at least \n \n \n \n 16\n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 16k}\n \n, then it is \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n-linked.\n[8]","title":"k-linked graph"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Schrijver_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Schrijver_1-1"},{"link_name":"Combinatorial Optimization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=mqGeSQ6dJycC&q=%22k-vertex-connected+%22"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9783540443896","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540443896"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Line Graphs and Line Digraphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=um1LEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA87"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9783030813864","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783030813864"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Balinski, M. L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Balinski"},{"link_name":"Pacific Journal of Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Journal_of_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2140/pjm.1961.11.431","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2140%2Fpjm.1961.11.431"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Diestel (2016)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDiestel2016"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Diestel (2012)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDiestel2012"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Diestel (2016)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDiestel2016"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Diestel (2016)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDiestel2016"}],"text":"^ a b Schrijver (12 February 2003), Combinatorial Optimization, Springer, ISBN 9783540443896\n\n^ Beineke, Lowell W.; Bagga, Jay S. (2021), Line Graphs and Line Digraphs, Developments in Mathematics, vol. 68, Springer Nature, p. 87, ISBN 9783030813864\n\n^ Balinski, M. L. (1961), \"On the graph structure of convex polyhedra in n-space\", Pacific Journal of Mathematics, 11 (2): 431–434, doi:10.2140/pjm.1961.11.431.\n\n^ The algorithm design manual, p 506, and Computational discrete mathematics: combinatorics and graph theory with Mathematica, p. 290-291\n\n^ Diestel (2016), p.84\n\n^ Diestel (2012), p.65.\n\n^ Diestel (2016), p.85\n\n^ Diestel (2016), p.75","title":"Notes"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh_Portable

Macintosh Portable

["1 Hardware","2 Display issues","3 Battery issues","4 Development","5 Reception","6 The Outbound","7 Timeline","8 References","9 External links"]

First battery-powered portable Macintosh by Apple This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Macintosh Portable" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Macintosh PortableManufacturerApple Computer, Inc.TypePortable computerRelease dateSeptember 20, 1989; 34 years ago (1989-09-20)Introductory price(with hard drive) US$7,300 (equivalent to $17,900 in 2023)DiscontinuedOctober 21, 1991 (1991-10-21)Operating systemSystem 6.0.4 - 7.5.5CPUMotorola 68000 @ 16 MHzMemory1 MB SRAM (expandable to 9 MB),256 KB ROMStorage1.44 MB double-sided floppy drive, 40 MB 3.5″ Conner hard driveDisplay9.8″ black and white active matrix LCD screenGraphics640 × 400 pixel, 1-bitInputkeyboard, trackballPower6V 5Ahr lead-acid battery pack, AC ChargerDimensions4.05″ × 15.25″ × 14.43″Mass16 lb (7.3 kg)PredecessorMacintosh Plus(Macintosh SE)SuccessorPowerBook 100PowerBook 140/170 The Macintosh Portable is a portable computer that was designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from September 1989 to October 1991. It is the first battery-powered Macintosh, which garnered significant excitement from critics, but sales to customers were quite low. It featured a fast, sharp, and expensive monochrome active matrix LCD screen in a hinged design that covered the keyboard when the machine was not in use. The Portable was one of the early consumer laptops to employ an active matrix panel—only the most expensive of the initial PowerBook line, the PowerBook 170, had such a panel. The machine was designed to deliver high performance, at the cost of increased price and weight. The Portable was discontinued in October 1991. The Portable has features similar to the Atari STacy, a version of their Atari ST computer which contained a built in keyboard and monitor. Macintosh Portable can run Macintosh System 6.0.4 through System 7.5.5. Hardware The pointer was a built-in trackball that could be removed and located on either side of the keyboard, and can also be replaced with a numeric keypad if a mouse is being used. There were three drive configurations available for Macintosh Portable. A Portable could ship with one floppy drive, with two floppy drives, or with a hard drive and a floppy drive. The floppy drive is 1.44 MB. Most Macintosh Portable units came with a hard drive. It was a custom-engineered Conner CP-3045 (known by Apple as "Hard Disk 40SC"). It holds 40 MB of data, consumes less power compared to most hard drives of its time, and it has a proprietary SCSI connector; adapters that allow standard SCSI drives to be used on the Portable exist, but they are expensive. At 16 pounds (7.2 kilograms) and 4 inches (10 centimetres) thick, the Portable was a heavy and bulky portable computer. The main contributor to the Portable's weight and bulk was its lead-acid battery. Display issues This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Despite the dramatic improvement in terms of ergonomics offered by the responsiveness, sharpness, and uniformity of its active matrix panel, one of the primary drawbacks of the Portable was poor readability in low-light situations. Consequently, in February 1991, Apple introduced a backlit Macintosh Portable (model M5126). The backlight feature was a welcomed improvement, but it reduced the battery life by about a half. An upgrade kit was also offered for the earlier model as well, which plugged into the ROM expansion slot. The Portable used expensive SRAM memory in an effort to maximize battery life and to provide an "instant on" low-power sleep mode. In the newer backlit Portable, Apple changed SRAM memory to the less expensive (but more power-hungry) pseudo-SRAM, which reduced the total RAM expansion to 8 MB, and lowered the price. Battery issues The lead-acid battery pack on the non-backlit Portable offered up to ten hours of usage time, and the Portable draws the same amount of power when turned off, and when in sleep mode. The Portable, unlike many later portable computers from Apple and other manufacturers, will not boot without the battery pack installed. This is due to the relatively low power output of the included AC charger, 1.5A @ 7.5 V, which is insufficient to spin up the hard disk, which has an initial startup current draw requirement of 2-3 Amps. The battery pack must be installed and have sufficient charge to provide the additional current required during hard disk startup. Once booted and running, the total power required to run the computer drops below 1.5A and the Portable can continue to run on the AC charger alone. Several popular unauthorized workarounds were devised to allow the Portable to boot without a battery pack installed, including using an AC power supply from the PowerBook 100 series, which provides higher output. The battery packs are no longer manufactured and it is very rare to find one that will hold a charge and allow the computer to start. As with other lead-acid batteries, such as automotive batteries, the sealed lead-acid (SLA) cells used in the Portable's battery pack sulfated and eventually failed if they were left for an extended time in a fully discharged state, such as when the computer was stored for a period of months or longer. It is possible to repack the battery with new cells, or use alternative 6 V batteries. There were three "X" size cylindrical sealed lead-acid cells inside the battery pack, manufactured by Gates Energy Products (now EnerSys); the same cells were also used in Quantum 1 battery packs for photographic flash use. The battery pack can be rebuilt with new EnerSys "Cyclon" brand batteries, using either three part number 0800-0004 single cells of 2V each, or using one 6V monobloc part number 0809-0012. Development There is some indication that Apple executives at the time, particularly, Jean-Louis Gassée, were aware of the design problems concerning the Macintosh Portable. These problems, combined with supply issues of the newly developed active matrix screen, caused numerous delays in launching the computer. While it cannot be determined what the initial internal intended launch date was, an AppleDesign illustration depicts prototypes dated 1986. Initial officially announced launch dates indicated that the Macintosh Portable would be available by June 1988. The Macintosh Portable itself also suggests a lengthy development time with a silkscreen date stamp of 1987 on the production keyboard PCB, indicating a close-to-final design was likely to have been determined by then. The computer, however would not be launched for over two years, with the final launch date being September 20, 1989. Reception The Macintosh Portable product launch was held at the Universal Amphitheater in Universal City, California at an estimated cost of $1 million with over 5,000 guests. The press reaction was mixed, with many praising the clear LCD screen, but most shunning the computer due to its size, weight and high cost, with the Los Angeles Times stating "It’s too big, too heavy and too expensive." Others noted that the computer seemed behind the times compared to competing laptops, stating that "This machine would have been OK 12 months or 18 months ago. But not today." Apple had forecast first year sales of 50,000 units, however the computer only generated lackluster sales of 10,000 units in its first quarter on the market. Apple then reduced the price of the Macintosh Portable by $1,000 in 1990, just 7 months after launch, and discontinued the computer in 1991 with the launch of its replacement, the PowerBook series. The Outbound This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The Outbound laptop was a Mac-compatible laptop available during the same time period as the Portable. It was significantly smaller, less expensive, and lighter, but offered a much less responsive "twist" STN LCD and a less ergonomic pointing device. It was also restricted to 4 MB of RAM, due to the requirement that users install a ROM chip from an Apple machine such as Macintosh Plus. Timeline Timeline of portable Macintoshes vte See also: List of Mac models References ^ "The 25 Worst Tech Products of All Time". PC World. May 26, 2005. Retrieved July 18, 2006. ^ "Mac Portable". Low End Mac. February 16, 2018. Retrieved November 24, 2020. ^ "Alternate Battery for Mac Portable". Low End Mac. Retrieved January 8, 2013. ^ a b c d e f Retropaq (June 24, 2021). "Macintosh Portable Part 2: The Blame Game". Retropaq. Retrieved September 2, 2021. ^ a b c "Apple's First Portable Gets Posh Coming-Out Party". Los Angeles Times. September 20, 1989. Retrieved September 2, 2021. ^ McCracken, Harry (September 20, 2019). "The Mac Portable—an Apple flop that led to great things—turns 30". Fast Company. Retrieved September 2, 2021. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apple Macintosh portable. Mac Portable profile on Low End Mac More pictures of a Mac Portable "Macintosh Portable: Technical Specifications". Apple, Inc. July 26, 2017. Retrieved September 21, 2022. "Macintosh Portable, 360-degree model", Russian Vintage Laptop Museum (museum), April 6, 2017 vteApple hardware before 1998ComputersApple II series I II II Plus IIe IIc IIc Plus IIGS III Compact Macintosh 128K 512K 512Ke Plus SE SE/30 Classic Classic II Color Classic Macintosh II II IIx IIcx IIci IIfx IIsi IIvi IIvx Macintosh LC LC LC II LC III LC 475 LC 500 series LC 630 5200 LC Macintosh TV Macintosh Quadra 700 900 950 800 840AV 600 series 610 650 660AV 605 630 PowerBook Macintosh Portable 68k-based PowerBooks 100 series 100 140 170 160 180 150 190 Duo 210 230 500 series PowerPC-based PowerBooks 2300c 5300 1400 3400c 2400c G3 Power Macintosh 4400 and 7220 5000 series 5200 LC and 5300 LC 5260 5400 5500 6000 series 6100 6200 and 6300 6400 6500 7000 series 7100 7200 and 8200 7300 7500 7600 8000 series 8100 8500 8600 9000 series 9500 9600 Power Macintosh G3 Miscellaneous Apple Lisa Baby Macintosh (cancelled) Macintosh XL Macintosh Performa Macintosh Centris Apple IIe Card (Macintosh PDS) Macintosh Processor Upgrade Card Apple Workgroup Server 9150 Apple Network Server Twentieth Anniversary Macintosh Macintosh history PeripheralsDisplays Monitor II Monitor III AppleColor Composite IIe AppleColor High-Resolution RGB Macintosh Color AudioVision 14 Multiple Scan 14 ColorSync 750 External drives Disk II FileWare Macintosh ProFile Hard Disk 20 Hard Disk 20SC AppleCD PowerCD Tape Drive 40SC Input devices Keyboard Desktop Bus Extended Keyboard Adjustable Keyboard Mouse and other pointing devices Scanner QuickTake Networking Apple II serial cards LocalTalk Apple Communication Slot GeoPort Printers Silentype Dot Matrix Printer Daisy Wheel Printer ImageWriter LaserWriter 410 Color Plotter Color LaserWriter StyleWriter Newton MessagePad eMate 300 Other Interactive Television Box Mac NC Paladin Pippin Bandai W.A.L.T. See also template: Apple hardware since 1998

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"portable computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_computer"},{"link_name":"Apple Computer, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_battery"},{"link_name":"Macintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_(computer)"},{"link_name":"active matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_matrix"},{"link_name":"PowerBook 170","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBook_170"},{"link_name":"Atari STacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_STacy"},{"link_name":"Atari ST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_ST"},{"link_name":"System 6.0.4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_6"},{"link_name":"System 7.5.5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The Macintosh Portable is a portable computer that was designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from September 1989 to October 1991. It is the first battery-powered Macintosh, which garnered significant excitement from critics, but sales to customers were quite low. It featured a fast, sharp, and expensive monochrome active matrix LCD screen in a hinged design that covered the keyboard when the machine was not in use. The Portable was one of the early consumer laptops to employ an active matrix panel—only the most expensive of the initial PowerBook line, the PowerBook 170, had such a panel. The machine was designed to deliver high performance, at the cost of increased price and weight. The Portable was discontinued in October 1991.The Portable has features similar to the Atari STacy, a version of their Atari ST computer which contained a built in keyboard and monitor. Macintosh Portable can run Macintosh System 6.0.4 through System 7.5.5.[citation needed]","title":"Macintosh Portable"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trackball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trackball"},{"link_name":"hard drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drive"},{"link_name":"Conner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conner_Peripherals"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCWorld_2005-05-26-1"}],"text":"The pointer was a built-in trackball that could be removed and located on either side of the keyboard, and can also be replaced with a numeric keypad if a mouse is being used. There were three drive configurations available for Macintosh Portable. A Portable could ship with one floppy drive, with two floppy drives, or with a hard drive and a floppy drive. The floppy drive is 1.44 MB. Most Macintosh Portable units came with a hard drive. It was a custom-engineered Conner CP-3045 (known by Apple as \"Hard Disk 40SC\"). It holds 40 MB of data, consumes less power compared to most hard drives of its time, and it has a proprietary SCSI connector; adapters that allow standard SCSI drives to be used on the Portable exist, but they are expensive. At 16 pounds (7.2 kilograms) and 4 inches (10 centimetres) thick, the Portable was a heavy and bulky portable computer. The main contributor to the Portable's weight and bulk was its lead-acid battery.[1]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random-access_memory"}],"text":"Despite the dramatic improvement in terms of ergonomics offered by the responsiveness, sharpness, and uniformity of its active matrix panel, one of the primary drawbacks of the Portable was poor readability in low-light situations. Consequently, in February 1991, Apple introduced a backlit Macintosh Portable (model M5126). The backlight feature was a welcomed improvement, but it reduced the battery life by about a half. An upgrade kit was also offered for the earlier model as well, which plugged into the ROM expansion slot. The Portable used expensive SRAM memory in an effort to maximize battery life and to provide an \"instant on\" low-power sleep mode. In the newer backlit Portable, Apple changed SRAM memory to the less expensive (but more power-hungry) pseudo-SRAM, which reduced the total RAM expansion to 8 MB, and lowered the price.","title":"Display issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lead-acid battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-acid_battery"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Low_End_Mac-2"},{"link_name":"portable computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_computer"},{"link_name":"PowerBook 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBook_100"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The lead-acid battery pack on the non-backlit Portable offered up to ten hours of usage time, and the Portable draws the same amount of power when turned off, and when in sleep mode.[2] The Portable, unlike many later portable computers from Apple and other manufacturers, will not boot without the battery pack installed. This is due to the relatively low power output of the included AC charger, 1.5A @ 7.5 V, which is insufficient to spin up the hard disk, which has an initial startup current draw requirement of 2-3 Amps. The battery pack must be installed and have sufficient charge to provide the additional current required during hard disk startup. Once booted and running, the total power required to run the computer drops below 1.5A and the Portable can continue to run on the AC charger alone. Several popular unauthorized workarounds were devised to allow the Portable to boot without a battery pack installed, including using an AC power supply from the PowerBook 100 series, which provides higher output.The battery packs are no longer manufactured and it is very rare to find one that will hold a charge and allow the computer to start. As with other lead-acid batteries, such as automotive batteries, the sealed lead-acid (SLA) cells used in the Portable's battery pack sulfated and eventually failed if they were left for an extended time in a fully discharged state, such as when the computer was stored for a period of months or longer. It is possible to repack the battery with new cells, or use alternative 6 V batteries.[3] There were three \"X\" size cylindrical sealed lead-acid cells inside the battery pack, manufactured by Gates Energy Products (now EnerSys); the same cells were also used in Quantum 1 battery packs for photographic flash use.[citation needed] The battery pack can be rebuilt with new EnerSys \"Cyclon\" brand batteries, using either three part number 0800-0004 single cells of 2V each, or using one 6V monobloc part number 0809-0012.","title":"Battery issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jean-Louis Gassée","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Louis_Gass%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"active matrix screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active-matrix_liquid-crystal_display"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"}],"text":"There is some indication that Apple executives at the time, particularly, Jean-Louis Gassée, were aware of the design problems concerning the Macintosh Portable. These problems, combined with supply issues of the newly developed active matrix screen, caused numerous delays in launching the computer.[4] While it cannot be determined what the initial internal intended launch date was, an AppleDesign illustration depicts prototypes dated 1986. Initial officially announced launch dates indicated that the Macintosh Portable would be available by June 1988.[4] The Macintosh Portable itself also suggests a lengthy development time with a silkscreen date stamp of 1987 on the production keyboard PCB, indicating a close-to-final design was likely to have been determined by then.[4] The computer, however would not be launched for over two years, with the final launch date being September 20, 1989.[5]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Universal Amphitheater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Amphitheatre"},{"link_name":"Universal City, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_City,_California"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"PowerBook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBook"}],"text":"The Macintosh Portable product launch was held at the Universal Amphitheater in Universal City, California at an estimated cost of $1 million with over 5,000 guests.[5] The press reaction was mixed, with many praising the clear LCD screen, but most shunning the computer due to its size, weight and high cost, with the Los Angeles Times stating \"It’s too big, too heavy and too expensive.\" Others noted that the computer seemed behind the times compared to competing laptops, stating that \"This machine would have been OK 12 months or 18 months ago. But not today.\"[4][5]Apple had forecast first year sales of 50,000 units, however the computer only generated lackluster sales of 10,000 units in its first quarter on the market.[4][6] Apple then reduced the price of the Macintosh Portable by $1,000 in 1990, just 7 months after launch, and discontinued the computer in 1991[4] with the launch of its replacement, the PowerBook series.","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Outbound laptop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outbound_laptop"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"Macintosh Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh_Plus"}],"text":"The Outbound laptop was a Mac-compatible laptop available during the same time period as the Portable. It was significantly smaller, less expensive, and lighter, but offered a much less responsive \"twist\" STN LCD and a less ergonomic pointing device. It was also restricted to 4 MB of RAM, due to the requirement that users install a ROM chip from an Apple machine such as Macintosh Plus.","title":"The Outbound"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Timeline_of_portable_Macintoshes"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Timeline_of_portable_Macintoshes"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline_of_portable_Macintoshes"},{"link_name":"List of Mac models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mac_models"}],"text":"Timeline of portable Macintoshes vte\n\n\n\nSee also: List of Mac models","title":"Timeline"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal_(computer)

Portal (computer)

["1 Specifications","2 See also","3 References","4 Bibliography","5 Sources"]

1980 portable microcomputer PortalDeveloperFrançois GernelleManufacturerR2E MicralTypePortable computerRelease dateSeptember 1980; 43 years ago (1980-09)Discontinued1983; 41 years ago (1983)Units soldHundredsOperating systemPrologue, Basic Assembly Language (BAL)CPUIntel 8085 @ 2 MHzMemory64 kB RAMRemovable storageFloppy diskDisplay32-character one-line screenPower220-voltDimensions45 × 45 × 15 cmMass12 kg Portal R2E CCMC was a portable microcomputer designed and marketed by the Réalisation et Études électroniques department of the French firm R2E Micral, and officially appeared in September 1980 at the Sicob show in Paris. Osborne 1, the first commercially successful portable computer, was only released eight months later, on 3 April 1981. The machine was designed with a focus on payroll and accounting. Several hundred Portal computers were sold between 1980 and 1983. Extremely rare, no museum has a Portal, and only two are in private collections. The company R2E Micral is also known to have designed "the earliest commercial, non-kit computer based on a microprocessor", the Micral N. One of these machines was sold for 62,000 euros to Paul G. Allen, the co-founder of Microsoft (with Bill Gates), by the auctioneer Rouillac on June 11, 2017, for Allen's Seattle museum, Living Computers: Museum + Labs. Specifications The Portal was based on an Intel 8085 processor, 8-bit, clocked at 2 MHz. It was equipped with 64 kB of main RAM, a keyboard with 58 alphanumeric keys and 11 numeric keys (in separate blocks), a LED 32-character one-line screen, a floppy disk (capacity - 140000 characters), a thermal printer (speed - 28 characters/second), an asynchronous channel, a synchronous channel, and a 220-volt power supply. It came with two operating systems: Prologue and Basic Assembly Language (BAL). Designed for an operating temperature of 15 °C to 35 °C, it weighed 12 kg and its dimensions were 45 × 45 × 15 cm. See also R2E Micral Laptop § History References ^ a b c d e "Base de données - R2E Portal". System.cfg. 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2022. ^ "Portal au Sicob". blog.museeinformatique.fr. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017. ^ Lilen, Henri. la saga du micro-ordinateur. ^ "Pièce comptable Portal". Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. ^ Spector, Lincoln (31 May 2010). "A History of Portable Computing". PC World. Retrieved 3 April 2019. ^ Rouillac, Aymeric (21 August 2017). "Cet exemplaire en état de marche sera vendu aux enchères le 22 septembre 2017". Facebook. ^ a b "Vente aux enchères du Centre de Création Contemporaine Olivier Debré à Tours" (PDF). 21 August 2017. ^ "R2E Micral N". www.system-cfg.com. Retrieved 10 November 2022. ^ "The Micral N, the First Microcomputer, to be Sold at Auction in June". Life in France. 13 May 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2017. ^ "C'est maintenant officiel: Paul G.... - Aymeric Rouillac". Facebook. ^ a b c "Plaquette Portal". blog.museeinformatique.fr. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017. Bibliography François Gernelle, Portal designer Sources This article is derived partly from the page of old-computers.com and feb-patrimoine.com.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"portable microcomputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_computer"},{"link_name":"Micral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micral"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Osborne 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osborne_1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rouillac-7"},{"link_name":"Micral N","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micral"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Paul G. Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Allen"},{"link_name":"Bill Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"Living Computers: Museum + Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_Computers:_Museum_%2B_Labs"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rouillac-7"}],"text":"Portal R2E CCMC was a portable microcomputer designed and marketed by the Réalisation et Études électroniques department of the French firm R2E Micral,[1] and officially appeared in September 1980 at the Sicob show in Paris.[2][3] Osborne 1, the first commercially successful portable computer, was only released eight months later, on 3 April 1981.[4][5]The machine was designed with a focus on payroll and accounting. Several hundred Portal computers were sold between 1980 and 1983.Extremely rare, no museum has a Portal, and only two are in private collections.[6][7]The company R2E Micral is also known to have designed \"the earliest commercial, non-kit computer based on a microprocessor\", the Micral N.[8] One of these machines was sold for 62,000 euros to Paul G. Allen, the co-founder of Microsoft (with Bill Gates), by the auctioneer Rouillac on June 11, 2017, for Allen's Seattle museum, Living Computers: Museum + Labs.[9][10][7]","title":"Portal (computer)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel 8085","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8085"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-11"},{"link_name":"kB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"floppy disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk"},{"link_name":"thermal printer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_printing"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-11"},{"link_name":"Prologue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Basic Assembly Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Basic_assembly_language_and_successors"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"°C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsius"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-11"}],"text":"The Portal was based on an Intel 8085 processor, 8-bit, clocked at 2 MHz.[1][11]It was equipped with 64 kB of main RAM, a keyboard with 58 alphanumeric keys and 11 numeric keys (in separate blocks), a LED 32-character one-line screen, a floppy disk (capacity - 140000 characters), a thermal printer (speed - 28 characters/second), an asynchronous channel, a synchronous channel, and a 220-volt power supply.[1][11]It came with two operating systems: Prologue and Basic Assembly Language (BAL).[1]Designed for an operating temperature of 15 °C to 35 °C, it weighed 12 kg and its dimensions were 45 × 45 × 15 cm.[1][11]","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"François Gernelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Gernelle"}],"text":"François Gernelle, Portal designer","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"old-computers.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=201&st=1"},{"link_name":"feb-patrimoine.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.feb-patrimoine.com/projet/micral/micral_pc.htm"}],"text":"This article is derived partly from the page of old-computers.com and feb-patrimoine.com.","title":"Sources"}]

[]

[{"title":"Micral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micral"},{"title":"Laptop § History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#History"}]

[{"reference":"\"Base de données - R2E Portal\". System.cfg. 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.system-cfg.com/detail.php?ident=877","url_text":"\"Base de données - R2E Portal\""}]},{"reference":"\"Portal au Sicob\". blog.museeinformatique.fr. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170816012155/http://blog.museeinformatique.fr/attachment/126350/","url_text":"\"Portal au Sicob\""},{"url":"http://blog.museeinformatique.fr/attachment/126350/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lilen, Henri. la saga du micro-ordinateur.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Pièce comptable Portal\". Archived from the original on 16 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170816235552/http://blog.museeinformatique.fr/attachment/126351/","url_text":"\"Pièce comptable Portal\""},{"url":"http://blog.museeinformatique.fr/attachment/126351/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Spector, Lincoln (31 May 2010). \"A History of Portable Computing\". PC World. Retrieved 3 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcworld.com/article/197457/History_of_Portable_Computing.html","url_text":"\"A History of Portable Computing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_World","url_text":"PC World"}]},{"reference":"Rouillac, Aymeric (21 August 2017). \"Cet exemplaire en état de marche sera vendu aux enchères le 22 septembre 2017\". Facebook.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.facebook.com/rouillac/posts/10155683670608824?pnref=story","url_text":"\"Cet exemplaire en état de marche sera vendu aux enchères le 22 septembre 2017\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook","url_text":"Facebook"}]},{"reference":"\"Vente aux enchères du Centre de Création Contemporaine Olivier Debré à Tours\" (PDF). 21 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rouillac.com/sdoc-677291-c33371575930a08332023a612c8e94c5-artsdesign_rouillac_cccod_22_09_2017.pdf","url_text":"\"Vente aux enchères du Centre de Création Contemporaine Olivier Debré à Tours\""}]},{"reference":"\"R2E Micral N\". www.system-cfg.com. Retrieved 10 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.system-cfg.com/detail.php?ident=811","url_text":"\"R2E Micral N\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Micral N, the First Microcomputer, to be Sold at Auction in June\". Life in France. 13 May 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://chb44.com/2017/05/micral-n-first-microcomputer-sold-auction-june/","url_text":"\"The Micral N, the First Microcomputer, to be Sold at Auction in June\""}]},{"reference":"\"C'est maintenant officiel: Paul G.... - Aymeric Rouillac\". Facebook.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.facebook.com/rouillac/posts/10155667610863824","url_text":"\"C'est maintenant officiel: Paul G.... - Aymeric Rouillac\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook","url_text":"Facebook"}]},{"reference":"\"Plaquette Portal\". blog.museeinformatique.fr. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170816234039/http://blog.museeinformatique.fr/attachment/126348/","url_text":"\"Plaquette Portal\""},{"url":"http://blog.museeinformatique.fr/attachment/126348/","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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