68050daf14e4fe8bfcc04939ddf86a53b0048762f6418e51041fcd7d6a1079d4

ensimple/3640.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+
+
+Mammals are a group of vertebrate animals which form the class Mammalia. They have fur or hair and a very precise kind of temperature regulation.
+
+With the exception of the monotremes, all mammals bear live young. Unlike other vertebrates, they are the only animals that produce milk for the young through their mammary glands.[3] Parental care of the young is universal among mammals, and it is essential because live birth limits the number of offspring.
+
+Most marsupial and eutherian mammals have a reproductive cycle known as the oestrous cycle (U.S: estrous cycle). Females are sexually active only during the oestrous stage, when they are 'on heat' for a few days each month. If an ovum is not fertilized, the endometrium (uterus lining) is resorbed. Oestrus cycles may occur once or twice a year, or many times a year. Each group of mammals has its own frequency.
+
+Humans and primates, are quite different. They have a menstrual cycle. In this case, females are sexually receptive at any time, but only fertile when an ovum is released from an ovary. In this case, the endometrium (if not needed for an fertilised egg) is discarded. The endometrium is shed, and takes with it a certain amount of blood. In this system, eggs are released from the ovaries mostly in the middle of the cycle, away from the menstrual period. This ovulation is 'concealed', meaning, it is not obvious when it occurs. This process, so it is thought, tends to keep the male and female together, which is unusual in mammals with the oestrous cycle.
+
+One diagnostic feature is the lower jaw which, unlike earlier forms, is composed of a single bone, the dentary. This is one feature which can be seen in fossils, or at least those which are complete enough to have the lower jaw. Mammals have three little bones in their inner ear, the ear ossicles. The ear ossicles are bones which were, long ago, part of the lower jaw in early proto-mammals.
+
+There are quite a number of other features, particularly in the skull and limbs, so that it is usually possible identify and describe a mammal from its skeleton alone.
+
+Another diagnostic feature is the neocortex of the brain, which no other vertebrate has. This is involved in the kind of flexible behavior and learning typical of mammals. Reptiles and birds have much of their behavior controlled by "inherited behavior chains", which roughly translates as "instincts". Almost all animals can do some learning, but mammals do far more than other vertebrates. Their behavior is much more flexible than lizards, for example, and that is made possible by their neocortex.
+
+Other things in the life of mammals seem to be connected with this flexibility  and learning. Play is a kind of early learning period in which, according to one theory,[4] mammals develop skills which they will need in life. All mammalian young play, and this is very obvious in the more intelligent mammals (primates, cats).
+
+The emotions of mammals are very noticeable, and rather similar to ours. It is possible, and quite common, for humans to have a friendly relationship with another mammal. It is quite impossible for a human to have any kind of relationship with a snake or a gecko (for example). This is because the reptile simply does not have the same basic emotions as a human.
+
+There are about 50 characters which are typical of mammals, and some of the most important are discussed above. A few more examples will make it clear that mammals are very different from reptiles and birds:
+
+In the language of cladistics, these 50 unique characters are apomorphies which prove that mammals are a clade descended from a common ancestor.[1]
+
+Almost all mammal species give birth to live young. There are only two mammals that lay eggs, called monotremes, the duck-billed platypus Ornithorhynchus, and the spiny anteater Echidna, with four species. All are confined to Australia and New Guinea, and are the sole survivors of an earlier group of mammals. However, like other mammals, they feed milk to their young, and protect and look after them.
+
+Other mammals are divided into the marsupials and the Eutheria, the placental mammals. Marsupials are mammals with pouches to carry young in, like the kangaroo.
+
+In terms of number of species mammals, with 5488 species,[6] are not the most successful vertebrates. Birds, with about 10,000 species have nearly twice as many,[7][8] and reptiles have just as many as birds.[9] Fish have even more species. There are 27,000 species of fish, of which nearly 26,000 are bony fish.[10]
+
+Despite this, many zoologists do regard mammals as a successful group of animals. One reason is that they are successful in all habitats on Earth. In the air, in the water, in forests, in the colder regions of the world, and above all on grasslands, where they are outstandingly successful.
+
+In the air, the bats (Chiroptera) are the mammalian order with the most species. They 'own' the nighttime, since birds are largely diurnal (daytime) animals. Bats are hugely successful, mostly as nighttime predators of insects.
+
+Seagoing mammals, the Cetacea and the pinnipeds, are very successful and significant predators. This includes the whales, seals, walrus, dolphins and others.
+
+The terrestrial mammals are fewer in number of species than lizards, but they are huge in individual numbers, and far more important in the life of the terrestrial biomes. Their ability to move from place to place and adapt has made them a most effective group. Many mammals live in cold places. These mammals have thick hair or blubber to keep them warm. Others may live in rainforests. On land the rodents (rats, mice) are hugely successful, more common in numbers than any other mammals. Large mammals on land have been hunted to extinction in some parts of the world, but the ones which remain are now better protected.
+
+Last, but certainly not least, are the primates. Their natural habitat, with few exceptions, are the forests. Most live in the trees, with hands that grasp, good colour vision, and intelligence. In the Pliocene period some moved out onto the savannahs as grassland replaced forests. Mankind is the result of this shift into the savannahs.
+
+The evolutionary relationships among land vertebrates is as follows:
+
+This sort of classification is not traditional, but it does reflect our knowledge of palaeontology and evolution.[11]
+
+A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks. It is based on living animals. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from Vaughan et al. 2000.[12]
+
+Class Mammalia
+
+Mammals can be divided in a number of orders:
+
+Because two quite different dates are given in the taxobox, an explanation is needed. Rowe defines mammals as "the taxon originating with the most recent common ancestor of extant [living] Monotremata and Theria". That puts the emphasis heavily on living mammals, where, as Rowe points out, the database of characters is extensive.[2]
+
+Kemp explains the problem with that approach: "If the definition of a mammal is based rigorously upon possession of all the characters of living mammals, then some fossil forms that are extremely mammalian in anatomy... are excluded".[1]
+
+"An altogether different perspective on defining Mammalia is based on traditional palaeobiological practice. An arbitrary decision is made about which characters to select as defining characters... Characters deemed appropriate are those reflecting the... fundamental mammalian biology. The essence of mammalian life is to be found in their endothermic temperature physiology, greatly enlarged brain, dentition capable of chewing food, highly agile, energetic locomotion, and so on. The organisms that achieved this grade of overall organisation are deemed to be Mammalia... Around the end of the Triassic period, about 205 mya, a number of fossils are found of very small animals that have [most] of the skeletal characters of modern mammals".[1]
+
+This difference in outlook explains the difference in the two dates given in the taxobox.
+
+Polar bear
+
+Bat
+
+Camel
+
+Manatee

ensimple/3641.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+
+
+Mammals are a group of vertebrate animals which form the class Mammalia. They have fur or hair and a very precise kind of temperature regulation.
+
+With the exception of the monotremes, all mammals bear live young. Unlike other vertebrates, they are the only animals that produce milk for the young through their mammary glands.[3] Parental care of the young is universal among mammals, and it is essential because live birth limits the number of offspring.
+
+Most marsupial and eutherian mammals have a reproductive cycle known as the oestrous cycle (U.S: estrous cycle). Females are sexually active only during the oestrous stage, when they are 'on heat' for a few days each month. If an ovum is not fertilized, the endometrium (uterus lining) is resorbed. Oestrus cycles may occur once or twice a year, or many times a year. Each group of mammals has its own frequency.
+
+Humans and primates, are quite different. They have a menstrual cycle. In this case, females are sexually receptive at any time, but only fertile when an ovum is released from an ovary. In this case, the endometrium (if not needed for an fertilised egg) is discarded. The endometrium is shed, and takes with it a certain amount of blood. In this system, eggs are released from the ovaries mostly in the middle of the cycle, away from the menstrual period. This ovulation is 'concealed', meaning, it is not obvious when it occurs. This process, so it is thought, tends to keep the male and female together, which is unusual in mammals with the oestrous cycle.
+
+One diagnostic feature is the lower jaw which, unlike earlier forms, is composed of a single bone, the dentary. This is one feature which can be seen in fossils, or at least those which are complete enough to have the lower jaw. Mammals have three little bones in their inner ear, the ear ossicles. The ear ossicles are bones which were, long ago, part of the lower jaw in early proto-mammals.
+
+There are quite a number of other features, particularly in the skull and limbs, so that it is usually possible identify and describe a mammal from its skeleton alone.
+
+Another diagnostic feature is the neocortex of the brain, which no other vertebrate has. This is involved in the kind of flexible behavior and learning typical of mammals. Reptiles and birds have much of their behavior controlled by "inherited behavior chains", which roughly translates as "instincts". Almost all animals can do some learning, but mammals do far more than other vertebrates. Their behavior is much more flexible than lizards, for example, and that is made possible by their neocortex.
+
+Other things in the life of mammals seem to be connected with this flexibility  and learning. Play is a kind of early learning period in which, according to one theory,[4] mammals develop skills which they will need in life. All mammalian young play, and this is very obvious in the more intelligent mammals (primates, cats).
+
+The emotions of mammals are very noticeable, and rather similar to ours. It is possible, and quite common, for humans to have a friendly relationship with another mammal. It is quite impossible for a human to have any kind of relationship with a snake or a gecko (for example). This is because the reptile simply does not have the same basic emotions as a human.
+
+There are about 50 characters which are typical of mammals, and some of the most important are discussed above. A few more examples will make it clear that mammals are very different from reptiles and birds:
+
+In the language of cladistics, these 50 unique characters are apomorphies which prove that mammals are a clade descended from a common ancestor.[1]
+
+Almost all mammal species give birth to live young. There are only two mammals that lay eggs, called monotremes, the duck-billed platypus Ornithorhynchus, and the spiny anteater Echidna, with four species. All are confined to Australia and New Guinea, and are the sole survivors of an earlier group of mammals. However, like other mammals, they feed milk to their young, and protect and look after them.
+
+Other mammals are divided into the marsupials and the Eutheria, the placental mammals. Marsupials are mammals with pouches to carry young in, like the kangaroo.
+
+In terms of number of species mammals, with 5488 species,[6] are not the most successful vertebrates. Birds, with about 10,000 species have nearly twice as many,[7][8] and reptiles have just as many as birds.[9] Fish have even more species. There are 27,000 species of fish, of which nearly 26,000 are bony fish.[10]
+
+Despite this, many zoologists do regard mammals as a successful group of animals. One reason is that they are successful in all habitats on Earth. In the air, in the water, in forests, in the colder regions of the world, and above all on grasslands, where they are outstandingly successful.
+
+In the air, the bats (Chiroptera) are the mammalian order with the most species. They 'own' the nighttime, since birds are largely diurnal (daytime) animals. Bats are hugely successful, mostly as nighttime predators of insects.
+
+Seagoing mammals, the Cetacea and the pinnipeds, are very successful and significant predators. This includes the whales, seals, walrus, dolphins and others.
+
+The terrestrial mammals are fewer in number of species than lizards, but they are huge in individual numbers, and far more important in the life of the terrestrial biomes. Their ability to move from place to place and adapt has made them a most effective group. Many mammals live in cold places. These mammals have thick hair or blubber to keep them warm. Others may live in rainforests. On land the rodents (rats, mice) are hugely successful, more common in numbers than any other mammals. Large mammals on land have been hunted to extinction in some parts of the world, but the ones which remain are now better protected.
+
+Last, but certainly not least, are the primates. Their natural habitat, with few exceptions, are the forests. Most live in the trees, with hands that grasp, good colour vision, and intelligence. In the Pliocene period some moved out onto the savannahs as grassland replaced forests. Mankind is the result of this shift into the savannahs.
+
+The evolutionary relationships among land vertebrates is as follows:
+
+This sort of classification is not traditional, but it does reflect our knowledge of palaeontology and evolution.[11]
+
+A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks. It is based on living animals. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from Vaughan et al. 2000.[12]
+
+Class Mammalia
+
+Mammals can be divided in a number of orders:
+
+Because two quite different dates are given in the taxobox, an explanation is needed. Rowe defines mammals as "the taxon originating with the most recent common ancestor of extant [living] Monotremata and Theria". That puts the emphasis heavily on living mammals, where, as Rowe points out, the database of characters is extensive.[2]
+
+Kemp explains the problem with that approach: "If the definition of a mammal is based rigorously upon possession of all the characters of living mammals, then some fossil forms that are extremely mammalian in anatomy... are excluded".[1]
+
+"An altogether different perspective on defining Mammalia is based on traditional palaeobiological practice. An arbitrary decision is made about which characters to select as defining characters... Characters deemed appropriate are those reflecting the... fundamental mammalian biology. The essence of mammalian life is to be found in their endothermic temperature physiology, greatly enlarged brain, dentition capable of chewing food, highly agile, energetic locomotion, and so on. The organisms that achieved this grade of overall organisation are deemed to be Mammalia... Around the end of the Triassic period, about 205 mya, a number of fossils are found of very small animals that have [most] of the skeletal characters of modern mammals".[1]
+
+This difference in outlook explains the difference in the two dates given in the taxobox.
+
+Polar bear
+
+Bat
+
+Camel
+
+Manatee

ensimple/3642.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+
+
+Mammals are a group of vertebrate animals which form the class Mammalia. They have fur or hair and a very precise kind of temperature regulation.
+
+With the exception of the monotremes, all mammals bear live young. Unlike other vertebrates, they are the only animals that produce milk for the young through their mammary glands.[3] Parental care of the young is universal among mammals, and it is essential because live birth limits the number of offspring.
+
+Most marsupial and eutherian mammals have a reproductive cycle known as the oestrous cycle (U.S: estrous cycle). Females are sexually active only during the oestrous stage, when they are 'on heat' for a few days each month. If an ovum is not fertilized, the endometrium (uterus lining) is resorbed. Oestrus cycles may occur once or twice a year, or many times a year. Each group of mammals has its own frequency.
+
+Humans and primates, are quite different. They have a menstrual cycle. In this case, females are sexually receptive at any time, but only fertile when an ovum is released from an ovary. In this case, the endometrium (if not needed for an fertilised egg) is discarded. The endometrium is shed, and takes with it a certain amount of blood. In this system, eggs are released from the ovaries mostly in the middle of the cycle, away from the menstrual period. This ovulation is 'concealed', meaning, it is not obvious when it occurs. This process, so it is thought, tends to keep the male and female together, which is unusual in mammals with the oestrous cycle.
+
+One diagnostic feature is the lower jaw which, unlike earlier forms, is composed of a single bone, the dentary. This is one feature which can be seen in fossils, or at least those which are complete enough to have the lower jaw. Mammals have three little bones in their inner ear, the ear ossicles. The ear ossicles are bones which were, long ago, part of the lower jaw in early proto-mammals.
+
+There are quite a number of other features, particularly in the skull and limbs, so that it is usually possible identify and describe a mammal from its skeleton alone.
+
+Another diagnostic feature is the neocortex of the brain, which no other vertebrate has. This is involved in the kind of flexible behavior and learning typical of mammals. Reptiles and birds have much of their behavior controlled by "inherited behavior chains", which roughly translates as "instincts". Almost all animals can do some learning, but mammals do far more than other vertebrates. Their behavior is much more flexible than lizards, for example, and that is made possible by their neocortex.
+
+Other things in the life of mammals seem to be connected with this flexibility  and learning. Play is a kind of early learning period in which, according to one theory,[4] mammals develop skills which they will need in life. All mammalian young play, and this is very obvious in the more intelligent mammals (primates, cats).
+
+The emotions of mammals are very noticeable, and rather similar to ours. It is possible, and quite common, for humans to have a friendly relationship with another mammal. It is quite impossible for a human to have any kind of relationship with a snake or a gecko (for example). This is because the reptile simply does not have the same basic emotions as a human.
+
+There are about 50 characters which are typical of mammals, and some of the most important are discussed above. A few more examples will make it clear that mammals are very different from reptiles and birds:
+
+In the language of cladistics, these 50 unique characters are apomorphies which prove that mammals are a clade descended from a common ancestor.[1]
+
+Almost all mammal species give birth to live young. There are only two mammals that lay eggs, called monotremes, the duck-billed platypus Ornithorhynchus, and the spiny anteater Echidna, with four species. All are confined to Australia and New Guinea, and are the sole survivors of an earlier group of mammals. However, like other mammals, they feed milk to their young, and protect and look after them.
+
+Other mammals are divided into the marsupials and the Eutheria, the placental mammals. Marsupials are mammals with pouches to carry young in, like the kangaroo.
+
+In terms of number of species mammals, with 5488 species,[6] are not the most successful vertebrates. Birds, with about 10,000 species have nearly twice as many,[7][8] and reptiles have just as many as birds.[9] Fish have even more species. There are 27,000 species of fish, of which nearly 26,000 are bony fish.[10]
+
+Despite this, many zoologists do regard mammals as a successful group of animals. One reason is that they are successful in all habitats on Earth. In the air, in the water, in forests, in the colder regions of the world, and above all on grasslands, where they are outstandingly successful.
+
+In the air, the bats (Chiroptera) are the mammalian order with the most species. They 'own' the nighttime, since birds are largely diurnal (daytime) animals. Bats are hugely successful, mostly as nighttime predators of insects.
+
+Seagoing mammals, the Cetacea and the pinnipeds, are very successful and significant predators. This includes the whales, seals, walrus, dolphins and others.
+
+The terrestrial mammals are fewer in number of species than lizards, but they are huge in individual numbers, and far more important in the life of the terrestrial biomes. Their ability to move from place to place and adapt has made them a most effective group. Many mammals live in cold places. These mammals have thick hair or blubber to keep them warm. Others may live in rainforests. On land the rodents (rats, mice) are hugely successful, more common in numbers than any other mammals. Large mammals on land have been hunted to extinction in some parts of the world, but the ones which remain are now better protected.
+
+Last, but certainly not least, are the primates. Their natural habitat, with few exceptions, are the forests. Most live in the trees, with hands that grasp, good colour vision, and intelligence. In the Pliocene period some moved out onto the savannahs as grassland replaced forests. Mankind is the result of this shift into the savannahs.
+
+The evolutionary relationships among land vertebrates is as follows:
+
+This sort of classification is not traditional, but it does reflect our knowledge of palaeontology and evolution.[11]
+
+A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks. It is based on living animals. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from Vaughan et al. 2000.[12]
+
+Class Mammalia
+
+Mammals can be divided in a number of orders:
+
+Because two quite different dates are given in the taxobox, an explanation is needed. Rowe defines mammals as "the taxon originating with the most recent common ancestor of extant [living] Monotremata and Theria". That puts the emphasis heavily on living mammals, where, as Rowe points out, the database of characters is extensive.[2]
+
+Kemp explains the problem with that approach: "If the definition of a mammal is based rigorously upon possession of all the characters of living mammals, then some fossil forms that are extremely mammalian in anatomy... are excluded".[1]
+
+"An altogether different perspective on defining Mammalia is based on traditional palaeobiological practice. An arbitrary decision is made about which characters to select as defining characters... Characters deemed appropriate are those reflecting the... fundamental mammalian biology. The essence of mammalian life is to be found in their endothermic temperature physiology, greatly enlarged brain, dentition capable of chewing food, highly agile, energetic locomotion, and so on. The organisms that achieved this grade of overall organisation are deemed to be Mammalia... Around the end of the Triassic period, about 205 mya, a number of fossils are found of very small animals that have [most] of the skeletal characters of modern mammals".[1]
+
+This difference in outlook explains the difference in the two dates given in the taxobox.
+
+Polar bear
+
+Bat
+
+Camel
+
+Manatee

ensimple/3643.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+
+
+Mammoths were hairy elephants of the genus Mammuthus. They lived in Europe until 4,500 years ago, and were adapted to cold climate. They were killed off by hunters and climate change.
+
+They lived in the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs.[1][2] In the Pleistocene, northern Europe was covered with ice and tundra. There were a series of ice ages, which allowed the mammoths to spread across the land.
+
+Mammoths were hunted by early humans, who used spears, and cut them up with hand axes. Their frozen flesh has been analysed for its DNA sequence.[3][4][5]
+
+Media related to Mammuthus at Wikimedia Commons
+ Data related to Mammuthus at Wikispecies

ensimple/3644.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+
+
+Mammoths were hairy elephants of the genus Mammuthus. They lived in Europe until 4,500 years ago, and were adapted to cold climate. They were killed off by hunters and climate change.
+
+They lived in the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs.[1][2] In the Pleistocene, northern Europe was covered with ice and tundra. There were a series of ice ages, which allowed the mammoths to spread across the land.
+
+Mammoths were hunted by early humans, who used spears, and cut them up with hand axes. Their frozen flesh has been analysed for its DNA sequence.[3][4][5]
+
+Media related to Mammuthus at Wikimedia Commons
+ Data related to Mammuthus at Wikispecies

ensimple/3645.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+Managua has been the capital city of Nicaragua since 1855. There had been an Indian settlement there before the Spanish, but the modern city was founded as Leal Villa de Santiago de Managua in 1811. Before 1855, León and Granada were the capital cities. The word managua comes from the Nahuatl language mana-ahuac. It means near water. About 1.8 million people lived there in 2004. This makes it one of the biggest cities of Central America (after Guatemala City). The city is at the shore of Lake Managua. Many people who live in Managua are White or Mestizo. They all speak Spanish. There are also big communities of Catalonians, Germans, Italians and French. Many of the people belonging to those communities have lived in the city for many generations. Many people see Managua as one of the safest cities in America to live in.
+
+The city has had two destructive earthquakes in the 20th century. Hurricane Mitch caused further destructions in 1998. Many old buildings were damaged or destroyed in these earthquakes, and new streets and monuments were built in their place. In general, addresses are rarely used to give directions. Instead, people usually use monuments to tell where a certain place is. The problem with that approach is that sometimes, the monuments themselves were destroyed. Therefore, foreigners often have problems finding their way around the city.
+
+Mausoleum of Carols Fonseca
+
+A street (in the quarter Marta Quezada)

ensimple/3646.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+The English Channel is a body of water that separates the island of Great Britain from the rest of Europe. People who live in the UK and want to visit Europe, or people from Europe who want to visit the UK, can take a ferry across or ride a train under the channel in a special tunnel called the Channel Tunnel (nicknamed the Chunnel). Both the ferries and trains carry cars. It is 563 km long, 246 km wide, and its narrowest part (34 km) is the Strait of Dover. On a clear day, it is possible to see the cliffs of Dover from Calais on the French side.
+
+In 1875, Matthew Webb became the first known person to swim the English Channel, crossing it in just under 22 hours. The first woman to do this was Gertrude Ederle. In 2004, over 600 people were recorded making the crossing. The fastest time was achieved by Bulgarian swimmer Peter Stoychev in 2007, who managed it in 7 hours. Recently, officials have outlawed swimming in the English Channel.
+
+In France, it is known as La manche (The Sleeve).
+

ensimple/3647.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+Manchester is a city in North West England. In 2013 there were 514,417 people living there, which makes it the fifth largest city in the United Kingdom.
+
+It is a city and metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester, England. Manchester was given city status in 1853. The city is in the middle of the Greater Manchester Urban Area, which has 2,240,230 people,[4] and is the United Kingdom's third largest built-up place.
+
+Manchester is a very important city in England, and is often called the "Capital of the North".[5] Manchester has many places for the arts, places for learning, businesses providing media as well as lots of shops. In a poll of British managers in 2006, Manchester was named the best place in Britain to have a business.[6] A report in 2007 said Manchester is a fast-growing city (meaning lots of jobs are being created).[7] Manchester was the host of the 2002 Commonwealth Games. It has two well-known football teams, Manchester United and Manchester City.[8]
+
+Manchester was the first city to industrialise,[9] because of  the Industrial Revolution. It became the main place for making cloth and fabric.[10] During the 19th century it had the nickname Cottonopolis,[10] because it had so many cotton mills. The middle of Manchester is important because of its network of canals and mills built during its 19th-century development.[11]
+
+In the late 18th century, Manchester was much smaller than it is today with about 40,000 people living there.[12] This changed at the start of the Industrial Revolution. During this time, there were revolts about the living conditions for workers. The most well known of these revolts was the Peterloo Massacre. Fifteen to twenty people were killed during the Peterloo Massacre and hundreds of other people were hurt.[13] In 1780, Richard Arkwright built the first cotton mill in the area.[14]
+
+Later in the 1800s, Manchester became most important cotton town in the world. It was also the first 'industrialised' city, meaning that it was the first city to have a big amount of industry in it.[15] Only a small amount of cloth is still made in the city and the trade has mainly stopped. This left a big number of old buildings from that time including the Town Hall, Free Trade Hall and Central Library and left a lot of other buildings empty.
+
+The Manchester Ship Canal was created by the digging of canals in the rivers Irwell and Mersey for 36 miles (58 km) from Salford to the Mersey estuary. This let ocean going ships sail into the Port of Manchester.
+
+The county of Greater Manchester was made in 1974.  The county was made from cities and towns in southern Lancashire and northern Cheshire (the two main areas which make up Greater Manchester), and some mainly rural districts of Derbyshire and Yorkshire.
+
+In 1996, the Irish Republican Army put a bomb in a truck in the centre of the city.  Nobody was killed, but it did a lot of damage.[16]
+
+On 22 May 2017, a bombing occurred at the Manchester Arena which killed 22 people and injured 55.[17] It was a suicide bombing.[18]
+
+Manchester is 160 miles (257 km) northwest of England's capital, London. The city has many canals and rivers which were important to its growth, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries.[19] The largest open space in the city is Heaton Park. It has an area of about 618 acres (250 ha).[20] Heaton Park is a place that attracts many people every year. People go there to see the many animals and the beauty of the countryside. Much of Manchester is built-up (or 'urbanised'). Much of Manchester's rain comes over from the Pennines, which are hills to the east of the city.[21] The city is mainly urban areas but also has some areas which are mainly of farmland. To the south of the centre is Manchester Airport. This is the third largest airport in the United Kingdom.[22]
+
+A revival of the city's importance started in the 1980s. This was partly led by a vibrant music scene whose spirit was called 'Madchester'. It was led by bands such as The Happy Mondays and Joy Division.[23] The Smiths came from nearby Salford.
+The scene was partly fuelled by the number of students attending the universities and further education colleges in the city. Manchester has the most students in the United Kingdom in term time.[24]
+
+The University of Manchester is the largest university in the UK. It has over 30,000 students.[25] The city also has the UK's fourth largest university, the Manchester Metropolitan University.[26]
+
+The city has two Premier League football teams, Manchester City and Manchester United. Football is a very important part of the culture of the city. Many of the people support or show interest in the sport.[27]
+
+Manchester and North West England are served by Manchester Airport. The airport has the most passengers in the UK outside London, with 22.1 million passengers in 2007. Planes fly to lots of destinations in Europe, North America, the Caribbean, Africa, the Middle East and Asia (with more destinations from Manchester than from London Heathrow).[28]
+
+Manchester is very well served by train and in terms of passengers, Manchester Piccadilly was the busiest English train station outside London in 2005 and 2006.[29] Northern Rail operates all over the north of England, and other operators include Virgin Trains. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was the first passenger railway in the world. Greater Manchester has a very big railway network. The city centre has over a lot of park and ride sites.[30] Manchester became the first city in the UK to get a new tram system when the Manchester Metrolink opened in 1992. There are lots of new lines being built.[31]
+
+The city has one of the biggest bus networks outside London with over 50 bus companies operating in the Greater Manchester area around the city. First Manchester and Stagecoach Manchester are the main bus operators.[32] First Manchester also operates three free bus services called Metroshuttle which carry workers around Manchester's business areas.[33]
+
+A big canal network runs though the city, built in the Industrial Revolution, today mainly used for leisure. The Manchester Ship Canal is open, but not many boats use it.[34]
+
+Manchester's buildings display many different types of building styles, from Victorian to contemporary architecture. The very common use of red bricks characterises the look of the city. Much Manchester's architecture dates back to its days as a global centre for the trade of cotton.[14] Just outside the city centre is a large number of former cotton mills, some of which have been left mostly untouched since they were closed, while many others have been turned into apartment buildings and office spaces.Manchester Town Hall, in Albert Square, was built in the gothic revival style and is thought of by many to be one of the most important Victorian buildings in all of England.[35]
+
+There are two universities in the city of Manchester. The University of Manchester, created in 2004 when Victoria University of Manchester and UMIST were combined, is the largest full-time non-collegiate university in the United Kingdom.[26] The Manchester Business School, at the University of Manchester, was the first school to offer an MBA course in the United Kingdom in 1965. Manchester Metropolitan University was created as Manchester Polytechnic on the merger of three colleges in 1970. It was given university status in 1992, and in the same year, combined with Crewe and Alsager College of Higher Education, in South Cheshire.[36]
+
+Manchester has twinning plans (or "friendship agreements") with lots of places.[37][38] In addition, the British Council has a "metropolitan centre" in Manchester.[39] Although not an official twin city, Tampere, Finland is known as "the Manchester of Finland" – or "Manse" for short. Also, Ahmedabad, India became the centre of a booming textile industry, and it got the nickname "the Manchester of the East."[40][41]

ensimple/3648.html.txt

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+
+
+Manchester United F.C.[5] is a football club that plays in the Premier League. They play their home games at Old Trafford which is in Greater Manchester.
+
+Matt Busby led the club to lots of success by using the youth players until the Munich air disaster in 1958, where many United footballers and staff died. Sir Alex Ferguson led the club to many titles, including the treble (Premier League, FA Cup, and Champions League), from 1986 to 2013, when he retired. The club has 3 UEFA Champions League titles, 20 league titles, 12 FA Cups, and a FIFA Club World Cup.
+
+Manchester United are the most successful club in England and have won 20 league titles, which is more than any other team. They have also won 12 FA Cups and 3 European Cups.
+
+The club started as Newton Heath L&YR F.C. in 1878. All of the team worked at Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath. After nearly closing in 1902, John Henry Davies took over and changed the club's name to Manchester United F.C.. Manchester United made Matt Busby their manager after World War II. Matt Busby used the youth team to get new players, and this was very successful. The club won the Football League in 1956 and 1957. The success was stopped by the Munich air disaster in 1958, when eight of the club's players died. It was thought that the club might close, but it did not. They won the Football League in 1965 and 1967, and the European Cup in 1968.
+
+In 1986, manager Ron Atkinson was sacked by the club because they were in danger of being relegated. They brought in Sir Alex Ferguson. He did not win anything for the first couple of years.
+
+The team won their first trophy under Ferguson, the 1990 FA Cup, against Crystal Palace in the replay after a 3-3 draw. The next season, United won the UEFA Cup Winners Cup. In 1993, Manchester United won the very first Premier League. In 1999, Manchester United won the treble, made of the Premier League, FA Cup, and UEFA Champions League. Manchester United won the league 7 times again until Sir Alex Ferguson retired.
+
+David Moyes was made manager in 2013. In April 2014, he was sacked by the club and club legend Ryan Giggs became player-manager (when a player is also the manager at the same time). They finished in 7th place. In 2014, Louis Van Gaal took over. He led United to a 4th-place finish. In 2015, after winning 3-0 against Sunderland, Man United reached 1st place for the first time in over two years. However, after losing 0-3 to Arsenal, they dropped to 3rd place. Van Gaal was sacked at the end of the season and José Mourinho replaced him. He then led the club to a League Cup and Europa League victory in the 2016-17 season. Mourinho was sacked in December 2018 because of poor results and replaced by Ole Gunnar Solskjaer.
+
+*Bold indicates a place of third or higher.
+
+
+
+The Old Trafford became the club's home ground in 1909, and the stadium was constructed to a capacity of 77,000. In the Second World War, bombings damaged the stadium. While the stadium was being fixed, they played "home" games at Manchester City's Maine Road. The stadium was converted to an all-seater stadium in 1993 for safety reasons, but the capacity fell to 44,000. In 1995, expansions in the North Stand raised the capacity to 55,000. In the middle of 1999, the East and West Stands were expanded to give the stadium a capacity of 67,000. Then between 2005 and 2006 8,000 more seats were added to make a capacity of 75,000.
+
+Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
+
+United has many rivalries including Liverpool, Manchester City, Leeds United and Arsenal. Their most intense rivalry is with "The Citizens" (Manchester City). This is because both clubs are from Manchester and each time they play against each other it is called the Manchester Derby.

ensimple/3649.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+
+
+Manchester United F.C.[5] is a football club that plays in the Premier League. They play their home games at Old Trafford which is in Greater Manchester.
+
+Matt Busby led the club to lots of success by using the youth players until the Munich air disaster in 1958, where many United footballers and staff died. Sir Alex Ferguson led the club to many titles, including the treble (Premier League, FA Cup, and Champions League), from 1986 to 2013, when he retired. The club has 3 UEFA Champions League titles, 20 league titles, 12 FA Cups, and a FIFA Club World Cup.
+
+Manchester United are the most successful club in England and have won 20 league titles, which is more than any other team. They have also won 12 FA Cups and 3 European Cups.
+
+The club started as Newton Heath L&YR F.C. in 1878. All of the team worked at Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath. After nearly closing in 1902, John Henry Davies took over and changed the club's name to Manchester United F.C.. Manchester United made Matt Busby their manager after World War II. Matt Busby used the youth team to get new players, and this was very successful. The club won the Football League in 1956 and 1957. The success was stopped by the Munich air disaster in 1958, when eight of the club's players died. It was thought that the club might close, but it did not. They won the Football League in 1965 and 1967, and the European Cup in 1968.
+
+In 1986, manager Ron Atkinson was sacked by the club because they were in danger of being relegated. They brought in Sir Alex Ferguson. He did not win anything for the first couple of years.
+
+The team won their first trophy under Ferguson, the 1990 FA Cup, against Crystal Palace in the replay after a 3-3 draw. The next season, United won the UEFA Cup Winners Cup. In 1993, Manchester United won the very first Premier League. In 1999, Manchester United won the treble, made of the Premier League, FA Cup, and UEFA Champions League. Manchester United won the league 7 times again until Sir Alex Ferguson retired.
+
+David Moyes was made manager in 2013. In April 2014, he was sacked by the club and club legend Ryan Giggs became player-manager (when a player is also the manager at the same time). They finished in 7th place. In 2014, Louis Van Gaal took over. He led United to a 4th-place finish. In 2015, after winning 3-0 against Sunderland, Man United reached 1st place for the first time in over two years. However, after losing 0-3 to Arsenal, they dropped to 3rd place. Van Gaal was sacked at the end of the season and José Mourinho replaced him. He then led the club to a League Cup and Europa League victory in the 2016-17 season. Mourinho was sacked in December 2018 because of poor results and replaced by Ole Gunnar Solskjaer.
+
+*Bold indicates a place of third or higher.
+
+
+
+The Old Trafford became the club's home ground in 1909, and the stadium was constructed to a capacity of 77,000. In the Second World War, bombings damaged the stadium. While the stadium was being fixed, they played "home" games at Manchester City's Maine Road. The stadium was converted to an all-seater stadium in 1993 for safety reasons, but the capacity fell to 44,000. In 1995, expansions in the North Stand raised the capacity to 55,000. In the middle of 1999, the East and West Stands were expanded to give the stadium a capacity of 67,000. Then between 2005 and 2006 8,000 more seats were added to make a capacity of 75,000.
+
+Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
+
+United has many rivalries including Liverpool, Manchester City, Leeds United and Arsenal. Their most intense rivalry is with "The Citizens" (Manchester City). This is because both clubs are from Manchester and each time they play against each other it is called the Manchester Derby.

ensimple/365.html.txt

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+Argentina (officially the Argentine Republic)  is a country in South America. Argentina is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest country in the world.
+
+Spanish is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking Italian, German, English, Quechua and even Welsh in Patagonia.
+
+In eastern Argentina is Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, Tucumán, Mar del Plata,  Salta, Santa Fe, and Bahía Blanca.
+
+Argentina is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.  Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe.  They are united by citizenship and not necessarily by ethnicity. Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality.
+
+The name Argentina comes from the Latin argentum (silver) as the Spanish conquistadors believed the area had silver. In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order).
+
+The oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the Inca Empire conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the Guaraní developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef.
+
+Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent.
+
+Argentina declared independent from Spain in 1816, and achieved it in a War led by José de San Martín in 1818. Many immigrants from Europe came to the country. By the 1920s it was the 7th wealthiest country in the world, but it began a decline after this. In the 1940s, following the "infamous decade" where the country's politics were not stable, Juan Peron came to power. Peron was one of the most important people in the country's history and many politicians today call themselves Peronist. Peron was forced out of power in 1955. After spending years in exile he returned to power in the 1970s.
+
+In 1976, the country was falling into chaos, and the military took power. This was not the first time the military had done this. Leading the new government was Jorge Rafael Videla. Videla was one of history's most brutal dictators. Thousands of people disappeared or were killed during his time as president. Videla retired in 1980.
+
+One of his successors was another general turned dictator, Leopoldo Galtieri. By the time Galtieri was in office in 1981 the dictatorship became unpopular. To stir up support, Galtieri ordered an invasion of the Falkland Islands, starting the Falklands War.  Argentina lost the war, and soon the country fell into chaos again. Galtieri was removed from power and eventually democracy was restored. Galtieri and Videla would be charged with "crimes against humanity" because of the mass murder and other crimes that they ordered as president.
+
+In the early 21st century Argentina is one of the most important countries in Latin America, though it still has many problems. It has a large economy and is influential in the "southern cone" of South America and a member of the G20 developing nations.
+
+Argentina is a federal republic. The people of Argentina vote for a President to rule them and Senators and Deputies to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is Alberto Fernández since December 2019.
+
+Argentina is divided into 23 provinces (provincias; singular: provincia), and 1 city (commonly known as capital federal):
+
+Argentina is almost 3,700 km long from north to south, and 1,400 km from east to west (maximum values). It can be divided into three parts: the Pampas in the central part of the country, Patagonia in the southern part down to Tierra del Fuego; and the Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile, with the highest point in the province of Mendoza. Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,960 metres (22,834 ft), is the Americas' highest mountain.
+
+The most important rivers include the River Plate, Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Uruguay and the largest river, the Paraná. River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team.
+
+See List of cities in Argentina for the many places people live in Argentina.
+
+The majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from Spain, Italy, Germany, Ireland, France, other Europeans countries and Mestizo representing more than 90% of the total population of the country.[14]
+
+Football or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is Pato. Argentina has a number of highly ranked Polo players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites.
+
+Argentina is a Christian country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are Roman Catholic. Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well.
+
+Medicine is socialized and so is education, making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well.

ensimple/3650.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+
+
+Penguins are seabirds in the family Spheniscidae.  They use their wings to 'fly' underwater, but they cannot fly in the air.  They eat fish and other seafood.  Penguins lay their eggs and raise their babies on land.
+
+Penguins live only in the Southern Hemisphere of the world: Antarctica, New Zealand, southern Australia, South Africa and South America. The furthest north they get is the Galapagos Islands, where the cold Humboldt Current flows past.[1]
+
+All penguins have a white belly and a dark, mostly black, back.  This is a type of camouflage to keep them safe when they swim, because it makes them blend in with their background. The white and black colors make an effect called countershading. When a predator looking from below sees the white belly and wings of a swimming penguin, they can not see the penguin well because the light is coming from above. However, when seen from above, the penguin's black back blends in with the dark water below, so they are hard to see.
+
+The biggest penguins may stand nearly 4 feet tall (110 cm) and can weigh almost 100 pounds (40 kg). The smallest kinds are only about one foot (32 cm) tall.
+
+Penguins have a thick layer of blubber that helps them keep warm, and their feathers are very tightly packed to make another cover. They also have a layer of woolly down feathers, under the outer veined feathers that are coated with a type of oil that makes them waterproof.
+
+Penguins have webbed feet used for paddling in  the water. They cannot walk well, so they waddle. Penguins cannot fly, but they can swim very well. Their wings have become stiff and small swimming flippers.  They have good hearing and can see underwater.
+
+Most penguins lay two eggs per year but emperor penguins lay only one. After the penguins mate, the mother lays her egg or eggs and soon goes in the ocean to eat. The father and mother take turns keeping the eggs warm, and the chicks warm after hatching. The parent on baby duty has nothing to eat. Parent penguins call to find each other amongst the thousands of birds when they return from the feeding grounds. The time one parent is alone with the eggs or chicks and going hungry may be weeks or months depending on what kind of penguin they are. If one parent does not return, the other must abandon the egg to go and eat.
+
+Penguins eat krill, fish, squid, and other small animals from the ocean, which they catch. They are at home in the ocean. They come up on the land or ice to lay their eggs and raise the chicks. They don't eat there because they live in places where the land has no food for them. In most species the birds all nest together in a huge group, called a rookery.  They usually make nests on the ground with rocks or mud.
+
+Penguins cannot taste fish. This was discovered when a research team noticed they were missing some key genes for taste.[2] A closer look at the DNA of penguins showed that all species lack functioning genes for the receptors of sweet, umami, and bitter tastes. It doesn't matter to them, because they swallow the fish whole.
+
+There are 15-20 living species (types) of penguins. The white-flippered penguin is today generally considered a subspecies of the little penguin. It is still unclear if the royal penguin is a subspecies of the macaroni penguin.  Scientists are also uncertain whether rockhopper penguins are one, two, or three species.
+
+Penguins in a zoo in the Netherlands
+
+A Humboldt penguin swimming underwater
+
+A colony of Adelie penguins in Antartica
+
+Fairy penguins at a zoo in Melbourne, Australia
+
+A Magellanic penguin, Valdes Peninsula, Argentina

ensimple/3651.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+
+
+Penguins are seabirds in the family Spheniscidae.  They use their wings to 'fly' underwater, but they cannot fly in the air.  They eat fish and other seafood.  Penguins lay their eggs and raise their babies on land.
+
+Penguins live only in the Southern Hemisphere of the world: Antarctica, New Zealand, southern Australia, South Africa and South America. The furthest north they get is the Galapagos Islands, where the cold Humboldt Current flows past.[1]
+
+All penguins have a white belly and a dark, mostly black, back.  This is a type of camouflage to keep them safe when they swim, because it makes them blend in with their background. The white and black colors make an effect called countershading. When a predator looking from below sees the white belly and wings of a swimming penguin, they can not see the penguin well because the light is coming from above. However, when seen from above, the penguin's black back blends in with the dark water below, so they are hard to see.
+
+The biggest penguins may stand nearly 4 feet tall (110 cm) and can weigh almost 100 pounds (40 kg). The smallest kinds are only about one foot (32 cm) tall.
+
+Penguins have a thick layer of blubber that helps them keep warm, and their feathers are very tightly packed to make another cover. They also have a layer of woolly down feathers, under the outer veined feathers that are coated with a type of oil that makes them waterproof.
+
+Penguins have webbed feet used for paddling in  the water. They cannot walk well, so they waddle. Penguins cannot fly, but they can swim very well. Their wings have become stiff and small swimming flippers.  They have good hearing and can see underwater.
+
+Most penguins lay two eggs per year but emperor penguins lay only one. After the penguins mate, the mother lays her egg or eggs and soon goes in the ocean to eat. The father and mother take turns keeping the eggs warm, and the chicks warm after hatching. The parent on baby duty has nothing to eat. Parent penguins call to find each other amongst the thousands of birds when they return from the feeding grounds. The time one parent is alone with the eggs or chicks and going hungry may be weeks or months depending on what kind of penguin they are. If one parent does not return, the other must abandon the egg to go and eat.
+
+Penguins eat krill, fish, squid, and other small animals from the ocean, which they catch. They are at home in the ocean. They come up on the land or ice to lay their eggs and raise the chicks. They don't eat there because they live in places where the land has no food for them. In most species the birds all nest together in a huge group, called a rookery.  They usually make nests on the ground with rocks or mud.
+
+Penguins cannot taste fish. This was discovered when a research team noticed they were missing some key genes for taste.[2] A closer look at the DNA of penguins showed that all species lack functioning genes for the receptors of sweet, umami, and bitter tastes. It doesn't matter to them, because they swallow the fish whole.
+
+There are 15-20 living species (types) of penguins. The white-flippered penguin is today generally considered a subspecies of the little penguin. It is still unclear if the royal penguin is a subspecies of the macaroni penguin.  Scientists are also uncertain whether rockhopper penguins are one, two, or three species.
+
+Penguins in a zoo in the Netherlands
+
+A Humboldt penguin swimming underwater
+
+A colony of Adelie penguins in Antartica
+
+Fairy penguins at a zoo in Melbourne, Australia
+
+A Magellanic penguin, Valdes Peninsula, Argentina

ensimple/3652.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013)[1] was a South African politician and activist. On April 27, 1994, he was made the first President of South Africa elected in a fully represented democratic election. Mandela was also the first black President of his country, South Africa.
+
+Mandela was born in Mvezo, South Africa to a Thembu royal family.[2]
+
+His government focused on throwing out the legacy of apartheid by ending racism, poverty, inequality, and on improving racial understanding in South Africa. Politically a believer in socialism, he served as the President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1991 to 1997 and adopted new Constitution of South African in 1996 that prohibits all discrimination, based on language, religion, handicap and sexual orientation, not only on racism. Internationally, Mandela was the Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999.
+
+Mandela received more than 250 honors, including the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Soviet Order of Lenin. He is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as Tata ("Father"). Mandela was described as a hero, and his actions gave thousands of people hope.
+
+Mandela was sick  for several years during his retirement. He was hospitalized in late summer of 2013 from a continuous lung infection.[3] Mandela died on 5 December 2013 in Houghton Estate, Johannesburg from a respiratory tract infection.[3] He was 95 years old.[3]
+
+Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in Mvezo, Umtata (now Mthatha), Transkei, South Africa.[2] He had thirteen siblings by the same father, and two mothers.[4] His parents were Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa[5] and Nosekeni Nonqaphi .[6] His given name was Rolihlahla, a Xhosa name meaning pulling the branch of a tree or informally, troublemaker. He was a member of the Thembu royal family.[7] On his first day of school, he was given the name Nelson by his teacher Miss Mdingane.[8] Giving children in Africa English names was a custom among Africans during that period.[8]
+
+Mandela's father died when he was twelve.[9] Mandela then lived with the local regent who sent him to school. He was the first member of his family to go to a school.[10] He was expelled from Fort Hare University in 1941, because he led a group of students on political strike.[11][12] After he was expelled, Nelson found a job as a night watchman.[13]
+
+In 1944, Mandela helped start the African National Congress Youth League.[14] He was soon a high-ranked leader of the group.[14]
+
+He wanted to free South Africa without violence, but the government started killing and hurting protesters. He then started Umkhonto we Sizwe with Walter Sisulu and other people in the African National Congress that he admired, such as Mahatma Gandhi.[15]
+
+A trial was later held and became known as the Rivonia Trial. Mandela was on trial because of his involvement in sabotage and violence in 1962.[16] He was sentenced to life in prison,[14] and was sent to Robben Island, but was transferred to Victor Verster Prison in 1988. In 1990, he was let out of Victor Verster Prison after 26.5 years. He left prison after de Klerk removed a ban on the African National Congress. He ordered Mandela's release. He then received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993, with former State President of South Africa, Frederik Willem de Klerk.[2]
+
+Mandela won the general election in April 1994. His inauguration was in Pretoria on 10 May 1994. Many people around the world saw his inauguration on television. The event had 4000 guests, including world leaders from different backgrounds. Mandela was the first South African President elected in a completely democratic election.[17]
+
+As South Africa's first black President,[17][18] Mandela became head of the Government of National Unity which was under controlled by the African National Congress (or ANC). The ANC had no knowledge in politics, but had representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. In keeping with earlier promises, de Klerk became first Deputy President, while Thabo Mbeki was chosen second.[19]
+
+Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for President, Mandela soon trusted Mbeki throughout his presidency. This allowed Mbeki to organize policy details. Mandela moved into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town. He would settle into the nearby Westbrooke Manor. Westbrooke was renamed Genadendal.[20] Preserving his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu.[21] He visited Qunu regularly, walking around the area, meeting with local people who lived there, and judging tribal problems.[22]
+
+He faced many illness at age 76. Although having energy, he felt left out and lonely.[23] He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls. He became friends with a number of rich business people, like Harry Oppenheimer and British monarch Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa. This resulted in strong judgment from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his $552,000 wealth to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995.[24] In that same year, Mandela published his autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom.[25]
+
+Although in favor of freedom of the press, Mandela was important of much of the country's media because it was owned and run by many middle-class whites. Mandela became known for his use of Batik shirts, known as Madiba shirts, even on normal events.[26] Mandela had never planned on serving a second term in office. Mandela gave his farewell speech on 29 March 1999, after which he retired.[27] Mandela's term ended on 14 June 1999. Thabo Mbeki succeeded Mandela as President of South Africa.
+
+He won the Nobel Peace Prize for his leadership for his anti-apartheid activism in 1993.[2] After receiving the prize he said:
+
+"We stand here today as nothing more than a representative of the millions of our people who dared to rise up against a social operation whose very essence is war, violence, racism, oppression, repression and the impoverishment of an entire people."[2]
+
+
+
+Mandela was married three times and has six children. He had seventeen grandchildren,[28] and a growing number of great-grandchildren.[29] Though physically non-emotional with his children, he could be stern and demanding.[30]
+
+Mandela married Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944. They had two children.[31] Mandela remained married to Evelyn until they divorced in 1957. Evelyn died in 2004.[32] He then married Winnie Madikizela in 1958. They had two daughters. The couple filed for separation in 1992. They divorced in 1996.[33] Mandela married again  to Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in 1998. She was the widow of Samora Machel. Machel was the former Mozambican president and ANC ally who was killed in an air crash 12 years earlier.[34]
+
+Though publicly criticizing him on several events, Mandela liked United States President Bill Clinton. Mandela personally supported him during his impeachment trial in 1998.[35]
+
+In June 2004, Mandela announced that he was retiring from public life. Mandela said "Don't call me, I will call you".[36] Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the Nelson Mandela Foundation denied invitations for him to appear at public events and most interview requests.[37]
+
+On 27 March 2013, Mandela was hospitalized in Pretoria from a lung infection. It was reported on 28 March that he was responding well to treatment.[17][38] Mandela was again hospitalized on 7 June from another lung infection,[39] On 23 June, his condition was announced to be critical. On 26 June, it was announced that Mandela was put on life-support.[40] On 4 July, Mandela's family announced that Mandela was under life-support[41][42] and he was in a permanent persistent vegetative state.[43] The next day, the South African government denied the fact that Mandela was in a vegetative state.[44] Mandela was discharged from the hospital on 1 September 2013.[45]
+
+Many South Africans thought that Mandela died overnight on 26 June after he was removed from his life support.[46] The South African government said that Mandela is still alive despite the rumor that he died.[46] It was later reported that the rumor was just a death hoax. CNN also reported that Mandela died, but later fixed the report soon afterwards. Photos were taken with Mandela and First Lady Michelle Obama as proof that Mandela was still alive.
+
+Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at his home at Houghton Estate, Johannesburg from complications of a respiratory tract infection, aged 95.[3] He was surrounded by his family when he died.[3] His death was announced by President Jacob Zuma.[47]
+
+On 6 December, Zuma announced a national mourning for ten days.[48] An event for an official memorial service was held at the FNB Stadium in Johannesburg on Tuesday 10 December.[48] He declared Sunday 8 December a national day of prayer: "We call upon all our people to gather in halls, churches, mosques, temples, synagogues and in their homes to pray and hold prayer services and meditation reflecting on the life of Madiba and his contribution to our country and the world."[48]
+
+Mandela's body lay in state from 11 to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria. A state funeral was held on Sunday 15 December in Qunu.[49][50] David Cameron, Barack Obama, Raul Castro, Bill Gates, and Oprah Winfrey were there.[3][51]
+
+On 28 June Mandela's family were arguing about where to bury Mandela.[52] On 29 June the South African  government announced that a memorial service for Mandela will be held 10 to 14 days after his death at Soccer City.[53] On 1 July it was announced that if Mandela were to die he might become the first non-British person to be honored at Westminster Abbey.[54][55] Queen Elizabeth II honored Mandela with a thanksgiving service at Westminster Abbey in early 2014. This made Mandela the first non-British person to be honored at Westminster Abbey.[56][57] Mandela was buried in the village of Qunu in the Eastern Cape of South Africa.[3] Qunu is where he grew up.[3]
+
+In South Africa, Mandela is sometimes called by his Xhosa clan name of Madiba.[59][60]
+Nelson Mandela was honored with the following:
+
+Mandela has been portrayed in movies and television. In the 1997 movie, Mandela and de Klerk, Sidney Poitier plays Mandela.[81] Dennis Haysbert plays Mandela in Goodbye Bafana (2007).[82] In the 2009 BBC television movie, Mrs Mandela, Nelson Mandela is played by David Harewood.[83] In 2009, Morgan Freeman plays Mandela in Invictus (2009).[84] Terrence Howard also plays Mandela in the 2011 movie Winnie Mandela.[85] Mandela appeared as himself in the 1992 American movie Malcolm X.[86] In Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom he was played by Idris Elba.[87]
+
+By the time of his death, Mandela had come to be widely considered "the father of the nation" within South Africa.[88] He is also seen as "the national liberator, the savior, its Washington and Lincoln rolled into one".[89] Throughout his life, Mandela had also faced criticism. Margaret Thatcher attracted international attention for describing the ANC as "a typical terrorist organization" in 1987.[90] She later made favors to release Mandela from prison.[90] Mandela has also been criticized for his friendship with political leaders such as Fidel Castro, Muammar Gaddafi, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, and Suharto.[91][92]
+
+Dunant / Passy (1901) ·
+Ducommun / Gobat (1902) ·
+Cremer (1903) ·
+IDI (1904) ·
+Suttner (1905) ·
+Roosevelt (1906) ·
+Moneta / Renault (1907) ·
+Arnoldson / Bajer (1908) ·
+Beernaert / Estournelles de Constant (1909) ·
+IPB (1910) ·
+Asser / Fried (1911) ·
+Root (1912) ·
+La Fontaine (1913) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross (1917) ·
+Wilson (1919) ·
+Bourgeois (1920) ·
+Branting / Lange (1921) ·
+Nansen (1922) ·
+Chamberlain / Dawes (1925)
+
+Briand / Stresemann (1926) ·
+Buisson / Quidde (1927) ·
+Kellogg (1929) ·
+Söderblom (1930) ·
+Addams / Butler (1931) ·
+Angell (1933) ·
+Henderson (1934) ·
+Ossietzky (1935) ·
+Lamas (1936) ·
+Cecil (1937) ·
+Nansen Office (1938) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross (1944) ·
+Hull (1945) ·
+Balch / Mott (1946) ·
+QPSW / AFSC (1947) ·
+Boyd Orr (1949) ·
+Bunche (1950)
+
+Jouhaux (1951) ·
+Schweitzer (1952) ·
+Marshall (1953) ·
+UNHCR (1954) ·
+Pearson (1957) ·
+Pire (1958) ·
+Noel‑Baker (1959) ·
+Lutuli (1960) ·
+Hammarskjöld (1961) ·
+Pauling (1962) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross / League of Red Cross Societies (1963) ·
+King (1964) ·
+UNICEF (1965) ·
+Cassin (1968) ·
+ILO (1969) ·
+Borlaug (1970) ·
+Brandt (1971) ·
+Kissinger / Le (1973) ·
+MacBride / Sato (1974) ·
+Sakharov (1975)
+
+B.Williams / Corrigan (1976) ·
+AI (1977) ·
+Sadat / Begin (1978) ·
+Mother Teresa (1979) ·
+Esquivel (1980) ·
+UNHCR (1981) ·
+Myrdal / García Robles (1982) ·
+Wałęsa (1983) ·
+Tutu (1984) ·
+IPPNW (1985) ·
+Wiesel (1986) ·
+Arias (1987) ·
+UN Peacekeeping Forces (1988) ·
+Dalai Lama (1989) ·
+Gorbachev (1990) ·
+Suu Kyi (1991) ·
+Menchú (1992) ·
+Mandela / de Klerk (1993) ·
+Arafat / Peres / Rabin (1994) ·
+Pugwash Conferences / Rotblat (1995) ·
+Belo / Ramos-Horta (1996) ·
+ICBL / J.Williams (1997) ·
+Hume / Trimble (1998) ·
+Médecins Sans Frontières (1999) ·
+Kim (2000)
+
+UN / Annan (2001) ·
+Carter (2002) ·
+Ebadi	(2003) ·
+Maathai (2004) ·
+IAEA / ElBaradei (2005) ·
+Yunus / Grameen Bank (2006) ·
+Gore / IPCC (2007) ·
+Ahtisaari (2008) ·
+Obama (2009) ·
+Xiaobo (2010) ·
+Sirleaf / Gbowee / Karman (2011) ·
+EU (2012) ·
+Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (2013) ·
+Yousafzai / Satyarthi (2014) ·
+Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet (2015) ·
+Juan Manuel Santos (2016) ·
+International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (2017) ·
+Mukwege / Murad (2018) ·
+Ahmed (2019)

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+Édouard Manet (pronounced edwaʁ manɛ in French), 23 January 1832 – 30 April 1883, was a French Impressionist painter. He was one of the first painters of the 19th century to paint subjects of everyday life in the modern world. This made him very important for modern painting, especially for the change from Realism to Impressionism.
+
+Some of his paintings were very controversial. The paintings Lunch on the Grass and Olympia were a starting-point for a group of young painters to develop what would later be called Impressionism.
+
+Édouard Manet was born in Paris on 23 January 1832, to a wealthy family. As he grew up, his uncle encouraged him to paint and draw, but his father wanted him to join the navy. Eventually he was allowed to be trained as a painter. Manet worked from 1850 to 1856 in the studio of the academic painter Thomas Couture a painter of large historical paintings. In his spare time he copied the old masters in the Louvre.
+
+While he was a student he visited Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands, looking at the paintings of Renaissance and Baroque masters such as Frans Hals, and Spanish painters such as Diego Velázquez and Goya.
+
+In 1856, Manet opened his own studio. One of the best known French painters of that time was Gustave Courbet who painted in a style known as Realism. Courbet, in his pictures, tried to show the life of the poor working people of the farms and villages. Manet began to paint beggars, singers and people in cafes. His style was not like Courbet's because he used large brushstrokes without much detail. Courbet's paintings were dark and somber because he painted all his canvases brown before he put the figures in. Manet's paintings were brighter and lighter, with lots of white paint and often small parts painted in bright blue and red
+
+In 1863 Manet married Suzanne Leenhoff, who had been employed by his father to teach piano to Manet and his younger brother Eugene. Suzanne had an eleven year old son, Leon Koella Leenhoff who often posed as a model for Manet's paintings.[1]
+
+Every year the academy in Paris would hold a big exhibition (art show) called the Salon de Paris. In 1863 Manet put a picture into the show called Lunch on the Grass ("Le déjeuner sur l'herbe").  The judges at the Salon refused to hang this work in the gallery because it showed a naked woman sitting on the grass with two men wearing clothes. If the painting had been about Ancient Greek mythology, this would not be a problem but these men were wearing ordinary suits, and the woman's dress and hat were lying on the grass. Perhaps she was a prostitute. The judges said that the painting was indecent (very rude).[2]
+
+At this time there were a group of young artists who mainly painted landscapes. They were Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, Frédéric Bazille, Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, and Armand Guillaumin. Monet and his friends also had their paintings turned away. They were angry and they met with Manet to discuss this. The Emperor Napoleon III gave permission for another exhibition called the Salon des Refuses which showed all the pictures that had been "refused". Many people went to see this exhibition and soon discovered that there was a new "movement" in art, quite different from the style that they were used to.
+
+In 1874 thirty Impressionist artists held their first exhibition. The main artists who are called "Impressionists" include Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, Paul Cézanne, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, Edgar Degas and Berthe Morisot. Manet became friendly with Berthe Morisot, who later married his brother Eugene Manet. Manet encouraged Morisot with her painting. Morisot, in turn, encouraged Manet to paint outdoors, in the way that Monet and the other Impressionist painters did. Monet painted some landscapes, seascapes and city scenes in the Impressionist style. However, most of his paintings are "figurative" (they are pictures of people).
+
+Manet's paintings usually show people going about their ordinary lives. They show people at home and at work, or out and enjoying themselves. One painting is very different. It is a terrible scene showing the execution of the Emperor Maximillian of Mexico by a firing squad.
+
+Manet died of syphilis in Paris at the age of 51. He is buried in the Passy Cemetery in the city.[3]
+
+Lunch on the grass, 1863
+
+Execution of Emperor Maximilian of Mexico, 1868
+
+Portrait of Émile Zola, Musée d'Orsay, 1868
+
+Breakfast in the Studio, Munich, Germany, 1868
+
+The Railway, 1872
+
+Boating, 1874
+
+Portrait of Stéphane Mallarmé, Musée d'Orsay, 1876

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+A manga (Japanese: 漫画) is a Japanese comic book.
+
+Manga is drawn by a mangaka (Japanese: 漫画家) (Japanese for cartoonist: an artist of comics). Manga is usually read from right to left.
+
+The word manga can be both singular and plural, and mean both the medium of comics or a single comic. It is a form of art that is used to draw comics and develop Anime (animated cartoons of manga art). Colors and symbols are important.

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+Manganese is chemical element 25 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Mn. (Some people get it confused with magnesium, the symbol is Mg). It has 25 protons. Its mass number is 54.94.
+
+Manganese is a silvery-gray metal and is part of the group known as the transition metals. It is similar to iron. It is hard to melt, but easy to oxidize. Manganese forms chemical compounds in several oxidation states: +2, +4, and +7 are the most common. Manganese compounds can be black, brown, pink, red, green, blue, and purple. Manganese(II) compounds are pink or light brown. They are unreactive. Manganese(II) chloride is a common example. Manganese(III) compounds are weak oxidizing agents. Manganese(IV) compounds are stronger oxidizing agents, but they are rarer. They are normally black in colour. Manganese(IV) oxide is an example.
+
+Manganese(V) compounds are not stable and disproportionate easily. They are bright blue. They are very rare. Hypomanganates are the most common manganese(V) compounds. Manganese(VI) compounds are made in the process used to make permanganates. They disproportionate too. Manganates are weak reducing agents and moderate oxidizing agents. They are bright green.
+
+Manganese(VII) compounds are purple-black and are powerful oxidizing agents. Permanganates contain the MnO4- ion. They are normally purple-black and strong oxidizing agents. Potassium permanganate is an example.
+
+Manganese(II) chloride, in +2 oxidation state
+
+Manganese(IV) oxide, in +4 oxidation state
+
+Potassium permanganate, in +7 oxidation state
+
+Manganese is sometimes found alloyed with iron naturally. These rocks, called meteorites, came from space. Pyrolusite is one of the main sources of manganese. It also occurs as manganese carbonate. Some silicates have manganese in them.
+
+Manganese is normally made in an alloy with steel. This is made by mixing manganese ore and iron ore in a furnace and reducing it with carbon. This forms an alloy called ferromanganese. Pure manganese is made by reacting the manganese ore with sulfuric acid and electrolyzing it.
+
+Manganese is used a lot in steel to make it stronger. This is the main use for manganese metal. Manganese compounds, particularly manganese(IV) oxide, are used in alkaline cells and Leclanche cells. Manganese metal is also alloyed with aluminium.
+
+Our bodies and plants need manganese to work right. If we do not get enough manganese, we can get sick. We get manganese from our food and vitamins also have some manganese to make sure that we get enough.
+
+Manganese dust can irritate lungs. Some manganese compounds cause toxicity when ingested. Manganese is less toxic than nickel or copper. Permanganates are the most toxic manganese compounds. When someone is exposed to manganese for a long time it can cause a problem with the nervous system.

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+A manga (Japanese: 漫画) is a Japanese comic book.
+
+Manga is drawn by a mangaka (Japanese: 漫画家) (Japanese for cartoonist: an artist of comics). Manga is usually read from right to left.
+
+The word manga can be both singular and plural, and mean both the medium of comics or a single comic. It is a form of art that is used to draw comics and develop Anime (animated cartoons of manga art). Colors and symbols are important.

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+Food is what people and animals eat to survive. Food usually comes from animals and plants. It is eaten by living things to provide energy and nutrition.[1] Food contains the nutrition that people and animals need to be healthy. The consumption of food is normally enjoyable to humans. It contains protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, water and minerals[2]. Liquids used for energy and nutrition are often called "drinks". If someone cannot afford food they go hungry.
+
+Food for humans is mostly made through farming or gardening. It includes animal and vegetable sources. Some people refuse to eat food from animal origin, like meat, eggs, and products with milk in them. Not eating meat is called vegetarianism. Not eating or using any animal products is called veganism.
+
+Food produced by farmers or gardeners can be changed by industrial processes (the food industry). Processed food usually contains several natural ingredients and food additives (such as preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavor enhancers). For example, bread is processed food.
+
+Food processing at home is done in the kitchen, by the cook. The cook sometimes uses a cookbook. Examples of cooking utensils are pressure cookers, pots, and frying pans.
+
+Food can also be prepared and served in restaurants or refectory (in particular for children in school).
+
+The utensils used may be a plate, knife, fork, chopsticks, spoon, bowl, or spork.
+
+Many people do not grow their own food. They have to buy food that was grown by someone else. People buy most of their food in shops or markets. But some people still grow most or all of their own food.
+
+People may buy food and take it home to cook it. They may buy food that is ready to eat from a street vendor or a restaurant.
+
+Originally, people got food as hunter-gatherers. The agricultural revolution changed that. Farmers grew crops including those invented and improved by selective breeding, eventually improved further as genetically modified food. [3] These improvements shortened life-cycle of food, decreased time of production and/or increased production of food.
+
+Food shortage is still a big problem in the world today. Many people do not have enough money to buy the food that they need. Bad weather or other problems sometimes destroy the growing food in one part of the world. When people do not have enough food, we say that they are hungry. If they do not eat enough food for a long time, they will become sick and die from starvation. In areas where many people do not have enough food, we say that there is famine there.
+
+Food and water can make people sick if it is contaminated by microorganisms, bad metals, or chemicals.
+
+If people do not eat the right foods, they can become sick.
+
+People may often have a variety of eating disorders that cause them to either eat too much, or not be able to eat certain things or amounts. Common diseases like Coeliac disease or food allergies cause people to experience ill effects from consuming certain foods that are normally safe. If people eat too much food, they can become overweight or obese. This causes numerous health problems. On the other hand, eating too little food, from lack of access or anorexia could cause malnutrition. Therefore, people have to balance the amount, the nutrition, and the type of food to be healthy.
+
+Many cultures or religions have food taboos. That means they have rules what people should not eat, or how the food has to be prepared. Examples of religious food rules are the Kashrut of Judaism and the Halal of Islam, that say that pig meat cannot be eaten. In Hinduism, eating beef is not allowed. Some Christians are vegetarian (someone who does not eat meat) because of their religious beliefs. For example, Seventh-day Adventist Church recommends vegetarianism.
+
+In addition, sometime beliefs do not relate to the religion but belong to the culture. For example, some people pay respect to Guān Yīn mothergod and those followers will not consume "beef" as they believe that her father has a shape of the cow.

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+Manila is the capital city of the Philippines. It is one of the largest cities in the Philippines. Manila is on the biggest island of the Philippines, Luzon. Manila is by a bay named Manila Bay. The metropolitan area, called Metro Manila, is much larger. It stretches across a thin strip of land (called an isthmus) to a lake called "Laguna de Bay". Manila has a population of 1.78 million people.
+
+
+
+Coordinates: 14°35′45″N 120°58′38″E / 14.59583°N 120.97722°E / 14.59583; 120.97722

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+Manitoba is a province of Canada. It lies roughly in the centre of Canada.
+
+Manitoba is the 6th largest province with 647,797 km² area. It has the fifth largest number of people, with 1,150,000 in 2001. People from Manitoba are called "Manitobans".
+
+The capital of Manitoba is the City of Winnipeg. Other big cities in Manitoba include Steinbach and Brandon.
+
+The people of Manitoba elected a legislature. The leader of the government, who is called the Premier, is the leader of the largest party in the legislature. There is also a Lieutenant Governor, who represents the Queen. Right now, the premier of Manitoba is Greg Selinger and the Lieutenant Governor is Philip S. Lee.
+
+The main political parties in Manitoba are the New Democratic Party, the Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba, and the Liberal Party.
+
+People have been living in Manitoba for thousands of years. Both the Hudson's Bay Company from England and many people from France moved to Manitoba during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. It became part of the Northwest Territories in 1869. The Red River Rebellion, which was started by Louis Riel, began in Manitoba.
+
+Manitoba became part of Canada on 12 May 1870. It included only the southern part which is nearest to the United States. But parts of the Northwest Territories were added to Manitoba later on.

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+Silver (symbol Ag) is a chemical element. In chemistry, silver is element 47, a transition metal. It has an atomic weight of 107.86 a.m.u. Its symbol is Ag, from the Latin word for silver, argentum.
+
+Silver is a soft metal. It is also a precious metal. When it is used in money or in jewellery, it is often mixed with gold or some other metal to make it harder. It is bluish-white. It reflects light very well. It is a very good conductor of electricity. It is considered a precious metal. Silver is very malleable, and ductile, which means it can be pulled into wire or hammered into thin sheets. Silver is one of the only words in the English language that does not rhyme with any other word. Silver coins and bars can be bought and sold at coin shops around the world.
+
+It is not reactive. It does not dissolve in most acids. Nitric acid dissolves it, though, to make silver nitrate. It does react with strong oxidizing agents like potassium dichromate or potassium permanganate. It does not corrode easily. It only corrodes when there is hydrogen sulfide in the air. Then, it forms a black coating known as tarnish.
+
+Silver exists in two main oxidation states: +1 and +2. The +1 is much more common. A few compounds exist in the +2 oxidation state, but they are very strong oxidizing agents. Silver compounds can be brown, black, yellow, gray, or colorless. Silver compounds are disinfectants.
+
+Silver(I) compounds are oxidizing agents. They are more common. Most of them are very expensive.
+
+Silver(II) compounds are powerful oxidizing agents and rare.
+
+Silver can be found as a native metal. Silver can be found with copper, lead, or gold in rocks. The rocks are found mostly in Canada, Mexico, Peru, and the United States. Peru produces the most silver. Silver is also in chemical compounds. Acanthite is a silver ore that is a silver compound.
+
+Silver is extracted from the earth in several ways. It is normally extracted using electrolysis.
+
+Silver has been used for many thousands of years by people all over the world, for jewellery, as money, and many other things. It is called a white metal even though it looks grey. The word silver is also used to talk about this color or shade of grey. Silver is also used for utensils. It may be used to fill teeth in dentistry as an amalgam. Silver is used as a catalyst.
+
+Silver compounds are disinfectants. It can kill bacteria and has other useful properties. It is used in the silver oxide battery. They are also used in photographic film. They can also be used to reduce odors in clothes. Some silver compounds are used in creams that help burns heal.
+
+Silver has been around for thousands of years. It was normally considered second to gold in value. Romans used silver as money. The symbol Ag is from the Latin name for silver, argentum. Silver was also used to prevent infections and decay.
+
+Silver is not a large danger to humans. Silver compounds are toxic. They make the skin turn blue. Some can be carcinogens. Colloidal silver, a common homeopathic remedy, is not toxic in normal amounts, but it does not do much.
+
+Silver, because it is depleting, is actually more valuable than gold.[source?] The silver saved up in the world is running out very quickly because more of it has been used each year than the amount mined in each year since 1990. Companies that use silver have benefited from speculators who sell promises to deliver silver that does not exist, keeping prices artificially low. This is called naked short selling. The amount owed is more than all the silver in the world. The price of silver could go very high when the stored silver runs out and investors start asking for their metal back, instead of taking more I.O.U.'s.
+
+Silver is 18 US dollars per troy ounce as of June 2010.
+
+Silver increased to 28 US dollars per troy ounce as of December 2010.

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+The Manx is a breed of domestic cat. It either has no tail at all, a "rumpy", or it has a very short tail, a "stumpy". This is because of a natural difference in spine length. The back legs are also longer than the front legs. The breed comes from the Isle of Man, where it was found as early as three hundred years ago.
+
+The Manx's character is nervous. The Manx's appearance is round on the whole. They are skilled hunters.
+
+Media related to Manx at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/3661.html.txt

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+The Manx is a breed of domestic cat. It either has no tail at all, a "rumpy", or it has a very short tail, a "stumpy". This is because of a natural difference in spine length. The back legs are also longer than the front legs. The breed comes from the Isle of Man, where it was found as early as three hundred years ago.
+
+The Manx's character is nervous. The Manx's appearance is round on the whole. They are skilled hunters.
+
+Media related to Manx at Wikimedia Commons
+

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+Mao Zedong (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Communist leader. He was Chairman of the Communist Party of China (CPC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. He led the Communist Party of China to victory in a civil war against the Nationalist regime.
+
+Mao Zedong is the Latin-alphabet version of Mao's name now used by most people.  In the romanization common in his lifetime, it was spelled "Mao Tse-tung".[1]  "Mao" is his family name - in China, family names are placed first.  Mao is also called Chairman Mao,  because he was the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party.
+
+In the 1950s, Mao Zedong had many plans for how China could move forward in technology very quickly and catch up with countries like the United Kingdom and United States. Mao was responsible for the Five Year Plan.  The Second Five Year Plan included the Great Leap Forward, which was a disaster for the Chinese people. Poor farming practices led to significant crop failure, and cities did not make many  of their daily items like clothes and machines.  The famine that came as a result killed millions of people by starvation.
+
+About the same time Mao became the leader in China, Nikita Khrushchev became the leader in the Soviet Union. Before this, Joseph Stalin was the leader in the Soviet Union, Mao liked Stalin and respected the way he led, and China and Russia became allies with each other. Khrushchev thought Stalin was a criminal dictator, and led the country very differently. Mao and Krushchev did not like each other, so the Soviet Union was no longer allies with China. China now had only a few allies like Albania, North Korea, Democratic Kampuchea, and Pakistan. This change of friends was called the Sino-Soviet split. "Sino" is another way to say "Chinese".
+
+During the 1970s, Mao became more friendly with the United States. In 1972, American president Richard Nixon visited the People's Republic of China and met Mao. Mao died in 1976, and the "Cultural Revolution" ended that year. Mao's supporters were jailed, and Deng Xiaoping, who followed Mao, changed Mao's policies so that Chinese people could have more private ownership.
+
+Mao Zedong was afraid that Liu Shaoqi would overthrow him, and take over the CCP.  As in the result, Mao blamed Liu Shaoqi for being a capitalist, and placed him in jail.  Liu Shaoqi died in prison from brutal treatment, hunger, and terrible conditions.
+
+After Liu had been removed from leadership,the defense minister Lin Biao was ranked second in the party and hoped to succeed Mao.
+In 1971, Lin Biao and his wife died in a plane crash after reportedly trying to assassinating Mao and seize power.
+
+Mao had been in poor health for several years and had declined visibly for at least six months prior to his death. There are unconfirmed reports that he possibly had ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease. Mao's last public appearance was on 27 May 1976,[2] where he met the visiting Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto during the latter's one-day visit to Beijing.
+
+At around 5:00 pm on 2 September 1976, Mao suffered a heart attack, far more severe than his previous two and affecting a much larger area of his heart.  Three days later, on 5 September, Mao's condition was still critical.  On the afternoon of 7 September, Mao's condition completely deteriorated.  Mao's organs failed quickly and he fell into a coma shortly before noon where he was put on life support machines.  He was taken off life support over 12 hours later, quarter to midnight and was pronounced dead at 12:08 am on 9 September 1976.
+
+His body lay in state at the Great Hall of the People. There was a three-minute silence observed during this service. His body was later placed into the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, even though he had wished to be cremated and had been one of the first high-ranking officials to sign the "Proposal that all Central Leaders be Cremated after Death" in November 1956.[3]
+
+Many Chinese mainlanders still believe Mao Zedong was a great leader, but they also knew that he did many unwise and bad things. According to Deng Xiaoping, Mao was "seven parts right and three parts wrong" and his "contributions are primary and his mistakes secondary." Supporters praise him for having unified China and for ending the previous decades of civil war. He is also praised for having improved the status of women in China and for improving literacy and education. Some people think Mao Zedong made China lose its important ally, or friend, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were two of the things that Mao did that many people disliked. Some historians, people who study history, think that tens of millions of people died because of Mao's bad ideas and neglect. Some people disliked Mao because he did not support family planning, and this caused too many babies to be born, making too rapid population growth in too small places. Leaders of China after Mao had to make a new rule called one child policy.
+
+Mao Zedong also made several changes to the Chinese language, such as switching from the Wade Giles system of Romanization to Pinyin. For this reason, Nanking is now called Nanjing on modern maps. Taiwan still uses Wade Giles, so its capital is called Taipei instead of the pinyin Taibei. He also simplified the Chinese characters, in theory it would make them easier to read and write so that more people would be literate.

ensimple/3663.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+Mao Zedong (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Communist leader. He was Chairman of the Communist Party of China (CPC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. He led the Communist Party of China to victory in a civil war against the Nationalist regime.
+
+Mao Zedong is the Latin-alphabet version of Mao's name now used by most people.  In the romanization common in his lifetime, it was spelled "Mao Tse-tung".[1]  "Mao" is his family name - in China, family names are placed first.  Mao is also called Chairman Mao,  because he was the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party.
+
+In the 1950s, Mao Zedong had many plans for how China could move forward in technology very quickly and catch up with countries like the United Kingdom and United States. Mao was responsible for the Five Year Plan.  The Second Five Year Plan included the Great Leap Forward, which was a disaster for the Chinese people. Poor farming practices led to significant crop failure, and cities did not make many  of their daily items like clothes and machines.  The famine that came as a result killed millions of people by starvation.
+
+About the same time Mao became the leader in China, Nikita Khrushchev became the leader in the Soviet Union. Before this, Joseph Stalin was the leader in the Soviet Union, Mao liked Stalin and respected the way he led, and China and Russia became allies with each other. Khrushchev thought Stalin was a criminal dictator, and led the country very differently. Mao and Krushchev did not like each other, so the Soviet Union was no longer allies with China. China now had only a few allies like Albania, North Korea, Democratic Kampuchea, and Pakistan. This change of friends was called the Sino-Soviet split. "Sino" is another way to say "Chinese".
+
+During the 1970s, Mao became more friendly with the United States. In 1972, American president Richard Nixon visited the People's Republic of China and met Mao. Mao died in 1976, and the "Cultural Revolution" ended that year. Mao's supporters were jailed, and Deng Xiaoping, who followed Mao, changed Mao's policies so that Chinese people could have more private ownership.
+
+Mao Zedong was afraid that Liu Shaoqi would overthrow him, and take over the CCP.  As in the result, Mao blamed Liu Shaoqi for being a capitalist, and placed him in jail.  Liu Shaoqi died in prison from brutal treatment, hunger, and terrible conditions.
+
+After Liu had been removed from leadership,the defense minister Lin Biao was ranked second in the party and hoped to succeed Mao.
+In 1971, Lin Biao and his wife died in a plane crash after reportedly trying to assassinating Mao and seize power.
+
+Mao had been in poor health for several years and had declined visibly for at least six months prior to his death. There are unconfirmed reports that he possibly had ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease. Mao's last public appearance was on 27 May 1976,[2] where he met the visiting Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto during the latter's one-day visit to Beijing.
+
+At around 5:00 pm on 2 September 1976, Mao suffered a heart attack, far more severe than his previous two and affecting a much larger area of his heart.  Three days later, on 5 September, Mao's condition was still critical.  On the afternoon of 7 September, Mao's condition completely deteriorated.  Mao's organs failed quickly and he fell into a coma shortly before noon where he was put on life support machines.  He was taken off life support over 12 hours later, quarter to midnight and was pronounced dead at 12:08 am on 9 September 1976.
+
+His body lay in state at the Great Hall of the People. There was a three-minute silence observed during this service. His body was later placed into the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, even though he had wished to be cremated and had been one of the first high-ranking officials to sign the "Proposal that all Central Leaders be Cremated after Death" in November 1956.[3]
+
+Many Chinese mainlanders still believe Mao Zedong was a great leader, but they also knew that he did many unwise and bad things. According to Deng Xiaoping, Mao was "seven parts right and three parts wrong" and his "contributions are primary and his mistakes secondary." Supporters praise him for having unified China and for ending the previous decades of civil war. He is also praised for having improved the status of women in China and for improving literacy and education. Some people think Mao Zedong made China lose its important ally, or friend, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were two of the things that Mao did that many people disliked. Some historians, people who study history, think that tens of millions of people died because of Mao's bad ideas and neglect. Some people disliked Mao because he did not support family planning, and this caused too many babies to be born, making too rapid population growth in too small places. Leaders of China after Mao had to make a new rule called one child policy.
+
+Mao Zedong also made several changes to the Chinese language, such as switching from the Wade Giles system of Romanization to Pinyin. For this reason, Nanking is now called Nanjing on modern maps. Taiwan still uses Wade Giles, so its capital is called Taipei instead of the pinyin Taibei. He also simplified the Chinese characters, in theory it would make them easier to read and write so that more people would be literate.

ensimple/3664.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+Mao Zedong (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Communist leader. He was Chairman of the Communist Party of China (CPC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. He led the Communist Party of China to victory in a civil war against the Nationalist regime.
+
+Mao Zedong is the Latin-alphabet version of Mao's name now used by most people.  In the romanization common in his lifetime, it was spelled "Mao Tse-tung".[1]  "Mao" is his family name - in China, family names are placed first.  Mao is also called Chairman Mao,  because he was the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party.
+
+In the 1950s, Mao Zedong had many plans for how China could move forward in technology very quickly and catch up with countries like the United Kingdom and United States. Mao was responsible for the Five Year Plan.  The Second Five Year Plan included the Great Leap Forward, which was a disaster for the Chinese people. Poor farming practices led to significant crop failure, and cities did not make many  of their daily items like clothes and machines.  The famine that came as a result killed millions of people by starvation.
+
+About the same time Mao became the leader in China, Nikita Khrushchev became the leader in the Soviet Union. Before this, Joseph Stalin was the leader in the Soviet Union, Mao liked Stalin and respected the way he led, and China and Russia became allies with each other. Khrushchev thought Stalin was a criminal dictator, and led the country very differently. Mao and Krushchev did not like each other, so the Soviet Union was no longer allies with China. China now had only a few allies like Albania, North Korea, Democratic Kampuchea, and Pakistan. This change of friends was called the Sino-Soviet split. "Sino" is another way to say "Chinese".
+
+During the 1970s, Mao became more friendly with the United States. In 1972, American president Richard Nixon visited the People's Republic of China and met Mao. Mao died in 1976, and the "Cultural Revolution" ended that year. Mao's supporters were jailed, and Deng Xiaoping, who followed Mao, changed Mao's policies so that Chinese people could have more private ownership.
+
+Mao Zedong was afraid that Liu Shaoqi would overthrow him, and take over the CCP.  As in the result, Mao blamed Liu Shaoqi for being a capitalist, and placed him in jail.  Liu Shaoqi died in prison from brutal treatment, hunger, and terrible conditions.
+
+After Liu had been removed from leadership,the defense minister Lin Biao was ranked second in the party and hoped to succeed Mao.
+In 1971, Lin Biao and his wife died in a plane crash after reportedly trying to assassinating Mao and seize power.
+
+Mao had been in poor health for several years and had declined visibly for at least six months prior to his death. There are unconfirmed reports that he possibly had ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease. Mao's last public appearance was on 27 May 1976,[2] where he met the visiting Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto during the latter's one-day visit to Beijing.
+
+At around 5:00 pm on 2 September 1976, Mao suffered a heart attack, far more severe than his previous two and affecting a much larger area of his heart.  Three days later, on 5 September, Mao's condition was still critical.  On the afternoon of 7 September, Mao's condition completely deteriorated.  Mao's organs failed quickly and he fell into a coma shortly before noon where he was put on life support machines.  He was taken off life support over 12 hours later, quarter to midnight and was pronounced dead at 12:08 am on 9 September 1976.
+
+His body lay in state at the Great Hall of the People. There was a three-minute silence observed during this service. His body was later placed into the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, even though he had wished to be cremated and had been one of the first high-ranking officials to sign the "Proposal that all Central Leaders be Cremated after Death" in November 1956.[3]
+
+Many Chinese mainlanders still believe Mao Zedong was a great leader, but they also knew that he did many unwise and bad things. According to Deng Xiaoping, Mao was "seven parts right and three parts wrong" and his "contributions are primary and his mistakes secondary." Supporters praise him for having unified China and for ending the previous decades of civil war. He is also praised for having improved the status of women in China and for improving literacy and education. Some people think Mao Zedong made China lose its important ally, or friend, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were two of the things that Mao did that many people disliked. Some historians, people who study history, think that tens of millions of people died because of Mao's bad ideas and neglect. Some people disliked Mao because he did not support family planning, and this caused too many babies to be born, making too rapid population growth in too small places. Leaders of China after Mao had to make a new rule called one child policy.
+
+Mao Zedong also made several changes to the Chinese language, such as switching from the Wade Giles system of Romanization to Pinyin. For this reason, Nanking is now called Nanjing on modern maps. Taiwan still uses Wade Giles, so its capital is called Taipei instead of the pinyin Taibei. He also simplified the Chinese characters, in theory it would make them easier to read and write so that more people would be literate.

ensimple/3665.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+Mao Zedong (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Communist leader. He was Chairman of the Communist Party of China (CPC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. He led the Communist Party of China to victory in a civil war against the Nationalist regime.
+
+Mao Zedong is the Latin-alphabet version of Mao's name now used by most people.  In the romanization common in his lifetime, it was spelled "Mao Tse-tung".[1]  "Mao" is his family name - in China, family names are placed first.  Mao is also called Chairman Mao,  because he was the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party.
+
+In the 1950s, Mao Zedong had many plans for how China could move forward in technology very quickly and catch up with countries like the United Kingdom and United States. Mao was responsible for the Five Year Plan.  The Second Five Year Plan included the Great Leap Forward, which was a disaster for the Chinese people. Poor farming practices led to significant crop failure, and cities did not make many  of their daily items like clothes and machines.  The famine that came as a result killed millions of people by starvation.
+
+About the same time Mao became the leader in China, Nikita Khrushchev became the leader in the Soviet Union. Before this, Joseph Stalin was the leader in the Soviet Union, Mao liked Stalin and respected the way he led, and China and Russia became allies with each other. Khrushchev thought Stalin was a criminal dictator, and led the country very differently. Mao and Krushchev did not like each other, so the Soviet Union was no longer allies with China. China now had only a few allies like Albania, North Korea, Democratic Kampuchea, and Pakistan. This change of friends was called the Sino-Soviet split. "Sino" is another way to say "Chinese".
+
+During the 1970s, Mao became more friendly with the United States. In 1972, American president Richard Nixon visited the People's Republic of China and met Mao. Mao died in 1976, and the "Cultural Revolution" ended that year. Mao's supporters were jailed, and Deng Xiaoping, who followed Mao, changed Mao's policies so that Chinese people could have more private ownership.
+
+Mao Zedong was afraid that Liu Shaoqi would overthrow him, and take over the CCP.  As in the result, Mao blamed Liu Shaoqi for being a capitalist, and placed him in jail.  Liu Shaoqi died in prison from brutal treatment, hunger, and terrible conditions.
+
+After Liu had been removed from leadership,the defense minister Lin Biao was ranked second in the party and hoped to succeed Mao.
+In 1971, Lin Biao and his wife died in a plane crash after reportedly trying to assassinating Mao and seize power.
+
+Mao had been in poor health for several years and had declined visibly for at least six months prior to his death. There are unconfirmed reports that he possibly had ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease. Mao's last public appearance was on 27 May 1976,[2] where he met the visiting Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto during the latter's one-day visit to Beijing.
+
+At around 5:00 pm on 2 September 1976, Mao suffered a heart attack, far more severe than his previous two and affecting a much larger area of his heart.  Three days later, on 5 September, Mao's condition was still critical.  On the afternoon of 7 September, Mao's condition completely deteriorated.  Mao's organs failed quickly and he fell into a coma shortly before noon where he was put on life support machines.  He was taken off life support over 12 hours later, quarter to midnight and was pronounced dead at 12:08 am on 9 September 1976.
+
+His body lay in state at the Great Hall of the People. There was a three-minute silence observed during this service. His body was later placed into the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, even though he had wished to be cremated and had been one of the first high-ranking officials to sign the "Proposal that all Central Leaders be Cremated after Death" in November 1956.[3]
+
+Many Chinese mainlanders still believe Mao Zedong was a great leader, but they also knew that he did many unwise and bad things. According to Deng Xiaoping, Mao was "seven parts right and three parts wrong" and his "contributions are primary and his mistakes secondary." Supporters praise him for having unified China and for ending the previous decades of civil war. He is also praised for having improved the status of women in China and for improving literacy and education. Some people think Mao Zedong made China lose its important ally, or friend, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were two of the things that Mao did that many people disliked. Some historians, people who study history, think that tens of millions of people died because of Mao's bad ideas and neglect. Some people disliked Mao because he did not support family planning, and this caused too many babies to be born, making too rapid population growth in too small places. Leaders of China after Mao had to make a new rule called one child policy.
+
+Mao Zedong also made several changes to the Chinese language, such as switching from the Wade Giles system of Romanization to Pinyin. For this reason, Nanking is now called Nanjing on modern maps. Taiwan still uses Wade Giles, so its capital is called Taipei instead of the pinyin Taibei. He also simplified the Chinese characters, in theory it would make them easier to read and write so that more people would be literate.

ensimple/3666.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+A scale model is a copy of an object that is bigger or smaller than the real size of the object. Very often the scale model is smaller than the real object and used as a guide to making the object in full size. Scale models are made or collected for many reasons. You can also use it with math.

ensimple/3667.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+A scale model is a copy of an object that is bigger or smaller than the real size of the object. Very often the scale model is smaller than the real object and used as a guide to making the object in full size. Scale models are made or collected for many reasons. You can also use it with math.

ensimple/3668.html.txt

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+
+
+The wild boar (Sus scrofa) belongs to the family of the real pig (Suidae) from the order of artiodactyls. They live today in almost every part of the world, even many countries that are not their natural habitats.[1]
+
+Wild boars are omnivorous and easily adapt to changes. They were hunted in Europe from long ago for many of their body parts, and were shown in the mythology of many ancient civilizations. Greek, Phoenician, and Persian mythology showed them as fierce, sometimes evil, while others showed them as brave, powerful animals. Again, others saw them as parasitic. Even today many people see wild boars very differently.
+
+The hair of the boar was often used when making the toothbrush until the 1930s.[2] The hair for the bristles usually came from the neck area of the boar. The brushes were popular because the bristles were soft. However, this was not the best material for oral hygiene because the hairs dried slowly and usually held bacteria.
+
+The body of the wild boar, when seen from the side, often looks very big. This impression is partly because, compared to the large body mass, the legs of the wild boar are short and do not look very strong. The wild boar's head is very large. Its eyes are high up on the head, while the ears are small with bristles around it. Its tail can move very quickly, and the wild boar often uses it to show when his mood. If seen from the front, the body looks quite narrow. The wild boar has 44 teeth in its jaw, which helps its strong bite. The male and the female wild boars' snout shapes are different.
+
+A wild boar usually gives birth to about 4 – 6 piglets at a time. Piglets weigh from about 750 – 1000g when they are first born. They are fully weaned after 3 – 4 months. They begin eating solid foods such as worms and grubs after about 2 weeks.[3]

ensimple/3669.html.txt

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+Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust (French pronounced: maʁsɛl pʁust) (10 July 1871 – 18 November 1922) was a French novelist, essayist and critic, best known as the author of À la recherche du temps perdu (in English, Remembrance of Things Past), a monumental work of twentieth-century fiction published in seven parts from 1913 to 1927.
+
+Proust was a homosexual.[1] He died of pneumonia.

ensimple/367.html.txt

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+Money can be defined as anything that people use to buy goods and services. Money is what many people receive for selling their own things or services.
+There are many kinds of money in the world. Most countries have their own kind of money, such as the United States dollar or the British pound.
+Money is also called many other names, like currency or cash.
+
+The idea of bartering things is very old.[1] A long time ago, people did not buy or sell with money. Instead, they traded one thing for another to get what they wanted or needed.[1] One person who owned many cows could trade with another person who had a lot of wheat. Each would trade a little of what he had with the other. This would support the people on his farm. Other things that were easier to carry around than cows also came to be held as valuable. This gave rise to trade items such as jewelry and spices.
+
+When people changed from trading in things like, for example, cows and wheat to using money instead, they needed things that would last a long time. They must still have a known value, and could be carried around. The first country in the world to make metal coins was called Lydia.[2] These first appeared during the 7th century BC, in the western part of what is now Turkey.[2] The Lydian coins were made of a weighed amount of precious metal and were stamped with a picture of a lion. This idea soon spread to Greece, the rest of the Mediterranean, and the rest of the world. Coins were all made to the same size and shape. In some parts of the world, different things have been used as money, like clam shells or blocks of salt.
+
+Besides being easier to carry than cows, using money had many other advantages. Money is easier to divide than many trade goods. If someone own cows, and wants to trade for only "half a cow's worth" of wheat, he probably does not want to cut his cow in half. But if he sells his cow for money, and buys wheat with money, he can get exactly the amount he wants.
+
+Cows die, and wheat rots. But money lasts longer than most trade goods. If someone sells a cow for money, he can save that money away until he needs it. He can always leave it to his children when he dies. It can last a very long time, and he can use it at any time.
+
+Not every cow is as good as another cow. Some cows are sick and old, and others are healthy and young. Some wheat is good and other wheat is moldy or stale. So if a person trades cows for wheat, he might have a hard time arguing over how much wheat each cow is worth. However, money is standard. That means one dollar is worth the same as another dollar. It is easier to add up and count money, than to add up the value of different cows or amounts of wheat.
+
+Later, after coins had been used for hundreds of years, paper money started out as a promise to pay in coin, much like an "I.O.U." note. The first true paper money was used in China in the 10th century AD.[3] Paper money was also printed in Sweden between 1660 and 1664.[4] Both times, it did not work well, and had to be stopped because the banks kept running out of coins to pay on the notes. Massachusetts Bay Colony printed paper money in the 1690s.[5] This time, the use became more common.
+
+Today, most of what people think of as money is not even things you can hold. It is numbers in bank accounts, saved in computer memories. Many people still feel more comfortable using coins and paper, and do not totally trust using electronic money on a computer memory.
+
+Many types of money have been used at different times in history. These are:
+
+Commodity money can be used for other purposes besides serving as a medium of exchange. We say it possesses intrinsic value, because it is useful or valuable by itself. Some examples of commodity money are cattle, silk, gold and silver. Convertible paper money is money that is convertible into gold and silver. Gold and Silver certificates are convertible paper money as they can be fully convertible into gold and silver.
+
+Inconvertible money is money that cannot be converted into gold and silver. Notes and coins are inconvertible money. They are inconvertible and are declared by the government money. Such fiat money is a country's legal tender. Today, notes and coins are the currencies used in bank deposits.
+
+Types of bank deposits:

ensimple/3670.html.txt

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+Marco Polo was born in 1254 and died on January 8,1324. He was an Italian trader and explorer. He was one of the first Europeans to explore Central Asia and East Asia. Many other explorers, including Christopher Columbus, looked up to him. He could speak four languages.[1]
+
+Marco Polo was known for the book, Travels of Marco Polo, where he talked about Asia.
+
+Marco Polo was born in Venice, one of the most successful trading cities.[2] Polo's mother died when he was very young and he was raised by his aunt and uncle. His father and uncle returned from their Silk Road travels when Marco was about 15 years old. Two years later, the three of them set out on a journey to Cathay (China). His family were well-known merchants, not explorers. He learned about writing, reading, and arithmetic, and how to do business.[1]
+
+Polo went on a 24-year trip to China with his father and uncle during the Mongol Dynasty. He left Venice at the age of 17 on a boat that went through the Mediterranean Sea, Ayas, Tabriz and Kerman. Then he travelled across Asia getting as far as Beijing. On the way there he had to go over mountains and through terrible deserts, across hot burning lands and places where the cold was horrible. He served in Kublai Khan's court for 17 years. He left the Far East and returned to Venice by sea. There was sickness on board and 600 passengers and crew died and some say pirates attacked. Nevertheless, Marco Polo survived it all.
+
+Some scholars believe that while Marco Polo did go to China, he did not go to all of the other places described in his book. He brought noodles back from China and the Italians came up with different sizes and shapes and called it pasta. Polo returned to Venice with treasures like ivory, jade, jewels, porcelain and silk.[1]
+
+His father had borrowed money and bought a ship. He became wealthy because of his trading in the near East.
+
+Soon after Polo returned from his journeys he fought in a war against Genoa, got captured and put in prison. When he was in prison, he became friendly with a fellow prisoner, Rusticello, who was a writer of romances and novels. He told the writer about all his adventures, which became a book called The Travels of Marco Polo. The published version was written by Rustichello da Pisa, based on what Polo had told him. It became famous throughout Europe. In the book he said that Kublai Khan's wealthy new empire had a postal system. He also talked about the Chinese people. China used paper money that was made from mulberry bark.[1]
+
+Marco Polo’s nickname was Marco Il Milione, due to an ancestor of his called Emilione. He was actually quite wealthy.

ensimple/3671.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Marco Polo was born in 1254 and died on January 8,1324. He was an Italian trader and explorer. He was one of the first Europeans to explore Central Asia and East Asia. Many other explorers, including Christopher Columbus, looked up to him. He could speak four languages.[1]
+
+Marco Polo was known for the book, Travels of Marco Polo, where he talked about Asia.
+
+Marco Polo was born in Venice, one of the most successful trading cities.[2] Polo's mother died when he was very young and he was raised by his aunt and uncle. His father and uncle returned from their Silk Road travels when Marco was about 15 years old. Two years later, the three of them set out on a journey to Cathay (China). His family were well-known merchants, not explorers. He learned about writing, reading, and arithmetic, and how to do business.[1]
+
+Polo went on a 24-year trip to China with his father and uncle during the Mongol Dynasty. He left Venice at the age of 17 on a boat that went through the Mediterranean Sea, Ayas, Tabriz and Kerman. Then he travelled across Asia getting as far as Beijing. On the way there he had to go over mountains and through terrible deserts, across hot burning lands and places where the cold was horrible. He served in Kublai Khan's court for 17 years. He left the Far East and returned to Venice by sea. There was sickness on board and 600 passengers and crew died and some say pirates attacked. Nevertheless, Marco Polo survived it all.
+
+Some scholars believe that while Marco Polo did go to China, he did not go to all of the other places described in his book. He brought noodles back from China and the Italians came up with different sizes and shapes and called it pasta. Polo returned to Venice with treasures like ivory, jade, jewels, porcelain and silk.[1]
+
+His father had borrowed money and bought a ship. He became wealthy because of his trading in the near East.
+
+Soon after Polo returned from his journeys he fought in a war against Genoa, got captured and put in prison. When he was in prison, he became friendly with a fellow prisoner, Rusticello, who was a writer of romances and novels. He told the writer about all his adventures, which became a book called The Travels of Marco Polo. The published version was written by Rustichello da Pisa, based on what Polo had told him. It became famous throughout Europe. In the book he said that Kublai Khan's wealthy new empire had a postal system. He also talked about the Chinese people. China used paper money that was made from mulberry bark.[1]
+
+Marco Polo’s nickname was Marco Il Milione, due to an ancestor of his called Emilione. He was actually quite wealthy.

ensimple/3672.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+Tuesday is the day of the week between Monday and Wednesday. In some countries, for example the United States of America, Tuesday is the third day of the week. In other parts of the world, Tuesday is the second day of the week.
+
+The name Tuesday comes from a Middle English word, Tiwesday. This word came from the Old English word Tiwes dæg. This was named after the Nordic god Tyr. Tyr was the God of War, like the Roman war god Mars, and Greek god Ares.[1]
+
+In Latin, Tuesday is called Martis dies which means "Mars's Day". In French, Spanish, Italian and Romanian, the (Romance languages), the word for "Tuesday" is nearly the same as the Latin name. Tuesday is mardi in French, martes in Spanish, martedì in Italian, dimarts in Catalan, and marţi in Romanian.
+
+The Celtic languages still spoken use the Latin names,[2] even though none of these languages came from Latin. Tuesday is dé máirt in Irish, Meurzh in Breton,[3] dydd Mawrth in Welsh[4] and Dimàirt in Scottish Gaelic.[5][6][7]
+
+The English and Scandinavian names for Tuesday come from the Nordic god Tyr (Old English Tiw):
+

ensimple/3673.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+Philippe Pétain was a French General  who served as leader of Vichy France between 1940 and 1944.
+
+During World War I Pétain was the hero of the Battle of Verdun and led the French Army until the end of the war in 1918.
+
+In 1940 during the Battle of France the French government asked him to govern the country. He surrendered to the Germans. From 1940 to the end of 1942, Vichy France was a puppet state of Nazi Germany.  Pétain became a puppet of Nazi Germany as they fully occupied and disarmed Vichy France.
+
+After the war, Pétain was tried and convicted for treason. He was originally sentenced to death, but due to his age and World War I service his sentence was commuted to life in prison. He died in 1951.

ensimple/3674.html.txt

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+A tide is the periodic rising and falling of Earth's ocean surface caused mainly by the gravitational pull of the Moon acting on the oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of marine and estuarine (river mouth) waters. Tides also make oscillating currents known as tidal streams (~'rip tides'). This means that being able to predict the tide is important for coastal navigation. The strip of seashore that is under water at high tide and exposed at low tide, called the intertidal zone, is an important ecological product of ocean tides.
+
+The height of tides varies somewhat with the phases of the Moon. At New Moon and Full Moon, tides are higher because the Sun's tidal force adds to the Moon's. This is called "spring tide".
+
+In most places, there are two tides a day. They each have a high point (the high tide) and a low point (the low tide). We speak of a "flood tide" coming in towards high tide, and an "ebb tide" going out towards low tide.
+
+The period of the tide is about 12 hours and 25.2 minutes, exactly half a tidal lunar day.
+
+The Moon orbits the Earth in the same direction as the Earth rotates on its axis, so it takes slightly more than a day—about 24 hours and 50 minutes—for the Moon to return to the same location in the sky.  During this time, it has passed overhead once and underfoot once, so in many places the period of strongest tidal forcing is the above-mentioned, about 12 hours and 25 minutes.  This is analogous to the minute hand on a watch crossing the hour hand at 12:00 and then again at about 1:05½ (not at 1:00).
+
+Because a gravitational field weakens with distance, the Moon's gravity exerts a slightly stronger pulling force on the side of the Earth facing the Moon, and a slightly weaker force on the opposite side.  The Moon thus tends to "stretch" the Earth slightly along the line connecting the two bodies. The solid Earth deforms a bit, but ocean water, being fluid, is free to move much more in response to the tidal force, particularly horizontally. As the Earth rotates, the magnitude and direction of the tidal force at any particular point on the Earth's surface change constantly; although the ocean never reaches equilibrium—there is never time for the fluid to "catch up" to the state it would eventually reach if the tidal force were constant—the changing tidal force nonetheless causes rhythmic changes in sea surface height.[1]
+
+Other things, such as atmospheric pressure and the Sun's gravity, also affect the tides, but in most places those things do much less than the Moon's gravity does.

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+A tide is the periodic rising and falling of Earth's ocean surface caused mainly by the gravitational pull of the Moon acting on the oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of marine and estuarine (river mouth) waters. Tides also make oscillating currents known as tidal streams (~'rip tides'). This means that being able to predict the tide is important for coastal navigation. The strip of seashore that is under water at high tide and exposed at low tide, called the intertidal zone, is an important ecological product of ocean tides.
+
+The height of tides varies somewhat with the phases of the Moon. At New Moon and Full Moon, tides are higher because the Sun's tidal force adds to the Moon's. This is called "spring tide".
+
+In most places, there are two tides a day. They each have a high point (the high tide) and a low point (the low tide). We speak of a "flood tide" coming in towards high tide, and an "ebb tide" going out towards low tide.
+
+The period of the tide is about 12 hours and 25.2 minutes, exactly half a tidal lunar day.
+
+The Moon orbits the Earth in the same direction as the Earth rotates on its axis, so it takes slightly more than a day—about 24 hours and 50 minutes—for the Moon to return to the same location in the sky.  During this time, it has passed overhead once and underfoot once, so in many places the period of strongest tidal forcing is the above-mentioned, about 12 hours and 25 minutes.  This is analogous to the minute hand on a watch crossing the hour hand at 12:00 and then again at about 1:05½ (not at 1:00).
+
+Because a gravitational field weakens with distance, the Moon's gravity exerts a slightly stronger pulling force on the side of the Earth facing the Moon, and a slightly weaker force on the opposite side.  The Moon thus tends to "stretch" the Earth slightly along the line connecting the two bodies. The solid Earth deforms a bit, but ocean water, being fluid, is free to move much more in response to the tidal force, particularly horizontally. As the Earth rotates, the magnitude and direction of the tidal force at any particular point on the Earth's surface change constantly; although the ocean never reaches equilibrium—there is never time for the fluid to "catch up" to the state it would eventually reach if the tidal force were constant—the changing tidal force nonetheless causes rhythmic changes in sea surface height.[1]
+
+Other things, such as atmospheric pressure and the Sun's gravity, also affect the tides, but in most places those things do much less than the Moon's gravity does.

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+Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher LG OM DStJ PC FRS  (13 October 1925 – 8 April 2013) was a British stateswoman. She served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (UK) from 1979 to 1990,[1] longer than any other British prime minister in the 20th century. She led the UK's Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. Thatcher was the first female British prime minister and was often known by the nickname "The Iron Lady", given to her by a journalist from the Soviet Union.[2] Her birth name was Margaret Hilda Roberts.
+
+Thatcher studied chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford, and worked briefly as a research chemist, before becoming a barrister. She was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath made her a Secretary of State in his government of 1970 to 1974. In 1975, she beat Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become Leader of the Opposition and the first woman to lead a major British political party. In 1979, she was elected Prime Minister, and won a landslide re-election in 1983 after victory in the 1982 Falklands War and the recovering economy brought a revival of support.
+
+Thatcher was re-elected for a third term with another landslide in 1987, but her following support for the Community Charge ("poll tax") was very unpopular, and her more Eurosceptic views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after a challenge was made by Michael Heseltine to her leadership. After retiring from the House of Commons in 1992, she was given a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, which gave her the right to sit in the House of Lords. In 2013, she died of a stroke in London, at the age of 87.
+
+Although a controversial figure in British political culture, Thatcher is still viewed positively in most opinion polls of British prime ministers. The debate over her neoliberal policies and legacy in the UK continues into the 21st century.
+
+Margaret Roberts was born in Grantham, Lincolnshire, on 13 October 1925. Her father was Alfred Roberts, a tobacconist originally from Northamptonshire. Her mother was Beatrice Ethel Stephenson, from Lincolnshire.
+
+Thatcher studied chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford. In her final year, she studied X-ray crystallography under Dorothy Hodgkin, who later won the Nobel Prize. She was already interested in politics, and became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946.[3] Roberts read political works such as Friedrich von Hayek's The Road to Serfdom (1944), which said  economic intervention by government was wrong, because it gave too much power to the state. After graduating, Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics.[3]
+
+She was elected an MP in 1959. She became Education Secretary in 1970.
+
+Thatcher directed British troops in 1982 to get back the Falkland Islands from Argentina. Argentina had taken the Falklands for a short time during the Falklands War. She had the second longest single prime ministerial term in history.[source?] She married Denis Thatcher; they had twins: son Mark  and daughter Carol.[4]
+
+She suffered from strong opposition during a coal miner's strike in 1984 and 1985. The strike took away political power from the miners' union. There was also controversy when she introduced a poll tax to Britain. This caused rioting across the country.
+
+She was forced to resign by her own party in 1990. She was replaced by John Major. In 1992, she stood down as PM. She then joined the House of Lords. From then on, she was known as "Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven".[1]
+
+During Thatcher's years as prime minister, unemployment rose a lot. It doubled during her first term. In 1982, 3 million people were unemployed. Unemployment started to decline again only in the mid- to late-1980s.  Since the mid-1990s, Britain has consistently had lower unemployment than most of continental Europe. Thatcher's supporters claim this is the result of her reform of the labour market. This is disputed by her opponents.
+
+During the near end of the Cold War, Thatcher became one of the closest friends of Ronald Reagan, the 40th President of the United States.
+
+She is remembered in the UK for reducing the trade union movement's power. Trade unions were much more powerful in the 1970s. Thatcher did much to reduce their influence on British industry.
+
+Thatcher was the first woman to be Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. She was also the first woman to be Conservative Party leader.
+
+In February 1949, she met Denis Thatcher. They met at a Paint Trades Federation event in Dartford. They married on 13 December 1951, at a chapel in City Road, London; the Robertses, Margaret's parents, were Methodists. Margaret and Denis had twin children, Carol and Mark, who were born on 15 August 1953, six weeks prematurely by Caesarean section.
+
+Her husband Denis died in 2003 from pancreatic cancer. She attended Ronald Reagan's funeral service in 2004. In the later years of her life, she suffered from dementia and withdrew from public engagements in 2002.[5] In 2006, Thatcher attended the official Washington memorial service to mark the fifth anniversary of the September 11 attacks on the United States (US). She was a guest of Vice President Dick Cheney, and met Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice during her visit. She would also visit several times for ceremonies that honoured Reagan.[source?]
+
+Thatcher died from a stroke on 8 April 2013 at her hotel room in London, aged 87.[6] She had bladder cancer and dementia at the time of her death.[7] In line with her wishes she received a ceremonial funeral, including full military honours, with a church service at St Paul's Cathedral on 17 April. Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Phillip attended the funeral, only the second time in the Queen's reign that she had attended the funeral of a former prime minister.

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+Marjorie "Marge" Simpson (born March 19, 1953) is a  character in the animated television series The Simpsons. The characters voice is done by Julie Kavner. Marge is the wife of Homer Simpson and the mother of Bart, Lisa, and Maggie Simpson. She is famous for her very tall blue hair, that is shaped into a beehive. She also is proud to have never met anyone with taller hair outside Graceland.[1]  Marge was named after, and loosely based on, Margaret "Marge" Groening, Matt Groening's mother.
+
+Marge’s image is normally that of a stereotypical sitcom mother who is sometimes seen as an inexperienced person and easy to be fooled. Despite having higher morals than most other characters, Marge has had her fair share of wild escapades throughout the show’s history. She was once a police officer in Springfield, took treatment for road rage, was once sent to jail for shoplifting, became a gambling fanatic, showed alcoholism, was an unwilling participant in a cross-country police chase, took steroids, cheated on a cooking competition and developed amnesia. She is also known for her persistent nagging and groaning. These are just some of the strange situations in which Marge has found herself. She also displays a surprisingly strong will. Marge is the only member of the family who normally tries to encourage the family to go to church. She also appears to have significant athletic ability in times of imminent danger. She can speak two languages fluently, one being English and the other in French.
+
+Politically, Marge supports the Democratic Party. She once says that she voted for Jimmy Carter ("twice" according to Lisa), supported the candidacy of their state's governor Mary Bailey, and also stated to have been really depressed when Lyndon Johnson died.
+
+Marge studied to be a painter. When she was a teenager she had a huge crush on Ringo Starr and painted a large number of portraits of him. She also wrote to him, but only received a reply 25 years later. His response inspired her to enter an art contest. Her portrait of a drunk Homer sleeping on the couch won the competition. She was then hired by Mr. Burns to do a portrait of him. The resulting portrait won even Mr. Burns’ praise, a massive feat in itself.
+
+Marge also is a very skilled cook. She once started a pretzel business, which succeeded with the help of the Springfield Mafia. She has entered different cooking challenges, although situations such as cruel and ruthless competitors and overheated ovens made her to lose and even break or destroy the other competitors too. In general, she is shown as a very good cook. She is especially well known for her pork chops, Homer's favorite dish.
+
+In some episodes Marge is shown being a fairly skilled photographer until she decided to choose Homer over photography.
+
+As a teen, Marge had her hair long to at waist length which she always wore down, but got the idea to wear it in her trademark beehive for senior prom in the episode "The Way We Was". In the Shary Bobbins episode, her hair is shown close to her knees, meaning that a lot of hair would be needed to create her tall beehive. Marge has admitted that her hair is not really blue but is, in fact, gray. It was revealed by Homer in "Secrets of a Successful Marriage" that Marge dyes her hair with blue dye #56; "She’s been gray as a mule since she was seventeen." However, it is shown in the episode "Fear of Flying" that Marge's blue hair goes back to when she was a small child. Because of her unusually large hairstyle, her height is reported to be 8'6", as noted by Apu in the episode "Marge in Chains". In "The Way We Weren't", her hair was blue before she met Homer and was dark at one time because of Marge ironing a piece of her hair for a long time. In The Simpsons Season Four DVD commentary, Matt Groening states that the original idea behind Marge's hair was to hide large rabbit ears. The gag was intended to be revealed in the final episode of the series, but was cancelled early on because of its irregularity.[2]
+
+Like most of the other Simpsons characters, Marge's age changes from time to time throughout the show's history. In first-season episodes "Life on the Fast Lane" and "Some Enchanted Evening", Marge is said to be 36 years old, but her age was later changed to 38, possibly because she and Homer attended their twentieth anniversary high-school reunion in one episode. In the episode "Regarding Margie", Homer states that Marge is his age, meaning she could be anywhere between 38 and 42 years in age.

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+
+
+Marie Salomea Skłodowska–Curie (7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish physicist, chemist and feminist. She did research on radioactivity. She was also the first woman to win a Nobel Prize.[2] She was the first woman professor at the University of Paris. She was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes.[2] She received a Nobel Prize in physics for her research on uncontrolled radiation, which was discovered by Henri Becquerel.[3]
+
+She died because of too much radiation in her laboratory because she had no protection and she didn't know the effects of radiation.
+
+Curie was born on 7 November 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. She lived there until she was 22. At the age of ten, her sister Zofia died. Her mother died two years later. Marie Curie was the fifth child in her family. Her original name was Maria. Her father was a math teacher. He died when she was 11. As a young girl, she was interested in physics. She was top of her high school class. She graduated at 15. Marie became a teacher so she could earn money to go to school in Paris, France. She also went to an unaccredited college in Poland. Eventually, she left Poland and went to France under the name “Marie" after one of her big sisters gave her the chance. In  Paris, she earned higher degrees and did her important scientific work. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw.
+
+Curie did many great things. She and her husband created a theory of radioactivity (a term made by her and her husband Pierre Curie). They found different ways to separate radioactive isotopes and discovered two new elements: radium and polonium. The term polonium was named after Poland, her home country. She used her own studies in radioactivity to develop a new treatment for cancer. These treatments used the radioactive isotopes. She was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize. She was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes
+
+Curie discovered radium. It is one of the most radioactive and dangerous metals. She shared this discovery with Pierre Curie and Gustave Bemont. The three found radium in 1898. They discovered it when using a uranium ore. It gave off a lot of radiation. They decided that it was coming from more than uranium. The group found radium in the uranium. Radium is now used for many different things. For example, doctors used to use it to kill cancer cells. Radium was found in paint and watches. Many workers who made radium-containing products developed bone cancer. [4][5]
+
+Even though Curie became a French citizen, Curie never lost her Polish identity. She graduated first in her class in 1893. One year later she earned a master's degree in mathematics. Later, she met her husband, Pierre, at the Municipal School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry. They were married in July 1895 after only one year. They also started to work together on scientific discoveries. Marie and Pierre had their first daughter, Irene, in 1897. Their second daughter, Eve, was born in 1904. Pierre died on April 19, 1906, after he was hit by a horse-drawn wagon.
+
+After the war, Marie started to raise money for a hospital. The hospital raised money for radiation research. She was invited to tour the United States to recommend and speed up her project. She sailed for the United States in 1921. She collected enough money and equipment for a new laboratory. She then started speaking at meetings to raise more money and became a celebrity. She also supported world peace by serving on the council of the League of Nations.
+
+Near the 1920s, Curie and many of her colleagues began to suffer from symptoms of cancer. Curie began to lose her sight. Cataract surgeries to try to bring back her sight did not help. Curie knew that the element (radium) she discovered might have been causing the symptoms, but she did not want to admit it to herself or others. In the early 1930s, Curie’s health started to quickly get worse. Doctors diagnosed her with pernicious anemia. Pernicious anemia is a blood anemia that happens when someone is overly exposed to radiation. The doctors didn’t tell the public or Curie herself what was going on. On July 4, 1934, at 66 years old, she died in a Sanitorium at the French Alps. She was then buried next to her husband in Sceaux, France. Marie Curie was a physicist and chemist best known for her work on radioactivity; however, she also discovered the elements polonium and radium. She was awarded two Nobel Prizes — one in physics which she won jointly with her husband and Henri Becquerel, and another in chemistry — and was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes. She is still one of only four people (along with Linus Pauling, John Bardeen and Frederick Sanger) to accomplish that feat. Curie is responsible for establishing the theory of radioactivity, but unfortunately she unwittingly also discovered the fatal effect radioactivity can have on your health; she died on July 4, 1934, of aplastic anemia caused by radiation exposure.
+
+
+
+Röntgen (1901) · 
+Lorentz / Zeeman (1902) · 
+Becquerel / P. Curie / M. Curie (1903) · 
+Rayleigh (1904) · 
+Lenard (1905) · 
+Thomson (1906) · 
+Michelson (1907) · 
+Lippmann (1908) · 
+Marconi / Braun (1909) · 
+van der Waals (1910) · 
+Wien (1911) · 
+Dalén (1912) · 
+Kamerlingh Onnes (1913) · 
+Laue (1914) · 
+W. L. Bragg / W. H. Bragg (1915) · 
+Barkla (1917) · 
+Planck (1918) · 
+Stark (1919) · 
+Guillaume (1920) · 
+Einstein (1921) · 
+N. Bohr (1922) · 
+Millikan (1923) · 
+M. Siegbahn (1924) · 
+Franck / Hertz (1925)
+
+Perrin (1926) · 
+Compton / C. Wilson (1927) · 
+O. Richardson (1928) · 
+De Broglie (1929) · 
+Raman (1930) · 
+Heisenberg (1932) · 
+Schrödinger / Dirac (1933) · 
+Chadwick (1935) · 
+Hess / C. D. Anderson (1936) · 
+Davisson / Thomson (1937) · 
+Fermi (1938) · 
+Lawrence (1939) · 
+Stern (1943) · 
+Rabi (1944) · 
+Pauli (1945) · 
+Bridgman (1946) · 
+Appleton (1947) · 
+Blackett (1948) · 
+Yukawa (1949) · 
+Powell (1950)
+
+Cockcroft / Walton (1951) · 
+Bloch / Purcell (1952) · 
+Zernike (1953) · 
+Born / Bothe (1954) · 
+Lamb / Kusch (1955) · 
+Shockley / Bardeen / Brattain (1956) · 
+Yang / T. D. Lee (1957) · 
+Cherenkov / Frank / Tamm (1958) · 
+Segrè / Chamberlain (1959) · 
+Glaser (1960) · 
+Hofstadter / Mössbauer (1961) · 
+Landau (1962) · 
+Wigner / Goeppert-Mayer / Jensen (1963) · 
+Townes / Basov / Prokhorov (1964) · 
+Tomonaga / Schwinger / Feynman (1965) · 
+Kastler (1966) · 
+Bethe (1967) · 
+Alvarez (1968) · 
+Gell-Mann (1969) · 
+Alfvén / Néel (1970) · 
+Gabor (1971) · 
+Bardeen / Cooper / Schrieffer (1972) · 
+Esaki / Giaever / Josephson (1973) · 
+Ryle / Hewish (1974) · 
+A. Bohr / Mottelson / Rainwater (1975)
+
+Richter / Ting (1976) · 
+P. W. Anderson / Mott / Van Vleck (1977) · 
+Kapitsa / Penzias / R. Wilson (1978) · 
+Glashow / Salam / Weinberg (1979) · 
+Cronin / Fitch (1980) · 
+Bloembergen / Schawlow / K. Siegbahn (1981) · 
+K. Wilson (1982) · 
+Chandrasekhar / Fowler (1983) · 
+Rubbia / van der Meer (1984) · 
+von Klitzing (1985) · 
+Ruska / Binnig / Rohrer (1986) · 
+Bednorz / Müller (1987) · 
+Lederman / Schwartz / Steinberger (1988) · 
+Ramsey / Dehmelt / Paul (1989) · 
+Friedman / Kendall / R. Taylor (1990) · 
+de Gennes (1991) · 
+Charpak (1992) · 
+Hulse / J. Taylor (1993) · 
+Brockhouse / Shull (1994) · 
+Perl / Reines (1995) · 
+D. Lee / Osheroff / R. Richardson (1996) · 
+Chu / Cohen-Tannoudji / Phillips (1997) · 
+Laughlin / Störmer / Tsui (1998) · 
+'t Hooft / Veltman (1999) · 
+Alferov / Kroemer / Kilby (2000)
+
+Cornell / Ketterle / Wieman (2001) · 
+Davis / Koshiba / Giacconi (2002) · 
+Abrikosov / Ginzburg / Leggett (2003) · 
+Gross / Politzer / Wilczek (2004) · 
+Glauber / Hall / Hänsch (2005) · 
+Mather / Smoot (2006) · 
+Fert / Grünberg (2007) · 
+Nambu / Kobayashi / Maskawa (2008) · 
+Kao / Boyle / Smith (2009) · 
+Geim / Novoselov (2010) · 
+Perlmutter / Riess / Schmidt (2011) · 
+Wineland / Haroche (2012) · 
+Englert / Higgs (2013) · 
+Akasaki / Amano / Nakamura (2014) · 
+Kajita / McDonald (2015) · 
+Thouless / Haldane / Kosterlitz (2016) · 
+Weiss / Barish / Thorne (2017) · 
+Ashkin / Mourou / Strickland (2018) · 
+Mayor / Peebles / Queloz (2019)
+
+van 't Hoff (1901) ·
+E. Fischer (1902) ·
+Arrhenius (1903) ·
+Ramsay (1904) ·
+von Baeyer (1905) ·
+Moissan (1906) ·
+Buchner (1907) ·
+Rutherford (1908) ·
+Ostwald (1909) ·
+Wallach (1910) ·
+Curie (1911) ·
+Grignard / Sabatier (1912) ·
+Werner (1913) ·
+Richards (1914) ·
+Willstätter (1915) ·
+Haber (1918) ·
+Nernst (1920) ·
+Soddy (1921) ·
+Aston (1922) ·
+Pregl (1923) ·
+Zsigmondy (1925)
+
+Svedberg (1926) ·
+Wieland (1927) ·
+Windaus (1928) ·
+Harden / von Euler-Chelpin (1929) ·
+H. Fischer (1930) ·
+Bosch / Bergius (1931) ·
+Langmuir (1932) ·
+Urey (1934) ·
+F. Joliot-Curie / I. Joliot-Curie (1935) ·
+Debye (1936) ·
+Haworth / Karrer (1937) ·
+Kuhn (1938) ·
+Butenandt / Ružička (1939) ·
+de Hevesy (1943) ·
+Hahn (1944) ·
+Virtanen (1945) ·
+Sumner / Northrop / Stanley (1946) ·
+Robinson (1947) ·
+Tiselius (1948) ·
+Giauque (1949) ·
+Diels / Alder (1950)
+
+McMillan / Seaborg (1951) ·
+Martin / Synge (1952) ·
+Staudinger (1953) ·
+Pauling (1954) ·
+du Vigneaud (1955) ·
+Hinshelwood / Semyonov (1956) ·
+Todd (1957) ·
+Sanger (1958) ·
+Heyrovský (1959) ·
+Libby (1960) ·
+Calvin (1961) ·
+Perutz / Kendrew (1962) ·
+Ziegler / Natta (1963) ·
+Hodgkin (1964) ·
+Woodward (1965) ·
+Mulliken (1966) ·
+Eigen / Norrish / Porter (1967) ·
+Onsager (1968) ·
+Barton / Hassel (1969) ·
+Leloir (1970) ·
+Herzberg (1971) ·
+Anfinsen / Moore / Stein (1972) ·
+E. O. Fischer / Wilkinson (1973) ·
+Flory (1974) ·
+Cornforth / Prelog (1975)
+
+Lipscomb (1976) ·
+Prigogine (1977) ·
+Mitchell (1978) ·
+Brown / Wittig (1979) ·
+Berg / Gilbert / Sanger (1980) ·
+Fukui / Hoffmann (1981) ·
+Klug (1982) ·
+Taube (1983) ·
+Merrifield (1984) ·
+Hauptman / Karle (1985) ·
+Herschbach / Lee / Polanyi (1986) ·
+Cram / Lehn / Pedersen (1987) ·
+Deisenhofer / Huber / Michel (1988) ·
+Altman / Cech (1989) ·
+Corey (1990) ·
+Ernst (1991) ·
+Marcus (1992) ·
+Mullis / Smith (1993) ·
+Olah (1994) ·
+Crutzen / Molina / Rowland (1995) ·
+Curl / Kroto / Smalley (1996) ·
+Boyer / Walker / Skou (1997) ·
+Kohn / Pople (1998) ·
+Zewail (1999) ·
+Heeger / MacDiarmid / Shirakawa (2000)
+
+Knowles / Noyori / Sharpless (2001) ·
+Fenn / Tanaka / Wüthrich (2002) ·
+Agre / MacKinnon (2003) ·
+Ciechanover / Hershko / Rose (2004) ·
+Grubbs / Schrock / Chauvin (2005) ·
+Kornberg (2006) ·
+Ertl (2007) ·
+Shimomura / Chalfie / Tsien (2008) ·
+Ramakrishnan / Steitz / Yonath (2009) ·
+Heck / Negishi / Suzuki (2010) ·
+Shechtman (2011) ·
+ Lefkowitz / Kobilka (2012)  ·
+ Karplus / Levitt / Warshel (2013)  ·
+ Betzig / Hell / Moerner (2014)  ·
+ Lindahl / Modrich / Sancar (2015)  ·
+ Sauvage / Stoddart / Feringa (2016)  ·
+ Dubochet / Frank / Henderson (2017)  ·
+ Arnold / Smith / Winter (2018)  ·
+ Goodenough / Whittingham / Yoshino (2019)

ensimple/3679.html.txt

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+
+
+Marie Salomea Skłodowska–Curie (7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish physicist, chemist and feminist. She did research on radioactivity. She was also the first woman to win a Nobel Prize.[2] She was the first woman professor at the University of Paris. She was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes.[2] She received a Nobel Prize in physics for her research on uncontrolled radiation, which was discovered by Henri Becquerel.[3]
+
+She died because of too much radiation in her laboratory because she had no protection and she didn't know the effects of radiation.
+
+Curie was born on 7 November 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. She lived there until she was 22. At the age of ten, her sister Zofia died. Her mother died two years later. Marie Curie was the fifth child in her family. Her original name was Maria. Her father was a math teacher. He died when she was 11. As a young girl, she was interested in physics. She was top of her high school class. She graduated at 15. Marie became a teacher so she could earn money to go to school in Paris, France. She also went to an unaccredited college in Poland. Eventually, she left Poland and went to France under the name “Marie" after one of her big sisters gave her the chance. In  Paris, she earned higher degrees and did her important scientific work. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw.
+
+Curie did many great things. She and her husband created a theory of radioactivity (a term made by her and her husband Pierre Curie). They found different ways to separate radioactive isotopes and discovered two new elements: radium and polonium. The term polonium was named after Poland, her home country. She used her own studies in radioactivity to develop a new treatment for cancer. These treatments used the radioactive isotopes. She was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize. She was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes
+
+Curie discovered radium. It is one of the most radioactive and dangerous metals. She shared this discovery with Pierre Curie and Gustave Bemont. The three found radium in 1898. They discovered it when using a uranium ore. It gave off a lot of radiation. They decided that it was coming from more than uranium. The group found radium in the uranium. Radium is now used for many different things. For example, doctors used to use it to kill cancer cells. Radium was found in paint and watches. Many workers who made radium-containing products developed bone cancer. [4][5]
+
+Even though Curie became a French citizen, Curie never lost her Polish identity. She graduated first in her class in 1893. One year later she earned a master's degree in mathematics. Later, she met her husband, Pierre, at the Municipal School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry. They were married in July 1895 after only one year. They also started to work together on scientific discoveries. Marie and Pierre had their first daughter, Irene, in 1897. Their second daughter, Eve, was born in 1904. Pierre died on April 19, 1906, after he was hit by a horse-drawn wagon.
+
+After the war, Marie started to raise money for a hospital. The hospital raised money for radiation research. She was invited to tour the United States to recommend and speed up her project. She sailed for the United States in 1921. She collected enough money and equipment for a new laboratory. She then started speaking at meetings to raise more money and became a celebrity. She also supported world peace by serving on the council of the League of Nations.
+
+Near the 1920s, Curie and many of her colleagues began to suffer from symptoms of cancer. Curie began to lose her sight. Cataract surgeries to try to bring back her sight did not help. Curie knew that the element (radium) she discovered might have been causing the symptoms, but she did not want to admit it to herself or others. In the early 1930s, Curie’s health started to quickly get worse. Doctors diagnosed her with pernicious anemia. Pernicious anemia is a blood anemia that happens when someone is overly exposed to radiation. The doctors didn’t tell the public or Curie herself what was going on. On July 4, 1934, at 66 years old, she died in a Sanitorium at the French Alps. She was then buried next to her husband in Sceaux, France. Marie Curie was a physicist and chemist best known for her work on radioactivity; however, she also discovered the elements polonium and radium. She was awarded two Nobel Prizes — one in physics which she won jointly with her husband and Henri Becquerel, and another in chemistry — and was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes. She is still one of only four people (along with Linus Pauling, John Bardeen and Frederick Sanger) to accomplish that feat. Curie is responsible for establishing the theory of radioactivity, but unfortunately she unwittingly also discovered the fatal effect radioactivity can have on your health; she died on July 4, 1934, of aplastic anemia caused by radiation exposure.
+
+
+
+Röntgen (1901) · 
+Lorentz / Zeeman (1902) · 
+Becquerel / P. Curie / M. Curie (1903) · 
+Rayleigh (1904) · 
+Lenard (1905) · 
+Thomson (1906) · 
+Michelson (1907) · 
+Lippmann (1908) · 
+Marconi / Braun (1909) · 
+van der Waals (1910) · 
+Wien (1911) · 
+Dalén (1912) · 
+Kamerlingh Onnes (1913) · 
+Laue (1914) · 
+W. L. Bragg / W. H. Bragg (1915) · 
+Barkla (1917) · 
+Planck (1918) · 
+Stark (1919) · 
+Guillaume (1920) · 
+Einstein (1921) · 
+N. Bohr (1922) · 
+Millikan (1923) · 
+M. Siegbahn (1924) · 
+Franck / Hertz (1925)
+
+Perrin (1926) · 
+Compton / C. Wilson (1927) · 
+O. Richardson (1928) · 
+De Broglie (1929) · 
+Raman (1930) · 
+Heisenberg (1932) · 
+Schrödinger / Dirac (1933) · 
+Chadwick (1935) · 
+Hess / C. D. Anderson (1936) · 
+Davisson / Thomson (1937) · 
+Fermi (1938) · 
+Lawrence (1939) · 
+Stern (1943) · 
+Rabi (1944) · 
+Pauli (1945) · 
+Bridgman (1946) · 
+Appleton (1947) · 
+Blackett (1948) · 
+Yukawa (1949) · 
+Powell (1950)
+
+Cockcroft / Walton (1951) · 
+Bloch / Purcell (1952) · 
+Zernike (1953) · 
+Born / Bothe (1954) · 
+Lamb / Kusch (1955) · 
+Shockley / Bardeen / Brattain (1956) · 
+Yang / T. D. Lee (1957) · 
+Cherenkov / Frank / Tamm (1958) · 
+Segrè / Chamberlain (1959) · 
+Glaser (1960) · 
+Hofstadter / Mössbauer (1961) · 
+Landau (1962) · 
+Wigner / Goeppert-Mayer / Jensen (1963) · 
+Townes / Basov / Prokhorov (1964) · 
+Tomonaga / Schwinger / Feynman (1965) · 
+Kastler (1966) · 
+Bethe (1967) · 
+Alvarez (1968) · 
+Gell-Mann (1969) · 
+Alfvén / Néel (1970) · 
+Gabor (1971) · 
+Bardeen / Cooper / Schrieffer (1972) · 
+Esaki / Giaever / Josephson (1973) · 
+Ryle / Hewish (1974) · 
+A. Bohr / Mottelson / Rainwater (1975)
+
+Richter / Ting (1976) · 
+P. W. Anderson / Mott / Van Vleck (1977) · 
+Kapitsa / Penzias / R. Wilson (1978) · 
+Glashow / Salam / Weinberg (1979) · 
+Cronin / Fitch (1980) · 
+Bloembergen / Schawlow / K. Siegbahn (1981) · 
+K. Wilson (1982) · 
+Chandrasekhar / Fowler (1983) · 
+Rubbia / van der Meer (1984) · 
+von Klitzing (1985) · 
+Ruska / Binnig / Rohrer (1986) · 
+Bednorz / Müller (1987) · 
+Lederman / Schwartz / Steinberger (1988) · 
+Ramsey / Dehmelt / Paul (1989) · 
+Friedman / Kendall / R. Taylor (1990) · 
+de Gennes (1991) · 
+Charpak (1992) · 
+Hulse / J. Taylor (1993) · 
+Brockhouse / Shull (1994) · 
+Perl / Reines (1995) · 
+D. Lee / Osheroff / R. Richardson (1996) · 
+Chu / Cohen-Tannoudji / Phillips (1997) · 
+Laughlin / Störmer / Tsui (1998) · 
+'t Hooft / Veltman (1999) · 
+Alferov / Kroemer / Kilby (2000)
+
+Cornell / Ketterle / Wieman (2001) · 
+Davis / Koshiba / Giacconi (2002) · 
+Abrikosov / Ginzburg / Leggett (2003) · 
+Gross / Politzer / Wilczek (2004) · 
+Glauber / Hall / Hänsch (2005) · 
+Mather / Smoot (2006) · 
+Fert / Grünberg (2007) · 
+Nambu / Kobayashi / Maskawa (2008) · 
+Kao / Boyle / Smith (2009) · 
+Geim / Novoselov (2010) · 
+Perlmutter / Riess / Schmidt (2011) · 
+Wineland / Haroche (2012) · 
+Englert / Higgs (2013) · 
+Akasaki / Amano / Nakamura (2014) · 
+Kajita / McDonald (2015) · 
+Thouless / Haldane / Kosterlitz (2016) · 
+Weiss / Barish / Thorne (2017) · 
+Ashkin / Mourou / Strickland (2018) · 
+Mayor / Peebles / Queloz (2019)
+
+van 't Hoff (1901) ·
+E. Fischer (1902) ·
+Arrhenius (1903) ·
+Ramsay (1904) ·
+von Baeyer (1905) ·
+Moissan (1906) ·
+Buchner (1907) ·
+Rutherford (1908) ·
+Ostwald (1909) ·
+Wallach (1910) ·
+Curie (1911) ·
+Grignard / Sabatier (1912) ·
+Werner (1913) ·
+Richards (1914) ·
+Willstätter (1915) ·
+Haber (1918) ·
+Nernst (1920) ·
+Soddy (1921) ·
+Aston (1922) ·
+Pregl (1923) ·
+Zsigmondy (1925)
+
+Svedberg (1926) ·
+Wieland (1927) ·
+Windaus (1928) ·
+Harden / von Euler-Chelpin (1929) ·
+H. Fischer (1930) ·
+Bosch / Bergius (1931) ·
+Langmuir (1932) ·
+Urey (1934) ·
+F. Joliot-Curie / I. Joliot-Curie (1935) ·
+Debye (1936) ·
+Haworth / Karrer (1937) ·
+Kuhn (1938) ·
+Butenandt / Ružička (1939) ·
+de Hevesy (1943) ·
+Hahn (1944) ·
+Virtanen (1945) ·
+Sumner / Northrop / Stanley (1946) ·
+Robinson (1947) ·
+Tiselius (1948) ·
+Giauque (1949) ·
+Diels / Alder (1950)
+
+McMillan / Seaborg (1951) ·
+Martin / Synge (1952) ·
+Staudinger (1953) ·
+Pauling (1954) ·
+du Vigneaud (1955) ·
+Hinshelwood / Semyonov (1956) ·
+Todd (1957) ·
+Sanger (1958) ·
+Heyrovský (1959) ·
+Libby (1960) ·
+Calvin (1961) ·
+Perutz / Kendrew (1962) ·
+Ziegler / Natta (1963) ·
+Hodgkin (1964) ·
+Woodward (1965) ·
+Mulliken (1966) ·
+Eigen / Norrish / Porter (1967) ·
+Onsager (1968) ·
+Barton / Hassel (1969) ·
+Leloir (1970) ·
+Herzberg (1971) ·
+Anfinsen / Moore / Stein (1972) ·
+E. O. Fischer / Wilkinson (1973) ·
+Flory (1974) ·
+Cornforth / Prelog (1975)
+
+Lipscomb (1976) ·
+Prigogine (1977) ·
+Mitchell (1978) ·
+Brown / Wittig (1979) ·
+Berg / Gilbert / Sanger (1980) ·
+Fukui / Hoffmann (1981) ·
+Klug (1982) ·
+Taube (1983) ·
+Merrifield (1984) ·
+Hauptman / Karle (1985) ·
+Herschbach / Lee / Polanyi (1986) ·
+Cram / Lehn / Pedersen (1987) ·
+Deisenhofer / Huber / Michel (1988) ·
+Altman / Cech (1989) ·
+Corey (1990) ·
+Ernst (1991) ·
+Marcus (1992) ·
+Mullis / Smith (1993) ·
+Olah (1994) ·
+Crutzen / Molina / Rowland (1995) ·
+Curl / Kroto / Smalley (1996) ·
+Boyer / Walker / Skou (1997) ·
+Kohn / Pople (1998) ·
+Zewail (1999) ·
+Heeger / MacDiarmid / Shirakawa (2000)
+
+Knowles / Noyori / Sharpless (2001) ·
+Fenn / Tanaka / Wüthrich (2002) ·
+Agre / MacKinnon (2003) ·
+Ciechanover / Hershko / Rose (2004) ·
+Grubbs / Schrock / Chauvin (2005) ·
+Kornberg (2006) ·
+Ertl (2007) ·
+Shimomura / Chalfie / Tsien (2008) ·
+Ramakrishnan / Steitz / Yonath (2009) ·
+Heck / Negishi / Suzuki (2010) ·
+Shechtman (2011) ·
+ Lefkowitz / Kobilka (2012)  ·
+ Karplus / Levitt / Warshel (2013)  ·
+ Betzig / Hell / Moerner (2014)  ·
+ Lindahl / Modrich / Sancar (2015)  ·
+ Sauvage / Stoddart / Feringa (2016)  ·
+ Dubochet / Frank / Henderson (2017)  ·
+ Arnold / Smith / Winter (2018)  ·
+ Goodenough / Whittingham / Yoshino (2019)

ensimple/368.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Clay is a fine-grained silicate mineral made when rocks break down. Wet clay is soft and can be shaped to make pottery, bricks and other things. When it is shaped and then fired in a kiln to make it hard, it becomes pottery.
+
+Clay often contains some water because the water molecules stick to the tiny grains. There may also be some organic materials in the clay.
+
+There are 35 recognized clay mineral species on Earth, they make muds stick together ('cohesive'), or able to flow ('plastic'). The thixotropy of clay sometimes causes landslides.
+
+Quartz, feldspars, iron oxides, and carbonates can weather to sizes of a typical clay mineral.[1] The formation of clay is well understood.  It can come from soil, volcanic ash, and glaciation.  Ancient mudrocks are another source, because they weather and disintegrate easily.[1]
+
+Clay is by far the smallest particles recognized in mudrocks. A clay particle is about 1/1000th the width of a sand grain. This means a clay particle will travel 1000 times further at constant water velocity, thus requiring quieter conditions for settlement.[2] Where the grains are more than a few millimeters wide, the material is called silt, not clay.

ensimple/3680.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+Mary, Queen of Scots (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 until 24 July 1567, when she was forced to give up her kingdom (abdicate). She was executed because it was said she had been  plotting to kill her cousin, Elizabeth I of England.
+
+Mary was the daughter of King James V of Scotland, who died just after she was born. She was crowned queen when she was only 6 days old.[1] She went to live in France when she was very young. Scotland would be ruled by regents until she was 18 years old. The first regent was the Earl of Arran. After 1554, the regent was Mary's mother, Mary of Guise.
+
+King Henry VIII of England tried to get Lord Arran to agree that Mary would marry his son. This led to a series of battles called the "Rough Wooing". In the end, Lord Arran turned to the French for help. Lord Arran and King Henry II of France agreed that France would protect Scotland if Mary could marry the King's son Francis. When she was 15 years old, Mary married Francis, who was now King Francis II of France. But their marriage was short. Francis became very ill and later died from an ear infection that had spread to his brain, leaving Mary a widow shortly before her 18th birthday.
+
+When Mary was born, Scotland was a Catholic country. While she was living in France, Protestant ideas were spreading to Scotland. Her mother tried to stop this but could not. In 1560, the Parliament of Scotland said it wanted Scotland to be a Protestant country.
+
+In 1561, Mary returned to Scotland. She found that she was not popular in her kingdom. She had been brought up as a Catholic, but many people in Scotland had become Protestant. It was difficult for Mary to avoid siding with either the Catholics or the Protestants. As Mary was now free to marry again, there were lots of noblemen who wanted to become her husband. For her second husband, she chose an English lord named Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was of royal blood. Darnley was good-looking and charming, but he was often very childish, and he was jealous of Mary's secretary, an Italian named David Rizzio.
+
+Mary became pregnant. While she was expecting the baby, Darnley and his friends got drunk one night and decided to kill David Rizzio. They came into Mary's private rooms at Holyrood Palace while she was talking with Rizzio and they stabbed him to death. Darnley got away with the murder because he was the queen's husband, but Mary never forgave him for murdering her friend Rizzio and avoided being with him again. When her baby was born, it was a boy, who would later become King James VI of Scotland.
+
+In 1567, Darnley was murdered. James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell was put on trial for the murder but found not guilty. He was a powerful Scottish nobleman who was loyal to Mary and hated Darnley. Mary then married him. This caused her problems, because Bothwell had many enemies and many still believed he had murdered Darnley. Mary's enemies forced her off the throne and made her young son king in her place. Mary was put in prison in Loch Leven Castle. She escaped and crossed the border into England, which was ruled by her cousin, Elizabeth, Queen of England.
+
+Mary hoped that Elizabeth would help her to get her throne back, but Elizabeth did not since it was always believed that Mary would try to take the throne from her. She kept Mary a prisoner for many years. Mary was eventually accused of making plans to murder Elizabeth. A jury of thirty noblemen convicted her of treason and she was executed.
+
+Even though Elizabeth signed the death warrant, she put it off for a long time as she was not comfortable with executing someone who was both a family member and another queen.

ensimple/3681.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+Mary, Queen of Scots (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 until 24 July 1567, when she was forced to give up her kingdom (abdicate). She was executed because it was said she had been  plotting to kill her cousin, Elizabeth I of England.
+
+Mary was the daughter of King James V of Scotland, who died just after she was born. She was crowned queen when she was only 6 days old.[1] She went to live in France when she was very young. Scotland would be ruled by regents until she was 18 years old. The first regent was the Earl of Arran. After 1554, the regent was Mary's mother, Mary of Guise.
+
+King Henry VIII of England tried to get Lord Arran to agree that Mary would marry his son. This led to a series of battles called the "Rough Wooing". In the end, Lord Arran turned to the French for help. Lord Arran and King Henry II of France agreed that France would protect Scotland if Mary could marry the King's son Francis. When she was 15 years old, Mary married Francis, who was now King Francis II of France. But their marriage was short. Francis became very ill and later died from an ear infection that had spread to his brain, leaving Mary a widow shortly before her 18th birthday.
+
+When Mary was born, Scotland was a Catholic country. While she was living in France, Protestant ideas were spreading to Scotland. Her mother tried to stop this but could not. In 1560, the Parliament of Scotland said it wanted Scotland to be a Protestant country.
+
+In 1561, Mary returned to Scotland. She found that she was not popular in her kingdom. She had been brought up as a Catholic, but many people in Scotland had become Protestant. It was difficult for Mary to avoid siding with either the Catholics or the Protestants. As Mary was now free to marry again, there were lots of noblemen who wanted to become her husband. For her second husband, she chose an English lord named Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was of royal blood. Darnley was good-looking and charming, but he was often very childish, and he was jealous of Mary's secretary, an Italian named David Rizzio.
+
+Mary became pregnant. While she was expecting the baby, Darnley and his friends got drunk one night and decided to kill David Rizzio. They came into Mary's private rooms at Holyrood Palace while she was talking with Rizzio and they stabbed him to death. Darnley got away with the murder because he was the queen's husband, but Mary never forgave him for murdering her friend Rizzio and avoided being with him again. When her baby was born, it was a boy, who would later become King James VI of Scotland.
+
+In 1567, Darnley was murdered. James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell was put on trial for the murder but found not guilty. He was a powerful Scottish nobleman who was loyal to Mary and hated Darnley. Mary then married him. This caused her problems, because Bothwell had many enemies and many still believed he had murdered Darnley. Mary's enemies forced her off the throne and made her young son king in her place. Mary was put in prison in Loch Leven Castle. She escaped and crossed the border into England, which was ruled by her cousin, Elizabeth, Queen of England.
+
+Mary hoped that Elizabeth would help her to get her throne back, but Elizabeth did not since it was always believed that Mary would try to take the throne from her. She kept Mary a prisoner for many years. Mary was eventually accused of making plans to murder Elizabeth. A jury of thirty noblemen convicted her of treason and she was executed.
+
+Even though Elizabeth signed the death warrant, she put it off for a long time as she was not comfortable with executing someone who was both a family member and another queen.

ensimple/3682.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+A sailing ship is a big boat with sails which catch the wind.  The wind pushes the boat along.  A sailing ship had a rig of at least three masts, square rigged on all of them.  The great days of sailing ships was from around the 15th century to the middle of the 19th century.  They were very important for trade as well as for war.  All large boats became known as "ships", so when steam power was invented people talked about "steam ships" to distinguish them from "sailing ships".
+
+Small boats with sails are called "yachts" or sailboats.  They are used today for leisure activities.

ensimple/3683.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+A sailing ship is a big boat with sails which catch the wind.  The wind pushes the boat along.  A sailing ship had a rig of at least three masts, square rigged on all of them.  The great days of sailing ships was from around the 15th century to the middle of the 19th century.  They were very important for trade as well as for war.  All large boats became known as "ships", so when steam power was invented people talked about "steam ships" to distinguish them from "sailing ships".
+
+Small boats with sails are called "yachts" or sailboats.  They are used today for leisure activities.

ensimple/3684.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+
+
+Mario (マリオ) is a video game character, made by Shigeru Miyamoto. Mario is the main mascot of Nintendo. He has been in more than 200 video games.
+
+Mario is a hero who lives in the Mushroom Kingdom in most games. In the Mario games, he tries to stop the evil Bowser from taking Princess Peach away. He is often being helped by his brother Luigi. He also has other enemies like Donkey Kong, Waluigi, and Wario, although they are friends in other games.
+
+Mario is one of the most famous video game characters of all time.[1] Over 200 million copies of Mario games have been sold.[2]
+
+Mario first appeared in the arcade game Donkey Kong as a carpenter named "Jumpman".[3] In Japan, he was called "Mr. Video". Later, he was named "Mario", after Mario Segale, who was a lot like Mario. Mario Segale was the owner of the land where Nintendo of America's office was built.[4]
+
+Mario later appeared with his younger brother Luigi in an arcade game called Mario Bros. When the Nintendo Entertainment System was out in shops, Super Mario Bros. was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System the same year as the game console itself, and has often been considered one of the best games on it next to Super Mario Bros. 3  and Legend Of Zelda.
+
+Back then, games were hard to make and Nintendo could not make Mario move without making his arms "disappear". Changing his clothes fixed it. They also did not have the space to give him a mouth or ears, and they could not make hair, so Mario had a moustache, sideburns, and a cap so it would not look like he was bald. Mario's creator, Shigeru Miyamoto, said that he gave Mario a cap because he has a hard time drawing hair.[5] Mario is currently voiced by Charles Martinet, who also voices Luigi, Wario and Waluigi, respectively, and other characters like Toadsworth.[6]
+
+Mario is Nintendo's mascot (the face of the company). Mario's rival was Sega's mascot, Sonic the Hedgehog, who was first seen in 1991. The two mascots were trying to get more people to buy their games for years until 2001 when Sonic Adventure 2: Battle was released on a Nintendo machine since Sega games started to be released on game machines that were not made by Sega.[7] Mario and Sonic appeared together in a sports game, Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games, and again in Super Smash Bros. Brawl as well as Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. To this day, Mario and Sonic continue to appear together in Nintendo’s spinoff titles such as Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.
+
+Mario was first seen as "Jumpman" in Donkey Kong in 1981. He was first named "Mario" in the arcade game Donkey Kong Junior in 1982, the only game where he is a villain. His twin brother Luigi was first seen in 1983 in Mario Bros. He was next seen in Super Mario Bros. for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), which would quickly be one of the most famous games on the console.
+
+By 2007, more than 200 million copies of Mario games had been sold all over the world.[8] The game that was best sold was Super Mario Bros. 3.[9] Mario was also seen in some Game & Watch games. Mario has appeared in almost every type of video game, like platform, puzzle, racing, sports, fighting, role-playing and educational games.
+
+Mario has been seen in many games, and is seen in games that are not Mario games as well, like Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!! where he is a referee. He is also a character you can play as in the Super Smash Bros. series. Mario has even appeared as a secret character which any player can play as in GameCube version of NBA Street V3 and SSX on Tour, which are both from Electronic Arts. In some games, he only makes very small appearances: in both The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past and The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, a picture of Mario can be seen, and in Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes small Mario and Yoshi statues can be seen.
+
+After the Game & Watch game Mario Bombs Away, the first Mario non-platformer game, Dr. Mario, was sold in 1990. There are two educational Mario games that have been made. They are called Mario Paint, was sold in 1992 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and Mario Pinball Land for the Game Boy Advance. 1996's Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System is the first Mario role-playing game. There have also been five more Mario RPG's: Paper Mario, for the Nintendo 64; Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga, for the Game Boy Advance; Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door, for the Nintendo GameCube; Mario & Luigi: Partners in Time, for the Nintendo DS and Super Paper Mario, for the Wii. Now, there is a new RPG game that came out called Mario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story for the Nintendo DS.
+
+There have been more series based on the original Mario series. The Mario Kart series' first game was Super Mario Kart for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The Mario Kart series is the most successful racing video game series of all time.[10][11][12][13][14] The Mario Kart series is a type of Mario sports game. There have been other Mario sports games like Mario Golf and Mario Tennis, and the baseball and soccer games Mario Superstar Baseball and Super Mario Strikers. In 1999, the Mario Party series started on the Nintendo 64. In the Mario Party games, players have to play-through a lot of mini-games.
+
+There has been a few TV shows and a movie for the Mario series. The name of the first TV show is The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! and the movie is called Super Mario Bros.. The TV show starred "Captain" Lou Albano as Mario, and the movie starred Bob Hoskins as Mario. There have also been Mario toys sold in some places.
+
+Mario was first a 2D character but since technology has changed, Nintendo has remade Mario in 3D. He is a plumber who lives in the land of Mushroom Kingdom. He is the older, shorter brother of Luigi, and they are both plumbers. In the television series, Mario and Luigi are from Brooklyn, although Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island says he was born in the Mushroom Kingdom.
+
+Mario's looks have changed over the years although he has several staple features. He is a short, stubby man wearing a hat with an "M" on it, brown hair, black moustache, a very large nose, white gloves, and denim overalls. In most appearances, Mario wears a red hat and shirt with blue overalls. However, in the original Super Mario Bros. video game, Mario wears a brown shirt and red overalls.
+
+Mario's clothes depend on the game he is in. For example, in the Super Mario Strikers soccer game, Mario wears a football kit instead of overalls, and in Super Mario Sunshine, a very sunshiny tropical game, the character wears a red T-shirt and can also put on sunglasses and a Hawaiian-style shirt. In some games, Mario can turn into different forms, each with different clothes.
+
+Mario is a kind-hearted and brave hero, with a love of pasta and pizza. People know Mario has a great, happy, personality since he has a high pitched, funny voice. Since Mario's Game Gallery, Charles Martinet has been his voice actor.[15] In the games, Mario speaks in English with a thick Italian accent. In other things like TV shows, he has a more Brooklyn-styled accent. Mario does not say many things. He usually says: "Okey dokey!", "Woohoo!", "Let's a-go!", "It's-a me! Mario!", "'ere we go", "Mama mia!" and more, though in sports games, he says things relevant to the sport, in Mario Golf he says "Fore!" for example. Mario hardly ever speaks properly in any games, leaving the talking to other characters. He does speak normally in the DiC animated cartoons and the anime series.
+
+Mario is a plumber (he was a carpenter). He only acts like a plumber in the games, Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga and the original Mario Bros., but pipes are always one way to get around. Mario was seen plumbing during the animated series. He knows a lot about tools and fixing pipes in the movie. In the first Donkey Kong games when Mario was called Jumpman, he was a carpenter.[16]
+
+In the Dr. Mario games first seen in 1990, Mario is a doctor. In 2001, Mario appeared in Dr. Mario 64, an updated version of the original puzzle game. Dr. Mario appeared as an secret character in the Nintendo GameCube game Super Smash Bros. Melee, and in another newer version, Dr. Mario Virus Buster, for WiiWare. In the Game Boy game Mario's Picross, Mario is an archaeologist.
+
+Mario usually saves Princess Peach (AKA Princess Toadstool), Princess Daisy and Pauline. And he usually has to defeat villains, like Bowser(AKA King Koopa in Japan) Most characters in the games know who he is because he acts like a hero, as shown in Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga, where they are called "superstars", or celebrities.[17]
+
+In Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis, it is said that Mario has a toy-making company that earns him money.
+
+Since his first game, Mario has to save the "damsel in distress" of the game. Originally, he had to rescue his girlfriend Pauline in Donkey Kong. Pauline was soon replaced by a new damsel-in-distress, Princess Peach, in Super Mario Bros. (she was first named "Princess Toadstool" or simply "the Princess" in English-speaking places until 1993, when Yoshi's Safari was sold, even though the name was not widely used until Super Mario 64 was sold three years later).[18] Pauline returned in the Game Boy remake of Donkey Kong in 1994, and later Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis in 2006, although the character is now said to be "Mario's friend".[19]
+
+Mario has rescued Princess Peach lots of times since Super Mario Bros.. In a role reversal, Peach rescues Mario in Super Princess Peach. Some people say the two could be a couple.[20][21]
+
+Luigi is Mario's younger brother. He is usually a companion on many of Mario's adventures and the character whom players play as in two-player sessions of many of the video games. His demeanor is sometimes that of a "scaredy cat" who sets off to help Mario but instead needs rescuing himself, though he has also had to rescue Mario occasionally as displayed in Mario is Missing! and Luigi's Mansion. Yoshi is another one of Mario's friends.
+
+Mario rescued Princess Daisy in Super Mario Land for the Game Boy. In Super Smash Bros. Melee, the text explaining Princess Daisy's trophy states that "after her appearance in Mario Golf, some gossips portrayed her as Luigi's answer to Mario's Peach",[22] although Luigi and Daisy were previously paired as a romantic couple in the live-action Super Mario Bros movie.
+
+Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins for the Game Boy saw the arrival of Wario, Mario's counterpart. Though there is no clear relationship between the two, Wario was once referred to as Mario's cousin in Nintendo Power. Wario is designed to act, in a way, as an anti-Mario.[23]
+
+Baby Mario is Mario when he was a child. He first appeared in Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island, released in 1995 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and has appeared in several titles since. Baby Mario has often appeared in Nintendo-sports titles, such as Mario Golf, Mario Tennis, Mario Superstar Baseball, Mario Kart: Double Dash!!, Mario Super Sluggers, and Mario Kart Wii. These games imply Mario and Baby Mario are separate characters, but those games are considered to be outside the continuity of the main Mario series. More recently, he has appeared in Mario & Luigi: Partners in Time, in which Baby Mario appeared via time travel along with Baby Luigi, Baby Peach, and Baby Bowser, which could explain the separation of the two characters. Like the older Mario, Baby Mario is voiced by Charles Martinet.[24]
+
+During the development of Donkey Kong, Mario was known as "Jumpman". Jumping—both to access places and as an offensive move—is a common gameplay element in Mario games, especially the Super Mario Bros. series.
+
+Mario's most commonly portrayed form of attack is jumping to stomp on the heads of enemies, first used in Mario Bros.. This jump-stomp move may entirely crush smaller enemies on the stage, and usually deals damage to larger ones, sometimes also causing secondary effects. This attack often enables Mario to knock the turtle-like Koopa Troopas into their shells, which can slide into and damage other enemies or Mario.
+
+Subsequent games have elaborated on Mario's jumping-related abilities. Super Mario World added the ability to spin-jump, which allows Mario to break blocks beneath him. Later, the Game Boy version of Donkey Kong allows Mario to jump higher with consecutive jumps, and perform a back-flip. In Super Mario 64, Mario has several jumping abilities, such as a sideways somersault, a "ground pound", which makes Mario hit the ground under him hard, and the "Wall Kick", which propels him upwards by kicking off walls.
+
+Mario uses many items, which give him various powers. The one that shows up the most often is the "Super Mushroom", which allows Mario to grow to twice his size, becoming "Super Mario" (after the name of the series), and can take a hit before shrinking back down to "regular" Mario. If "Super Mario" collects a "Fire Flower", he will transform into "Fire Mario", who can throw fireballs at enemies. Picking up a "Star" makes it so nothing can hurt Mario for several seconds.
+
+A common theme in the Mario series' power-ups is the fact that many items give Mario a semi-animal appearance, sometimes related to the item itself, for example Super Mario Bros. 3's Frog Suit, which turns Mario into a frog, and Super Mario Land 2's Power Carrot, which transforms Mario into a rabbit. Other times the item may not be related to the power; for example, the Raccoon Leaf gives him raccoon ears, a tail, and the power of flight. Other power-ups are overall more useful; in Super Mario World, the Cape allows Mario to fly and glide, and a balloon in a later game in the series allows similar effects. New Super Mario Bros. introduced other types of Mushroom power-ups, such as the "Mega Mushroom", which causes Mario to grow to a screen-filling size and the "Mini Mushroom" that makes him shrink to a very small size.
+
+When Mario reached the three dimensional format, Super Mario 64 introduced a feature that made Mario take extra damage without his signature hat on; in addition to this, different types of caps gave him powers of flight, invincibility, and invisibility. Along with these basic features, caps gave more practical abilities as well. For example, the Metal cap allowed Mario to sink to sea floors and the Invisibility cap allowed him to walk through thin surfaces such as iron grates.
+
+Super Mario Sunshine has several few power-ups with a water theme. He is granted a F.L.U.D.D. (Flash Liquidizing Ultra Dousing Device) pack that performs his main attack and squirts paint and enemies with water, named the Squirt Nozzle. He has three other expansion packs including the Hover Nozzle, which allows him to hover for short distances, the Turbo Nozzle, which allows him to move a lot faster and break through some barriers, and the Rocket Nozzle, which charges water up, then blasts Mario high into the air.
+
+Super Mario Galaxy introduced several new power-ups along with a few older items re-done. These include the Bee Shroom, which allows him to float short distances and stick to certain surfaces; the Boo Shroom, which makes him capable of floating as well as traveling through walls; the Life Shroom, which gives him three more life wedges; the Rainbow Star, granting him brief invincibility; the Fire Flower, which appeared for the first time in a 3D game; and the Ice Flower, which allows him to turn water into solid ice so he can go to otherwise unreachable or deadly places. A hidden power-up is the Flight Star, which allows Mario to fly for a while.
+
+Mario uses hammers in numerous games, such as Super Mario Bros. 3, the original Donkey Kong, and Super Mario RPG. Hammers are used to attack and for other things, like flicking switches and solving puzzles. He often picks up and throws various projectiles around him, however, starting in Super Mario Bros. 2. He tosses items such as vegetables, giant blocks and Bob-ombs.
+
+In the Mario Kart series, there are a number of items to use. For example, a mushroom makes the characters go faster for 1 second.
+
+As Nintendo's mascot, many people think that Mario is the most famous video game character of all time.[3][5] The Mario series of video games has sold more than 200 million copies, making it the best selling game series of all time.[25]  Mario was the first video game character to get a wax figure in the Hollywood Wax Museum in 2003. In 1990, a national survey showed that more kids knew Mario than Mickey Mouse.[26]
+
+Since he was created, Mario has become a very famous person having been in many television shows, comic books, and in a movie. He has been on lunch boxes, T-shirts, magazines, commercials, in candy form, on Shampoo bottles, cereal, badges, and as a stuffed toy.[27] Nintendo of Japan made a 60-minute anime (Japanese cartoon) movie starring Mario and his friends in 1986, but this movie has never been shown or sold on DVD outside of Japan. The animated series The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! had a live-action series of episodes starring former WWF manager "Captain" Lou Albano as Mario and Danny Wells as Luigi. There was even a book series, the Nintendo Adventure Books. In 2005, Jonathan Mann even wrote an opera based on the character, and performed The Mario Opera at the California Institute of the Arts.
+
+Bergsala, the distributor of Nintendo's products in the Nordic and the Baltic countries, is located at Marios Gata 21 (Mario's Street 21) in Kungsbacka, Sweden, named after Mario.[28]
+
+Mario's legacy is recognized by Guinness World Records, who awarded the Nintendo Mascot and his games seven records in the Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008. These records include, "Best Selling Video Game Series of All Time", "First Movie Based on an Existing Video Game", and "Most Prolific Video Game Character", with Mario appearing in 116 distinct titles (not including remakes or re-releases).
+
+In a poll conducted in 2008, Mario was voted as the most popular video game character in Japan.
+
+Mario's theme music in Super Mario Bros., composed by Kōji Kondō, is highly recognizable.[29] Former NHL hockey player, Mario Lemieux was given the nickname "Super Mario" by the media during his career. Mario Williams, the #1 draft pick in the 2006 NFL Draft, was also given the nickname "Super Mario", as was pro-cyclist, Mario Cipollini. German international footballer Mario Basler was affectionately referred to as "Super Mario" by fans and the media. Another sportsman who received this nickname was the Brazilian soccer player Mário Jardel, famous for his jumps and headers. There is also the popular Mario parody channels, the most famous of which being "SuperMarioGlitchy4", or "SMG4", Which makes various forms of Mario "Parody" content.

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+A sea is a large body of saline water that may be connected with an ocean or may be a large saline lake that, like the Caspian Sea, lacks a natural outlet.
+
+A characteristic of seawater is that it is salty. It is usual to measure salinity in parts per thousand and the open ocean has about 35 grams (1.2 oz) solids per litre, a salinity of 35ppt. The Mediterranean Sea is a little higher at 37ppt and the Dead Sea has as much as 300 grams (11 oz) dissolved solids per litre (300ppt). Although sodium chloride is the main salt present, making up about 85% of the solids in solution, there are also 5 grams (0.18 oz) per litre of the chlorides of other metals such as potassium and magnesium and 3 grams (0.11 oz) of sulphates, carbonates, bromides and other salts. A kilogram (2.2 lb) of salt can therefore be found in 28 litres or one cubic foot of typical ocean water.[1] Despite differences in the levels of salinity in different seas, the relative composition of the dissolved salts is very stable throughout the world's oceans.[2]
+
+The circumstances which cause the salinity of a body of water to differ include evaporation from its surface, precipitation on its surface, the freezing or melting of sea ice, the inflow of fresh river water, wind and wave movement that increase evaporation and the mixing of bodies of water of different salinities. The Baltic Sea for example is in a cool climatic area with low evaporation, has many rivers flowing into it, and on-and-off refilling from the open ocean. The occasional inflow of water from the North Sea creates a cold, dense under layer that hardly mixes with the surface layers. The topmost layer may have a salinity of 10 to 15ppt, with even lower levels in the river.[3] The Red Sea experiences high atmospheric temperatures causing high evaporation but little precipitation, few rivers flow into it and the Bab-el-Mandeb joining it to the Gulf of Aden is narrow. Its salinity is high and averages 40ppt.[4]
+
+The temperature of the sea is dependent on the amount of solar radiation falling on the surface. In the tropics, with the sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F) while near the poles the temperature in balance with the sea ice is about −2 °C (28 °F). Cold water is denser than warm water and tends to sink. Cold water is denser than warm water and tends to sink. There is a continuous circulation of water in the oceans. Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, the water becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the equator as a deep sea current, driven by changes in the temperature and  density of the water, eventually welling up again towards the surface. Deep sea water has a temperature between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F) in all parts of the globe.[2]
+
+The amount of oxygen found in seawater depends mostly on the plants growing in it. These are mainly algae, including phytoplankton, but also include some vascular plants such as seagrasses. In daylight the photosynthetic activity of these plants produces oxygen which dissolves in the seawater where it is used by marine animals. At night, photosynthesis stops, and the amount of dissolved oxygen declines. In the deep sea where not enough light penetrates for plants to grow, there is very little dissolved oxygen.[2]
+
+Seawater is a little alkaline and during historic times has had a pH of about 8.2. More recently, increased amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have resulted in more of it dissolving in the ocean forming carbonic acid and has raised this pH level to 8.1. The pH is expected to reach 7.7 by the year 2100, an increase of 320% in acidity in a century.[5] One important element for the formation of skeletal material in marine animals is calcium but it is easily precipitated out in the form of calcium carbonate as the sea becomes more acid.[6] This is likely to have profound effects on certain planktonic marine organisms because their ability to form shells will be reduced. These include snail-like molluscs known as pteropods, single-celled algae called coccolithophorids and foraminifera. All of these are important parts of the food chain and a reduction in their numbers will have significant results. In tropical areas, corals are likely to be very much affected by a lack of calcium with knock-on effects for other reef residents.[5]
+
+Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves. The friction between air and water caused by a gentle breeze on a pond causes ripples to form. A strong blow over the ocean causes larger waves as the moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves reach their greatest height when the rate at which they travel nearly matches the speed of the wind. The waves form at right angles to the direction from which the wind blows. In open water, if the wind continues to blow, as happens in the Roaring Forties in the southern hemisphere, long, organized masses of water called swell roll across the ocean. If the wind dies down, the wave formation is reduced but waves already formed continue to travel in their original direction until they meet land. Small waves form in small areas of water with islands and other landmasses but large waves form in open stretches of sea where the wind blows steadily and strongly. When waves meet other waves coming from different directions, interference between the two can produce broken, irregular seas.[7][8]