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Walter Terence Stace Katz further notes that Stace held one specific mystical tradition to be superior and normative, whereas Katz rejects reductionist notions and leaves God as God, and Nirvana as Nirvana. In defense of Stace, Hood (2001) cites Forman, who argues that introverted mysticism is correctly conceptualized as a common core, since it lacks all content, and is the correct basis for a perennial philosophy. Hood notes that Stace's work is a conceptual approach, based on textual studies. He posits his own work as a parallel approach, based on an empirical approach, thereby placing the conceptual claims in an empirical framework, assuming that Stace is correct in his approach | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7916544 | Walter Terence Stace |
Walter Terence Stace Jacob van Belzen (2010) criticized Hood, noting that Hood validated the existence of a common core in mystical experiences, but based on a conceptual framework which presupposes the existence of such a common core: Belzen also notes that religion does not stand on its own, but is embedded in a cultural context, and this should be taken into account. To this criticism Hood et al. answer that universalistic tendencies in religious research "are rooted first in inductive generalizations from cross-cultural consideration of either faith or mysticism," stating that Stace sought out texts which he recognized as an expression of mystical expression, from which he created his universal core | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7916544 | Walter Terence Stace |
Walter Terence Stace Hood therefore concludes that Belzen "is incorrect when he claims that items were presupposed." Shear (2011) notes that Stace regarded extroverted mysticism to be a less complete form of mysticism, but was puzzled by the fact that there are far more descriptions of introverted mysticism than of extroverted mysticism. Shear proposes a developmental sequence of three higher states of consciousness: According to Shear, HS1 corresponds to Stace's introverted mysticism, whereas HS3 corresponds to Stace's extroverted mysticism, and is actually the more developed form of mysticism, in contrast to what Stace supposed. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7916544 | Walter Terence Stace |
Naphtali Hirz Wessely Naphtali(-)Herz (Hartwig) Wessely, a.k.a. Naphtali(-)Hirz Wessely, also Wesel ( "Vezel"; born 1725, Hamburg – died February 28, 1805, Hamburg), was an 18th-century German Jewish Hebraist and educationist. One of Wessely's ancestors, Joseph Reis, fled from Podolia in 1648 on account of the Chmielnicki persecutions, during which his whole family had perished. After a brief sojourn in Cracow, Reis settled in Amsterdam, where he acquired great wealth, and where he, in 1671, was one of the signers of a petition to the Dutch government requesting permission to erect a synagogue. Together with his younger son, Moses (Moses Reis(-)Wessely), Reis later settled in Wesel on the Rhine, whence the family name ""Wessely"" originated | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7921939 | Naphtali Hirz Wessely |
Naphtali Hirz Wessely In the synagogue at Wesel are still (as of 1906) preserved some ritual paraphernalia presented to it by Moses Reis Wessely, who, upon the advice of the Prince of Holstein, whose purveyor he was, removed to Glückstadt, then the capital of Sleswick. He established there a factory of arms. King Frederick VI of Denmark later sent Moses to Hamburg as his agent, and while there he transacted important business for Peter the Great also. Moses' son, Issachar Ber Wessely, was the father of Naphtali Hirz. Naphtali Herz Wessely passed his childhood at Copenhagen, where his father was purveyor to the king. In addition to rabbinical studies under Jonathan Eybeschütz, he studied modern languages | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7921939 | Naphtali Hirz Wessely |
Naphtali Hirz Wessely As the representative of the banker Feitel, he later visited Amsterdam, where he published (1765–66) his "Lebanon", or "Gan Na'ul", a philological investigation of Hebrew roots and synonyms. Although prolix in style, and lacking scientific method, this work established his reputation. After his marriage at Copenhagen, he represented Feitel at Berlin, and there became associated with Mendelssohn. Wessely encouraged the latter in his labors by publishing "Alim li-Terufah", a work advocating the "bi'ur" and the translation of the Bible into German. To this work Wessely himself contributed a commentary on Leviticus (Berlin, 1782), having published, two years previously, a Hebrew edition of the Book of Wisdom (?), together with a commentary | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7921939 | Naphtali Hirz Wessely |
Naphtali Hirz Wessely He died in Hamburg on February 28, 1805. Wessely was an advocate of the educational and social reforms outlined in Emperor Joseph II's "Toleranzedict" (Patent of toleration). He even risked his reputation for piety by publishing a manifesto in eight chapters, entitled "Divrei Shalom ve-Emet" (Words of Peace and Truth), in which he emphasized the necessity for secular instruction, as well as for other reforms, even from the points of view of the Mosaic law and the Talmud. This work has been translated into French as "Instructions Salutaires Addressées aux Communautés Juives de l'Empire de Joseph II." (Paris, 1792), into Italian by (Goerz, 1793), and into German by David Friedländer under the title "Worte der Wahrheit und des Friedens" (Berlin, 1798) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7921939 | Naphtali Hirz Wessely |
Naphtali Hirz Wessely By thus espousing the cause of reform, as well as by his support of M. Mendelssohn, Wessely incurred the displeasure of the rabbinical authorities of Germany and Poland, who threatened him with excommunication. His enemies, however, were finally pacified through the energetic intervention of the Italian rabbis, as well as by Wessely's pamphlets "Meḳor Ḥen", in which he gave evidence of his sincere piety. In 1788 Wessely published in Berlin his ethical treatise "Sefer ha-Middot" (The Book of Virtues), a work of Musar literature. He also published several odes; elegies, and other poems; but his masterwork is his "Shire Tif'eret" (5 vols.; i.-iv., Berlin, 1782–1802; v., Prague, 1829), describing in rhetorical style the exodus from Egypt | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7921939 | Naphtali Hirz Wessely |
Naphtali Hirz Wessely This work, through which he earned the admiration of his contemporaries, was translated into German (by G. F. Hufnagel and Spalding; 1789–1805), and partly into French (by Michel Berr; Paris, 1815). His commentaries on the Bible were published by the society Meḳiẓe Nirdamim (Lyck, 1868–75) under the title "Imre Shefer." Wessely influenced his contemporaries in various directions. As a scholar he contributed, by his profound philological researches, to the reconstruction of the language of the Bible, though his work is marred by prolixity and by his refusal to admit shades of meaning in synonyms. As a poet he possessed perfection of style, but lacked feeling and artistic imagination | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7921939 | Naphtali Hirz Wessely |
Naphtali Hirz Wessely No one exerted a greater influence than he on the dissemination of modern Hebrew, and no one, on the other hand, did more to retard the development of pure art and of poetic intuition. Because of his energetic commitment to the cause of Jewish emancipation, Wessely may be regarded as a leader of the Maskilim. Wessely also wrote a commentary on Pirkei Avot entitled "Yein Levanon," which was highly regarded in Musar Yeshivas. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7921939 | Naphtali Hirz Wessely |
Warren County PCB Landfill was a PCB landfill located in Warren County, North Carolina, near the community of Afton south of Warrenton. The landfill was created in 1982 by the State of North Carolina as a place to dump contaminated soil as result of an illegal PCB dumping incident. The site, which is about , was extremely controversial and led to years of lawsuits. Warren County was one of the first cases of environmental justice in the United States and set a legal precedent for other environmental justice cases. The site was approximately three miles south of Warrenton. The State of North Carolina owned about of the tract where the landfill was located, and Warren County owned the surrounding acreage around the borders | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill The purpose of the Warren County PCB landfill, as the public knew it, was to bury 60,000 tons of PCB-contaminated soil that had been contaminated with toxic PCBs between June and August, 1978, by Robert J. Burns, a business associate with Robert "Buck" Ward of the Ward PCB Transformer Company of Raleigh, North Carolina. Burns and his sons deliberately dripped 31,000 gallons of PCB-contaminated oil along some 240 miles of highway shoulders in 14 counties. Burns of Jamestown, New York, was supposed to take the oil to a facility to be recycled. Allegedly, the rationale for Burns' crime was that he wanted to save money by circumventing new EPA regulations that would make waste disposal more transparent and costly | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill But he could have easily, discreetly, and illegally disposed of the PCB-contaminated oil in a matter of hours. Burns and Ward were sent to prison for a short time for their involvement in the crime. The Ward Transformer site would later go onto the EPA Superfund cleanup list and be the primary polluter of Lake Crabtree and the Neuse River basin in the vicinity of Raleigh, North Carolina. Contaminants from the Ward site have been detoxified, but the area around the site and surrounding creeks, lakes, and rivers have been permanently polluted. Soon after the "midnight PCB dumpings," the state erected large warning signs along the roadsides, making the public feel as if the roadside PCBs posed an imminent public health threat | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill However, the Hunt administration let the PCBs remain for four years as they spread into the environment, while Warren County citizens opposed the PCB landfill. The Governor, the North Carolina General Assembly, and the EPA found they would have to make the political, legal, and regulatory preparations to forcibly bury the PCBs in Warren County. The Warren County PCB landfill was permitted as a "dry-tomb" toxic waste landfill by the EPA under the Toxic Substances Control Act. The EPA approved the "dry-tomb" PCB landfill which failed from the beginning because it was capped with nearly a million gallons of water in it | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill The site never operated as a commercial facility because residents forced the Governor to include in the deed that it was a one-time only toxic waste facility. The landfill was built with plastic liners, a clay cap, and PVC pipes which allowed for methane and toxic gas to be released from the landfill. Although state officials told citizens they planned to build the landfill with a perforated pipe leachate collection system under the landfill, a system critical to a functioning "dry-tomb" landfill, no such leachate collection system was ever installed | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill The nearly 1 million gallons of water that was capped in the "dry-tomb" landfill could not be pumped out, and citizens later learned from state rainfall and landfill monitoring data that tens of thousands of gallons of water had been entering and exiting the landfill for years. Within a few months of burying the PCBs, EPA found significant PCB air emissions at the landfill and 1/2 mile away, but citizens did not learn about this report for another 15 years. The 60,000 tons of PCB-contaminated soil were buried within about 7 feet of groundwater. Warren County's first independent scientist, Dr. Charles Mulchi, had predicted that the landfill would inevitably fail because of unsuitable soils and close proximity to groundwater | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill He had pointed out at a January 4, 1979, EPA public hearing that state scientists had misrepresented the depths of soil sample testing they had conducted at the site. At Dr. Mulchi's insistence, the state added a plastic top liner to the landfill. According to detoxification expert, Dr. Joel Hirshhorn, who represented Warren County citizens as they pressed Governor Hunt and the NC General Assembly for funding for a cleanup, the Warren county PCB landfill was an utter failure that should never have been approved by the EPA. Beginning with Governor Hunt's administration's December 20, 1978, announcement that "public sentiment would not deter the state from burying the PCBs in Warren County," the PCB landfill was surrounded by controversy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill The landfill was located in rural Warren County, which was primarily African American. Warren County has about 18,000 people living in the county. Sixty-nine percent of the residents are non-white, and twenty percent of the residents live below the federal poverty level. The county has been determined as a Tier I county for economic development. The state claimed that the Warren County site was the best available site; however, the site selection process was not based on scientific criteria — soil permeability properties or the distance to groundwater — but on other, less tangible criteria, including the demographics of the county | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill EPA and state officials claimed they could compensate for improper soil qualities and the close proximity to groundwater with the engineering design of their "state-of-the-art", "dry-tomb", zero-percent discharge landfill. After four years, Warren County citizens officially launched the environmental justice movement as they lay in front of 10,000 truckloads of contaminated PCB soil. During the six-week trucking opposition, with collective nonviolent direct action, which included over 550 arrests, Warren County citizens mounted what the Duke Chronicle described as "the largest civil disobedience in the South since Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., marched through Alabama | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill " It was the first time in American history that citizens were jailed for trying to stop a landfill, from attempting to prevent pollution. In an editorial titled "Dumping on the Poor," the "Washington Post" described Warren County's PCB protest movement as "the marriage of environmentalism with civil rights," and in its "1994 Environmental Equity Draft", the EPA described the PCB protest movement as "the watershed event that led to the environmental equity movement of the 1980's." With public pressure mounting, Governor Hunt then pledged to Warren citizens that when technology became available, the state would detoxify the PCB landfill | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill In May, 1993, more than 10 years after the Governor promised to detoxify the PCB landfill when it became feasible, and soon after stopping a huge trash landfill to be located near the PCB landfill, citizens learned that there was "an emergency" at the PCB landfill because of nearly a million gallons of water in that landfill that threatened to breach the liner. Speaking and negotiating for Warren County citizens as he had done a decade before, Ken Ferruccio laid out a "5-Point Framework" for resolving the PCB landfill crisis and demanded from the Hunt administration (Governor Jim Hunt's 3rd of 4 terms in office): Governor Hunt agreed to the "Framework" and the Joint Warren County/State PCB Landfill Working Group was formed | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill In 1999, the North Carolina General Assembly promised about eight million dollars to go towards cleanup with another group would be willing to match it. The EPA was deemed a "match" and the cleanup project was able to move forward. In November 2000 an environmental engineering firm, Earth Tech, was hired to serve as the oversight contractor. In December 2000, public bids were taken for the site-detoxifying contract. The IT group was awarded the contract, with their bid of 13.5 million dollars. Phase I of the cleanup process began, and the contract was signed in March 2001. The IT group was bought by the Shaw Group, in May 2002, and changed their name to Shaw Environmental and Infrastructure | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill The equipment was sent to the landfill in May 2002, and an open house was held so community members could view the site before the start-up. The follow-up tests on the site were performed in 2002. The EPA demonstrated test onto the PCB Landfill in January 2003. Based on the test results, an interim operations permit was granted in March. The soil treatment was then completed in October 2003, and in total 81,600 tons of soil was treated for the landfill site. The soil which was treated was the soil that was on the roadside and the soil adjacent to it that had been in the landfill and had been cross-contaminated. The equipment at the site was decontaminated and removed from the site at the end of 2003 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Warren County PCB Landfill The final cost of the cleanup project of the landfill was 17.1 million dollars. (Much of this money paid for various costly studies and administrative costs. It was not the price of the actual detoxification.) The Based Catalyzed Decomposition detoxification was completed in 2004. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7930519 | Warren County PCB Landfill |
Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia The (, MATAKIN; Chinese: 印尼孔教總會; pinyin: yìnní kǒngiào zǒnghuì) is a Confucian church established in 1955 in Indonesia, comprising the communities of practitioners of Confucianism mostly among Chinese Indonesians. Together with the Hong Kong Confucian Academy it is one of the two branches that formed after the dissolution of mainland China's Confucian Church founded by Kang Youwei in the early 20th century. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7931369 | Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia |
Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change (also known as global warming), and concepts such as climate justice. Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions, yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change; and that, consequently, ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations, policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939170 | Climate ethics |
Climate ethics Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ('eco justice') are used worldwide, and have been adopted by various organizations. An article in the scientific journal "Nature" (Patz, 2005) concluded that the human-induced warming that the world is now experiencing is already causing 150,000 deaths and 5 million incidents of disease each year from additional malaria and diarrhea, mostly in the poorest nations. Death and disease incidents are likely to soar as warming increases. Facts such as this demonstrate that climate change is compromising rights to life, liberty and personal security. Hence, ethical analysis of climate change policy must examine how that policy impacts on those basic rights | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939170 | Climate ethics |
Climate ethics Climate change raises a number of particularly challenging ethical issues about distributive justice, in particular concerning how to fairly share the benefits and burdens of climate change policy options. Many of the policy tools often employed to solve environmental problems such as cost-benefit analysis usually do not adequately deal with these issues because they often ignore questions of just distribution. In December 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, the "Collaborative Program on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change" was launched at the 10th Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major outcome of this meeting was the Buenos Aires Declaration on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939170 | Climate ethics |
Climate ethics The program on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change seeks to: Given the severity of impact to be expected and given the likelihood that some level of important disruptions in living conditions will occur for great numbers of people due to climate change events, this group contends that there is sufficient convergence among ethical principles to make a number of concrete recommendations on how governments should act, or identify ethical problems with positions taken by certain governments, organizations, or individuals. Facts about climate change and fundamental human rights provide the starting point for climate ethics. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939170 | Climate ethics |
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs The is a New York City-based a 501(c)3 public charity serving international affairs professionals, teachers and students, and the attentive public. Founded in 1914, and originally named "Church Peace Union", Carnegie Council is an independent and nonpartisan institution, aiming to be the foremost voice of ethics in international affairs. The Council focuses on, "Ethics, War and Peace", "Global Social Justice", and "Religion in Politics" as its three main themes. It is separate and independent from all other Carnegie philanthropies. Carnegie Council publishes "Ethics & International Affairs", a quarterly academic journal that examines the intersection of moral issues and the international sphere | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939943 | Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs |
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Among Carnegie Council's programs is Global Policy Innovations, which publishes "Policy Innovations," an online magazine. The Council convenes agenda-setting forums and creates educational opportunities and information resources for a worldwide audience of teachers and students, journalists, international affairs professionals, and concerned citizens. The Council's flagship publication is a quarterly scholarly journal, Ethics & International Affairs, which was launched in 1987. As an operating, rather than a grant-making foundation, the Council supports programs that it initiates and also works with partner organizations. The Carnegie Council was founded in 1914 by Andrew Carnegie in New York City | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939943 | Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs |
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Carnegie gathered together numerous religious leaders, scientists and politicians, and appointed them trustees of a new organization, the "Church Peace Union" (CPU). Carnegie hoped to create, with the religious and secular leaders, a new moral leadership to prevent armed conflict. The CPU was established shortly before the outbreak of World War I. The planned international inaugural meeting, on Lake Constance, could not take place due to the outbreak of war. First President of the CPU was William P. Merrill. The first activities of the organization were educational programs, calls for reductions in military spending and an end to military education in public schools | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939943 | Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs |
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs After the declaration of war by the US President Woodrow Wilson in April 1917, which led to internal disputes within the CPU, the leadership of the organization concluded in December 1917, to stand behind Wilson and the USA’s involvement in the war. R Henry A. Atkinson was General Secretary of the CPU from 1918 to 1955. Between the World Wars, the CPU worked towards strengthening the League of Nations and promoted the American influence to resolve international conflicts. At the same time, in the 1920s, they tried to prevent an international naval arms race, and fought against discrimination of Japanese Americans. During the Great Depression, the CPU called for stronger government interventions in the economy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939943 | Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs |
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs During World War II, the CPU supported the American government in its efforts to establish the United Nations. After World War II, the CPU helped with the establishment of the United Nations and fought for the prevention of nuclear proliferation. From 1950 to 1985, the organization published the monthly magazine "Worldview". In 1961, the CPU was renamed the “Council on Religion and International Affairs” (CRIA) and appointed William A. Loos as president in 1963, Loos had been executive director since 1955. CRIA focused its work on the study of moral dimensions of a wide range of issues, especially dangers of a crusading moralism in US foreign policy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939943 | Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs |
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs In the 1960s and 1970s, CRIA was a strong supporter of the Civil Rights Movement and led open debates on the Vietnam War. In 1977, the Council put forth the “CRIA Distinguished Lectures on Ethics and Foreign Policy,” which was later renamed the “Morgenthau Memorial Lecture.” Robert Myers became the new president of CRIA in 1980, which the defeat of Apartheid in South Africa began in the 1980s and 1990s. Throughout this time, the council also lead programs on environmental policy and bioethics. CRIA changed its name in 1986, to the “Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs” (CCEIA). Since 1987, the council published its quarterly scholarly journal, Ethics & International Affairs. Successor of Robert J. Myers as president in 1995 was Joel H | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939943 | Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs |
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Rosenthal. In the 2000s, after the attacks of 9/11 and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the CCEIA fought against cruel treatment and torture. The current name, Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, was given to the organization in 2005. The Carnegie Council is mainly funded through an endowment from Andrew Carnegie. Other sources of funding come from grants, donations, and membership dues. The Carnegie Council is a 501(c)(3) public charity. Resources include transcripts, streaming audio and video, journals, book reviews, articles, papers, reports, and special reports. Carnegie Council's programs (Christian Barry was the program officer): | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7939943 | Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs |
Humanitarian principles There are a number of meanings for the term humanitarian. Here humanitarian pertains to the practice of saving lives and alleviating suffering. It is usually related to emergency response (also called humanitarian response) whether in the case of a natural disaster or a man-made disaster such as war or other armed conflict. govern the way humanitarian response is carried out. are a set of principles that governs the way humanitarian response is carried out. The principle is central to establishing and maintaining access to affected populations in natural disasters or complex emergency situations. In disaster management, compliance with the principles are essential elements of humanitarian coordination | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles The main humanitarian principles have been adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. The four guiding principles are Humanity, Neutrality, Impartiality and Independence. The core principles are defining characteristics, the necessary conditions for humanitarian response. Organizations such as military forces and for-profit companies may deliver assistance to communities affected by disaster in order to save lives and alleviate suffering, but they are not considered by the humanitarian sector as humanitarian agencies as their response is not based on the core principles | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles The principle of humanity means that all humankind shall be treated humanely and equally in all circumstances by saving lives and alleviating suffering, while ensuring respect for the individual. It is the fundamental principle of humanitarian response. The purpose of humanitarian action is to protect life, health and ensure respect for human beings. It also promotes mutual understanding, cooperation, friendship and peace among all people. According to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent movement, the principle of humanity includes: • It recalls the origin of the movement: a desire to assist without discrimination to the wounded during conflict. • It recalls the double dimension of the movement: national and international one | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles • To protect life and health • To define the purpose of the movement The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief (RC/NGO Code) introduces the concept of the humanitarian imperative which expands the principle of humanity to include the right to receive and to give humanitarian assistance. It states the obligation of the international community "to provide humanitarian assistance wherever it is needed." Provision of humanitarian assistance must be impartial and no discrimination on the basis of nationality, race, gender, religion, political opinion or class. It must be based on need alone. Priority must be given to the most urgent cases of distress | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles To treat everyone the same way without consideration for the level of suffering or the urgency would not be equitable. Impartiality means that the only priority that can set in dealing with people that need help must be based on need and the order of relief must correspond to the urgency. For most non-governmental humanitarian agencies (NGHAs), the principle of impartiality is unambiguous even if it is sometimes difficult to apply, especially in rapidly changing situations. However, it is no longer clear which organizations can claim to be humanitarian. For example, companies like PADCO, a USAID subcontractor, is sometimes seen as a humanitarian NGO | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles However, for the UN agencies, particularly where the UN is involved in peace keeping activities as the result of a Security Council resolution, it is not clear if the UN is in position to act in an impartial manner if one of the parties is in violation of terms of the UN Charter. For International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, neutrality means not to take sides in hostilities or engage at any time in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature. The principle of neutrality was specifically addressed to the Red Cross Movement to prevent it from not only taking sides in a conflict, but not to "engage at any time in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles " Neutrality can also apply to humanitarian actions of a state. "Neutrality remains closely linked with the definition which introduced the concept into international law to designate the status of a State which decided to stand apart from an armed conflict. Consequently, its applications under positive law still depend on the criteria of abstention and impartiality which have characterized neutrality from the outset." The application of the word neutrality to humanitarian aid delivered by UN agencies or even governments can be confusing. GA Resolution 46/182 proclaims the principle of neutrality, yet as an inter-governmental political organization, the UN is often engaged in controversies of a political nature | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles According to this interpretation, the UN agency or a government can provide neutral humanitarian aid as long as it does it impartially, based upon need alone. Today, the word neutrality is widely used within the humanitarian community, usually to mean the provision of humanitarian aid in an impartial and independent manner, based on need alone. Few international NGOs have curtailed work on justice or human rights issues because of their commitment to neutrality. Humanitarian agencies must formulate and implement their own policies independently of government policies or actions | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles Humanitarian agencies, although there are auxiliaries in the humanitarian services and subject to the laws of their countries, must maintain their autonomy from political, economic, military or any other others and to be able at all times to act in accordance with the humanitarian principles. Problems may arise because most NGHAs rely in varying degrees on government donors. Thus for some organizations it is difficult to maintain independence from their donors and not be confused in the field with governments who may be involved in the hostilities. The ICRC, has set the example for maintaining its independence (and neutrality) by raising its funds from governments through the use of separate annual appeals for headquarters costs and field operations | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles In addition to the core principles, there are other principles that govern humanitarian response for specific types of humanitarian agencies such as UN agencies, the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, and NGOs. The provision of aid must not exploit the vulnerability of victims and be used to further political or religious creeds. All of the major non-governmental humanitarian agencies (NGHAs) by signing up to the RC/NGO Code of Conduct have committed themselves not to use humanitarian response to further political or religious creeds. Equal status and share of responsibilities and duties in helping each other. Solidarity with regard to decision-making regardless of their size or wealth | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles The humanitarian principles originated from the work of the International Committee of Red Cross and the National Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies. The core principles guided the work of these organizations before it was adopted by the United Nations. In 1991, the first three principles (humanity, neutrality and impartiality) were adopted and endorsed in the General Assembly resolution 46/182. The General Assemble resolution of 1991 also led to the establishment of the role of the Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC). In 2004, the General Assembly resolution 58/114 added independence as the fourth core principle essential to humanitarian action | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles The fourth principle was as result of co-opting of humanitarian assistance in highly politicized context to address challenges faced in preserving independence for local partners and in relation to targeting of beneficiaries and the delivery of need based services in affected areas. These principles have been adopted by many international humanitarian organizations working with affected populations in disaster crisis. The Inter-Agency Standing Committee has the responsibility of upholding humanitarian principles globally. This is the body responsible for bringing together UN agencies, Red Cross Movement and NGOs working in humanitarian action. All of the above principles are important requirements for effective field operations | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles They are based on widespread field experience of agencies engaged in humanitarian response. In conflict situations, their breach may drastically affect the ability of agencies to respond to the needs of the victims. If a warring party believes, for example, that an agency is favoring the other side, or that it is an agent of the enemy, access to the victims may be blocked and the lives of humanitarian workers may be put in danger. If one of the parties perceives that an agency is trying to spread another religious faith, there may be a hostile reaction to their activities | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles The core principles, found in the Red Cross/NGO Code of Conduct and in GA Resolution 46/182 are derived from the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross, particularly principles I (humanity), II (impartiality), III (neutrality—in the case of the UN), and IV (independence). A full commentary and analysis of all ten principles in the Red Cross Red Crescent Code of Conduct can be seen in Hugo Slim's book Humanitarian Ethics. Accountability has been defined as: "the processes through which an organisation makes a commitment to respond to and balance the needs of stakeholders in its decision making processes and activities, and delivers against this commitment | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles " Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International adds: "Accountability is about using power responsibly." Article 9 of the Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief states: "We hold ourselves accountable to both those we seek to assist and those from whom we accept resources;" and thus identifies the two major stake holders: donors and beneficiaries. However, traditionally humanitarian agencies have tended to practice mainly "upward accountability", i.e. to their donors. The experience of many humanitarian agencies during the Rwandan Genocide, led to a number of initiatives designed to improve humanitarian assistance and accountability, particularly with respect to the beneficiaries | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles Examples include the Sphere Project, ALNAP, Compas, the People In Aid Code of Good Practice, and the Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International, which runs a "global quality insurance scheme for humanitarian agencies." The RC/NGO Code also lists a number of more aspirational principles which are derived from experience with development assistance. The Sphere Project Humanitarian Charter uses the language of human rights to remind that the right to life which is proclaimed in both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights is related to human dignity. are mainly focused on the behavior of organizations | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles However a humane response implies that humanitarian workers are not to take advantage of the vulnerabilities of those affected by war and violence. Agencies have the responsibility for developing rules of staff conduct which prevent abuse of the beneficiaries. One of the most problematic areas is related to the issue of sexual exploitation and abuse of beneficiaries by humanitarian workers. In an emergency where victims have lost everything, women and girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual abuse. A number of reports which identified the sexual exploitation of refugees in west Africa prodded the humanitarian community to work together in examining the problem and to take measures to prevent abuses | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles In July 2002, the UN's Interagency Standing Committee (IASC) adopted a plan of action which stated: Sexual exploitation and abuse by humanitarian workers constitute acts of gross misconduct and are therefore grounds for termination of employment. The plan explicitly prohibited the "Exchange of money, employment, goods, or services for sex, including sexual favours or other forms of humiliating, degrading or exploitative behaviour." The major NGHAs as well the UN agencies engaged in humanitarian response committed themselves to setting up internal structures to prevent sexual exploitation and abuse of beneficiaries. Substantial efforts have been made in the humanitarian sector to monitor compliance with humanitarian principles | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Humanitarian principles Such efforts include The People In Aid Code of Good Practice, an internationally recognised management tool that helps humanitarian and development organisations enhance the quality of their human resources management. The NGO, Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International, is also working to make humanitarian organizations more accountable, especially to the beneficiaries. Structures internal to the Red Cross Movement monitor compliance to the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross. The RC/NGO Code is self-enforcing. The SCHR carries out peer reviews among its members which look in part at the issue of compliance with principles set out in the RC/NGO Code | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949372 | Humanitarian principles |
Reparation (legal) In jurisprudence, reparation is replenishment of a previously inflicted loss by the criminal to the victim. Monetary restitution is a common form of reparation. In the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, reparation include the following forms: restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition, whereby The principle of reparation dates back to the lex talionis of Hebrew Scripture. Anglo-Saxon courts in England before the Norman conquest also contained this principle | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949896 | Reparation (legal) |
Reparation (legal) Under the English legal system judges must consider making a compensation order as part of the sentence for a crime. Section 130 of the Powers of Criminal Courts (Sentencing) Act 2000 requires the courts to explain their reasoning if they do not issue a compensation order. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7949896 | Reparation (legal) |
Polymorphous perversity is a psychoanalytic concept proposing the ability to gain sexual gratification outside socially normative sexual behaviors. Sigmund Freud used this term to describe the sexual disposition from infancy to about age five. Freud theorized that some are born with unfocused pleasure / libidinal drives, deriving pleasure from any part of the body. The objects and modes of pleasurable satisfaction are multifarious, directed at every object that might provide pleasure. Polymorphous perverse sexuality continues from infancy through about age five, progressing through three distinct developmental stages: the oral stage, anal stage, and genital / phallic stage | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7963719 | Polymorphous perversity |
Polymorphous perversity Only in subsequent developmental stages do children learn to constrain drives towards pleasure-satisfaction to socially accepted norms, culminating in adult heterosexual behavior focused on the genitals and reproduction or sublimations of the procreative drive. Freud thought that during this stage of undifferentiated impulse for pleasure, incestuous and bisexual urges are normal. Lacking knowledge that certain modes of gratification are forbidden, the polymorphously perverse child seeks gratification wherever it occurs. In the earliest phase, the oral phase, the child forms a libidinal bond with the mother via the inherent pleasure gained from suckling at the breast. For Freud, "perversion" is a non-judgmental term | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7963719 | Polymorphous perversity |
Polymorphous perversity He used it to designate behavior outside the socially acceptable norms of his era. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7963719 | Polymorphous perversity |
Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual penetration carried out against a person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability or is below the legal age of consent. The term "rape" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term "sexual assault." The rate of reporting, prosecuting and convicting for rape varies between jurisdictions. Internationally, the incidence of rapes recorded by the police during 2008 ranged, per 100,000 people, from 0.2 in Azerbaijan to 92.9 in Botswana with 6 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape 3 in Lithuania as the median. Worldwide, sexual violence, including rape, is primarily committed by males against females. by strangers is usually less common than rape by people the victim knows, and male-on-male and female-on-female prison rapes are common and may be the least reported forms of rape. Widespread and systematic rape (e.g., war rape) and sexual slavery can occur during international conflict. These practices are crimes against humanity and war crimes. is also recognized as an element of the crime of genocide when committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a targeted ethnic group. People who have been raped can be traumatized and develop posttraumatic stress disorder | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Serious injuries can result along with the risk of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. A person may face violence or threats from the rapist, and, in some cultures, from the victim's family and relatives. The term "rape" originates from the Latin "rapere" (supine stem "raptum"), "to snatch, to grab, to carry off". Since the 14th century, the term has come to mean "to seize and take away by force". In Roman law, the carrying off of a woman by force, with or without intercourse, constituted "raptus". In Medieval English law the same term could refer to either kidnapping or rape in the modern sense of "sexual violation" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape The original meaning of "carry off by force" is still found in some phrases, such as "rape and pillage", or in titles, such as the stories of the of the Sabine Women and The of Europa or the poem "The of the Lock", which is about the theft of a lock of hair. is defined in most jurisdictions as sexual intercourse, or other forms of sexual penetration, committed by a perpetrator against a victim without their consent. The definition of rape is inconsistent between governmental health organizations, law enforcement, health providers, and legal professions. It has varied historically and culturally. Originally, "rape" had no sexual connotation and is still used in other contexts in English | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape In Roman law, it or "raptus" was classified as a form of "crimen vis", "crime of assault". "Raptus" referred to the abduction of a woman against the will of the man under whose authority she lived, and sexual intercourse was not a necessary element. Other definitions of rape have changed over time. Until 2012, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) considered rape a crime solely committed by men against women. In 2012, they changed their definition from "The carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will" to "The penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape " The previous definition, which had remained unchanged since 1927, was considered outdated and narrow. The updated definition includes recognizing any gender of victim and perpetrator and that rape with an object can be as traumatic as penile/vaginal rape. The bureau further describes instances when the victim is unable to give consent because of mental or physical incapacity. It recognizes that a victim can be incapacitated by drugs and alcohol and unable to give valid consent. The definition does not change federal or state criminal codes or impact charging and prosecution on the federal, state or local level; it rather means that rape will be more accurately reported nationwide | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Health organizations and agencies have also expanded rape beyond traditional definitions. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines rape as a form of sexual assault, while the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) includes rape in their definition of sexual assault; they term rape a form of sexual violence | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape The CDC lists other acts of coercive, non-consensual sexual activity that may or may not include rape, including drug-facilitated sexual assault, acts in which a victim is made to penetrate a perpetrator or someone else, intoxication where the victim is unable to consent (due to incapacitation or being unconscious), non-physically forced penetration which occurs after a person is pressured verbally (by intimidation or misuse of authority to force to consent), or completed or attempted forced penetration of a victim via unwanted physical force (including using a weapon or threatening to use a weapon) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape The Veterans Health Administration (VHA) has implemented universal screening for what has been termed "military sexual trauma" (MST) and provides medical and mental health services free of charge to enrolled veterans who report MST (Title 38 United States Code 1720D; Public Law 108-422). Some countries or jurisdictions differentiate between rape and sexual assault by defining rape as involving penile penetration of the vagina, or solely penetration involving the penis, while other types of non-consensual sexual activity are called sexual assault. Scotland, for example, emphasizes penile penetration, requiring that the sexual assault must have been committed by use of a penis to qualify as rape | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape The 1998 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda defines rape as "a physical invasion of a sexual nature committed on a person under circumstances which are coercive". In other cases, the term "rape" has been phased out of legal use in favor of terms such as "sexual assault" or "criminal sexual conduct". Victims of rape or sexual assault come from a wide range of genders, ages, sexual orientations, ethnicitities, geographical locations, cultures, and degrees of impairment or disability. Incidences of rape are classified into a number of categories, and they may describe the relationship of the perpetrator to the victim and the context of the sexual assault | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape These include date rape, gang rape, marital rape, incestual rape, child sexual abuse, prison rape, acquaintance rape, war rape and statutory rape. Forced sexual activity can be committed over a long period of time with little to no physical injury. Lack of consent is key to the definition of rape. Consent is affirmative "informed approval, indicating a freely given agreement" to sexual activity. It is not necessarily expressed verbally, and may instead be overtly implied from actions, but the absence of objection does not constitute consent. Lack of consent may result from either forcible compulsion by the perpetrator or an inability to consent on the part of the victim (such as people who are asleep, intoxicated or otherwise mentally compromised) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Sexual intercourse with a person below the age of consent, i.e., the age at which legal competence is established, is referred to as statutory rape. In India, consensual sex given on the false promise of marriage constitutes rape. Duress is the situation when the person is threatened by force or violence, and may result in the absence of an objection to sexual activity. This can lead to the presumption of consent. Duress may be actual or threatened force or violence against the victim or someone close to the victim. Even blackmail may constitute duress. Abuse of power may constitute duress. For instance, in the Philippines, a man commits rape if he engages in sexual intercourse with a woman ""By means of fraudulent machination or grave abuse of authority"" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in its landmark 1998 judgment used a definition of rape which did not use the word 'consent': "a physical invasion of a sexual nature committed on a person "under circumstances which are coercive"." Marital rape, or spousal rape, is non-consensual sex in which the perpetrator is the victim's spouse. It is a form of partner rape, domestic violence, and sexual abuse. Once widely accepted or ignored by law, spousal rape is now denounced by international conventions and is increasingly criminalized. Still, in many countries, spousal rape either remains legal, or is illegal but widely tolerated and accepted as a husband's prerogative | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape In 2006, the UN Secretary-General's "In-depth study on all forms of violence against women" stated that (pg 113): "Marital rape may be prosecuted in at least 104 states. Of these, 32 have made marital rape a specific criminal offence, while the remaining 74 do not exempt marital rape from general rape provisions. Marital rape is not a prosecutable offense in at least 53 States. Four States criminalize marital rape only when the spouses are judicially separated. Four States are considering legislation that would allow marital rape to be prosecuted." Since 2006, several other states have outlawed marital rape (for example Thailand in 2007) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape In the US, the criminalization of marital rape started in the mid-1970s and in 1993 North Carolina became the last state to make marital rape illegal. In many countries, it is not clear if marital rape may or may not be prosecuted under ordinary rape laws. In the absence of a spousal rape law, it may be possible to bring prosecution for acts of forced sexual intercourse inside marriage by prosecuting, through the use of other criminal offenses (such as assault based offenses), the acts of violence or criminal threat that were used to obtain submission. Consent may be complicated by law, language, context, culture and sexual orientation. Studies have shown that men consistently perceive women's actions as more sexual than they intend | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape In addition, verbalized 'no' to sex may be interpreted as 'keep trying', or even 'yes' by offenders. Some may believe that when injuries are not visible, the woman must have consented. If a man solicits sex from another man, the pursuer may be regarded as virile. The WHO states that the principal factors that lead to the perpetration of sexual violence against women, including rape, are: No single facet explains the motivation for rape; the underlying motives of rapists can be multi-faceted. Several factors have been proposed: anger, power, sadism, sexual gratification, or evolutionary proclivities. However, some factors have significant causal evidence supporting them | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape American clinical psychologist David Lisak, co-author of a 2002 study of undetected rapists, says that compared with non-rapists, both undetected and convicted rapists are measurably more angry at women and more motivated by a desire to dominate and control them, are more impulsive, disinhibited, anti-social, hypermasculine, and less empathic. Sexual aggression is often considered a masculine identity characteristic of manhood in some male groups and is significantly correlated to the desire to be held higher in esteem among male peers. Sexually aggressive behavior among young men has been correlated with gang or group membership as well as having other delinquent peers | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Gang rape is often perceived by male perpetrators as a justified method of discouraging or punishing what they consider as immoral behavior among women for example wearing short skirts or visiting bars. In some areas in Papua New Guinea, women can be punished by public gang rape, usually through permission by elders. Gang rape and mass rape are often used as a means of male bonding. This is particularly evident among soldiers, as gang rape accounts for about three quarters or more of war rape while gang rape accounts for less than a quarter of rapes during peace time. Commanders push recruits to rape, as committing rape can be taboo and illegal and so builds loyalty among those involved | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Rebel groups who have forced recruitment as opposed to volunteer recruits are more involved in rape as it is believed the recruits start off with less loyalty to the group. In Papua New Guinea, urban gangs such as Raskol gangs often require raping women for initiation reasons. One metric used by the WHO to determine the severity of global rates of coercive, forced sexual activity was the question "Have you ever been forced to have sexual intercourse against your will?" Asking this question produced higher positive response rates than being asked, whether they had ever been abused or raped. The WHO report describes the consequences of sexual abuse: Frequently, victims may not recognize what happened to them was rape | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Some may remain in denial for years afterwards. Confusion over whether or not their experience constitutes rape is typical, especially for victims of psychologically coerced rape. Women may not identify their victimization as rape for many reasons such as feelings of shame, embarrassment, non-uniform legal definitions, reluctance to define the friend/partner as a rapist, or because they have internalized victim-blaming attitudes. The public perceives these behaviors as 'counterintuitive' and therefore, as evidence of a dishonest woman. During the assault, a person will respond with fight, flight, freeze, friend (sometimes called fawn), or flop. Victims may react in ways they did not anticipate | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape After the rape, they may be uncomfortable/frustrated with and not understand their reactions. Most victims respond by 'freezing up' or becoming compliant and cooperative during the rape. These are common survival responses of all mammals. This can cause confusion for others and the person assaulted. An assumption is that someone being raped would call for help or struggle. A struggle would result in torn clothes or injuries. Dissociation can occur during the assault. Memories may be fragmented especially immediately afterwards. They may consolidate with time and sleep. A man or boy who is raped may be stimulated and even ejaculate during the experience of the rape. A woman or girl may orgasm during a sexual assault | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape This may become a source of shame and confusion for those assaulted along with those who were around them. Trauma symptoms may not show until years after the sexual assault occurred. Immediately following a rape, the survivor may react outwardly in a wide range of ways, from expressive to closed down; common emotions include distress, anxiety, shame, revulsion, helplessness, and guilt. Denial is not uncommon. In the weeks following the rape, the survivor may develop symptoms of post traumatic stress syndrome and may develop wide array of psychosomatic complaints. PTSD symptoms include re-experiencing of the rape, avoiding things associated with the rape, numbness, and increased anxiety and startle response | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape The likelihood of sustained severe symptoms is higher if the rapist confined or restrained the person, if the person being raped believed the rapist would kill them, the person who was raped was very young or very old, and if the rapist was someone they knew. The likelihood of sustained severe symptoms is also higher if people around the survivor ignore (or are ignorant of) the rape or blame the rape survivor. Most people recover from rape in three to four months, but many have persistent PTSD that may manifest in anxiety, depression, substance abuse, irritability, anger, flashbacks, or nightmares | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape In addition, rape survivors may have long term generalised anxiety disorder, may develop one or more specific phobias, major depressive disorder, and may experience difficulties with resuming their social life, and with sexual functioning. People who have been raped are at higher risk of suicide. Men experience similar psychological effects of being raped, but they are less likely to seek counseling. Another effect of rape and sexual assault is the stress created in those who study rape or counsel the survivors. This is called vicarious traumatization. The presence or absence of physical injury may be used to determine whether a rape has occurred | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Those who have experienced sexual assault yet have no physical trauma may be less inclined to report to the authorities or to seek health care. While penetrative rape generally does not involve the use of a condom, in some cases a condom is used. Use of a condom significantly reduces the likelihood of pregnancy and disease transmission, both to the victim and to the rapist | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Rationales for condom use include: avoiding contracting infections or diseases (particularly HIV), especially in cases of rape of sex workers or in gang rape (to avoid contracting infections or diseases from fellow rapists); eliminating evidence, making prosecution more difficult (and giving a sense of invulnerability); giving the appearance of consent (in cases of acquaintance rape); and thrill from planning and the use of the condom as an added prop. Concern for the victim is generally not considered a factor. Those who have been raped have relatively more reproductive tract infections than those not been raped. HIV can be transmitted through rape. Acquiring AIDS through rape puts people risk of suffering psychological problems | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Acquiring HIV through rape may lead to the in behaviors that create risk of injecting drugs. Acquiring sexually transmitted infections increases the risk of acquiring HIV. The belief that having sex with a virgin can cure HIV/AIDS exists in parts of Africa. This leads to the rape of girls and women. The claim that the myth drives either HIV infection or child sexual abuse in South Africa is disputed by researchers Rachel Jewkes and Helen Epstein. Society's treatment of victims has the potential to exacerbate their trauma. People who have been raped or sexually assaulted are sometimes blamed and considered responsible for the crime | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape This refers to the just world fallacy and rape myth acceptance that certain victim behaviors (such as being intoxicated, flirting or wearing sexually provocative clothing) may encourage rape. In many cases, victims are said to have "asked for it" because of not resisting their assault or violating female gender expectations. A global survey of attitudes toward sexual violence by the Global Forum for Health Research shows that victim-blaming concepts are at least partially accepted in many countries. Women who have been raped are sometimes deemed to have behaved improperly. Usually, these are cultures where there is a significant social divide between the freedoms and status afforded to men and women | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape "victims are blamed more when they resist the attack later in the rape encounter rather than earlier (Kopper, 1996), which seems to suggest the stereotype that these women are engaging in token resistance (Malamuth & Brown, 1994; Muehlenhard & Rogers, 1998) or leading the man on because they have gone along with the sexual experience thus far. Finally, rape victims are blamed more when they are raped by an acquaintance or a date rather than by a stranger (e.g | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape , Bell, Kuriloff, & Lottes, 1994; Bridges, 1991; Bridges & McGr ail, 1989; Check & Malamuth, 1983; Kanekar, Shaherwalla, Franco, Kunju, & Pinto, 1991; L'Armand & Pepitone, 1982; Tetreault & Barnett, 1987), which seems to evoke the stereotype that victims really want to have sex because they know their attacker and perhaps even went out on a date with him. The underlying message of this research seems to be that when certain stereotypical elements of rape are in place, rape victims are prone to being blamed." Commentators state: "individuals may endorse rape myths and at the same time recognize the negative effects of rape." A number of gender role stereotypes can play a role in rationalization of rape | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape These include the idea that power is reserved to men whereas women are meant for sex and objectified, that women want forced sex and to be pushed around, and that male sexual impulses and behaviors are uncontrollable and must be satisfied. For females, victim-blaming correlates with fear. Many rape victims blame themselves. Female jurors might look at the woman on the witness stand and believe she had done something to entice the defendant. In Chinese culture, victim blaming often is associated with the crime of rape, as women are expected to resist rape using physical force. Thus, if rape occurs, it is considered to be at least partly the woman's fault, and her virtue is called into question | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape In many cultures, those who are raped have a high risk of suffering additional violence or threats of violence after the rape. This can be perpetrated by the rapist, friends, or relatives of the rapist. The intent can be to prevent the victim from reporting the rape. Other reasons for threats against the those assaulted is to punish them for reporting it, or of forcing them to withdraw the complaint. The relatives of the person who has been raped may wish to prevent "bringing shame" to the family and may also threaten them. This is especially the case in cultures where female virginity is highly valued and considered mandatory before marriage; in extreme cases, rape victims are killed in honor killings | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape In the US, victims' rights include the right to have a victims advocate preside over every step of the medical/legal exam to ensure sensitivity towards victims, provide emotional support, and minimize the risk of re-traumatization. Victims are to be informed of this immediately by law enforcement or medical service providers. Emergency rooms of many hospitals employ sexual assault nurse/forensic examiners (SAN/FEs) with specific training to care for those who have experienced a rape or sexual assault. They are able to conduct a focused medical-legal exam. If such a trained clinician is not available, the emergency department has a sexual assault protocol that has been established for treatment and the collection of evidence | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Staff are also trained to explain the examinations in detail, the documentation and the rights associated with the requirement for informed consent. Emphasis is placed on performing the examinations at a pace that is appropriate for the person, their family, their age, and their level of understanding. Privacy is recommended to prevent self-harm. Many rapes do not result in serious physical injury. The first medical response to sexual assault is a complete assessment. This general assessment will prioritize the treatment of injuries by the emergency room staff. Medical personnel involved are trained to assess and treat those assaulted or follow protocols established to ensure privacy and best treatment practices | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Informed consent is always required prior to treatment unless the person who was assaulted is unconscious, intoxicated or does not have the mental capacity to give consent. Priorities governing the physical exam are the treatment of serious life-threatening emergencies and then a general and complete assessment. Some physical injuries are readily apparent such as, bites, broken teeth, swelling, bruising, lacerations and scratches. In more violent cases, the victim may need to have gunshot wounds or stab wounds treated. The loss of consciousness is relevant to the medical history. If abrasions are found, immunization against tetanus is offered if 5 years have elapsed since the last immunization | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape After the general assessment and treatment of serious injuries, further evaluation may include the use of additional diagnostic testing such as x-rays, CT or MRI image studies and blood work. The presence of infection is determined by sampling of body fluids from the mouth, throat, vagina, perineum, and anus. Victims have the right to refuse any evidence collection. Victims advocates ensure the victims' wishes are respected by hospital staff. After the physical injuries are addressed and treatment has begun, then forensic examination proceeds along with the gathering of evidence that can be used to identify and document the injuries. Such evidence-gathering is only done with the complete consent of the patient or the caregivers of the patient | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Photographs of the injuries may be requested by staff. At this point in the treatment, if a victims' advocate had not been requested earlier, experienced social support staff are made available to the patient and family. If the patient or the caregivers, (typically parents) agree, the medical team utilizes standardized sampling and testing usually referred to a forensic evidence kit or "rape kit". The patient is informed that submitting to the use of the rape kit does not obligate them to file criminal charges against the perpetrator. The patient is discouraged from bathing or showering for the purpose of obtaining samples from their hair. Evidence gathered within the past 72 hours is more likely to be valid | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape The sooner that samples are obtained after the assault, the more likely that evidence is present in the sample and provide valid results. Once the injuries of the patient have been treated and she or he is stabilized, the sample gathering will begin. Staff will encourage the presence of a rape/sexual assault counselor to provide an advocate and reassurance. During the medical exam, evidence of bodily secretions is assessed. Dried semen that is on clothing and skin can be detected with a fluorescent lamp. Notes will be attached to those items on which semen has been found. These specimens are marked, placed in a paper bag, and be marked for later analysis for the presence of seminal vesicle-specific antigen | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Though technically, medical staff are not part of the legal system, only trained medical personnel can obtain evidence that is admissible during a trial. The procedures have been standardized. Evidence is collected, signed, and locked in a secure place to guarantee that legal evidence procedures are maintained. This carefully monitored procedure of evidence collection and preservation is known as the chain of evidence. Maintaining the chain of evidence from the medical examination, testing and tissue sampling from its origin of collection to court allows the results of the sampling to be admitted as evidence. The use of photography is often used for documentation. Some physical effects of the rape are not immediately apparent | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |
Rape Follow up examinations also assess the patient for tension headaches, fatigue, sleep pattern disturbances, gastrointestinal irritability, chronic pelvic pain, menstrual pain or irregularity, pelvic inflammatory disease, sexual dysfunction, premenstrual distress, fibromyalgia, vaginal discharge, vaginal itching, burning during urination, and generalized vaginal pain. The World Health Organization recommends offering prompt access to emergency contraceptive medications which can significantly reduce risk of an undesired pregnancy if used within 5 days of rape; it is estimated that about 5% of male-on-female rapes result in pregnancy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7980471 | Rape |